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THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
n
3
A
HISTORY
OF TILtt
CHRISTIAN CHURGII.
BY
Dr. CHARLES HASE,
PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN TUE UNIVERSITY OF JENA.
^raiislattb tot t^e 3tk\\i\ u)i mtl} im^r^btij German (^Viim,
BY
CHARLES E. BLUMENTHAL,
PROFESSOR OF HKBREW AND OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN DICKINSON COLLEGE,
CONWAY P. WING,
PASTOR OF THE FIRST PRISBYTERIAN Cia'RCU IN CARLISLE, PENNSYLVANIA-
NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
5 4 9 & 5 5 1 BROADWAY.
1875.
Entered, according' to Act of Congress, In tlic year IStÄ, fc»
D. APPLETON A COMPANY.
In tho ( !erk".s Ollico of ilio District Court for tlio Southern District of Xew YorK.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
This translation was undertaken because its authors knew of no
work in English which precisely corresponded with it. The his-
tories of Milner, Waddington, Milman, Stebbing, Hardwicke
and Robertson, and the translations of Mosheim, Neander, Dol-
linger, Thiersch and Schaft', have severally specific merits with
reference to the objects of their composition ; but many of them
are incomplete as general histories, most of them were written
so as to give undue prominence to some single aspect of the
characters and events of which they treat, and all of them are too
large to be used either as manuals for the scholar, as text-books
for the instructor, or as compendiums for the general reader.
Some attempts to supply the deficiency by Palmer, Timpson,
Foulkes, Hinds, Goodrich and Ruter, have met with no very
general acceptance, A miniature representation of a vast mass
of facts, in which each personage and event shall appear in their
individual freshness and relative proportions, requires for its exe-
cution peculiar talents and rare opportunities. The Germans
appear to possess these in a greater degree than any other people.
Their learned men highly appreciate the value of such manuals,
and their literature abounds in them. One of these, by Dr.
Gieseler, has been translated, and is almost invaluable. But its
text is a mere epitome of results, and bears no proportion to the
vast materials in the notes , and the narrative awakens no in-
terest. It would be difficult to find a graphic picture, or an ex-
IV TUaNSLATORS PKKrACi:.
prcssioii of ll'cliii^ in tho whole work. Even the postliuinou.s
voliimc wliith has been promised, will leave the history incomplete.
The (U'liiy which hus taken i)lacc in the appearance of this
work has aUbrJod many opportunities of learning how nmcli this
deficiency was appreciated by competent scholars in England and
America. From the letters we have received, and from public
journals, we might present many testimonies, not only that such
a work was needed, but that nothing in the literature of the
present day was so likely to supply the deficiency as a transla-
tion of the work we had announced. Tlie style of our author is
especially adapted to the Anglo-Saxon mind ; his astonishing
power of condensed expression, — his aesthetic, if not religious sym-
pathies, with every variety of intellectual and moral greatness, —
his skilful daguerreotypes of characters by means of the trans-
mitted light of contemporary language, — the delicate irony and
genial humor which pervade his descriptions, — the picturesque
liveliness with which a single character or incident brings out
the manners and spirit of an age, — the precision with which
his scientific arrangement is preserved, the critical judgment
with which the minutest results of recent investigations are in-
troduced, — and the graceful proportion and animation with which
the whole stands out before us, render his history attractive to
all kinds of readers. He throws away every name or event which
has no historical utility or organic life ; he appreciates an heroic
spirit wherever it a])pears, and each period is estimated as nearly
as possible in its own light. His is not merely a history of the
hierarchy, of the nobility, or of great men, but of the Church.
His descriptions, therefore, embrace especially traits of common
life, the progress of the arts, and indications of advancement in
social freedom. If his theological opinions do not quite coincide
with our own, he seldom, at least in this work, obtrudes them
upon our attention. His object seems to have been to maintain
historical accuracy, rather than to exhibit his own opinions ; and
if sometimes our favorite characters, or views, do not appear in
the light in which we have usually contemplated them, his uni-
form impartiality and intelligence make us suspect our earlier
judgments. None but those who observe the structure rather
than the particular dogmatic expressions of this work, will be
TRANSLATORS PREFACE. V
likely to detect the author's i^eculiar views, and such readers can
afford to give them whatever consideration they deserve. A strik-
ing comparison has been drawn between him and a living English
historian and essayist, but the reference can be only to the live-
liness and brilliancy of his historical scenes, and not to the mi-
nute space in which the picture of more than eighteen centuries
is presented.
As soon as we had determined to translate the work, the
author was informed of our intention, and we publish his re])ly
to our communication. Unforeseen difficulties, however, delayed
the publication of our work, and when more than a hundred
pages had been stereotyped, we received a copy of the seventh
edition, with numerous corrections and additions. We have cer-
tainly no reason to regret such an occurrence, although it im-
posed on us the necessity of recalling and rewriting a large
portion of our manuscript. We submitted, however, with cheer-
fulness to the necessity, since we are now able to present an
edition in which some errors have been corrected, the results of
recent research, especially with respect to the second and third
centuries, have been incorporated, and the eventful history of the
last seven years has been added. In an Appendix, we present
every thing of importance added by the author in the part which
had been already struck off. But as we were obliged in this first
part to retain the numbers of the sections used in the sixth
edition, and subsequently to adopt those used in the seventh,
some confusion has necessarily been created. Should a new
edition be called for, we hope not only to remove this defect, but
to adapt the work to an American position. The section on
America (§ 462) has been already, with the author's concur-
rence, rewritten and enlarged. Considerable pains have also
been taken to adapt the references and authorities to the present
state of English literature, and some references to German trans-
lations of English and French works have been omitted, but
eveiy addition is indicated by brackets. We arc well aware that
our work has many faults after all our revisions and efforts to
correct them, but, like the author, we see no end to the labor
which might be bestowed on that which is, by its nature, neces-
sarily imperfect. Dr. Hase has given a large part of his attcn-
VI TRANSLATOIi S PIU^.FACE.
tion to the originul history Ibr iiioie than twenty years. He was
born in the year 1800 at Steinbach. In 1823, he was a private
instructor in Theology at Tubingen ; in 1829, lie was elected a
Professor of Philosophy in Lei2)sic ; and in 1830, he became a
Professor of Theology in Jena, where he still continues. His
other works arc : The Old Pastor's Testament, Tub. 1824 ; The
Murder of Justice, a Vow of the Church, Lps. 182G ; A Manual
of Evang. Dogmatik, Lps. 1826, 4th and much enlarged edit.,
Lps. 1850 ; Gnosis, Li:)s. 1827-29, 3 vols. ; Hutterus Kedivivus,
or Dogmatik of the Evang. Luth. Church, Lps. 1829, 7 cd. in
1848 (a work whose purely historical account involved him in
a controversy with Rohr, the great champion of Rationalism,
and led to a series of i>olemical works on that subject) ; The
Life of Christ, Lps. 1829, 4th imp. edit. 1854 ; Libri Symbolici
Ecclesiae Evangelicae sive Concordia, of which the 3d ed. ap-
peared in Lps. 1846 ; The Two Archbishops, (referring to the
difficulties in the dioceses of Cologne and Posen,) Lps. 1839 ;
The Good Old Law of the Church, two academical discourses,
2d ed. Lps. 1847 ; The Evang. Prot. Church of the German
Empire, on Ecclesiastical Law, 2d ed. Lps. 1852 ; The Modern
Prophets, three Lectures on the Maid of Orleans, Savonarola,
and the Kingdom of the Anabaptists, Lps. 1851. He has also
recently been engaged in the publication of Didot's new edition
of Stephanus' Thesaurus Grecae Linguae, of which the seventh
part has just appeared.
..AUTHOR'S LETPER TO THE TRANSLATORS.
To Prof. C. E. Blumenthal and Rev. C. P. Witig :—
Dear Sirs : — Between him who incorporates in a book the results
of his Tno>st serious and profound mental labors, and those who from a
cordial preference endeavor to introduce and interpret it to a foreign
nation, must naturally spring up such an intimate intellectual sympathy,
that it would seem surprising for them, if contemporaries, to remain
strangers to each other. I, therefore, hail with grateful feelings the
kind letter you have sent me across the ocean, and in imagination grasp
the hand of fraternal fellowship extended to me from the land of
William Penn.
You have doubtless already discovered that no ordinary obstacles
were to be surmounted before a good translation of my Church History
could be made, as my object was to compress the most perfect picture
of the religious life developed in the Church into the smallest frame ;
and hence I was compelled to be very parsimonious in the use of words,
and to refer to the original authorities for many things plain to the
learned, but obscure to the learner. A French translation, once at-
tempted, split upon this rock. I hope, however, that in a sister lan-
guage, so essentially Germanic as the English, these difficulties may be
more easily overcome, and such a confidence is encouraged by the fact,
that in a Danish translation they have been completely vanquished.
If I remember correctly, an attempt to translate my work was once
made in England, but was abandoned on account of its supposed incon-
sistency with tlie views of the Established Church. You have doubtless
considered how far this objection should prevail with reference to the
Church of your country, if the numerous and varied communities which
have pitched their tents under the banner of the stars and stripes may
B
viii autiiou'h lkttkk to tiii; i uanslatous.
l.p truly Hpokon of as a single Church. I trust, however, that omonj?
those who study history froni a lii;^her position than that of a party, an
assimilation of views will gradually prevail respecting the silent opii;-
ions and facts which lie behind us in the past. I have at least honestly
aimed to recognize in its proper light every clement in any way dra^vn
around our common Lord. I have thus endeavored to approach ay.
nearly as ])ossil»le that exalted position from which the history of Tivs
Church will be regardeil by Christ himself, not merely as the Judge oC '
juick and dead, but as the faithful Shepherd seeking the lost Tainb.
^lay my poor book, therefore, be dressed once more in a langu^.ge
spoken on every ocean and coast, and so come back to me from a wr^rld
to which, as to another holy land, hosts of peaceful crusaders are an-
nually jiouring to plant anew their hopes, and to realize thcii: Inng-
cliorishcd ideals in subsc(iuent generations. The brief notice oi* the
Church in the United States you propose to substitute for my srctJon
on that subject, will doubtless better adapt the work to your country.
Whenever the universal interest of the Church was the topic, .1 have
myself given more space to the Church of my fathers. I lif\ve no
doubt that the alliance commenced between German and American the-
ology will prove a blessing to both. Both nations have l-^irtainly a
"vcat mission assigned them in ecclesiastical history, wIul-Ii each must
accomplish in its own peculiar manner.
The sixth edition made its appearance just before the storm which
has since broken over central Europe. Pius IX., hK-ing been driven
from his beautiful Babylon by an insurrection whieh./ic could not allay
by kindness, has been restored by republican France, to substitute a
government of priests and Jesuits for a Roman Republic. The French
clergy have also hastily concluded to send up the petition " Dominc,
salvam fac rempublicam," as long as a dcmof/i'iitic republic can be main-
tained in France. In Germany, our national Assembly at Frankfort
not only proclaimed the gospel of liberty for the Church, and the fun-
damental rights of the German nation, but going beyond the people
whom they professed to regard as their model, they threatened to di-
vest the state of all Christian or religious character. The more con-
siderate of our nation sent forth their warnings against such a rupture
with all historical traditions, and painful political events have since
shown that the immediate object of the Protestant German Church
should be much more cautious and consonant with the national spirit
This object unijuestionably is, to give to the Church the administration
of its own aflfuirs, in alliance with a state under which the right of
citizenship shall depend upon no creed, and the gospel of Christ shall
be proclaimed as the highest principle of right.
author's letter to the translators. ix
In the Catholic Church, the independence of the state secured tc
the hierarchy by the revolution, was made subservient to such an enor-
mous increase of its powers, that the freedom of the inferior clergy and
of the congregations is seriously endangered. What was called Ger-
man Catholicism, has shown, as the more sagacious perceived from the
commencement, that it lacked the religious energy necessary to effect a
reform in the Christian Church. Since it has ceased to be harassed by
political obstructions it has dwindled into an insignificant sect. But in
the contest between a merely prescriptive Christianity, and the pro-
gressive spirit of modern improvement, many a severe conflict must
doubtless yet take place, before Christ in this respect also will manifest
himself as the Mediator.
Karl Hask.
Je.-ta, May 7th, 1830.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
In- composing the following work, my intention was to present a text-
book to the public, and to accomplish this, I resolved to devote to it all
the severe labor and concentration of effort which such an object requires.
But I was aware that however the general outline might be condensed, the
living freshness which we find in the original monuments and documents
of each historical period, should be preserved unimpaired. Instead,
therefore, of endeavoring, like most of those who have prepared such
works, to present only that which is general aud indefinite, I have con-
tinually aimed to hold up that which in each age possessed most of in-
dividual and distinct character; and when it became indispensable that
some general grand features should be rendered prominent, I have
sought to make these so suggestive of the particular facts, that recollec-
tions of the most minute circumstances should throng the mind of the
instructor. In this way, the attention will be aroused while in the pro-
cess of preparation, and the memory will be strengthened in its recollec-
tions, since whatever is characteristic awakens sympathy, and fastens
itself in the memory. In this respect, it may be said that what belongs
to a good text-book, is also an essential part of every historical repre-
sentation. In every century many noble spirits have found their prin-
cipal delight, and expended all their energies, in investigating subjects
connected with ecclesiastical history. And yet for a long time the com-
position of ecclesiastical history seems by no means to have retained the
eminent relative position which it held in former days. Without refer-
ring to historians of an earlier period, where have we any works upon
Church History whose excellence as historical compositions can be com-
pared with those of Machiavel, Hume, and John Müller ? Even
among the most recent ecclesiastical histories, that of Spittler is the
only work which can stand the test of a critical examination by the con-
temporary literary world ; but its Christian character is so obviously
one-sided, that every one perceives that in this respect it is far inferior
PKEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XI
to that of Neander. la thus expressing my general design, my object
is to show what has been my aim, however far I have come short of at-
taining it. In these remarks, however, I have had very little reference
to the mere literary style ; for, with respect to this, we in Germany
generally need, and actually receive, much allowance for the dry form
of a compendium. I rather refer to such a careful study of original
authorities that the objects and events assume the living freshness of
reality, and to a complete intellectual apprehension of the facts. I have
also bestowed some attention upon a f eculiar department of history,
which, though it has in former times been noticed by all genuine eccle-
siastical historians, never became prominent until the appearance of the
venerable Neander's History of the Christian Religion. I do not, how-
ever, b}' any means expect that my present work will receive very de-
cided favor from those who, in a peculiar sense, belong to the school of
Neander, since it was certainly not so much my special object to search
out what was spiritual and devotional among the people, as it was al-
ways to seize upon what was characteristic of the popular religion. In
the greatness and completeness of such a representation, there must of
course always be much adapted to inspire devotional feelings, and, ac-
cordingly, I have constantly felt that I was writing the history of the
actual kingdom of God on earth. But as men have often turned
that which was reall}' sublime into a caricature, many individual points
must necessarily be far enough from edifying.
There are some subjects not usually introduced into an ecclesiastical
history, to which I have awarded a right to a position there, because
they had their origin in the Church. Indeed, in most of the larger
Church Histories, nearly all of them have had a certain kind of con-
sideration already bestowed upon them. Such is, e. g., the treatment
which Schroeckh has given to the subject of Christian art, although the
style in which he has written must be confessed to have been singularly
awkward. In his Encyclopedia, Koseukranz has also assigned a due
degree of importance to the subject of ecclesiastical architecture. On
the other hand. I have omitted many things ordinarily mentioned even
in the smallest compendiuras. I have, however, so little disposition to
offer an apology for this, that I am rather inclined to reproach myself
that, especially on the subject of Patristics, I so far yielded to usage
that I allowed many topics to retain their ordinary position, which
certainly have no right to a place in history. On various occasions it
has recently been asserted that ecclesiastical history ought, at least in
a course of academical instruction, to throw out a portion of its ballast.
And yet we can hardly think that a proper remedy for our difficulties
would be found in the plan proposed by Tittmann, according to which
xii PREFACK TO THE FIUKT EDITION.
our future historicH must be conflned to an account of the proraul/ration
of Christianity, and of the internal constitution of the Church. For, it
must readily be perceived, that no true representation of the actual
condition of the Church could ever be made by one who confined him-
self to such arbitrary restrictions. If, indeed, an ecclesiastical history
ehould attempt merely to present a connected account of all theological
.iteraturo, it would go beyond its peculiar province, and become an en-
cyclopedia of theological knowledge. No particular event connected
with theological science ever needs to be noticed, except when it becomes
important as a prominent circumstance belonging to the age, and may
properly be regarded as characteristic of the times. AVc cannot, how-
ever, entirely dispense with some account of the received doctrines of
the Church. Although a separate history of these is of the highest im-
portance to the interests of theological science, the ecclesiastical his-
torian cannot on that account omit all reference to the subject ; for how
could the ecclesiastical movements of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries
be adequately described without noticing the various forms and processes
through which the doctrinal views of the Church, and its difierent sects,
then passed, and by which the character of those great movements was
determined 1 Indeed, bow could a clear representation be given of any
period of the Church, unless it included some account of the system of
faith which animates and sustains the whole. There is, in reality, only
a formal distinction between the history of doctrines as a special science,
and as an element in the general history of the Church ; for, aside from
the difference in the outward extent with which the subject is necessarily
treated, they only refer to the difierent poles of the same axis, — the
former presenting the doctrine rather as an idea unfolding its own self,
and the latter exhibiting it in its relation to surrounding events. Eut
the principal method by which ecclesiastical history was to be simplified,
was by discarding a mass of useless material. Nothing is a part of
history which has not at some period possessed actual life, and con-
sequently become immortal, by exhibiting in itself a true refraction of
the Christian spirit ; for, as God is only the God of the living, so history
is not a record of that which is lifeless and dead, but of that which has
a perpetual lifo. "\Ye have, however, hitherto dragged along a vast
multitude of these still-born trifles. Of what benefit can it be, at least
for students, to have it in their power to repeat the names of all those
persons who have been only remotely connected with the different events
mentioned in history, — of Synods which decided upon nothing, of popes
who never governed, and of authors who wrote nothing of importance.
A veneration for the names of these silent personages, of whom nothing
is recorded but the year of their death, has induced many even of our
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITIOl?. 3011
greatest ecclesiastical historians to fill whole pages of their works with
the useless catalogue. Should any one think that it is the business of
the instructor to quicken these dry bones by giving an account of their
works, he certainly has very little idea of the range of topics embraced
in the academic lecture ; and I appeal to the CKpericnce of any one who
has ever gone through with the text-book of Staudlin or of Muenseher,
and inquire whether he has found it possible to animate the masses
found in them ; or if he has been successful in this, whether he has
found any advantages worth the trouble? I have endeavored, as far as
possible, to avoid such useless verbiage in the text, for, although a man-
ual should be expected to require much explanation from the living
teacher, it should also possess some character of its own. By adopting
this plan, opportunity has been acquired for a more extensive notice of
those matters which were really important, and it will sometimes be
found that I have given to such topics as much space as they ordinarily
receive in larger works. It is possible, indeed, that a degree of dispro-
portion may be discovered between the attention bestowed upon different
individual subjects ; but it was never intended that the most diffuse por-
tions should take the place of the oral lecture, but rather excite the
reader to examine more thoroughly into the minutest particulars. The
principle on which this has been done may be found expressed in the
third section of the work. The academic instruction will at least assist
the student in gaining a complete view of an age, if it only presents that
age most thoroughly in the lives of its individual men ; and it is pre-
cisely by such a concrete representation of exalted particular agents
that the most distinct impression is produced upon the memory.
Shakspeare says, in one of his prologues, " I pray you, look upon the
broil of a few players as if it were a real battle ! " In like manner, the
historian may request his readers to regard the intellectual chiefs and
representatives of a particular period as the age itself Such a course
is not one which I have myself originally discovered, but it is the
necessary result of the multiplication of those admirable biographies of
which Neandcr has given us such eminent specimens, and to the compo-
sition of which his example has so much contributed.
The reader will sometimes meet with very peculiar expressions, such
as no one would reasonably have expected from my own pen. The ex-
perienced reader of history will readily perceive that these are quotations
which I have taken as a kind of catch-words from the original authori-
ties. I might frequently have designated them as such by some mark,
but they are generally so interwoven and imperceptibly blended with
my own words, that if I had attempted to distinguish the words of othw
Xiv rUKKACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
uuthors from my own, my history would lia re had almost the aspect of
mosaic work.
Although I have never concealed my own opinions, I have generally
preferred to lot the facts of tlie narrative speak for themselves. I was
also far more anxious to show why any particular event came to pass,
and how it was regarded when it took place, than to indulge in those
pedantic reflections, in which men every where attempt to act as judges.
And yet even with respect to secular matters, I have never shrunk from
calling every thing by its right name. In the very darkest times, thoso
who occupied positions purely ecclesiastical, were allowed freely to call
that unchristian which was really so. But probably most persons will
think that when judging of things inconsistent with true religion, I have
used the full liberty whicli naturally belongs to my position and my
character more frequently on the side of leniency than of severity. I
have no doubt, however, that in both respects I have given ample
grounds for offence to those who apply to other ages the standard of intelli-
gence and improvement to which their own has attained, or who judge
them by the contracted rules of piety which they have adopted ; in
whose eyes Catharine of Siena was merely " a silly kind of woman," and
Julius II. " il novum moustrum ; " and who say of Cardinal Ilildebrand,
that, " the scoundrel even pretended to work miracles ; " or who, on the
other side, relate that the word of the cross was ecclesiastically abolished
in Weimar in the year 1833. But judicious men will not fail to recog-
nize the same disposition in all the apparent changes of opinion which
have taken place. They can regard the same words as seasonable, and
indicative of an exalted mind, Avhen used by Gregory VII., which are
nothing but the helpless lamentations of a feeble old age when they ap-
pear in a Bull of Gregory XVI. With regard to the bright side of the
mediaeval hierarchy, and the dark side of the Reformation, I do not
suppose I need, in a purely theological circle of readers, to guard against
misconstructions with a solicitude like that which Van Räumer recently
exhibited, when writing for the more general body of the people. I
might, indeed, allege that the Reformation was so pure, and so exalted
in its nature, that it needs no concealment of its darker passages ; but
even if this were untrue, I should nevertheless withhold nothing from
the light. Something may be exacted from those for whom the present
work is intended ; for, though they may be young, they should be trained
to take independent and comprehensive views of history. I have, there-
fore, in every instance expressed the whole truth so far as I have myself
known it. The only sections in which I have allowed any restrictions
were those which contain notices of doctrinal history. Among students
with whom I am aci][uainted, it is always a rule to attend lectures upon
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. " XV
Ecclesiastical History before those upon Didactic Theology; and it ap-
pears to nie right that this should always be the case. I have, there-
fore, in some instances sacrificed something of the profundity of a
scientific investigation, that I might address myself more intelligibly to
the popular mind.
I have also taken some liberty in the general arrangement. No one
conversant with the subject would require that each historical period
should be accommodated to the same immutable framework. Who
would think of bringing the apostolic Church into the same frame which
has been found so appropriate to the age of the Reformation ? And if
some exceptions must be conceded by those who are most zealous in be-
half of an invariable system, we shall not hesitate to abandon tliis phan-
tom of uniform periods. Neither have I thought it necessary when no
change had taken place in some particular state of affairs, in all instances
to announce in a formal manner, that such was the fact, or to introduce
the most unimportant details as I should have felt obliged to do, if I
had had just so many spaces to fill in each period. If an event appcajs not
to have possessed much influence until a period after that in which it
had its commencement, it will be mentioned only in that in which it be-
came fully developed. In all cases, I have recognized no other law than
that which requires that each age should be so presented that the clear-
est view of it may be obtained, and most firmly fixed in the memory.
In some instances, especially in modern history, I was doubtful what
arrangement would be best adapted to my purpose. In such cases, my
final decision was determined by a very slight preponderance of reasons
in its favor, and I shall not, therefore, be surprised if others should come
to a different conclusion. If, however, they actually consider all the ad-
vantages and results of each method, they will at least appreciate the
motives by which I was directed in my selection.
A selected literature is the only thing, in itself of no importance,
which is 3'et essential to a text-book. Where it has been possible, I
have distinguished between original authorities and revised editions.
I have referred to particular passages at the bottom of the page, not
often as proof-passages, but merely as significant and distinct expres-
sions of the age in which they were written, and to be communicated
verbally by the lecturer himself. The small number of them will cer-
tainly not be imputed to my indolence by those who arc aware how
easily such citations are now to be obtained, and how trifling an evidence
they are of genuine study. They will be found most a])undant in the
present work with reference to recent times (though without regard to
the views of the contemporary writers), because it was then more difii-
cult to refer to general original authorities, or to revised editions of them.
Xvi PREFACE TO THE THIUT) EDITION.
It is, indeed, pohsible, that if I had waited ten years longer, I could
have ostahlished some of my positions with more circumspection. But
if I had done so, I might at that time have had neither the opportunity
nor the inclination to write such a work as is needed for a textbook;
and as I shall be just as able then to make any improvements within my
power upon the present work, I hope my friends will kindly accept
what I now have to present them, although from the nature of such a
work the writer is likely to console himself at its close with the hopo
that he will at some future day be able to improve and perfect it.
Jexa, Ascension Day^ 1834.
PKEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
This Church History has been every where so kindly appreciated and
noticed, that I have nothing but my thanks to offer, as I present to the
public another edition. With regard to the division into periods, and
some minor details, I have recently had occasion to explain my views
to a considerable extent in the second number of my polemic treatises.
Jena, March 9«A, 1836.
PBEFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
I CERTAINLY havc rcason to rejoice in the reception with which this
book has been favored, as it has been circulated far beyond the sphere
for which it was originally intended. Such a result is especially pleas-
ing, as it indicates that the interest recently awakened in ecclesiastical
and kindred subjects is not confined to matters pertaining exclusively
to the present generation, but that men are anxious to become thoroughly
acquainted with the condition of things in earlier times, and to become
animated by the rich life of the Church during its whole past existence.
But while this is true, literature itself certainly gains but little by this
rapid succession of new editions, and it has really been a source of vex-
ation to me that I was obliged to allow so fine an opportunity to pass
without contributing more to the perfection of this work. The improve-
ments introduced have generally been in matters of no great importance,
and even where some considerable changes have been made, they have
not been the result of any comprehensive investigations of my own, but
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. TVÜ
rather of the labors of others. Thus, the section which relates to
Savonarola has received some accession to its materials from the re-
searches pursued for a while in Florence, by my former beloved col-
league Meier, and the historj- of the Popes since the Reformation has
gained something from the ingenious examinations and careful extracts
from original documents lately made by Ranke. Although the brevity
of a text-book has not allowed frequent references to the German
Mythology of Grimm, this work has afforded me much valuable assist-
ance when attempting to gain a complete view of the history of the
Germanic Church.
Prof. Krabbe, in the Literary Advertiser (1837. N. 10-12.), besides
giving a detail of individual facts, which is instructive to any one, and
is especially worthy of my particular thanks, has passed a judgment
upon the spirit of my book, by comparing it with Neander's Church
History as a standard. In this respect, we Germans are a very strange
people. If any one has succeeded in accomplishing any thing excellent
in his own peculiar waj-, we always think that if another attempts any
thing in the same department, he must set about it in precisely the
same style. But the very fact that this particular kind of historical
writing has had for its representative and cultivator one so eminently
endowed as Neander confessedly is, renders it comparatively needless
that others should enter the same field, and unlikely that any should
equal him. We can only hope that he may have health sufficient, and
life long enough, to complete his great work. If, however, it is thought
that a textbook in his style is desirable. Dr. Guerike has certainly
made the most diligent use of his pages, and should it be objected that
Guerike's orthodoxy is extreme, Neander himself has trained up a num-
ber of clever pupils, of whom more than one is competent to write a
text-book. I have received in my own way much advantage from
Neander, but my original constitution is so different from his, and my
mind has passed through a process of development so very different,
that I should have gained but little, whatever efforts I had made to
imitate him. No one should expect to gather grapes of thorns, though
possibly roses might be found upon them.
The judgment of the Hegelian school has been expressed in a review
by Prof. Hasse, in the Annual Kegistcr of Scientific Criticism
(1836. N. 66-68.). The liberal spirit of true science, and the friendly
disposition of the writer cannot be mistaken in the piece, in spite of
the severe terms in which that judgment is expressed. He has, how
ever, done me some injustice when he asserts that I attempted in my
remarks respecting general and indefinite expressions in my first preface,
to escape from the universal principles of philosophical thought. I
Xviii PREFACK TO THE THIRD EDITION
Duly iiil.iiilcd there to speak against those indefinite phrases which ara
Ro coiniiuin in our ordinary text-books, as, c. g., the very example which
I tlien adduced, whore whole pages arc filled with names distinguished
(tnly Ity a cross and a date, wliich give to them the appearance of a
Moravian cemetery, rather than of an abundant and varied individual
life. Against tiie objection that I indulged too much in the description
of minute details, which might be urged more correctly against liistorical
representations, I will not reply that it certainly requires more labor
to collect such minor particulars from the original authorities than it
docs to make general reflections upon the events, for I am well aware
that my worthy opponent would contend for the former as a part of his
own plan, and that he really would require such an earnest investigation
of facts, as cannot be performed without a severe exercise of thought.
But this earnest inquiry into the origin and nature of things, I have in
no instance avoided. With regard to the general principles contained
in the facts of history, it will be found that the summaries prefixed to
the periods contain nothing else, and that the subsequent details of
particular and distinct events may really be regarded as a more ex-
tended illustration of them. But his account of my method of procedure
in this matter is not altogether correct. He says; "The author, e. g.,
instead of giving us the true origin of monasticism, presents us with a
description of St. Anthony ; and even of him, we have merely a series
of peculiar traits of character expressed in the most pithy style." And
yet just before the section alluded to, a complete general view of the
origin and spirit of that whole theory of religious life cut of which
necessarily proceeded a style of living, of which that of the anchorets
was an extreme form, had been presented (now ^ 64.), and in the next
period, when that which properly may be called the monastic life came
before us, a similar general representation of the true object and spirit
of this style of life is given (now ^ 134.). The reviewer proceeds:
" We are then presented in a similar style with a portraiture of Cyprian
(now ^ 84.), as the representative of the whole ecclesiastical life of his
age, and a characteristic incident in the life of Leo the Great is given
as a specimen of the mode in which the Koman bishops drew into their
own hands the administration of the government of the whole Church "
But in the first instance here mentioned, the account of Cyprian was
preceded by a history of the process by which the legal relations of the
Church had been formed, and by some notice of the general character-
istics of the ecclesiastical life ; and in the other case, all the antecedent
principles had already been mentioned by means of which the Roman
see had gained a consciousness of its future destiny. Cyprian and Leo
are described to a greater extent than others, because they were re-
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION, XlX
garded as the natural representatives of this peculiar phase of the eccle-
siastical life. My object was in this way to bring the abstract principles
which I had laid down into a concrete representation by means of these
important individual characters, inasmuch as I had certainly supposed
this to be the proper method in which history should be written. I
suppose I must submit when our critic condescends to impute every
thing which he approves in this history to what he calls '• the happy
tact of the writer, which enables him to discover things as it were by
instinct or divination," because he did not find ihem proceeding from
Hegelian principles, and they were not embellished with the well-known
formulae of his own school. I am not, indeed, one of those who strive
to affect ignorance of those results of the Hegelian philosophy which
have had so general an influence upon the history of our world. But
with respect to historical writing, Marheineke's History of the Reforma-
tion has put the question beyond all doubt, that a man can be an emi-
nent historian, and at the same time a friend of the Hegelian philosophy ;
and yet there are already some symptoms that a zealous Hegelian may
pretty thoroughly ruin the history which he attempts to write. Indeed,
there can be no doubt that if a history of the Church were written, even
by a writer as profound as Daub himself, on the principles and method
lately recommended by him in the Jouinial for Speculative Theology, it
would turn out to be utterly unreadable to most of our race. At any
rate, we may console ourselves with the recollection, that since the time
of Thucydides there have been some writers who, by a happy tact, or
by divination, have been able to produce something like tolerable his-
tories, although it does not appear that they were guided by Hegelian
principles, or used Hegelian formulae.
It has been pleasant to me to find that some learned men of the
Catholic Church have recognized my honest intention to be uniformly
just toward their Churcli, and to declare the whole truth in every case.
It would hardly be candid in the different parties generally to expect
from each other more than such acknowledgments of good will, since it
must necessarily be a condition of their different ecclesiastical positions
that the same events should have a different aspect in the view of each,
and that one should always find something of which it disapproves in
the accounts of the other. But it is no small gain when both are con-
vinced of each other's good will. I refer particularly to a criticism by
Prof Ilrfck, in the Quarterly Journal of Tubingen, (1836, N. 4.) He
is entirely correct when he says, that what I have written in ^ 333,
where it is said, " the idols were burned," was not intended to express
my own view. Nor is it precisely meant as an expression of what
Zwingle himself believed on the subject. It is rather the view and the
XX PREFACK TO THK TFIII'J) KlUTION.
lanj»uago of tho whole generation in that viciuity from which this de
8tr\ictioii of th*' iinajje» proceeik-il ; and although the expression is rather
rmlr, it was sedi-ctctl as the briefest by whieh the motives of the actora
could be made known. In the passage in whieh Amsdorf's installation
as Hishop of Naumburg (now i^S 337), is mentioned, I am bettor agreed
with the honored Kevi(!wer than he seems to have suspected. For when
it is there said, " The elector eould not resist the temptation to provide
an apostolic bishop for that see," it is not merely intended that such
was the purpose of tlio elector and his counsellors, and such the reason
by which they satisfied their own consciences in this proceeding, but a
slight touch of irony is blended with the whole, and is indicated iu the
expression, that tho elector could not resist such a temptation, since the
apostolic character of this bisliop, in the opinion of the court, consisted
principally iu the fact, that the new incumbent would draw but a small
salary, and consequently the electoral treasury would be enriched by
the ample revenues of the bishopric. I confess, too, that I can see very
little of a more apostolic character in our Lutheran zealot Amsdorf
than in the mild and learned Julius von Pflug. But whatever one may
think with regard to these points, the whole proceeding was in violation
of long established rights. Although a little surprised that he should
have called the style of my work enigmatical^ I was happy to find that
this Reviewer fully appreciated the view whieh I had expressed with
regard to the relation of a text-book to the oral lecture. It would
seem, however, from the historical examples which he adduces, that he
at least succeeded in completely understanding my meaning when I re
marked, that the subjects whieh are more generally treated, and barely
hinted at, in the text-book, are founded upon distinct historical views,
and are so presented as to invite the instructor, who is well informed
on the minute details, to communicate and enlarge upon them. The
style re<|uired for this I should not call enigmatic, merely because
those who have not become familar with the original authorities of the
history may find something not properly obscure, but to be passed over
more superficially than other subjects, and without a complete exhaus-
tion of its contents. A germ, or a bud, cannot, indeed, be fully seen
until it has become expanded in the flower ; but whoever sees the bud,
has before him not merely an enigma, but what is already an intelligible
reality. This is very much like the comparison whieh the Reviewer
made between the Florentine and the Roman schools of painting, to
illustrate the distinction between Catholic history and my own, or the
ordinary orthodox histories of the Church. Every well-educated persoD
will readily perceive the import, and the striking nature of this com
parison. But any one familar with the peculiarities of the two schools.
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. XXI
and has a vivid conception of their productions, will appreciate the
profound truth, and the extensive applicability of this ingenious com-
parison.
Jexa, June 4:th, 1837.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
During the years which have elapsed while the previous editions have
been given to the public, I have had time and inclination enough not
only more thoroughly to investigate many particulars (though I must
not withhold my heartiest thanks from those who have assisted me), but
also to revise the whole, without, however, changing the essential char-
acter of the book. The object for which it was originally intended
would allow of no augmentation of its size. The vastuess of its subject
rendered all attempts to render the contents themselves more perfect in
their relations and in their distinctness an absolutely interminable
task. But on this anniversary of the morning on which, seven years
ago, the first preface of this work was written, I am painfully oppressed
by the recollection, that a large part of the most vigorous and most
tranquil portion of my life has been spent in eflforts to improve a work
of such a limited extent ; and I cannot venture upon any further prom-
ises with regard to future efforts in this matter.
Jena, Ascension Day, 1841.
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
The ten years to which I alluded at the close of the preface to tho
first edition have now passed, and it is certain that in an animated in-
tercourse with the age in which I live, many of the positions I first as-
sumed have either been more carefully verified, or have been changed.
Either in the German, or in a foreign language, this work has found its
way through the hands of the youth into the quiet residences of many
pastors, and even into palaces. Thus, under the divine blessing, may
it proceed onward in its course, producing in the Church a sound
consciousness of her historical development until it shall have fulfilled
its mission.
Jexa, Jan. Uf, 18-i4.
xxii riu:i"ACK to tiik sixth kditiox.
rREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION.
Wiiati:vi;r is new in this edition will be found principally in those
portions relating to the most ancient and the most modern times.
Most of what I have added to the former has been occasioned by tho
researches of the new school of Tubingen. ■ These were not altogether
unknown to mc during the composition of the original work, but in con
se(|uence of the works of Baur, Paulus and Schwegler, with reference to
the period immediately after the apostles, they now appear in more per-
fect relations. I was in no danger of maintaining an obstinate resistance
to the fundamental principles of their historical scheme, to avoid the
necessity of taking back my former assertions on the same subject, for,
in the first edition, I had maintained that a primary form of ecclesi-
astical orthodoxy was Ebionism, although afterwards, in consequence of
the progress of other views, this was regarded as a heresy. The very
earliest theological treatise which I published, as long ago as 1824, and
which was quoted by Dr. Schwegler himself, was written to show that
the Epistle to the Hebrews belonged to an Ebionite party. And yet I
have never been convinced that the struggle between the Jewish and the
Pauline parties continued as late as a century after the death of the
apostles, and in countries beyond the limits of Palestine, and constituted
the great moving principle of the history and literature of that century.
It did not belong to a mere text-book to discuss the ingenious arguments
which Dr. von Baur lias brought forward, but my present revision has
certainly gone quite far enough into this matter, and my history of this
oldest period of Church history seems almost every where like a quiet
conference with the Tubingen school, by adopting or controverting whose
positions it has been much benefited. I was, of course, unable to make
use at that time of the new edition (1 ed. 1817.) of Neander's history
of the apostolic Church. The abundant materials which the last four
years have aflorded, were easily added, like new annual rings and shoots,
to the old trunk of the most modern history.
I have, for this once, spared myself the disagreeable task of reading
the proof sheets for the correction of typographical errors, but an un-
pleasant mistake has caught my eye in note Z», under i^ 8, where my
diligent proof-reader, even in opposition to grammatical propriety, has
allowed ab orhc condita to stand as in the preceding edition.
In quoting from the Fathers, and from some other authors, I was
sometimes obliged to give the page, and I therefore here mention the
editions to which I referred : Athauasii 0pp. Par. 1627. Clementia
Alex. 0pp. ed. Potter. Oxon. 1715. Cypriani 0pp. ed. Fell. Amst.
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. XXIU
1713. Epiphanii 0pp. ed. Petav. Par. 1622. Hieronymi 0pp. ed.
Martianay, when that of Vallarsi is not expressly mentioned. Justini
0pp. ed. Otto. Jen. 1842s. Leon M. 0pp. edd. Ballerini. Origenis
0pp. ed. Delarue. — Grerson. ed. Du Pin. Antu. 1706. Guicciardini.
Ven. 1583-4. Mattheus Paris. Par. 1644. Melancth. Epp. in the
Corpus Reformatorum ed. Bretschneider. Platina. 1664. Butch edition.
Trithemi Annales Hirsang. S. Gralli. 1690.
In the notes to the latest modern history, the abbreviations A. K.
Z. mean the (Darmstadt) Allegemeine Kirchen-Zeitung; Ev. K. Z.
mean Evangelische Kirchen-Zeitung ; Brl. A. K. Z. mean Berliner
Allgemeine Kirchen- Zeitung; A. Z. mean Augsburger Allgemeine
Zeitung ; L. A. Z., or D. A. Z., mean Leipziger, afterwards Deutsche
Allgemeine Zeitung. It may be that some public documents which had
been published in the religious, are quoted from the political journals,
because I had first met with them in the latter, but it is certainly very
desirable for future historical purposes, that our religious periodicals
should collect in a more perfect manner than they have done the original
documents, especially of foreign Churches. This will become especially
important, if the Acta historico-ecclesiastica, which poor Rheinwald com
raenced, should never be continued.
Jexa, First Sunday in Advent, 184T.
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.
Although I had supposed that I had before neglected nothing, the re-
vision of this work for a new impression has given occasion for so many
improvements, or at least alterations, that the immensity of the affair
has once more forced itself upon my attention. Hence the necessity,
to my present annoyance, of a much enlarged edition. I might very
properly excuse myself by saying, as Pascal did, in one of his Provin-
cial Letters, that I have no time to make it briefer. An author ought,
indeed, always to take time for a book, since generally he is under no
necessity of publishing prematurely. But the publication of a new
edition is sometimes beyond his control. When, last Spring, I re-com-
menced my lectures upon Church History, a suflScient number of copies
of this text-book were not to be obtained ; I was therefore obliged to
supply my pupils with the separate sheets as they came from the press,
and to finish the preparation within a limited time.
c
XXIV PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.
I have been accustomed generally to correct the last proof-sbccta
with my own hands, hut on the present occasion I spared myself the un-
pleasant task of reading to find typographical errors ; and I committed
to my students the work of diligently watching for these marks of
human frailty. Their keen young eyes have discovered some mistakes
of this kind; and not to mention those which arc unimportant, and are
easily seen and corrected, I will only notice that instead of Eugeniu$
VI., on p. 279, Eugenius IV., should be inserted; and instead of 1835,
in the third line from the bottom of p. 405, 1853 should be printed.
Where quotations are made from the Fathers, and some other
writers, and frequently the precise number of the page must be men-
tioned, I have referred to the following editions : Cypriani 0pp. cd.
Fell. Amst. 1713. Epiphanii 0pp. ed. Petav. Par. 1G22. Hieronymi
0pp. ed. Martianay, where Villarsi is not expressly mentioned. Justini
0pp. ed. Otto, Jen. 1847s. Leon. M. 0pp. ed. Ballerina. Origenis
0pp. ed. Dolarue. — Gerson, ed. Du Pin. Antu. 1706. Guicciardini ;
Ven. 1583-4. Mattheus Paris; Par. 1644. Melancth. Epp. in the
Corpus Reformatorum. Platina 1664. Dutch edit. Trethemii Annales
Hirsaug. S. Galli. 1690. Sleidan. Argent. 1555. Sarpi 1699-4.
Seckendorf Francof. 1688. Rauke, deutsche Gesch. 3. ed.
While the work was passing through the press, and after those
sections to which they referred had been printed, many important works
have appeared, which might have had an influence upon my statements.
I will not mention them here, for after a few months such a list would
I be as imperfect as before. The author of a monograph must be ex-
pected, of course, to understand his subject better than others ; but he
who writes a general history, must learn from many, and be corrected
^ by almost all.
Jena, Fei. 27th, 1864.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
CIIAP. I.— PLAN
SCT.
1. Tlie Church and the World,
2. Idea of Church History,
3. Proper Province of Church History,
4. Relation to the General History of Religion,
5. Mode of Treating Church History,
6. Value of Church History,
7. Sources, .....
8. Auxiliary Sciences, . . .
9. Division .....
CHAP, n.— GENERAL LITERATURR
10. Polemical Church History, ....
11. French Ecclesiastical Historians, ....
I'l. Protestant Scientific Church History,
13. Writers of the German Catholic Church, .
1
8
8
11
ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY.
PERIOD I.
FROM CHRIST TO CONSTANTINE.
14. General View and Original Authorities, .
IS
DIVISION I.— ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH.
CIL\.P. L— INTRODUCTORY HISTORY.
L Classic Heatitexism.
15. Popular Life among the Greeks, .
16. Limits of Grecian Refinement,
17. The Religion of the Greeks,
18. Relation of Philosophy to the Poi>ular Religion,
15
15
16
16
XXVI
CONTENTS.
19. Rome ns ft 1101)111)110,
20. l)opliiie of (irceco,
21. Klovntiori niid Decline of Rome,
22. Decline of the Popular Religion,
IL Judaism.
23. Tlie Religious Life of the People,
24. The Dispersed Jews, .
25. Hellenism, .
26. The Three Sects,
27. The Samaritans,
28. Proselytes,
FAOa
17
18
18
19
20
21
21
22
23
23
CHAP. If— THE APOSTOLIC CIIURCR
29. The First Pentecost,
30. Fortune of the Church of Jerusalem,
31. Jewish Christianity,
32. Samaritan Christians and Sects,
33. Paul, ....
34. Peter, .....
35. Position of Parties in the time of Paul,
86. John, .....
37. Parties in the Time of John,
38. Traditions Respecting the Apostles, .
39. Apostolical Fathers of the First Century,
40. Political Overthrow of Judaism,
41. The Roman Civil Power, .
42. Constitution of the Local Churches, .
43. Ecclesiastical Life,
44. Mode of "Worship,
45. Doctrines of the Church, .
24
25
26
26
27
30
31
83
34
85
36
36
37
38
39
40
41
DIVISION IL— FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC
CHURCH.
CHAP. L— STRUGGLE OF THE CHURCH FOR ITS OWX EXISTEXCR
46. The Jews, ......... 42
47. The Roman People and Empire, . , . . . 43
48. Conduct of the Individual Emperors of the Second and Third Centuries, 44
49. Internal History of Paganism, . . . . . .46
50. New-Platonism, ....... 47
51. Literary Controversies of Christianity, . . . . .49
52. The Christian Apologists, ...... 50
53. Religion of Barbarous Nations, . . . . . .53
64. Spread of Christianity, ...... 53
55. The Last Persecution, ....... 54
56. The Martyi-s, ........ 55
CILVP. IL— SOCLVL CONSTTHTTION OF THE CHURCH.
57. Original Documents on Ecclesiastical Law, . . . .56
58. Tlie Clergy and the Laity, ...... 57
69. Bishops, ' . . . . . . . . .59
60. Synods, ........ 60
61. Äletrojwlitans, ........ 60
62. The Three Great Bishops, . . . . . . 61
63. The Catholic Church and its Branches, . . . . .62
CONTENTS.
XXVll
CHAP, HL— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
64 Christian Morals, ......
65. St. Anthony, ......
66. Ecclesiastical Discipline, . . , . .
67. The Montanists, ....
68. The Noratians, ......
69. Holy Seasons, and the Controversy about Easter,
To. Sacred Places, and their Decoration, ,
71. Sacred Services, .....
63
64
65
66
67
67
69
69
CHAP. IV.-
■ DOCTRINES OF THE CHURCH, AND OPINIONS OPPOSED
TO THEM.
72. Sources from which the Church derived its System of Faith,
73. Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century. Cont. from § 39,
74. Ecclesiastical Literature and Heresy,
75. Ebionism. Cont. from § 35, .
76. I. Gnosticism,
77. n. Syrian Gnostics, .
78. HI. Hellenistic Gnostics, .
79. IV. Gnostics, in an especial sense Christian,
80. V. Judaizing Gnostics,
81. VI. Intiuence of Gnosticism upon the Church,
82. Manichaeism,
83. Historico-Ecclesiastical Theology,
84. Thascius Caecilianus Cyprianus,
85. I. The School of Alexandria, .
86. II. Characteristics of the Alexandrian Theology,
87. III. Influence of Origen,
88. Appendix to the Literary History,
89. Apocryphal Literature,
90. Subordinationists and Monarchians,
71
72
73
74
75
77
78
81
83
85
86
88
89
91
93
94
95
96
PERIOD II.
FROM OONSTANTINE TO CHAELES THE GKEAT.
91. General View, ......
101
DIVISION I— THE IMPERIAL CHURCH.
C2. Original Authorities, .......
CHAP. L— \^CTORY AND DEFEAT OF CHRISTLANITT.
93. Constantine and his Sons, . . ...
94. Julianus Apostata, ... . . ,
95. The Fall of Paganism, . . . .
96. Massalians and Ilypsistarians, .....
97. Christianity under the Persians, .....
98. Abyssinia and the Diaspora, ....
99. Mohammed, . ....
100. Victories of Islam, . .....
101
103
104
105
107
107
108
108
110
CHAR IL— THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE.
101. Conflicts and Sources of the Ecclesiastical Life, .
iia
XXVUl
CONTENTS.
I. The Aiuan CoNXKovEiisy.
102. The Synod of Nicaon. Cont. from § 90,
lu:s. Atliiiiiu»iiii8 and Ariii», ....
104. Minor Controversies, ....
106. The Synod of Constantinople and the Holy Trinity,
106. Ecclesiastical Literature,
II. The Origenistic Controversy.
107. SynesiuB, Epiphanius, and Ilieronymus, .
108. Cürysostom, .....
III. The Pelagian Controvebst,
109. Pelagianism and Augustinism,
110. Augustinus, .....
111. Victory of Augustinism, ....
112. Semipelagianism, ....
IV. Controversies respecting the two Naturks of Cbbist.
113. Tlie Nestorian Controversy,
114. The Eutychian Controversy, .
115. The Monophysites, ....
116. Justinian, .....
117. Tlie Edict of Peace and the Monophysite Church,
118. The Monothelite Controversy,
119. Ecclesiastical Literature, ....
CRAP. III.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE
120. Legislation and Books of Law,
121. The Roman Empire, .
122. Power of the Emperor over the Church, .
123. Power of the Church over the State,
124. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction,
125. Church Property,
126. The Congregation and the Clersv,
127. The Patriarchs, . .^' .
128. The Roman Bishopric before Leo,
129. Leo the Great,
130. The Papacy after Leo. Gregory the Great,
131. General Councils and the Catholic Church,
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
132. Religious Spirit of the People and Ecclesiastical Piscipli
133. Celibacy and Moral Condition of the Clergy,
134. Monastic Life in the East, ....
135. Hermits. Simeon Stylites,
136. Monasticism in the West Benedictines, .
137. Veneration for Saints, .
138. Public "Worship, .....
139. Ecclesiastical Architecture and "Works of Art,
140. Iconoclastic Controversy, ....
CHAP, v.— OPPONENTS OF THE ORDINARY ECCLESIASTICAL SYSTEM
141. General View,
142. The Donatists, .
143. Audians. Massalians,
144. Priscilianus, ......
145. Protesting Ecclesinstienl Teachers,
146. History of the Pauliciaus, § 1, . . .
CHURCH
ne,
112
113
114
115
116
119
120
122
122
124
124
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
134
136
1.37
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
146
147
148
149
150
151
151
153
155
156
157
157
158
158
159
159
CONTENTS,
XXIX
DIVISION IL— THE GERMANIC CHURCH.
147. Original Authorities, ... . .
CHAP. I.— ESTABLISHMENT OF CnHISTIANITY.
14S. Religion of the Germans,
149. Religion of the Northern German Nations,
150. Arianism, ....
151. Victory of Catholicism,
1 52. British and Anglo-Saxon Church,
153. Irruption of Islam in the West, .
154. Germany, Bonifacius, .
155. The Saxons, ....
156. Overthrow of German Paganism,
CHAP. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH,
157. Original Records of the Canon Law,
158. Relation of the Church to the State, .
159. Property of the Church and the Clergy, .
160. Ecclesiastical Power of the Pope,
161. Secular Power of the Pope,
lü2. Charles the Great,
160
162
163
165
166
166
168
168
169
169
170
171
171
172
173
173
CHAP. III.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
163. Religious Spirit of the People,
164. Ecclesiastical Discipline,
165. Morals of the Clergy and Canonical Life,
166. Public Worship,
174
175
176
177
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL SCIENCE.
167. Preservation of Literature, ....
168. Scientific Education under the Carolingians, .
169. Adoptionists, ......
178
179
180
MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY.
PEEIOD III.
FROM CHARLES TO INNOCENT III.
170. General View and Authorities,
181
CHAP. I.— GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY.
171. General View, ........ 183
172. Donation of Constantino in tlie Ninth Century, . . . 183
173. Pseudo-Isidore, ........ 184
174. The Female Pope Joanna, ...... 186
175. Nicholas L, 858-867, and Hadrian II., 867-872, . , .187
176. Formosus, 891-896. Stephen VL, 897, .... 188
177. Pornocracy, ........ 189
178. The Popes under the Othrta. ...... 189
179. The Papacy until the Synod of Siitri, ..... 191
180. The Popes under Ilildebrand, 1048-1073, ... 191
xzx
CONTENTS.
MCT.
181. r.rof,'.iry VII., April 22, 107.VMBy 25, 1085,
182. rJrctior'y'rt SuccesMDi-H, l()85-10;»'.t,
183. 'I'lic Cnixailos. ( 'oiiqucst of Jfi-u.sttlcm, .
184. rasi'lml II., 1009-1118,
18.5. Ciili.vtus II., 1 111)-1124. Concordat of Worms,
186. Arnold of IJre.-iciii, niid Bernard of Clairvaux,
187. Tlio ('ni.'<n<lo of St. Jieniard,
188. Frcileric I. Harbarossa, 1152-1190, .
189 Tiioiiia.s Bcckct, ....
190. Tiie ('ru«a<le against Salalieddin,
191. Henry VI. .
192. Innocent III., Jan. 8, llOS-July 16, 121C,
194
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
205
206
206
207
CIIAP. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
193. Gratian and his Predeoeseora,
194. The Church and the State,
195. Ecclesiastical Power of the Papacy,
196. The Cardinals, . . . ' .
197. The Bishops, and the Bishops' Chapters,
198. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction,
199. Property of the Church, .
211
212
214
215
216
217
216
CIIAP. m.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
200. The Religious Spirit of the People,
201. Manners of the Clergj-,
202. Church Discipline, ' .
208. Public "Worship,
204. Monastic Life, ....
205. The Congregation of Clugny, .
206. Jlinor Orders of the Eleventh Century, .
207 The Cistercians and St. Bernard,
208. Praemonstrauts and Carmelites,
209 The Trinitarians,
210. The Humiliates, ....
211. Establishment of the Orders of Knighthood,
. 219
221
. 222
223
. 225
226
. 2i7
228
. 229
230
. 231
231
CHAP IV.— STATE OF SCIENCE IN THE CHURCH.
212 Scientific Education of the Ninth Century, .
213 First Eucharistie Controversy, ....
214 Gottschalk. Cont. from § 12, .
215 Literary Interest during the Tenth Century, under the Othos,
216 Academical Studies in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries, .
217 The Second Eucharistie Controversy,
218 Scholasticism. First Period, ....
219 Mysticism. First Period, .....
220 Abelard, 1079-April 21, 1142, ....
221 The Sacred Scriptures, . ...
222. Commencement of a National Literature in the Twelfth Century,
232
. 234
235
. 235
236
. 237
23S
. 240
241
. 243
r, . 243
CIIAP. v.— EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCK
223. Tlie Holy An«gar, 801-865. . . . . . .245
224. Germanic Nations of the North, ..... 246
225. Tlie Slavic Nations, . . .... 248
226. The Hungarians. ....... 250
227. The Finns, Livonian«, and Esthonians, .... 250
CONTENTS.
XXXI
CHAP. VI.— PARTIES PROTESTING AGAINST THE CHURCH.
228. The Catharists,
229. Peter of Bruys aud Henry.
230. The Waldenses,
231. The Albigensian "War,
Tanchelm and Eon,
CHAP. VII.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCK
232. Extension of the Church,
233. The Roman Empire and the Church,
234. Photius,
235. Division of the Church,
236. State of Science,
237. Pauliciane. § 2. Cont from § 140,
251
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
PERIOD IV.
FEOM INNOCENT III. TO LÜTHEB.
238. General View and Historical Writers,
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
.CHAP. I.— RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO GENERAL AFFAIRS.
Frederic IL,
Overthrow of the House of Hohenstaufen,
St. Louis, ......
Termination of the Crusades, ....
Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1273-1291. Sicilian Vespers,
The Hermit in the Papal Chair, July 5-I)ec. 13, 1294,
Boniface VIII., Dec. 24, 1294-Oct. 11, 1303,
Commencement of the Babylonian Exile,
Louis of Bavaria, 1314-1347. Joanna I. of Naples,
Close of the Babylonian Exile,
The Schism, .....
Council of Pisa, March 25-Aug. 7, 1409,
Council of Constance, Nov. 5, 1414-April 22, 1418,
Martin V., Nov. 11, 1417-Feb. 20, 1431,
Council of Basle, 1431-1443 (1449),
The Popes until the End of the Fifteenth Century, .
Alexander VI., Aug. 2, 1492-Aug. 18, 1503,
Julius II., Nov. 1, 1503-Feb. 21, 1513,
Leo X., March 11, 1513-1517 (1521),
CHAP. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE
258. Corpus Juris Canonici, ....
259. The State and the Church, ....
260. Ecclesiastical Power of the Papacj',
261. Ecclesiastical Assemblies, ....
262. The National Churches, ....
203. The Bishops and their Jurisdiction, .
204. The Inquisition, .....
CHAP. HI.— ECCLESLÄ.STICAL LIFE
265. The Two (ireat Mendicant Orders,
266. Public AVorslii]), .....
267. Flourishing Period of the Imitative Arts in the Church,
268. Worshii) of the Saints, ....
269. Äliracles and Magic, ....
270. Church Discipline and Indulgences, .
271. Flagellants and Dancers, ....
CHURCH.
263
265
267
268
269
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
281
282
283
285
286
287
288
290
292
292
293
295
30C
302
307
309
311
312
XXXIl
CONTENTS.
»tCT. »»»•
272. Mi.rnlH (.f tlie Clor^'v. . . . . . 314
27;J. Uflit^ioiiH CliariKlrr of the People, . . . . .315
274. Survey of 111,. MoiiuM it; Life, ...... 316
27Ö. More Imlfpomlciit AsKociuf ion«, ...... 317
276. The Tciiiplur!* iiinl the Kiiiglits of St. John, .... 318
CIIAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURE.
277. Selioldstieistn. Second Period, ...... 320
278. Scliohistieism. Tliird P« riod, ...... 321
27".>. Mystieisin. Second Period, ...... 322
2S0. Excesses and Conij>i-oniisc8, ...... 324
281. The 8o-enlled Revival of Literature, ..... 326
282. John Keueliliii, 1455-1522, ...... 329
283. Desi.lerius Erasmus, 1466-1536, . . . . . .330
284. Tlie IIolv Scriptures, ... ... 331
285. The Due'trinc of the Church, . . ... 332
286. Ethics and Casuistry, ....... 333
CIIAP. v.— EXTENSION OF THE IIOMAX CATHOLIC CHURCH.
287. Apologetics. Islani. Judnisin, ...... 335
288. Prussia. IJthuauia. Lapland, ..... 336
28i>. Prester John and the Mongols, ...... 337
290. The Kew World, . . . . . . .338
CHAP. VI.— OPPOSITION AND REFORM.
291. General View, ....... 388
I. Hostile Partiks.
292. The Stedingers and the Heretical Ghibellines, . . . 339
293. Fraternity of the Free Spirit, . . . . . .340
294. Order of 'the Apostles, . . . . . .341
295. Termination of the Earlier Sects, ...... 312
II. Reform.
296. Reformation in the Head and Members, .... 343
297. John Wycliflfe, 1324-Dec. 31, 1381, . . . . .346
298. John Ihiss and the Hussites, ...... 347
299. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren, ..... 350
300. Learned Precursors of the Reformation in Germany, . . 351
301. Jerome Savonarola, ....... 352
CHAP. VIL— THE GREEK CHURCH.
302. Arsenius, ........ 354
303. The Light of God and Philosophy, . . . . .354
304. Attempts at Union. Cont. from g 235, .... 355
305. End of the Greek Empire, ...... S5€
MODERN CHURCH HISTORY.
PERIOD Y.
FROM LUTHER TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA.
806. General View, ......
CIIAP. I.— THE GER:SIAN REFORMATION.
807. Original Authorities and Literary Ilistorv, . . . .
359
CONTENTS.
XXXUl
I. EsTABLISnMEXT OF THE LuTUZKAX CniRCH TILL 1532.
308. Luther's Youth, ..,,..
•>09. The Ninety-Five Tlieses, ....
310. Interference of the Pope, .....
311. Amicable Negotiations, ....
312. Deputation at Leipsic, June 27-July, 16, 1519, .
313. Melaticthon. General Affairs,
314. Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,
315. Babylonian Captivity and Christian Freedom,
316. The Fire-Signal, ......
317. Political Relations till 1521, ....
318. Diet at Worms, 1521, .....
319. The Wartburg, and the Tumult at Wittenberg, 1521, 1522,
320. System of Doctrines and the Scriptures, .
321. D'iet at Nuremberg, 1522, 1523,
322. Introduction of the Reformation, ....
323. Commencement of the Division in Germany, 1524-1526,
324. Tlie King and the Theologian, . . '
325. Peasants' War, 1524, 1525, ....
326. Erasmus and Luther. Cont. from § 285, .
327. Luther's Domestic Life, and his Colleagues, .
328. Religious Liberty and the Protestation, .
329. Synod of llomburg, 1526. Saxon Church Visitation, 1527-1529,
330. The Diet of Augsburg, 1530, ....
331. League of Smalkald and Peace of Nuremberg,
II. ESTABLISUMENT OF TUE REFORMED CuURCH UNTIL 1531
332. Youth and Doctrine of Zwingle, ....
333. Introduction of the Reformation,
334. Division of the Swiss Confederacy,
335. The Sacramentarian Controversy,
361
363
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
373
374
376
377
377
379
380
381
382
383
383
384
386
388
389
III. Establishment of the Lutheran Church until 1555.
336. Articles of Smalkald, . . . , . . .390
337. Progress and Pulitical Power of the Reformation, . . . 391
338. Negotiations for Peace and Preparations for War, . . . 393
339. Luther's Death and Public Character, .... 894
340. The Smalkaldic War, 1546-7, . . . . . .395
341. The Interim, ........ 396
342. Maurice, 1552, ........ 397
343. Religious Peace, Sept. 25, 1555, ..... 398
IV. Establishment of the Reformed Church rNm. 1564.
344. Tlie Concord! urn of Wittenberg. Cont. from § 338, . . 399
345. Italian Switzerland, ....... 400
346. John Calvin, July 10, 1509-May 27, 1564, .... 400
CILVP II.— ESTABLISHMENT OF A PROTESTANT ORTHODOXY.
I. LUTHERANISM.
347. Tlie Antinomian and Osiandrian Controversies,
348. Lutherans and PhiLippists. General Affairs,
349. ITie Synei-gistic Controver.^y, .
350 Crypto Calvinism. Cont. from § 344,
351. Efforts at Concord. ....
352. Reaction of Saxon Calvinism,
353. Spirit and Result of tlie Doctrinal Controversy,
4ii2
404
4<i5
407
409
410
411
XXXIV
CONTENTS.
II. C'ai.vinwm.
8r)l. (Jortnnn RffuniK'd riuiicli,
S.5Ö. 'Ihc NttlK'rliUKiH, ....
860. The Synod of iJort, Nov. 13, IC18-cnJ of May, 1619,
412
414
415
CHAP. III.— PROfJRESS OF THE REFORMATION THEOUGH EUROPE.
357. Tlic Fnitod Ausü-lan States until 1609,
858. Swedfii, ....
;{59. iKMiiiiurk with Norway and Iceland, .
SCO. I'oland, Livoniii, and Koorland, .
416
418
419
420
I. Great Bbitain and Ibeland.
SCil. EstnMislimont of the Anglican Church,
'M\± Oriifiii of the Puritans and ludepcndents,
363. 8cotlaiul, ......
364. Great Britain under the Stuarts, .
421
423
424
425
II. France.
365. Tlie Night of St. Bartholomew,
366. The Edict of Nantes,
367. Spain and Italy,
426
428
429
CIIAP. IV.— F^VNATICS AND ULTRAISTS OF THE REFORMATION.
868. General Relations of the Reformation, ..... 430
369. Anabaptists as Fanatics, ...... 431
370. Anabaptists as an Orderly Community. Collegiant*, . . . 432
371. Autitrinitarians, ....... 432
372. Socinians, ......... 434
373. Caspar Schwenckfeld, of Ossing. Sebastian Franck, . . 435
CIIAP. v.— CONDITION AND RESULTS OF PROTESTANTISM.
374. Protestantism as a Principle, ...... 437
375. Morals, ........ 438
376. Law, ......... 440
377. The Clei^v, and Church Property, ..... 443
378. Public worship and Art, . . . . . . .444
379. Humanistic Education and Holy Scriptures. Cont. from g 284, . 446
380. Philosophy and Theosophy. Mysticism and Practical Christianity, . 447
CHAP. VI.— THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
381. The Popes in the Age of the Reformation, till 1585, .
382. Ignatius de Loyola, 1491-1556, .
383. Development of Jesuitism,
384. The Council of Trent, Dec. 13, 1545-Dec. 14, 1563;
385. Sixtus v., April 27, 1585-Aug. 27, 1590,
386. Popes of the Seventeenth Century,
387. Law and Political Relations, . ' .
388. Great Change in the Character of Catholicism, .
389. Fraternities for Instruction and Charity,
390. The Fine Arts, . . . ' .
391. The Sacred Scriptures. Cont. from §g 286, 886, . • .
392. Laws respecting Doctrines and Internal Theological Controversies
393. Efforts at Reconciliation, and Controversies with the Protestants,
394. The Propaganda, .......
395. The East Indies, ......
450
452
453
454
456
4J6
458
460
462
464
465
466
468
470
470
CONTENTS.
XXXV
396. Japan,
397. China, .
398. West Indies.
Cont. from § 290, .
CHAP. VIL— THE THIRTY YEAES' WAIL
399. Occasions, ....
400. The Bohemian War. Cont. from § 357,
401. The German War,
402. The Peace of Westphalia, .
rAGB
. 472
474
. 475
476
477
478
479
CHAP. VIIL— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
403. Connections with Protestants,
404. The Russian Church,
405. The Abyssiniana and Maronites.
480
48'
482
PERIOD YI.
FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE PRESENT TIME.
406. General View, ........
CHAP. I.— PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL 1750.
407. German Orthodoxy,
408. George Calixtus, 1586-1656,
409. Pietism. Spener, 1685-1705, .
410. Philosophical Influences. Cartesius to Wolf,
411. Peaceable Movements in Theology,
412. Law and Legal Views in the German Church,
413. Legal Relations to the Catholic Church,
414. Attempts at Union,
415. The English Revolutioa Cont. from § 364,
416. Freethinkers or Deists,
417. The Quakers, ....
418. The United Brethren. Zinzendorf, 1700-1760,
1-19. The Methodists. Wesley, 1703-1791. Whitefield, 1714-1770,
420. The Church of the New Jerusalem. Swedenborg, 1688-1772,
421. Minor Fanatical Parties, .....
422 Spread of Christianity, ....
CHAP. II.— ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1750.
423. The Papacy, ........
424. The Galilean Church, ... . .
483
484
486
487
489
490
492
492
495
497
498
502
503
505
506
508
510
511
514
Jansenism.
425. L Port-Royal, ......
426. IL The Constitution Unigenitus, . ■ . .
427. Mysticism, Quietism, and Pious Humor,
428. Newly Established Orders, .....
429. Spread of Christianity. Cont. from § 394s3 , .
CHAP. III.— ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1814.
I. Matteks Prkuminary to toe Revolution.
430. French Philosophy. Cont. from § 416, .
431. Clement XUL (1758-69) and the Jesuits, . . . .
616
618
519
621
521
622
524
XXXVl
CONTENTS.
432. Cl.'rii.'iit XIV. (17C.lt-7J) nn.l the Jf.miits, .
4:;;!. riim VJ. (1771-'.t',)j uiul his Age until 1789,
II. FltKXCIl Kkvoi-utio.v.
4:M. TIic Nalioniil Assonildy (f'onstifuanto), 1780-I7fll,
4:35. TIk' l.fgisliitivo Assembly "'id Niitioiiiil Convention, 1701-1705,
4a«. Tlwo|>liiliintlir<i])isf.s, 17110-1802, ....
437. Tlie lloiiiiin Kei>iil)lie. Cont. from § 433,
III. The Era of Napoleov.
438. Pius VII. and the Rc-establislimcnt of the Gallican Churcli,
439. Dispute between the Emperor and the I'oi)e,
440. Overthrow of the Ecclesiastical German Constitution, .
not
625
526
529
631
532
532
533
534
53G
CHAP. IV.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH TILL 1814.
441. Tiie Atcc of Enlightenment. Cont. from §§ 416, 430,
442. Christian Reaction. Prussian Religious Edict, .
443. Revolution in German Literature, . . . .
444. Reformation of Philosophy in Germany, .
445. Rationalism and Superuaturalism,
446. The Ecclesiastical Party in Germany,
447. Small Fanatical Parties, . . . . •
448. Civil Relations of Protestants under Catholic Goverumeuts.
§413,
Confc. from
537
539
541
543
544
54. =5
546
547
CIIAP. v.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH TILL 1853.
449. Development of Protestantism, ..... 548
450. 'Hie Philosophy of the Absolute, and its Ramifications, . . . 550
451. Orthodo.K Pietism and its I-2xtremes, , . . _ . • 555
452. Undecided Controversies between Old and New Protestantism, . . 500
453. Prussia, the Union and the Agenda till 1840. Cont from g 414, . 566
454. Lutheranism as a Sect under Frederic William HI., . . . 569
455. Legal Views and Legal Relations in German Countries, . . 571
456. The Prussian National Church and its Branches since 1840, . .576
457. Combinations, ........ 5S7
458. The Scriptures. Cont. from §§ 379, 411, . .... 592
459. Calvinism as a Sect, ....... 595
460. Division of the Church in Scotland and in the Pays de Yaud, . . 597
461. The Anglican Church and the Dissenters, .... 598
402. Ecclesiastical Affairs in the North American Republic, . . . 601
403 Legal Condition with respect to Catholic Governments, . . 005
404. Old and New Sects, ....... 610
465. Missionary and Bible Societies, ..... 612
466. Spread of Christianity, ....... 614:
CHAP. YI.— THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH TILT. 1853.
467. Re-establishment of the Roman Hierarchy. Cont. from § 439, . 617
468. The Popes before the Last, . '. . . . .619
469. Pius IX. (June 16, 1846) and Italy, ..... 620
470. The Gallican Church, . '. . . . . .624
471. "^pain. Portugal. South America, ..... 629
472. Belgium and Holland, ....... 683
473. Restoration of the German Church, . . . . • 635
474. The Ecclesiastical Controversy in Prussian Germany, . . • 636
475. The Gorman Church since 1848, .... 640
476. Switz.erland. ......•• 645
477. Ireland and England, .,...• 649
478. Forms of Catholicism. ... . . 662
CONTENTS. XXXVU
8BCr. PAGK
479. German Catholicism, . . . . . . .656
480. MysHcs aud Wouder-Workei-s, . . . . . .661
481. Orders, ........ 662
482. Spread of Christianity. Cont. from §§ 394, 429, . . . .663
CHAP. VII.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
483. Catholic and Protestant Influences, ..... 665
484. Russia. Cont. from § 404, ...... 666
485. Greece and Turkey, . . . . ... . 669
CILVR YIIL— COMMON DETAILS AND I^IUTUAL RELATIONS.
486. Catholicism and Protestantism, . . . .671
487. The Fine Arts. Cont. from §§ 378, 390, . ... 674
488. Emancipation and Conversion of the Jews, .... 675
489. Abolition of Slavery, ....... 677
490. St. Simouism and Socialism, ...... 679
491. The Holy Alliance, ..... 681
Appendix, . • t . . . 883
INTRODUCTION.
C. Sagittarius, Iiitrod. in Hist Ecc. Jen. T. 1. 1CD4. Vol. II. ed. J. A. Schmid, 1719. 4. F.
Walch, Grundsätze d. zur Kllist nüthigen Vorbereitungslebren u. Bücherkenntn. GOtt ed. 2. 1772.
C. W. Flügge, Einl. in d. Studium u. in d. Literatur d. KeL u. KGescli. Giitt. ISOl. (J. G. Doic-
ling, Introd. to tiic Crit. Study of Ecc. Hist. Lend. 183S. S. J. Jortin, Remarks on Ecc. Ilist Lond.
1S46. 2 vols. 8. W. Bates, College Lectt, on Ecc. Uist. Lond. 1845. 8. G. Camphell, Lectt on Ecc.
Uist Lond. 1S34 8.)
CHAP. I.— PLAN".
F. F. Kosegavten, ü. Stud. Plan u. Darst. d. Allg. KGesch. Eeval. 1S24. Ullmann, ü. Stellung
des Kllist. in unsrer Zeit (Stud. u. Krit 1829. p. 667ss.) J. A. IT. Tittmann, ü. Behandl. d.
KGesch, vorz. auf Univ. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1S33. vol. I. st 2 ) Daub, d. Form. d. Dogmen n.
KRist (Zeitschr. £ Spekul. Th. 1836. vol. I. H. 1.) Mäkler, Ein!, in. d. KOosch. (Hist Pol. Bl. t.
d. Kath. DeutichL 1S39. vol. IV. H. 1-a n. Gesamm. Schrr. yoI. II.)
§ 1. The Church and the World.
The Church was originally founded by the Spirit which proceeded from
Jesus, and was intended to embrace in its communion all the religious life
derived from Ilim, or in connection with Ilim. All Churches and Sects com-
prehended in this spiritual community, are only different manifestations of
the same Spirit. The Church stands in contrast with the World., when the
latter is regarded as including all forms of life Avhich are merely natural, and
not of a religious character. Especially does it thus stand contrasted Avith the
State., viewed as the political organization of the people. This contrast, how-
ever, is only in particular relations, since the State is also a divine institution,
and the world was created by God and is intended to bo gradually pervaded
by the Church. Indeed, the Church, in its character of the earthly kingdom
of God, can never bo fully sot forth, except in intimate connection with the
world.
§ 2, Idea of Church Jlistorij.
[P. Schaff. A Vindication of the Idea of Ilist Development, Pliilad. 1S46. 12. See also his Hist
9f Apost Church, New York, 1853.]
The Church is always in a progressive state ; /. e., it is striving to be a per-
petual manifestation of the life of Christ in humanity. In other words, it is
always aiming to exhibit his life more and more perfectly, and on a more ex-
1
2 INTRODUCTION. (IIA I'. I. I'LAN.
tensive scnie, soiintiiiKs in conflict, and sometimes in connection with tlic
world. Chtnr/i /lisfori/ is a representation of the Clinrch in this progressive
state, by an exhibition of the fiicts wliich have occurred in its course. In its
scicntifK^ form, it is tiic conilMiintion of all those individual elements wliich
have had any influence upon its composition, since it is, Ij crlticalhjy an im-
partial, honest, and strict inquiry into facts, and into the extent of the confi-
dence which can bo reposed in their proofs, so that where certainty cannot be
attained, a knowledge of this extent in its different degrees may determine
the scientific character of the narrative ; 2) fjencticalbj, a statement of the
facts in connection witli their causes, taking care, however, that no explana-
tions are given inconsistent with the proper nature of the idea developed in
the events, or with the peculiar cliaracter of the active agents in them ;
3) thwhgk-aUy^ an estimation of tlie facts in their precise relation to the reli-
gious spirit, allowing no preconceived opinions to determine what has actu-
ally occurred but only to assist in understanding them as we find them. The
correct manner of narration, or the hititorical style^ is that which tlje student
naturally adopts when he has acquired a true conception of the events, and
then fully expresses this in living freshness and reality.
§ 3. Proper Province of Church JUstory.
Within the appropriate department of Church History lie all facts which
either proceed directlj* from the common Christian spirit, or indirectly are
dependent upon the opposition or co-operation of the world. Some of these
belong necessarily to the history, and are essential points of dcvelnpraent by
Avhicli the Christian spirit must be represented ; but others are only carefully
selected representatives of the age in which they occur, or peculiar manifes-
tations of the Christian spirit in some important individuals.
§ 4. Relation to the General History of Beligion.
Hist, pöneralo des cöreinonies, mceurs et coutümes rel. de tonsles peuple«, reprösontees par figures
dessinoes de la main de B. Picarcl, avec des explicat. liist. (Amst. 1723s«. 7 rols.) Par. 1741ss.
8 vols. J. Meiners, AUg. Krit Gesell, d. Religionen. Ilann. ISOCs. 2 Tb. E. V. Weiller, Ideen z.
Gesch. d. Entw. d. Kel. Gl. Münch, 1S0S-1S15. 3 Tli. Benj. Constant, de la Religion, considör^e dans
S.1 Source, ses formes et scs diveloppeinens, Par. lS24fS. 2 TIi. Ubers. m. Anm. v. Petri. Brl. lS24s.
2 vols.
The object of a general history of religion, of which Church history is
only a single department, is the development of the religious spirit of man-
kind in all the forms in which it has appeared. But the religious peculiari-
ties of uncvangelized nations are only to be introduced into Church history,
when they are in some way involved in the affairs of Christendom (general-
ly, at first, in conflict Avith it), or when they occasion some new relations in
it. For, as the Law was adapted to lead the Jew and Philosophy the Greek
to Christ, the same result might be produced among other nations by their
confidence in their own gods. Accordingly, as Christianity is a religion for
the whole human race, and is therefore the ultimate point and perfection of
all other religions, Church History should be the central point of all histo-
ries of religion, and should gradually incorporate within itse*.^ their collected
results.
§ 5. MODE. VALUE. SOURCES. 3
§ 5. Mode of Treating Church nistory.
Tho Christian spirit, in tho development of its infinite nature, and while
gradually appropriating all human things to its use, is destined and is com-
petent to be the religious spirit of man. This result, however, will be ac-
complished by means accordant with its own peculiar law. As the organs by
which it operates are necessarily free individuals and nations, free even for
error and sin, the original princiides of the historical movement must neces-
sarily assume an endless diversity of form in the lives of individuals. Hence,
the historical.judgraent, as it is expressed in the representation of the event«,
must seize upon all these as points of development which find their own ar-
rangement, and have each an appropriate influence. It is not, however, in-
dispensable to the impartiality of the historian, that he should appear to love
nothing and to hate nothing. It is only needful, first of all, that he should nev-
er place the actual facts in false positions, on account of either preferences or
aversions, and then, that he should recognize those cx)nditions under which
others have perhaps necessarily formed opinions and sentiments different
from his own. Indeed, a Church History, in which the author exhibited no
distinct ecclesiastical character, and did not imprint this with clearness upon
his work, would be of very little value to the Church.
§ 6. Value of Church History.
Grieshnch, de H. Eccl. Utilitate, Jon. 1776. F. A. Eöthe, v. Einfl. des. Kirchenhist Stud, auf d.
Bildung des Gemfiths u. d. Leben. Lps. ISIO. 4. T. A. ClarUae, Or. de Societatis Chr. Ilist. ad in-
form, sacrorum antistitem accommodate tradenda, Gron. 1824.
The ahsolitte value of Church History springs from the fact, that it is an
expression of the self-consciousness of the Church with respect to its com-
plete development. From this is derived its practical necessity. "Whoever
wishes independently to direct any portion of the Church, must participate
in this self-consciousness, or he will neither understand its present position,
nor be able to foresee and wisely affect its future course. In thie is involved
its utility for controversial and spiritual purposes, or for the assistance of oth-
er sciences. It must, however, be remembered, that when the value and
object of Church history are too exclusively kept in view, its scientific char-
acter is much endangered.
§ 7. Sources.
F. Wal^:h, Kiit. Xaolir. v. d. Quellen d. Kllist. (Lp?;. 1770.) Gütf. 1773.
Our certainty with rogard to facts must depend upon tho sources: 1. Ac-
cording to the degree of their proximity to the particular events mentioned :
a) Original documents and monuments., which prove a fact, inasmuch as they
constitute an element in it. V) Accounts by eye-witnesses or contemporaries,
c) Historical tcriters, who draw directly from sources now lost. The more
I'emote these authorities are from the events narrated, the more is their credi-
bility liable to criticism. 2. According to the form in which they exist: a)
Writinys, public and private, without a uniform preference for the for-
4 INTKODÜCTION. CHAP. I. PLAN.
mer. («) It is often very difliciilt to jirovc tlmt a witnosH was either able or -will-
ing to doclaro the wholo truth, since his ability i» often atfected by his preju-
dices, and liis williugnesa by bis party spirit. I) Monuments, not only works of
art, but living coinnuinilics. c) Tradilion/i, among which legends, being
merely the work of the hierarchy, prove only what were the views of the
ago in which they originated, or were completed ; and popular stories serve
to establish an historical probability in pro[)ortion as they are wide-«pread, and
conformed to circumstances which have been otherwise historically authenti-
cated, (h) A thorough investigation of sources is indispensable only to the
historical writer, (c)
§ 8. Auxiliary Sciences.
The auxiliary sciences usually mentioned, such as Ecclesia^itical Pliilulo-
gy, (ji) Chronology, (ö) Diplomatics, (c) Geography and Statistics, (<T) are espe-
cially necessary only to the ecclesiastical historian. But General History,
a) (a) 8. Conciliorum nova et amplissiina collectio, cur. J. Dom. Mansi, Flor, et Ten. ITWss. 81
vols. M\o. Canoncs App. et Concill. Saec. 4-T. rec. // T. Brum, Bcr. lS39s. 2 Tb. (Bibl. Eccl. P. I.);
[Landon's Manual of Councils comprising the substance of the most remarkable and important ca-
nons, Load. 1S46. 1 vol 12mo.] (ß) BuUarium Roman. Luxemb. 1727. 19 Th. f ; Bullarum ampllss.
ColL op. C. Cocquelines, Eom. 1739ss. 23 vols, f ; Bullarium magnum Eom. (1753-1S30) op. Andr.
Avocati Barharinl, Kom. 1835s8. 8 Th. £ ; Bum. Bullarium, o. Auszüge d. Merkwürdigsten Bullen,
übers, m. Bemerk, v. Eisenaclmiidt, Neust lS31f. 2 vols.; Sammlung aller Concordate, v. E
Munch, Lpz. ISSOt 2 vols. (7) Codex liturgicus Eccl. Universac, ill. J. A. Atsemanu», Rom.
17-19SS. 13 Th. 4 (S) Codes regularum Monast cd. Lucas UuhUnius, Rom. 1661. 8 Th. 4. bus. M
Brockie, Aug. Vind. 1759. 6 Th. t («) Maxima Bibliothcca vett. Patrum, Lngd. 1677ss. 2S Th. t
Bibl. vett, Pfttniin, op. And. Gallandii, Yen. 1765ä8. 14 Tli. f.; comp. Fahricii Bibl. gracca Ilamb.
(1705SS. 14 Th.) cd. Ilarkss, 1790s3. 12 Th. 4; Schoenema7in, Bibl. bist literaria Patrum Lat Lpz.
1792SS. 2 Th. (till 1475): J. O. Walch, Bibl. patristica, Jen. 1770. e<L I>anz, liU; Hostler, Bibl. d
Kirchenväter, Lpz. 1776ss. 10 vols.; Augusti, Chrestomatbia patristica, Lps. I5l2. 2 Th. ; </. G. V.
Engelhardt, Lit. Lcits, z. Tories, ü. d. Patrlstik. Erl. 1S23; J. N. Locherer, Lclirb. d. Patrologic.
Mainz, 1S37 ; J. A. Mühler, Patrol, o. Christ Literargesch. edit by lieWimayr, P.ali^b. 1S40. 1 vol. ;
[Lib. of the Fathers of the IL Cath. Church before the Division, Transl. by Engl. Clergymen, Osf
1S30. 20 vols. S.] ((,') EUies du Pin, Blbliothcque des autcurs ecclesiastiques (Par. 16SÖS3. 47 Th.)
Amst 1690SS. 19 Th. 4. and Bibl. des auteurs si'pares de la communion de rigli>e Rom. Par. 1715s.
3 Th. ; comp. Richard Simon, Critique de la Bibl. de Mr. du Pin, Par. 1730. 4 Tb. ; Care. Scripto-
rum EccL literaria (Lond. 16S9) ed. 3 Oxon. I74t1ss. 2 Th. f ; J. A. Fahricii, Bibl. Eccl. Hamb. 1715.
r. Ejusd. Bibl. Latina mediae ct infimae actatis, llamb. 1734ss. 6 Th. aus Mansi, Palav. 1754. 3 Th.
4; Hist Littcraire de la France, par des relig. Boni'dictins de Ä Maur, Par. 17*3ss. 20 Tb. i; J. S.
Asser7iani, Bibl. oricntalis, Eom. 1719ss. 4 Th. f. Busse, Grundr. d. Chr. Lit (till 15th centX
Münst 1S2S, 2 vols, b) Acta Sanctorum qnotquot toto orbe eohintur, edd. Jo. BoUandus aliiqna
Antv. 1643-1794 63 Th. f. comp. De prosecutione opens Bul/andiaiii, Namur, 13:>5; Bonner Zeit-
schr. {. Phil. u. Kath. Th. IL 17 & 20; Voge!, Oesch. u. Wü^lignng d. Legende (Illgen"s Hist Theol.
Abhh. 1824 vol. IIL p. 140ss.). c) iSchleiermacher, Darstell, des Theol. Studimus, 2 ed. § 190f.
[Brief Outline of the Study of ThcoL &c Translated by Tim. Farrer, with Eeminis. of S. Edinb.
1550. 8. § 184.]
a) J. C. Suiceri, Thesaurus eccl. e patribns graecis, Amst (1652) 1725. 2 vols. f. ; C. du Fresne,
Glossarium mediae et inflmae graecitatis, Lugd. 1C55. 2 vols. f. ; Ejusd. Gloss, mediae et inf latinita-
tls, Par. 1738SS. 6 vols, t and others; {Adelung) Gloss, manu.ile .id Scriptt mediae et inC latinitatis
Ilal. 1772SS, 6 Th. ; Glossaries of the Germanic and Romanic Languages; [G. C. Z<?(rM, Essay on
the Origin and Formation of the Rom. Lang^. Oxford, 1540. 8.] V) Aerae: ab urbe o^pdita, Seleuci-
darum, Uispanica, Diocletiana sive martyrum, Constantinopolitina, indicllonnm, Dionysiana. comp.
L'.\rt de verifier Ics dates les faits historiques, par un reJig. Bonodictin, Par. 175t>. 3 vols. 4. nouv. ed.
par Yitoude S. Alais, Par. ISlSs. 23 Th. ; L. IdeUr. Lebrb. d. Chronol. Brl. 1531; t Brinek-
meier, Prakt Handbuch d. Hist Cbronol. Lpz. 1540; [// Sicolas, The Chron. of Hist 2 ed. Lond.
iS40. 1 vol. 8; J. Ilaydn, Diet of Dates to All Ages and Nations, Lond. 1540; Blairs Chron. and
§ 9. üTvrsioN I^'To pebiods. 5
the history of Jurisprudence, and the history of Philosophy and of Litera-
ture, are all of great importance as preparatory sciences to Church History,
Bince they present, in a complete form, subjects Avhich, on account of tlieir
individual connection with the Church,, are touched upon but slightly in
Church history, and cannot be thoroughly understood except in their com-
plete relations.
§ 9. Division.
As every thing in a progressive state must be regarded in an order of suc-
cession, all history is necessarily arranged according to time. But individual
groups of things, similar in nature, and connected together by causes of a
more definite character than mere temporal contiguity, are often found spring-
ing np in the same periods. Hence, the arrangement according to time, must
be modified by another according to the suhjcct. The division according to
periods aims to assign some definite limits for the scientific view. This math-
ematical division by arbitrary intersections is the more inadmissible, when
the lines which are drawn pass through some event which constitutes an
epoch, and produces a thorough transformation of the Church. The essential
developments of the Christian spirit which have hitherto been made, are
Catholicism and Protestantism ; and the principal organs by which it has
acted, have been the Greco-Koman and the Germanic national spirit. Accord-
ingly, the history of the Church is naturally divided into Three Ages, and each
of these into Two Periods. I. Ancient Church History, until the establishment
of the holy Ptoman empire among the Germanic nations, 800 : Greco-Roman
civilization in the ascendant, but gradually declining, partly on account of its
own weakness, and partly because lost in the German nationality. The First
Period extends to the victory of the Church under Constantine, 312; Estab-
lishment of the Church, and development of Catholicism in the midst of tri-
umphant conflicts and sufl'erings. The Second Period exhibits the Church, on
the one hand, as the established Church of the empire, attending to the com-
pletion and establishment of her faith, and on the other, striving to allay the
storm of national migrations. II. Mediäval Church History, untU the Ee-
formation, 1517 : sway of Romano-Germanic Catholicism. The Third Pe-
riod extends to the time when the papal despotism attains its greatest ascend-
ency, imder Innocent III., 121G: victory of the papacy over all opposition.
The Fourth Period presents us with the gradual decline of Catholicism, and
some tokens of a coming reformation. III. Modern Church History until the
Hist. Tables; new ed. and cont. to the present time, Lond. 1S50. 8; Qj-fonl, Cliron. Tables of An. <&
Mod. Hist, cont, to ISoO. Oxf. 1S.39. f. and Iltdes New An.-dysis uf Cliron. it Geog. new ed cor. and
Imp. L'ind. 1S;30. 4 vols. 8; ITaskelVs Cliron. View. New York. IS+T)] ; F. Piper, KirclieorechnuDj,
Bcrl. 1S41. 4; [Ä F. Jarvi», Cliron. Introd. to Cliurch lli>t New York. 1S50. 8; J. E. RiddU,
Eccles. Chron. Lond. 1840. 8] c) J. MahUion, do re diplomntioa, ed. 2. Par. 1X09. f. ; Schoneinann,
Vollstund. System d. Allf. ftiplomalik. Hamb. 1801. 2 vols. ; [Diplomatics, as the Germans use tlio
word, is the SÄcnco which treats of dijiloman, «. g. Bulls, Briefs, Charters, Patents *c-] tO Caroli
a S. Paulo, Geo^iraphia sacra (Tar. 1C4I. f ) Amst. 1704. f. ; F. Sjiunhemii, Geogr. s;»cra et ecc. (0pp.
Lugd. 1701. 1 Th. f.> ; ,/. K. T. WiHsc/i, llandb. d. Kirclil. Geogr. u. Statist, bis zu anfang d. IG Jahrh.
Brl. 1846. 2 vols. ; A. W. Mi'lhr, Hierographie, Gesch. d. K. in Landcliarten, Elberf. lS22ss. 2 Th. f.;
J. R T. Willsch, Atlas sacer s. occl. Goth. 1S4-1 f.; Sfündliii, KirchL Geogr. u. StaUstik. Tub. 1S04,
2 Th. ; J. Wigyers, Kirchl. Statistik. Hamb. lS42s. 2 vols.
6 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. I. PLAN.
present time: conflict of Protostantisin >vith Catliolicism. The Fifth Period
extends to tho j)caco of Wcsti)lialia, 1018: partial victory of Protestantism,
and tlio now determination of Catholicism. The Sixth Period ßhows us the
conflict between ccclcHinsticnl usages and religious independence. The prin-
cijial articles of tho arrangement according to subjects are: 1) The territo-
rial extension of tho Church ; ('/) 2) The constitution of the Church, and itg
relation to tho State ; (/') 3) The developraeut of the Christian spirit, with
respect to doctrine and science ; ('-) 4) Tho jiopular life of the Church, (iJ)
and tho system of public worship. (<) But this mechanical framework is
formed only very gradually. That relation is always to be made most promi-
nent which is really predominant in each age. Some elements, as, c. rj., the
Papacy (/) and the Monastic Orders, (y) appear as independent grouj« only
in a few periods. After tho Reformation, the separate Churches form essen-
tial distinctions. Every Period, then, must form an arrangement out of its
own materials, under the direction of no other law than that which requires
a vivid picture of each age, derived from all its ecclesiastical relations.
a) J. A. Fabriciu», salutaris lux. ev. toti orbi esoriens, s. notilia propagatorum chr. sacrorum.
Ilatnb. 1731. 4; P. C. Gratianvs, Vrs. e. Gesch. ü. Urspr. n. Fortpflanz, d. C'hiistenth. in Europa,
Tub. 17G6ss. 2 Th. ; W. Broicn, Ilist. of the I'ropag. of Christ, among Heathen since the licfonn.
Lond. 1S14. 2 vols. ; C. G. Mumfiardt, Yr». e. Allg. Missionsgesch. Bas. 1S2S. 8 Th.; J. Wiggern,
Ocsch. d. Evang. Miss. 1S459. 2 vols.; [C T. Blumhardt, Christian Missions, Tract See. Lond. 1S40.
IS; J. 0. Choules, Orig. and Ilist. of Missions, Boston. 1S3S. 2 vols. 4; J/iiie, Hist, of Chr. Missions,
from the Kef to the Present Time. Edinb. 1542. 12] I) Petrus de Marca, Dss. de concordia s.icer-
dotli et imperii s. de. libertatibus Eecl. Gallic. 1. YIII. ed. St. Baluziu», Par. IG&B. t. ; J. U. Boehmer,
Lps. ITOS. f ; G. J. Planck, Gesch. d. Kirchl. Gesellschaftsverfas.'!. Ilann. 1S03sä 5 vols. ; C. liifftt,
Gesch. Darst. d. Verb. zw. K. u. Staat Mainz. 1S36. 1 Th. (till Justinian I.) ; Tliomassini, Tetus ct
nova Eccl. disciplina circa benqficia. Lua 172S. 3 Th. f. ; Picherii, Hist Cone, peneralium. Colon. 16S0.
3Th. 4; F. Ilt/k-Ä, Entw. e. vollst Hist. d. KVers. Lpz. 1759; Staudenmaier, Gesch. d. Bischofj-
wahlen. Tub. 1S30; J. Ant. u. Aug. TTieiner, Die Einführ. d. erzwung. Elielosigk. d. GcLstl. Altcnb.
1S28. (new tit 1S45.) 3 vols, c) C. IK Flügge, Gesch. d. Theol. Wis.-=cnsch. (till tlje P.ef ) Hal. 179Gss.
3 vols.; A'. F. Stäiidlin, Oos-h. d. Theol. Wiss. seit Verbreitung der alten Literatur. Gütt 1?10. f.
2 vols. ; F. M'iMi, Vollst Hist. d. Ketzereien (tili the image controv.) Lpz. 176'2ss, 11 vols. ; I>, Pela-
viun. Opus de theol. dogmatibus (Par. 1644s9. 4 vols, f.) ed. Th. Aletfiinua (Clencus), Antv. (Amst)
1700. 6 Th. C ; //. Klee, Lehrb. d. DGesch. Mainz. lS37ss. 2 vols. ; W. Münscher, Handb. d. DGcsch.
(tili 1G04.) Marb. 1797ss. 4 vols. ed. 3 vols. I.-IIL ISl's. ; Ibid. Lehrb. d. DGesch. (1811-
1819.) m. Belegen u. d. Quellen von D. v. Colin. Cass. lS32ss. 1 & 2 Hülfte, 1 Abth. Fortg. v. j\>i»-
decker, 2 Abth. 1S3S; August!, Lehrb. d. DGesch. Lpz. (1S05. ISU. 1820.) 1S:35; Baumgarten Cm-
tius, Lehrb. d. DGescli. Jen. 1S32 ; 2 Abth. u. Comp. d. DGesch. Lpz. 1S40-46. 2 Th. \ J. G. V.
Fngelliardt, DGesch. Neust 1S.39. 2 vols.; F. K. Jftier, Lehrb. d. DGesch. Giess. ISW; K. P.
Uagenhach, Lehrb. d. DGesch. Lpz. 1S40-41. 3 Th. ; F. C/i. B,inr, Lehrb. d. DGesch. Stnttg.
1347; Th. Kliefoth, Einl. in d. DGesch. Parehim. 1S:59 ; [A Translation of the Doctrinal History of
Muenscher, h.is been published by Dr. Murdoch: New Haven. 1S30. 12; A Translation of /lagen-
bach's Doct. Hist by C. W. Bud; was published In Clarke's Ed. For. Theol. Lib. 1846. 2 vols. 12.]
d) Acta Sanctorum (§ 7 nt b.) Staudlin, Gesch. der Sittenlehre Jesu. Gott 1799. 1S2.3. (till 1299.) 4
vols. u. Ge.sch. d. Chr. Moral s. d. Wicderaufl. d. Wiss. Giitt ISOS; J. G. J/üUer, Eeliqiilen alter
Zeiten. Lpz. ISOoSS. 4 vols. ; Xeander, Denkwürdigkeiten aus der Gesch. des Christenth. und
Christi. Lebens. Brl. (lS23ss.) 1S253. 3 vols, e) E. Marlene, de antiquis Eccl. ritibus, ed. 3. Antv.
1736SS. 4 Th. f ; A. A. Pelliccia, de Chr. Eccl. primao, mediae et noviss. politia, (Neap. 1777. Ven.
1782. 3 Th.) edd. Pitter et Braun. Col. 1829-38. 3 Th. revised by Binierim. Mainz. 1s2.tss. 7 Th.
In 17 vols. ; Locherer, "Lehfb. d. Chr. Archüol. FrankC 1S32 ; J. Bing]tam,Vii^Des s. antiquitates
ecc. ex. Angl. (Antiquities of tho Churcli, [Lond. new ed. 1S4G. 2 vols.] and others.) lat red, Gri-*-
cÄorÜM. Ilal. (1724SS.) 175253. 11 Th. 4; F. IT. Pheinicald, Kirchl. Arch. BrL 18.30; Augiuti,
Handb. d. Chr. Arch. Auszug, a. d. Denkwürdigkk. (1817ss. 12 vols.) Lpz. 18:36«. 8 vols.; C. C. F.
Siegel, llandb. d. Christi. Altherthümer, in Alphab. Ordn. Lpz. ISSGss. 4 vols.; VT. BfViiner, Chr.
Kirchl. Altherthumswiss. Bresl. 1S3C-9. 2 vols. ; [J. F. Kiddle, Man. of Chr. Auth. Lond. 18-34 S; L,
Culeman, Autt of the Chr Church, transl. and comp, from Augusli. And. 1841. 8.]
S 10. FLACIL'S nOTTI^'GER. BAKONIÜ&.
CHAP, ir.— GENERAL LITERATURE.
StdudUn, Gesch. u. Literatur d. KGeseh. edit by Ileinsen. Ilann. 1S27. [£'. 7?. llagenhacJi,
Kiicykl. u. Melliodologie der Theol. Wiss. 3 ed. p. 224. Lpz. 1851. S.] •
§ 10. Polemical Church History.
A general Church History could not he reasonahly expected, until tho
Church was .suthciently extended to einhrace a largo family of nations. It
was not, in fact, written until the Church had hecome divided and the newly
organized party felt the necessity of connecting itself with antiquity, and of dis-
turbing the historical basis of the Catholic Church. Such was the object of
Matthias Flacius Illyricus^ when he edited the Magdeburg Centuries, (a) in
which was enlisted all the Protestant learning of the age. It was distin-
guished for its fomiliarity with original authorities, for its frequent citations,
for a criticism which paid no deference to earlier writers on the same subject,
and for its passionate style of controversy. For more than a century after-
wards, nothing was published but text-books formed from the materials sup-
plied by the Centuries, and written in the same spirit. In the Reformed
Churches, tho elementary studies of literary men were turned principally to
individual portions of the general subject to refute some particular assertions
of the Catholic writers. J. II. Ilottingcr was anxious to compose for his
Church a work {]>) of a partisan character like that of the Centuries, but his
History, except in whatever relates to the Oriental and Helvetic Churches,
indicates a limited knowledge of original authorities, and is mingled with
much irrelevant matter. Sj^anheiiii's Church History (c) presents a very rigid
investigation of historical questions, but it was principally aimed against
Baronius. The Catholic Church soon perceived that very little advantage
was to be gained by merely contending against the Centuries, and that it
must supplant that work by another of a superior character. Intrusted with
such a task, C'cvsnr Baronius wvoiQ his Annals (</), in which were incorporated
vast treasures of original documents, selected with a keen sagacity and zeal
/) E. S. Cyprian, r. Ureprnng u. Wachsthuin d. Papstb. Goth. 1719. and often. Frkf. 1T63; A.
Boicer, Hist of the Popes to 1758. (cont by 8. II. Cox-, 8 vols. Svo. Pliilad. 1840) ; F. Waldi, Eiitw. a
Vollst Hist d. Piipste. Lpz. (1750.) 1758; L. 7. Spitfer, Gescli. d. Papsttli. edit by Ourlltt u. Paulus.
lldlb. 182C; J. A. Llorente, Gesch. d. Papste, n. d. Fr. Lpz. 1823. 2 vols. ; C. J. \\'>:her, Papstth. n.
Piipste. Stutt?. 1S34. 2 Th. [./. lianke. Hist of the Popes, transl. by Mrs. Austin. 3 vols. Svo. Lond.
1840. and by W. K. KMi/. Philad. 1S4S. 8; De Cormenin, Hist of the Popes. Plillad. 1845. 1 vol. 8]
(7) n. Iloxpiniuni de nionachls, I. VL (Tig, 1588. 1008.) Gen. 1099. f. ; A. D. Alteserrae, Asccticon
B. Oripg. rei Monast (Pur. 1074. 4.) rec. GlucK: Hal. 1782 ; // IMijot, Hist dos Ordres Monastiques,
Par. (17148S. 8 Th.) 1820s3. 10 Th. 4; Guinc. 1S40. Th. ; L'bcr. Lpz. 1753ss. 8 Th. revised by
Crome. Pragm. Ge.«ch. d. Mönchsord. Lpz. 1774.ss. 10 vols. ; (C. J. Weber) Die Miincherei. Stiittg.
1819s. 3 vols. ; /;. Mihicli, Geseh. d. MOncIith. (a collection of materials) Stuttg. 1828. 2 vols. ; [S. P.
Day, Monastic Institutions, Uitir Orlg. Prog. Nat and Tendency. Lond. 2 ed. 12ino. 1840; G. Kinil-
lianixe. Hist of Monast. Orders. Lond. 1093. 8.]
a) Ecclesiasllca llistoria, integrain Ecclcsiao Ch. ideam coniplectons, congesta per aliquot studio-
SOS et pio8 vlros in urbe >[agdebargica. 15ivs. 1.^59-74. 13 centuries t ; New ed. by Baumgarten, and
Semler NOrnb. 1757-0.'>. broken oil' witli the Gth vol. I) Historia Eccl. N. T. Tig. 1C51-C7. 9 vols,
till end of 10th cent tho 9lh vol. hy J. J. Ilottiiiger, the son. c) Summa Historl.io occl. (LugiL
1089-94.) Lpz. 1698. 4. [His work is abridged and transl. with additions by G. Wright. Lond. Svo
1829.] (1) Annalcb cccleslflslici a C. u. ad a. 1193. Pom, 158S-10O7. 12 Th. f. and ofteo.
8 INTRODUCTIO.V. CUAV. 11. LITERATURE.
in behalf of tlio Roman supremacy, from tlio arcliivcs of tlic Vatican. Tlia
errors and partialities of tlio Cardinal were encountered by the critical labors
of the Franciscan Pagi, in Avliich were exhibited a learned love of truth and
a Gallican attachment to liberty, (r) In /^a/y numerous continuations and
nbridf^inents of the Annals were fn-oduced, in the same spirit -vvbicli the orig-
inal author had disjjlayed, but not •with equal talent. The continuation by
lunjnnUlus [till 15G5] is the only work, which, in its abundance of materials,
can be ref,'ardod as nearly a rival of that which precedes it.(y') A similar lion-
or was sought by SacharelU^ ((/) in oppo.sition to the later historians of the
Protestant Church, and in the composition of his work he possessed similar
external advantages, but he displays hardly equal diligence in the usfi of them
except in his earliest volumes.
§ 11. French Ecclesiastical Historians.
Catholic writers of history are always restrained by a certain prescribed mode
of treating their subject, but, Avithin the limits required by this, those who be-
longed to the French school attained a scientific character. The peculiar quali-
ties exhibited by them were the result not merely of the independent spirit and
position of the Gallican Church, but of the intiuence of an age in which the
learned classes redeemed from obscurity immense collections of materials. Such
was the spirit in which wrote the Dominican Katalis Alexander [Xocl], always
learned, dry, and scholastic ; (a) Fleury, the hermit in the midst of a court,
devotional, gentle, versatile and copious. Qi) Bosstiet, whose History of the
"World is written in an ecclesiastical spirit, with logical eloquence, and an ap-
parent insight into the ways of Providence, which implies that the clever
Bishop of Meaux must have been as familiar with the court of the Most Iligh,
as he was with that of his sovereign ; (c) and finally the Jansenist (Sebastian
le Nain de) I'lllemont, whose Memoirs are a conscientious and ample collec-
tion of the more ancient original authorities, ('i)
§ 12. Protestant Scientific Church Ilistory.
Instead of regarding history as a mere instrument in the hands of eccle-
siastical disputants, Calixtns, in a series of monographs, pointed out the sci-
entific advantages of an unbiassed investigation of facts ; and Arnold was en-
e) Critlca historico-chronologica in Annales Baronil. Antv. (Genev.) 1705. 1727. 4 Th. f. /) An-
nalos eccl. 13-21 Th. Rom. 164()-77. Colon. 1603m. ; tlie whole collection by Baronius, Pagl, Ray-
naldns, etc. cur. MiUisi. Lnc. 173S-51). 3S Th. f. [The Annales Eccl. are to be continued \>j Aug.
Theiner, from 1572 till now; 8 vols, have appeared in 1853. Rome. 1S53. £] g) Ilistoria cccL Rom
1771-9G. 25 Th. 4. (till 11S5.)
a) Select» Historiae eccl. capita et in loca cjnsdein insignia diss, historicac. chron. et dogm. Par.
1676-SG. 24 Th. (IC centuries). Later editions : Hist. eccl. Vet et N. T. ed. ilami. Luc. 173S. 9 Th.
f. ; Bassano. 177S. 9 Th. t I) Hist ecclesiastique. Par. 1991-1720. 20 Th. 4. and often (Ü1I 1414.)
tr.insl. into the Lat Ital. and Germ, continued, without suitable qtialiflcations for the work, by
Jea7i Claud Fahre. Par. 1726-40. 20 Th. 4. and by Alex. La Croije. Par. 177C-7S. 6 Th. [The work
of Fleury is in p.irt transl. into Eng. in 5 vols. 4. and Is in course of publ. by J. If. Xeteman. O.von.
1S42.] f) Discours sur rillstoire universelle depuis le comniencemont du nionde jusquVi I'empire de
Charles Magne ; [Par. 1S46. ISmo. and in 2 mag. vols. S. transl. by Hich. Spencer. Lond. 1730. S.]
d) Memoires pour servir ik I'llist ecol. des sis premiers slccles, justifies par les citations des antenr»
crlginanx. Par. 1693ss. 16 Th. 4. and often.
§ 12. SEMLER. SCnKOECKir. HENKE. 9
couraged by his Pietism, and a strong predilection for such studies, to search
eagerly for traces of the Christian lifo in those persons who had in each cen-
tury been rejected by the Church, (a) The liberal tendency of the former, and
the pious spirit of the latter writer, were equally opposed to the established
Church of their day. Weismanns gentle love of truth, made him strive to re-
concile both these tendencies in his selection of important events, (i) Mo-
slieim, conscious of historical talents, with a power of combination always
bold, and sometimes extravagant, and an acquaintance with men in various
and friendly relations, is universally acknowledged to have been a master of
ecclesiastical historical writing, (r) Next to him, Cramer was distinguished for
his accurate delineation and careful investigation of the dogmatic history of
the middle ages, (^T) while Semler^ with no attractions of style, and no per-
ception of the peculiar condition of earlier times, but with a lofty indepen-
dence, was always plunging anew into the trackless abyss of ancient sources. (<)
In the position thus acquired, but with a more believing spirit, Sehrüelh has
written a Church History, which, after it ceased to be a tedious Reader, as it
seemed to be in the earlier volumes, and rose to the dignity of a scientific
work, is equally trustworthy witli respect to its materials, and ample in its
details. The last volumes were added by TzscJiirner, with a fresher energy,
and more decided sentiments. (/) "Writers of a liberal tendency followed the
path marked out by Semler. Sjnttler gave to Church History a more anima-
ted and secular aspect, and at the same time traced more perfectly its con-
nections with General History. ({/) Ilenle treated it rather as if it Avere a
history of religious errors, and a court before which was to be arraigned all
kinds of spiritual despotism. "When writing of events subsequent to the Re-
formation, his work is especially valuable for its accurate regard for even un-
important matters ; but it is often lifeless, and tinged Avith the strongest pre-
judices of his age. (/;) As soon as the opposition to the ecclesiastical spirit
of earlier times had become developed into a well-defined subjectivity, a
higher scientific- character was supposed to bo attained by the atiectation of
extreme indifference. Schmidt collected materials exclusively from the
sources. (/) Engclhardt gives us a clear, calm, and frigid account of the na-
a) Unpartheyistho Kirelicn- «. Ketzer-IIist (Frkf. lC90s. f. 1720. 4 Th. 4.) Schaffh. lT40s?. 3
Th. f. h) Introductioin memorabilia eccl. maximeSaeculorum primorumetnovissiinonim (Tub. 171 S.
2 vols.) Hal. 174.5. 2 vols. 4. c) His principal complete work is, Institutionum Hist. cccl. antiqnac
et receiitioris 1. IV. Hchnst. (17.W. 4.) 1764. 4; Ubers. u. verm. v. J. v. Einem. Lpz. 1769-7S. 9 vols,
and by J. R. SchlegeJ, Ileilbr. (1 »t 2 vols. 1770s.) 175Gss. T vols.; comp. Lücke, Narratio do J. L.
Moshcmio. Oiitt 1S.37. 4; [Transl. into Engr. with notes, by ^. J/wrrfocX-. New York. 3 vols. Svo. 8
«1. 1S41. nmWiy A. ^^^: Lai ne,y{\\\\ notes, and often reprinted; bis Comniontarii do reb. Chr. ante
Const has been recently transl. into Engl, by Dr. Murdock.'] <1) Jlonsuet's Einl. in d. Gesch. d
Welt u. Kel. übers, mit Abhandl. verm. u. fortsres. v. Cramer. Lpz. (174Sss.) 1757ss. S vols
e) Historiae eccl. select« capita. Hal. 1767ss. 8 Th. ; Versuche e. friichtb. Ansz. d. KGesch. Hal
1773SS. 8 Th. ; Vers. Christi. Jahrb. Hal. 17S4. 2 vols. /) Christi. KGesch. (till the llcform.) Lpz.
17ÖS-1S03. 85 Th. 2 ed. 1-13 vols. 1772-1S02 ; KGesch. since the Kef. Lpz. lSft4-10. 10 Th. (7) Grund-
'iss der Gesch. d. Christi. Kirche. Giilt 17S2. r> e<L cont till the present tiinc by G. J. Plancl;
Glitt 1S12; in Spittlers works. Stiittjr. 1S27. vol. II. h) All^. Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche nach d. Zeit-
folge. Braunscliw. 17SS-1S1S. 8 Vols. 5 ed. of 1st it 2d vols. 4 od. of .3d & 4th vols, and 2 ed. of Cth
& 6th vols. ; the last ed. of vols. Is. 5s. after a careful revision (so as even to lose many of its ori:;i-
nal peculiarities), edited and cont (7tli it Stli vols.) by^. S. Vater. The Hist since the Reform, vols.
»-8. I'ater has also comprised in 1 Th. (1S2.3.) and published as Th. 9. 1) llandb. d. Chr. KOescli
10 iNTnontrcTiON'. cirAr. ii. i.iTKKATf:i:E.
ked facts, nntl lio dt'ton (Icscends to tlie niiniitest particulars. (/) The piiL]!«
cation of the ori<;inal autlioritioH, wliicli hail been cautiously commenced with
a profusion of literary treasures by Dam^ (l) was continued by Gicselcr^ -with
much judi^incnt in his selections and in his criticfil remarks, and a running
coumieiitary upon his citations, {in) Sometimes Tables, and well dif,'e.sted ex-
tracts, are useful in giving a general view of the whole tleld. (/;) Siäudlhi's
Text-lJook is a convenient collection of general facts, with a few traces ol
the Kantian philosoi)hy. Xarhe'svfm conijiilcd with diligence, and not with-
out elegance, but it is without accuracy or character. Augusti's is a rapid
and convenient survey of the whole subject, especially of that part which
relates to the Keformation. lieJini's is an extended table of contents, espe-
cially with respect to the secular department of ecclesiastical history.
Lniiijes is a return to the Protestant controversial style of writing, but with
a laxer faith in the authority of the Bible and of human reason itself, {o)
The attempt which Marhcinccl-c made to construct a philosophical system of
Church History was abandoned at an early stage of the work, but it was full
of promise, (p) The decidedly ^/e^w^/c tendency Avas for a long time repre-
sented only by Milner, whose object was entirely practical and devotional
and did not lead him to study the sources, (y) until Kcander gave it a scien-
tific character, by referring to the original authorities, develojjing its doc-
trines in an intelligent manner, and giving prominence to the long-neglected
representations of the Christian life. Though aöectionately attached to the
Church, he was tolerant toward all who opposed it on merely doctrinal
grounds, and clothed all his descriptions with an ample devotional drapery.(/)
In these respects, as well as in others, the Church History of Gucricle is only
a dependent abstract of his work, characterized by the same Christian sin-
cerity, but with a zeal so ardent for strict Lutheranism, that it finally became
little more than a severe lecture upon the apostasies of more recent times. (.«)
In the Keformed Church, Jacob Basnage still pursued the plan of repelling Bos-
suet's reproaches, b}- fastening them upon his opponent's own Church ; but
he has imitated too closely the models which he had chosen from the French
Gless. lSOl-50. G Tli. 2 cd. 1-4 Th. 1S2.5-27. (till Innocor^.t III.) cont. by F. W. ReUherg, 7 Th. Giess.
lS:i4. k) llandb. d. KGescb. Erl. lS33s. 4 vols. I) Lclirb. d. KGescb. Jfn.i, 1S15-26. 2 vols.;
Kurzgef. Zus.iniDienst. d. KGescb. Jena. 1S24. m) Lebrb. d. KGesch. Bonn. 1S24— 10. 2 vols, and
3 vols. ; 1 Abth. (till 164S.) 4 cd. of 1st vol. ; 1 & 2 Abth. 1S446. 3 ed. of 2d vol. ; 1 & 2 Abth.
1S31S.; [transl. in 3 vols, by Ä Dinidson. Edinb. 1S4C-53.] n) Vater, Syncbron. Tabellen d
KGescb. Hal. (1S03.) cont. by J. C. Thilo, 6 ed. Hal. 1S33. f ; Tetens Uald^ Hist eccl. VI. priorum
Saec. synopticc enarrata. Ilavn. 1S30; Medii aevi (CiU-S5S.) P. I. 1S32. i\ J. T. L. Dam, Kirchen-
hist Tab. Jena. 1S38. f ; C. Wahl, KGescb. in IMIdcrn, für Studlrende u. Can.lidaton. Meisen.
1S40. f.; (Amusements) L. Lange, T.ib. d. K-. ii. DGescb. Jena. 1S41. 4; J. J/. ScAroecih, IlisL re-
ligionls et occl. Christ Ber. 1777. ed. 7. cur. Marheinecke. 1S2S ; J. G. C. Scfimiilt, Lebrb. d. KGescb
Gless. (ISOO. 1S08.) 1S26. o) Stäudlin, rnivorsalgescb. der Chr. Kirche. Han. 1S07. 5. verb. u. fortges.
A. v. F. A. IfoUhamen. 1S33; F. A. Naehe, Comp. Hist Eccl. ac s.icroruin cbrist Lpz. 1S32; ^u-
gmti. Hist ecc. Epitome. Lpz. 1S34; F. Itehm, Gruiidr. d. Gesch. d. Kirche, mit bes. Kücks. auf. d.
Verfass. dcrs. Marb. 1S35; Loheg. Lange, Lehrb. d. Chr. KGescb. zur Ycrtheid. Befest u. Fort-
bild, d. Prot Kirche. Lpz. 1S40. p) Univcrsal-Kircbenbls-t d. Christenth. Erlang. l>Ofl. 1 Tli.
q) [Ulst of the Church of Cbrist Lond. 5 vols. Svo. 1S24. 4 vols. 8. 1S34. with a continuation by J.
&o??. Lond. 1S2C. 4 vols. 12; Philad. 2 vols. 12. 1S4.5.] r) AUg. Gescb. d. Chr. Kel. u. K. bis auf
Bonifaz VIII. 10 vols. Ilamb. 1S4Ö; [Gen. Hist of the Ohr. Eel. and Church, trnnsl. by J. Torrey,
4 voU. Svo. Boston. 1S47-B1.] ») Handb. d. KGesch. Hal. (1SS3-46. 3 vols.) 3 vols.; Abrias d.
§ 12. VEXEMA. SCIILEIERMACnER. § 13. STOLBEKG. 1 1
literature of his time. (0 Ve>icma''8 Churcli History is simply an excellent
collection of ori<:?inal authorities, (ii) A few coinpendiums contain all the re-
sults of tlie studies in ecclesiastical history, so far as these had been attained
when they were respectively written. That of lioyaard especially was writ-
ten with remarkable accuracy and care, (i') Schleiermachcr, in his oral com-
munications, endeavored to effect a union of the liberal and pietistic tenden-
cies, and has executed in a rather fragmentary manner, a plan, in which, the
ordinary materials being presupposed, is represented the intensive and exten-
sive develoi>ment of the new principle of divine life which emanated from
Christ, ijr) N'udner has contributed, in addition to this, a work which i3
something between a text-book and a manual, presenting not merely a dry col-
lection of thoughts, but an abundance of elementary views of individual
subjects, (.r) Among the histories adapted to popular use, (y) may be men-
tioned the work of Gfrurer^ which was at first designed to be a history for
the German people ; but it finally became an ample representation of the
subject, and generally depended for its materials ui)on the best authorities.
The strongly marked peculiarity of this work, sometimes in a paradoxical
manner, but frequently with much good sense, breaks through the devotional
phrases even of his authorities, (j)
§ 13. Writers of the German Catholic Church.
It was not until Joseph II. attempted to draw away the German Church
from its connection with Rome, that an independent and liberal, but rather
rash and contracted interest in the ecclesiastical affairs of previous times,
began to be cultivated in Germany. In the commencement of this movement,
Eoyko, in his rough style, neglected nothing which could injure the hier-
archy, (rt) Dannenmayr^ with more caution, and more general views, pre-
pared a text-book for the Austrian schools, Qi) and II. Trö//" sent forth what de-
eervca to be called a satire rather than a history, (c) A movement of a higher
order received its original impulse from the Protestant Church. Stolberg,
with the zeal, the unction, and the unconditional faith of a proselyte, but
with a benevolent and glowing spirit, has presented the more benign aspect
of Catholicism, while writing and singing the Uistory of the Jewish people,
KGesch. Ilal. 1842. Q Ilist.jiro de l'ögUse dcpuis Jösus Chr. Eotterd. 1699 ; [Par. 1725. 2 vols. 4.]
lO Institutiones Hist eccl. V. et N. LngcL 1777ss. 7 Tli. 4. till ICOD. «) J. A. Titrretini, Hist Eccl.
comp, nsqiie ml. a. 1700. Con. 17.34. cd. et continuavit t/l Simonis. Hal. 1750; Uebers. u. fortges. v.
Tölhier. K-inigsb. 1759; /'. E. Jahlonxki, Instltt Hist clirist Frcf. ad V. 1753ss. 2 Tli. ed. 3.
cniorid. E. A. Schulse. 17S3s. Th. IIL; Historiam Sacc. IS. add Stosch. 1707; emend. Schickedans,
17SG; ir J/(iH«c/itfr, Lehrb. d. KGesch. Marb. 1S04; 2d ed. by n'icfUer,iS\5; 3d cd. by AvWaw^
152C; P. JIofHiede de Groot, Inslitt Hist ccc. Gronov. 1^35; // J. lioyaards, Coin\>. Hist ecc.
clir Traj. ad. I'.h. 1S40-5. 2 Filsc. w) Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche, edit by Bonnell. Brl. 1S40; (Works,
Abth. I. vol. II.) sr) Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche, Lehrbuch. Li)Z. 1S40. y) Especially: C. Jtidä, Gesch.
U. Chr. Kirche. 15rl. 1S.38; IT. Thiele, Kurze Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche. Zur. 1S40; Alb.Baur,i\. KGesch.
in gedriingter Übersicht Wcim. 1S40 ; Heribert Hau, Allg. Go.sch. d. Chr. Kirche (deulsohkath.).
Für das deutsehe Volk. Frkf. 1S46. s) Allg. KGcsch. Stuttg. 1S41-44. 3 vols. (Uli the coniinencc-
nient of the llth cent)
a) Synopsis Hist Rel. et Eecl. Chr. methodo systematica adumbrata. Prag. 17S5. Einl. in d. Chr.
liCl. u. KGesch. Prag. 17SSfs. 2d (modified) cd. 1790. Chr. liel. u. KGesch. (but one Per.) Pr.
17<9-9.\4 vols, l) Institt Hist Eccl. Vien. (17S^.) UOG. 2 Th. Thread of the narrntivo after D.-.n-
n*nm. (Collegienhcft) 2 cd. Uottwell. 1326-S. 4 Th. c) Gesch. d. Christi. P.eL u. Kirche. Zur. 1792.
12 INTRODUCTION. CIIAI'. II. I.ITEUATUEE.
and of the ancient Chiircli. A continiiiition of h'm history by another liaiid
was merely a labored effort to attain tlie same style. ('/) With the same (,'t'U-
eral views, but with more accuracy and science, KaUrkamp wrote a history,
in which he has exhibited a more profound acquaintance with the original au-
thorities in his representations of tlio particular characters and circumstances
of the Church, {c) The liberal scliool, which now sought to accommodate
matters as much as possible with the hierarchj", was represented by Hitter^ (f)
and in the extensive and popular work of Locherer, {g) in many respects like
that of Schroeckh. The narrative of liuttenstoch is carefully limited to a
mere statement of facts, {h) In other places the various i)artics were in di-
rect hostility to each other. The liierarchical metliod of writing history was
defended with keen Avit by Ilortig, the continuation of whose work by L-tU
linger, is written in a less animated, but in a more serious strain. In his re-
vised edition the latter has promised a great work, in which those fables of
the hierarchy which are altogether untenable, are to be given up as indiffer-
ent, but every position capable of any defence is to be maintained with all
the weapons which a learned ingenuity can sujtply. His text-book contains
merely the external facts of history. (/) On the other hand Ecichlin-JdeUhgg
has composed a prolix, declamatory, and flippant libel upon ecclesiastical an-
tiquity, and of course fell out with his own Church. {Jc) Ahog again pre-
sents a specimen of a rather clumsy but spirited attempt to transfer a Protes-
tant form to a Catholic position, (J) and Annegarn has compiled just such an
artless, rude, and tiresome History of the Church, as was common in Ger-
many before the time of Joseph II., and as may even now be seen in many
an obscure seminary, {m)
i Th. d) F. L. V. Stolherg, Gesch. d. Eel. J. C. namb. 1S0G-1S18. 15 Tli. (till 1430.) 2 e<1. of 1. 2 Th.
ISIO. Index by Moritz, Vien. u. Ilamb. 1S25. 2 Th. cont. by F. R. t. Ken. Mentz. 1S25-1S46. 10-42
Th. Indc.v by Saussen. Mentz. 1S.34 e) KGesch. Münster. 1S19-30. 4 Th. (till 1073.) /) Ilandb. d.
KGcsch. Elberg. Bonn. 1S26-35. 3 vols. 1S36. 2 ed. of 1 & 2 vols, g) Gcsch. d. Chr. EcL u. Kirche.
E.ivensb. 1S24 83. 8 Th. (till 1073.) h) Institt Ilistoriae EccL N. T. Vien. 1S32-34. 3 Th. (till 1517.)
i) Ilandb. d. Chr. KGesch. v. Ilortig, beend. v. DulUnger. Landsh. 1S2C. 2 Tli. Newly revised by
Dölünger (Gesch. d. Clir. K.) Landsh. lS:3:3s. 1 vol. 1. 2 Abth. (in part till ICS'l.) By the same,
Lchrb. d. KGcsch. Eogensb. lS3Gss. 2 vols. [■/. J. Ig. Dölünger, Hist of the Church. Trans, by
EJ. Cox. Lond. 4 vols. Svo.] k) Gesch. des Christenth. Freib. ISSOs. 1 Th. in 2 Abth. (till 1324.)
I) Univcrsal-gesch. d. Chr. Kirche. Mainz. (1S41. 1S48.) 1S44. wi) Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche. Münst. 18»2i
3 vols. Comp. Jon. L. Z. 1S44. N. 144ss. [Eng. Gen. Eccl. IlistL arc IF»». Palmer, Comiiend. Eccl.
Hist 5 ed. Oxford. 1S44. G. Waddington, II. of the Church to the Eef. Lond. ls.33. 2 vols. & cent,
throngh the Eef. Lond. 1S3S. 2 vols. 8. J. Priestley, Gen. IT. of the Chr. Church, Lond. ISO::!. 6 vols.
6. Jonen- H. of the Chr. Church to the 17th century. Lond. lS:3ö. 2 vols. 8. H. Putter, II. of the Chr
Cluirch. Now York. S. C. A. Goodrich, Church IlisL Burlington. 1S80. S. TT. Stelling, II. of the CUr,
Church (a Cont. of Milner), 3 vols. i^nd. 1842.]
ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOPtY.
FIRST PERIOD.
FROM CIIUIST TO CONSTANTINE.
§ 14. General View and Original Authorities.
L 1) All ecclesiastical writers of this time. Fragments of those works which have been lost in :
Grabe, Spicilegium Patrum et Haercticorum Sacc. I. II. et III. Oxon. (1C9S.) 1700. 1714. 3 vols. JiouOi,
Reliquiae sacrae, s. auctorum fere deperditorum I. et II. Saec. Fragment». [Edit, altera. Oxon. 1S47.
4 vols.] 2) Fragments of Jlegesippi inro^i'r)iJ.aTa twv iKK\r}(Tia(TTiKwi' trpä^euv in liouth, vol.
I. p. IS'ss. Eusehii iKK\-f\<lia<TTiK^ icrropia. Ed. Talenius. Par. 1659. f. E. Zimmermann, Frcf.
1S22. 2. P. 4. Heinichen. Lpz. lS27s. 3 Th. 4. Burton, Oxon. 1S33. 3 vols. [A new transl. with Life
of Eus. Lond. 1S42. 8.] 3) Ruinart, Acta prlmorum martyrum, ed. 2. Amst 1713. f rep. Galura,
Aug. V. 1S02. 3 vols. 4) Passages from writers not Christian : Josephus, Suetonius, Tacitus, Plinius,
Dio Cassius, Scriptorcs Hist. Angustae, etc. explained in A'i/iA. Lardner ; Collection of tne Jewish
and Heathen testimonies of the Christian religion. Lond. 17C4s3. 4 vols. 4. II. TiUemont (§ 11. nt d.)
Clerici Hist ecc. duorum priorum Saec. Amst 1716. 4. Monfiemiido rebus Christianorum ante Const
Commentarii. Helmst. 175:3. 4. [transl. by Vidal, 2 vols. 8. Lond. 1S13.] Semleri Obss. quibus Hist
Christian, illustratur usque ad Const Hal. 1784. //. W. Jfillman, Hist of Christianity from tlio ISirth
of Christ to the extinction of Paganism in the Roman Empire. Lond. 1840. 3 vols, [with notes by
Jfurdock. 8vo. New York. Kti)/e, Eccles. Hist of 2 and 3 Centt. 8vo. 1826. 2 vols. Ä I/lt»1«, Hist
of the Rise and early Prog, of Christianity. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. W. B. Taylor, The Hist of Chrlstian-
ty, from its Promulg. to its legal estab. in the Rom. Empire. 12mo. Lond. 1*44. E. Ilavtvn, Lectures
apon the Hist of the Chr. Church t:om the Ascen. of .T. Christ to the conversion of Const 4 ed. 12mo.
Lond. 1340. liohert MUlar, Hist of the Propag. of Christ Lond. 2 vols. Svo. 1731. 3 ed. Wm. Cave,
Lives of Fathers of the first four ages of the Church. Lond. 2 vols. fol. 16S;3-S7. new etl. by H. Cary,
1S40. 3 vols. 8. ir. Cave, Prim. Chr. or Rol. of the Anc. Christians, ed. by Cary. Oxf 1S40. 8. P/iilip
S<:haff. H. of the Apostolic Church, transl. by E. J). Yeomans. Now York. 1S53. 8. vol. I. Samuel
Elliot, Hist, of the Eariy Chrlstian.s. Lond. 1858. J. C. lioberlson. Hist of the Christian Church to the
Pontif of Greg, the Great Lond. 1853. 8.]
In tlie history of tlio world, Classic Heathenism appears as a single forra
of human life, on the development of -which, its time was fulfilled ; and Ju-
daism appears as a great prophetic system accomplished by Christianity. The
Jewish veil, under which the latter made its appearance, was removed by
Paul, and when the Gospel had been proclaimed in all parts of the Koman
14 ANCIENT CHURCH IIISTOnT. PEll. L
oinpire, tlio forms of drock and Romnri civilization Lcf-anie incorporate«! in
the Church. But in tlio mean time a prodigious struggle was coiiiincnced by
the general 8|)irit of antiquity. The Church, not bo much by intellectaal
wcai)ons, as by its hibors and sacrifice!!, was so completely victorious, that nt
the end of tliis period tlie Koinan einiäro was under the necessity of either
becoming Cliristian, or of being utterly subverted. During thi.s struggle, with
no aid from the State, and with no external interference, the Ciiurch devel-
oped its appropriate Constitution. With the exception of individual in-
stances of extravagance or timidity, its morals and its discipline were of the
strictest kind, and the private life of its members was serious and heavenly.
The religious feelings of the people, excited by Grecian philosophy, and strug-
gling with subtle foreign elements, now sought to attain detinite and fixed
forms of thought. The Period may be naturally divided into two sections,
the first containing the historical conditions under which Christianity was
introduced, and the history of the Apostolic Church, until the death of the
last of the Apostles, near the close of the first century, and the other embra-
cing the formation of the Catholic Church. The Acts of the Apostles, by
Lul-e^ are the commencement of a Church History, limited by the personal
knowledge, position, and object of the writer. It presents us with the actual
establishment of the Church in its two principal departments — among the
Jews by Peter, and among the Greeks by Paul, (a) The authentic epistles of
these apostles are the most trustworthy monuments of the Apostolic Church.
Hegcsippus^ about the middle of the second century, committed to writing
every thing he thought worthy of preservation in the Apostolic traditions, (b)
The first proper history of the Church (till 324) was written by Emehius of
Cacmrea^ under the impression which the great revolutions of his age pro-
duced upon his mind. Though he was atiected by the prejudices, he possessed
also the advantages of his position, and while he probably omitted some things,
we have no evidence that he has stated what is untrue, (c)
a) Schneckenherger ü. d. Zweck d. App. Gesch. Bern. 1S41. I) Euseb. 11. ecc II. 2-3. I IL 16. 19.
IV. 7s. 11. 22. Comp. Ilieron. catal. c. 22. Schultheis, Ilcges. prtnceps auctor reram Chr. Tur. 1?32.
c) With regard to his authorities and credibility: Moeller, Hafn. 1S13. (Archiv, f. KGesch. vul. III.
ft. 1.) Dam, Jen. 1S15. P. I. Kestner Goett. 1S17. 4. lieuUrda/il, Lond. Goth. 1526. liienstra, Tr^
ad. lih. 1S:33. Jnchmann, in Ulgens Zcitsclir. 1S.39. IL 2. F. C. Baur, comparator Eiia. HlstorUe eee.
parens cum parente Ilistoriarmn Uerodoto, Tuhk 1334. 4.
CHAP. I. HEATHENISM. § 15. GREEK LIFK 15
DIVISION I. ESTABLISnMEXT OF THE CHURCH.
CHAP. I. INTRODUCTORY HISTORY.
I. Classic Heathexism.
Creuzer, Symbolik u. Mythologie d. alten Vrilker, bes. d. Griechen, Lps. u. Darnist. (1 SlOss.) 1519ss
Til.; Baur, Symb. u. Myth. o. dio Naturrcl. d. Alterth. Stuttj:. IS'25; Loheck; Aglaophamns s. d«
Theol. niypticae Graecoruin cansis. Eegioin. lS-29. 2 Th. ; O. Müller, Prolegomena zu e. wiss. Mythol
Gütt. 1S25. [lutrod. to a Scientific Syst of Myth, transl. by J. Leitch. Lond. 1S44. 8]; P. Tan Lim-
lurg Brounei; Hist, dc la civilisation morale et rel. des Grccs. Green. 18*3-43. S Th. ; Hegel, Phil,
d. Eel. Brl. 1833. vol. 2. p. 14Sss. Phil. d. Gesch. Brl. 1837. p. 232ss. ; P. F. Sluhr, die Eel. Systeme
d. Hellenen in ihrer gesoh. Entw. Brl. 1838; J/! W. I/i'ßter,(l. Eel. d. Griechen u. Römer, Brandeiib.
1845. [IK&HJ«, Diet of Gr. &Eom. Myth. Lond. 1844-49. 3 vols. S. T. nwigM,GT.Si.llom. Myth.
New York. 1849. 12] •,—Benj. Constant, du Polytlicisme romnin. Par. 1533. 2 Th. ; Härtung, d. Rel. d.
EOmer. Erl. 1830. 2 vols. ; Clu Wak, de rel. Eoin. antiquiss. Tub. 1845. 4. P. l.— Tholuck, ii. d. Wesen
u. sittl. Einfl. d. Heidenth. (Ncandor's Denkwiirdigk, vol. I. modified ir. tlio 2d ed.) [A. Tlwluck.
Nature & Moral Inti. of Heathenism, transl. by R. Emerson, in Biblical Eep. f.ir 1832. and in Clarke's
Bibl. Cab. vol. 28. Ediiib. 1841] ; Im. 37t.ScÄ, Q. d. Rcli;.,'ionsbegr. d. Alton. (StuiL u. Krit 1823.
vol. I. H. Zi.)\—F. Jacobs, ü, d. Erziehung d. Hellenen z. Sittliclik. (Venn. Schrr. Lpz. 1829. P. III.)
HeideMth. n. Christenth. (Lpz. 1837. Th. VI.) ; K. GruneUeii, ü. d. Sittliche d. bild. Kunst b. d
Griech. Lpz. lS;>i. (Illg. Zeitschr. vol. IIL st 2.) [J. St Juh7i, Manners, Custt Arts, &c. of Anc. 6r.
Lond. 1842. 3 vols. 8; // I/ase, Publ. & Priv. Life of the An. Greeks, transl. from Germ. Lond. 1836.
8 ; W. A. Becker, Gallus, or Rom. Scenes of the time of Augustus, illust tl»e manners and custt of
the Romans, transi. from the Germ, by F. Metcalfe. Lond. 1844. 8. On the State of Man before Chris-
tianity. Lond. 1S48. 12.] '
§ 15. ropular Life among the Greels.
The original civilization which had prevailed in some portions of the
East had finally become torpid within limits immutably fixed by the com-
bined influence of caste and despotism. But under the delightful sky of beau-
tiful Greece, the purely earthly life of man, in the midst of ettbrts to attain
social freedom, and triumphant struggles against the monarch of the Eastern
world (after 4ttO, b. c), became developed in its fairest natural perfection.
Borne on by youthful energies and a noble spirit of refinement, directed by
a clear understanding and a wise moderation, it received still higlier lustre
and distinctness from a state of art which gave utterance to what is beyond
expression, and proclaimed the reconciliation of the spirit with outward na-
ture. Even when it presented nature in its utmost nakedness, it preserved a
chaste moderation, and wlien it portrayed the darker aspects of our earthly
existence, it always made liberty and beauty triumphant. Grecian manners
and science were carried by travelling expeditions and colonies to the shores
of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy, and finally, by means of Alexan-
der's conquests (after 334), Grecian civilization became established over all
the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean.
§ 16. Limits of Grecian Refinement.
Man was regarded only as a citizen, and all virtues had relation to the
glory of his native land. Tlio free action of the citizen was founded upon
an order of slaves. A part of the women were confined within tlie narrow
limits of domestic life, and another purchased a participation in manly plea-
16 ANCIENT CUUßClI IIISTOUV. PKR. I. I>IV. I. TILL A. D. 100.
Burcs and more ftttnictivo rofinomciits witli u i)r()])ortioriate Iosh of womanly
dignity and donicstio hapiiiriess. Tlio jjolitical jiower of tlio several State»
was developed and consumed in factious contests and civil wars. Even in
the brightest days of Greece, civilization had to contend with remnants of
ancient barbarism and its bloody crimes.
§ 17. The Religion of the Greelcs.
The celestial world, in which the Greeks believed, was only an ideal
transcript of their ordinary life, embellished by the hand and for the pur-
poses of art. Even the fanciful relation of sex, which they ascribed to their
deities, though borrowed from oriental allegories, was so modified by the
poetic imaginations of the Greeks, as only to reflect and justify, as in a mir-
ror, the playful spirit of the people. This, however, exerted no very cor-
rupting influence upon a people whose matrimonial life was guarded by usages
and laws, and Avhose vigorous energies Avere controlled by the gymnasium,
and a predominant taste for the beautiful. But every thing great or beauti-
ful in common life, was adorned and consecrated by some connection with
the gods of their country. It was for this reason that, although the people
were sincerely attached to their deities, and their religious services were joy-
ous festivals embellished with all that art could contribute, they could enjoy
the keen wit of the poet when he ridiculed the weaknesses of the gods, no
less than when he laughed at those of the sovereign people of Athens. The
religion of the Hellenes was necessarily a deification not so much of nature
in its mysterious depths, as of the spirit in its various manifestations.
The real Deity revealed to them was beauty. The piety best conformed to
the national character was so far from rising above the earth, that it never
went even beyond their native land. The mysteries could of course transmit
no doctrine of religion inconsistent with this spirit of the popular faith.
They were simply celebrations of the festivals of the ancient gods. They
served not only to preserve the memory of the old and fallen deities of na-
ture, but to create a presentiment of a supreme Deity, who, at some future
period, would extend his sovereignty over the universe. The point at which
"the Hellenic theology found its termination and constructed an altar to the
Unknown God, "w^s where it submitted to an absolute necessity, ruling over
gods and men.
§ 18. Relation of Philosophy to the Popular Religion.
Socrates (409-399) brought back Philosophy from its attempts to ex-
plain the universe by ingenious fancies, to its appropriate Grecian object,
which was, to render the mind conscious of its nature, and thus to become
the supreme rule of life for a freeborn man. In doing so, however, be was
aware that as a citizen of a moral community he was liable to come into
conflict with Athenian usages. From the position which he had attained,
Plato (428-348) and Aristotle (384-322) sought to discover the ultimate prin-
ciple of all knowledge and being. Both recognized a spiritual and iudepen-
dent author of the universe, and both appreciated the supreme importance of
the intellectual and moral life. Aristotle, commencing with sensible pheno-
CHAP. I. HEATHEXISM. § IS. GRECIAN PHILOSOniY. 17
mena, and proceeding by successive steps of reasoning to general laws, may
be regarded as the most perfect specimen of a healthy intellectual educa-
tion among the Greeks. If Plato, on the one hand, by the matter as well as
the form of his speculations, shows that the highest point of Grecian life con-
sisted in adorning the present existence by moral excellence and beauty, on
the other, he far transcends this, and stands like a prophet, incomprehensible
by his own age, on account of his earnest consciousness of sinfulness, and
his absolute exaltation of the eternal above the temporal.* Those who un-
dertook the further development of Philosophy, attached themselves once
more to the purely practical tendency of Socrates, and to the various parties
already springing up among his disciples. They, however, seized upon only
disconnected elements of Grecian life. Epicurus (342—271) laid hold of
pleasure alone, to which virtue was subservient as a necessary means, and
Zeno, his contemporary, selected power, with which virtue is herself satisfied.
The former regarded the universe as the sport of chance, and the latter be-
lieved it animated by a divine omnipresent soul. In opposition to the views
of these teachers, and especially to those of Plato, there arose in the midst
of the Academy itself, a party under Arccsilaus (316-24:1) and Carneades (214-
129), which advocated a system of overwrought logic, teaching that man was
never designed to know the truth with certainty, and that consequently his
only peace was to be found in dealing with probabilities, and in the conscious-
ness of this universal uncertainty. Philosophy, in all its forms, had passed
beyond the limits of Polytheism. The Socratic school, however, regarded the
popular faith as a mode of conceiving truth indispensable to a people bound
in the fetters of sensuality. Its disciples therefore, without hesitation,
adopted the usages and modes of expression prevalent around them. The
way in which Epicurus maintained the existence of the gods was in fact an
adroit denial of it, but, satisfied with having freed his followers from all fear
of the gods, he was wise enough to warn them of the danger of contending
with public opinion. Stoical Pantheism allowed that the deities existed
merely as names and allegories for the various manifestations of the universal
life, but the deportment of the sages toward them was proud and independent.
The later Academy maintained that the existence or non-existence of the
gods was equally probable, and its adherents thought it safest to honor them
with the ordinary forms of worship. While therefore Philosophy was not }
directly hostile to the idolatry which had prevailed from ancient times, the \
educated portion of the nation were elevated by it above the popular faith.
§ 19. Rome as a EcpuMic.
The Roman people had sprung up in the midst of violence, they had been
kept together by a rigid discipline, and they had to attain maturity in the
battle-field, contending first for their existence, and then for their greatness.
At an early period, tlie opinion began to prevail, and soon became a predomi-
• C. Ackermann, d.« Christi im Pinto u. In d. plat Pliil. Ilainb. 18.35; F. C. Baur, d. Christi, d.
Platonism. o. Sokr. u. Christus. Tub. 1S;37 ; [Plato contra Athoos, or Platonic Theology, by T. Letcis
New York. 1S15. £. Pond, Lifo, Works, Opinions, iic of Plato. Portland. S.]
2
18 ANCIENT ciruncir iiisTonv. per. i. div. i. ti/j. a. d. loo.
nniit popular sentiment, that they were destined to attain universal deminioa
All the virtues which constitute the true hnsis of civil and domestic pros-
perity were i)ractiscd witli simplicity and purity. But the keen enjoyment
of life, natural to youtli, l)ecaiiic passionate only in individual instances, for
wo iind among them no general rcfmement, or cultivation of tlic elegant arts.
Religion was wholly tmdor the control of the State, and its sacred rites
were for a long time only in the hands of the Patricians. Its serious cere-
monies pervaded every relation, both of the family and the State. While,
therefore, it was regarded as indispensable to society, it was in reality only a
respectful reverence for a superior poAver, recognized in the highest degree by
the boldest and mightiest minds.
§ 20. Decline of Greece.
During the strifes of contending factions, political power had become
despotic, in the hands sometimes of the nobles, and sometimes of the popu-
lace. The consequence was that Greece was distracted by internal divisions,
and became subject, first to the Macedonians, and then, with these masters,
(14G) to the Romans. The virtues of the people, which had Leen founded
upon their relation to their native country, could not, of course, survive the
loss of their independence. The individuality of character, wliich had be-
fore so nobly distinguished them, now degenerated into selfishness ; art be-
came subservient to the grossest sensuality, and it now became evident, in
the midst of public misfortunes, that a life consumed in the mere embellish-
ment of an earthly existence must be totally unsatisfactory. Yet so abundant
was the inheritance of art and science bequeathed to them by their ances-
tors, that their private life was for a long time enriched by its stores, and
Greece gave laws to its conquerors.
§ 21. Elevation and Decline of Borne.
"When Augustus, in his testament, advised the Roman people never to
surpass the limits which nature had assigned to them, as the permanent bul-
warks of the Empire, all nations inhabiting the coasts of the Mediterranean
had already submitted to the majesty of the Roman power, and all nationali-
ties had been broken up by the stern unity of the Empire. As the Romans
had conquered the civilized world, they now resolved to participate in its ad-
vantages, by enjoying not only its coarse sensual pleasures, but its intellectual
treasures. But Grecian civilization was so far in advance of them, that it
could not be conquered without calling forth creative powers in the con-
querors. By the subjugation and government of so many provinces, such an
inequality in power and possessions was introduced, that universal freedom
was no longer tolerable, and the popular character became so degraded, that
in spite of republican forms, no one thought of combining public freedom
with the monarchy. The will of the prince was acknowledged to be the su-
preme law, but the supreme power was actually in the army. Accordingly,
the successors of Augustus, while they knew that they were masters of the
world, knew quite as well that they could never call one day their own.
They therefore either stupifieJ themselves in the wildest enjoyment of the
CHAP. L HEATHENISM, g 22. DECLINE. 19
present moment, or sought safety in a reign of terror. The wretchedness of
the Roman populace, and tlie exhausted condition of the provinces, were in
desperate and frightful contrast with an atSuence which strove with shame-
less ingenuity to wrest from nature more enjoyment than she was able to
give or endure. And yet for centuries after the old Roman virtues had been
lost, there remained a noble national spirit, the valor of the legions, and in
private life, the supremacy of the law.
§ 22. Decline of the Popular Eeligion.
The Greek religion was adapted only to such as were in the enjoyment of
prosperity. To those who were struggling with misfortune, it offered neither
consolation nor strength, and the gods themselves had apparently deserted
the cities from which they were now invited by the conquerors. The deifi-
cation of Roman des^pots threw scandal on the gods, and revealed the secret
of their origin. The explanation of the Greek myths undermined also the
veneration which had before been felt for Roman ceremonies.* Philosophy
no longer hesitated to mock a religious worship already abandoned by its
deities. The Roman statesmen, it is true, thought it necessary to maintain a
religion of whose nullity tliey were persuaded, because it seemed to be the
very foundation of their Sttite. "When, however, a people are governed by a
falsehood, the fact cannot long be concealed from them. The human mind,
ordinarily dissatisfied with infidelity, and especially impatient with it in
seasons of peculiar difficulty, now sought for the peace it had lost in all
kinds of barbarous forms of worship. In the midst, too, of those frequent
changes of fortune to which despotic governments are subject, it made an
effort to obtain a knowledge and a control of the dark future, by means of
magical arts. Unbelief and superstition were thus boldly and distinctly ar-
rayed by the side of each other. When the peculiar spirit of each nation
had been destroyed, a popular religion could no longer be generally upheld,
an'd the gods were all united in the Roman Pantheon. Philosophy, however,
had neither the inclination nor the power to found a new religion.
IT. JroAiSM.
F!tw. JosfpM 0pp. eil. IFiiverkamp, Amst. 1720. 2 Th. f. ; Small ed. by Oherthür, AVürtzb. 17S2.<«.
8 Th. and In the 1 Abth. of the Uibl. sacra, Lpss. lS2(lss. 5 Th. [Transl. into Eng. by W. Wlihton, &,
cd. by // Stehhing. Svo. Lond. lS-11. and a new Transl. by li. Trail, with notes, Ess.iys, &c and
e<l. by I. Taylor, Lond. & New York. 1S47.] F. C. ifi-ier, Judaica s. vetorum Scrr. profnnornin de
rob. jud. frainiin. Jen. 1S.32; Vdrin^c, do Syn.igoara vet (Frnneq. 1090 Loiicop. 172«. 4 ; [Vitrlnpa's
Synag. & tho Church, transl. by Bernard, 8vo. Lond.] J. D. MicJmelin, mos. Recht. Frkf. 1775si
6Th. [Transl. into Kn?. by A. Smith. 4 vols. 8vo. Lond. H14]; J. J. Ifexs, Gesch. d. Israel, Zur.
76G'«. 12 Til.: n^ Wette, Lehrb. d. hebr. Archäol. nebst Cnindr. d. hebr. Gesch. Lps. (1S14.) 18.30;
J. .V. JiMt, nil? Gesch. d. Isr. Brl. 1832. 2 vols. ; [J.iKf» Hist of tho Jews, from the Maccabees to the
present day, transl. from Germ, by J. II. Tropkin«. 1S4S. New York;] If. Leo, Vorles. ü. d. Gescli. d.
jiid. Staats. Hrl. 1S2S. retracted in his Lehrb. d. L'nlversali;esch. cd. 2. vol. I. p. 6(>3ss. co-np. Stud. u.
Krit 1330. vol. I. p. 1.17s'*.; Bertheaii, zur Ge*c!i. d. I'^r. Gütt 1S42: I/. EicnM, Gesch. d. Volke«
.israel b. Cliristus. Gott lS4'lss. 3 vols. ; J. Sa'vaiinr, Hist, des Institutions de Molse ct du peuple
li6br. Par. 1S2S. 3 vols. [This work was answered by M. Dupin, the older, In " Jesus devant Calphe
* L. Krahner Grundlinien z. Gesch. d. Verfalls d. rOm. StaatsreL Ual. 1837. 4.
aO A.VriKNT CHUnCH IIISTOIIT. I'KIl. I. I»IV. I. TILL A. I). V>'<.
et Pllato," Par. 1828. 8] ; Gramherg, krlL Gcsoh. d. K. Ideen d. A. T. Br). l'*29.s. 2 Th.; Vulke, \
Rel. d. A. T. BrI. 1835. 1 Th.; S. L. Stfinhenn, d. OlTcnb. n. d. Lclirbc^.d. Synag. Frkf. 1985. 1 vol.
A. F. Ofrörer, d. Jahrb. drs Helle«. Stultff. 1S3S. 2 Abth.— A'jiot*;, d. rrophetbinu» d. Ilcbr. BreeL
1837. 2 vol«.; Konter, die rro[)li. d. A. u. N. T. Lps. 1838; [//. // Milmnn, Hist, of the Jews, from
the B. of Christ to tho Abol. of I'acanlsin In the Kom. Einp. wilh notes by Murdock. 3 vols. New
York. 1831 ; J. Buenage, Hist of tho Jews from Je.^us Christ to the pr. time, being a cont. of Jose-
phuR. transl. by T. Taylor, Lond. 1708. f.; D. Stiamn, lleion's rilgrlinago to Jerusalem, A I'lctnrd
of Jiulalsin In the Cent before Christ, transl. from the Germ. Lond. 1824. 2 vol». 8.]
§ 23. The Beligious Life of the People.
Jehovah •\va.'? worsliipped as the only living and Mo.st High God, His
government, by agents, in direct communication with himself, collectively
called tho Theocracy, was regarded as the only legitimate anthority. By his
law tho spirit was wrested from its hold upon the natural world, and his
people were separated from all other nations, "When the popular life had
attained full maturity during the period between Samuel and the Exile [1156-
588, B. C), a flourishing kind of sacred poetry, with no great refinement of
art, became developed, and the manners and morals of the people, though
rude, were generally strict. The people, however, were always inclined to
apostatize and adopt the sensual and idolatrous worship of nature, jjrevalent
among the neighboring nations. The state, distracted by the struggle of
the hierarchy with the monarchy, became divided (after 975) into the king-
doms of Judah and Israel, and at last fell a prey to foreign enemies. It was
not until after the Exile, that the spirit of the people corresponded with that
of their law, and then the benefits of such a result, and the complete execu-
tion of their political system, were limited by the dominion of the Persians,
the Greeks, and the Romans, who, without intermission, succeeded one an-
other. A similar religious improvement was founded upon the Sacred Scrip-
tures, the type and mirror of the popular life. In the midst of the calamities
of the Exile, a stronger faith in a future state of existence Avas awakened, in
connection with the explanation of moral evil by demoniac agency. But a
natural result of the importance which the hierarchy consequently gave to
the outward ritual of the law, was soon experienced in the extreme valuation
of these observances, without reference to their spiritual import. The origi-
nal contradiction involved in the idea they generally entertained of a God,
who was the sole Lord of the Universe, and yet revealed himself as the God
of only a single nation, became increasingly prominent, as the world became
more generally known. Their belief also in the exclusive partiality of God
for themselves as a people, in connection with the continual oppression they
experienced from their foreign masters, produced a bitter feeling toward
every thing foreign, and a hatred of the whole hnman race. It was during
this decline, and as the precise result of it, that the predominant rehgious cha-
racter of the nation was formed. Its fundamental element was an obstinate
nationality, and a bold determination to sacrifice every thing for its preserva-
tion. This, in connection Avith their internal dissensions and moral debase-
ment, could lead to nothing but a tragical result, when opposed to the over-
whelming power of the Romans. But a series of prophets had at one time
been produced by the Theocracy, in connection with a spiritual tendency
among the people, which had taught them to solve all the contradictions of
CHAP. L JUDAISM. § 24. DISPERSED JEWS. § 25. PDILO. 21
tlie present time, by believing contemplations of the future. These ilessianio
prophecies therefore livfil on in the hearts of the people, consoling, but at the
same time ensnaring them with the strong expectation that Judaism was des-
tined to become universal
§ 2i. The dispersed Jeics (tv Siaa-nopa).
Jlemond, Gescb. d. Ausbreit. d. Judenth. v. Cyrus bis a. d. Unterg. d. jüd. Staats. Lpz. 1789 ; Groot,
de migrationibus Ilebrr. extra patriarn ante Hieras. a Eoin. delttam. Gron. ISIT. 4; Levyssohn, de
Judaconim sub Caesaribus conditione et de legibus eos spectantibus. Lngd. 182S. 4.
According to the laws of war then prevalent, Jewish colonies were trans-
ferred to other lands, in the train of the various conquerors of Palestine.
Individual Jews also wandered into the same countries, for the sake of gain.
In the time of Christ, therefore, Jewish communities, sufc^'ect to great vicissi-
tudes of fortune, were to be found in every part of the Roman Empire.
With their characteristic shrewdness, and their indefatigable industry, they
had acquired wealth by commerce, and by wealth, independence and privi-
leges. They lived according to the law of their fathers, and paid homage to
the hierarchy at Jerusalem, as their highest human authority. In conse-
quence of their temple tribute (bldpaxfia), their offerings, and their pilgrim-
ages, immense wealth flawed into Jerusalem from every part of the world,
and became an instrument of great power in the hands of the priesthood, and
a temptation to Roman rapacity and corruption.
§ 25. Hellenism.
C. G. L. GrosKmann, Quacstt Philonea,\ I. De Theologiao Phil, fontibus et auctorit. II. De
Ao7(u Phil. Lps. 1S29; Gfrörei; Philo u. d. alex. Theosophie, o. v. Einfl. d. jüd. ägypt Schule a. d.
N.T. Stuttg. 1831. 2 Abth. (new title, 1S35) ; A. F. Dähne, gcsch. Darst d.jQd. alex. Kel. PhU.
Hal 1837. 2 Abtb. comp, üaur, in d. Jahrb. f. wiss. Kritik. 18-35. p. 737-92 ; J. C. L. Georgii, Ü. d.
neuesten Gegens. In Auffnss. d. Alex. Rel. Phil. (Illgens Zeitschr. 1839. H. 3. 4) ; [J. Bryant, Seutt,
of Phil. Jud. on the Word of God Carnb. 1797. 8J.
Although the Jews who resided in countries pervaded by Grecian culture
seldom gave up their national attachments and spirit, they were unavoidably
much affected by the intercourse and science of those around them. Such
was the origin of the Hellenism, which, in Alexandria, then the groat lunrt
of trade even in science, gave birth to the first philosophy of revelation.
This has been transmitted to subsecjuent times, principally by the writings of
Philo, (n) The contradictory elements of which it was composed were : an
unconditional feith in the divine revelation contained in the Mosaic law, and
an equal confidence in the truth of the Platonic philosophj-. These conflict-
ing principles were subjectively harmonized by the adoption of the opihiong
that tlie Greek philosophy was derived from the Scriptures, and that the di-
vine mind in the Scriptures was to be discovered by tlic allegorical method of
interpretation. Its fundamental principle was : sucli an extreme refinement
of the idea of God, that every distinct attribute of his nature disappeared,
a) Philoni« 0pp. ed. Jfanyey. Lond. 1742. 2 Th. f. The greater part of this is used in an ed. cur.
Pfeiffer. Erl. (1785ss.; 1820. 5 Th. ; Small ed. embracing the remainilcr, discovered by A. Jfajo, &
Aucher, in 2 Abth. of the Bibl. Patrum. Lps. 1828ss. 6 Th. ; Cretuer, z. Krit, d. Schrr. d. Philo.
(Stud. u. Kvit l&Bl. II. 1) • GroKsmann. do Phil, operum continua Serie et ord. chron. Lps. 1341. 4
P. L
22 ANCIENT cHuncir iriSYOKi. ri;u. i. div. l till a. d. loa
nnvl all connection between him nnd the world ceased. It was therefore sup-
posed that certain intorincdiato beings (Xiiyor and.Xoyft) proceeded from God —
fanciful creatures, which can scarcely be called personal existences, nor yet
mere extensions of the divine essence. These gave existence to Matter, which
was not divine, but was formed according to the archetypes of their own
ideal world, and was animated by the divine breath. Even man, so far as
his earthly nature is concerned, is fallen matter, Avith God concealed from his
view. But that which was originally divine in him, must be liberated by
struggles and self-denials, until he finds his true life during some favored mo-
ments even in this world, in the blessed contemplation of the Deity. This
divine philosophy was reduced to practice by the Therapeutae^ who lived in
separate huts, chiefly in the Mareotis, near Alexandria, abstaining from all
pleasures, cares, and toils of an earthly life, and entirely devoted to the con-
templation and praise of the divine nature. {]>)
§ 26, The Tliree Sects.
Trium scriptorum ilhistrium (Dncsii, Scaligeri, Serarii) de tribus Judaeorum sectis syntai'ma
ed. Tnglandiua. Delphis. 1703. 2 Th. 4; P. Beer, Gesch. Lehren u. Meinungen aller rel. Seelen d.
Jud. Br6nn. lS22s. 2 vols.; ScJmeckenhurgei; die Pharisäer, Eel. Philosophen o. Askcliker? (Beitr.
X. Einl. in's N. T. Stuttg. 1832. N. 7.) Grossmanyi, De Philos. Sadducaeor. Lps. 1S3G. II. De frag-
mentis Sadd. exeg. 1837. IIL De statu Sadd. literario, morali et politico. 1&33. 4.
The most distinct forms of Judaism in Palestine, after the time of the
Maccabees, were represented in three regularly organized sects. The Phari-
sees^ i. e. the Separated, were representatives of the rigid hierarchy, and of
modern Judaism with all its faults and virtues. The most austere portion of
this sect adhered to the authority of Rabbi Shammai, and a mUder party to
that of HilUl. In the latter party, a tendency toward Hellenism was practi-
cable, and Gamaliel is said to have participated in it. The Sadducees, whose
name signifies the Eighteous, and who constituted in fact the wealthy and
aristocraticportionsof society, maintained the older Hebraism, the intellectual
liberty of which, in a corrupt and yet speculative period, was easily perverted
so as to encourage licentiousness and unbelief. The disputes which these sects
carried on with each other became sometimes so riolent that the government
was disturbed on account of them. The Essenea. i. e. Healing Ones, or
Saints, were those who had become dissatisfied with the world, and in ditJer-
ent degrees of their order, according to the rigidity of their asceticism, with-
drew from all public life, to live in extreme solitude on the western coast of
the Dead Sea. Their doctrine, so far as it has been made known, indicated
Bomo"atfinity with the Alexandrian philosophy, as it converged evidently to-
ward a theory of angel hierarchy. Their moral system and habits were simi-
lar to those of the Therapentae, although they adhered more decidedly to the
Hebrew prophecies. Their mode of life was communistic, and their time was
wholly occupied in prayer and labor. Although they condemned the private
possession of wealth, individuals might possess some property as a fief, from
V) The orig. evidence in various forms in Pliilo, and many erroneous statements with respect
to them in Emehhts, IT. Ecc. II. 17; BeUermann. gcsch. Nachrichten a. d. Alterthume ü. E.'«ä«äi
n. Therapeuten. Brl. 1S21 ; J. Sauer, do Essenis et Therapeutis, Vrat 1S29; G/rorer, Ablh. S. jx
280SS. ; Dähne, vol. I. p. 439ss.
CHAP. I. JUDAISM. § 27. SAMARITANS. § 2S. PEOSELTTES. 23
the common .stock. They never visited the Temple, because bloody sacrifices
were ottered in it, but they sent to it their sacred gifts.
§ 27. The Samaritans.
Besides the Jewish sources of a partisan cliaracter, consult The Samar. Pentateucli, even in the
Arabic translation, and John iv. 5-42; {Siefert) Per. de temp, schisraatis ecc. Judaeos Inter, et Sa-
niarr. oborti. Kesiom. 1S23. 4. comp. Ease's Loben Jesu. p. lOSs. [Neander's Life of Clirist p. ISOss. ;
IfeDdstenherg, On the Pentateuch, vol. I. p. TOss.; M. Stuart, Essay on Sam. Pent &, Lit in Bib.
Itopos. 1S.32. P. 4. p. 651. & Essays on the Old Test Andover, 1845. 8 ; Kitto'a Journal of Sac. Lit
July, 1353. p. 293.]
From its first establishment, the kingdom of Israel was always character-
ized by a great laxity of religious faith, a dislike to the Levitical priesthood,
and a fondness for the idolatrous worship of the surrounding nations. Hav-
ing been conquered by the Assyrians (722), the small remnant allowed to re-
main in the country soon became nearly amalgamated with the heathen colo-
nists introduced among them. And yet the inhabitants of Samaria, the
fruitful hill country between Judaea and Galilee, olfored to assist the returning
.Jews in rebuilding the Temple of Zion. This proposal being rejected, just
before Alexander's triumphant march through their country, they received
through Manasseh, the exiled brother of the Jewish high priest, and the fa-
vor of the Persian monarch, not only a copy of the Pentateuch, but permis-
sion to build a temple to Jehovah on Mount Gerizim. In spite of all their
foreign mixtures, both of sentiments and of blood, the Samaritans were espe«
cially attached to the ancient Hebraism, and carried out its moral and intel-
lectual tendencies. They shared in the political fortunes of Judaea, and were
animated by a similar hatred to the Eomans, but the State possessed very little
power, on account of the still greater mutual hatred of the Jews and Sa-
maritans.
§ 28. Proselytes.
The contempt which a people without refinement in art or science, enter-
tained for every thing foreign, was of course met by the Greeks and Eo-
mans with a similar contempt, (a) And yet the strength of religious faith
among the Jews, the worship of one God, and the veneration for the myste-
rious rites and shrines of the temple of Jehovah, were peculiarly imposing.
Modern Judaism, too, was naturally inclined to conquest. Hence from the
general inclination toward foreign religions, and from the dissatistaction felt
with respect to the social relations of the Empire, many, especially women,
laborers, and slaves, felt attracted by the hopes held out to them by the
Jews. Some became 2^'''osehjtes of righteousness to Judaism, and many re-
nounced idolatry by obeying what were called the Noachian precepts, and
thus, according to the decision of the milder teachers of the law, became
proselytes of the Gate, i. o. friends of the Jewish nation, and sliarors in many
of its hopes, without being subject to the yoke of the law, without adoi)ting
the narrow jirojudices of the Jews, and without expecting justification by
their external services. Others pleased or silenced their consciences by the
a) Tdcit. ni<t. V. .5; ifinucii Fel. Octavius c 10.
24 ANCIKNT CIH-UCII lllSTonV. PKi:. I. DIV. I. TIU. A. P. IW.
practice of Jewish ceremonies, nnd allowed themselves to he beguiled b^
Tewirtli coiiiurers. {f>)
CHAP. II.— THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH.
Lud. Capelli lltst np. lllustrata, Genev. 1684. 4 ed. Fabriclns, Lps. 1C91 ; J. F. Jiuildel, Kcc
tp. Jen. 17'29; J. J. lies», Gcscli. u. Sclirr. d. Apostol Znrch. 1789. 4 ed. lS20»s. 8 Tb. ; F. Lficke,
Com. dc Ecc. Apost Goett 1813. 4; J. O. rUtnvk; Oesch. d. Chrlstenth. In d. Periode »r. Einfuhr
nn". OTitt 1818; Tli. II. A. Neander [Ilist. of tlie Planting and Training cT tlio Chri.itlan Cliurcb
by the Ai«>stli-s, Transl. by J. F. liijland. Phil. 1 vol. 1844] ; /'. Ch. Jimir, I'aulu)», Sluttg. 1845; A
Sc?nceglei; d;is nncliapost. Zoitalt. in d. Ilauptinonicnten sr. Entwickl. Tub. 184C. 2 vol». ; comp. E.
Zeller ii. Chr. Urclir. u. Unchr. in Sclnveglor's Jahrb. 1814. Juni; (IF. O. Dietlein, d. UrchrUtenth.
cine Belcuclit. der. v. d. Schule d. Urn. Dr. v. Baur^ fl. d. A post Zeita. aufgestellten Vermuthungen.
Ilal. 1845 ;) [A'. U. Hagenbach, F. C- Baur, and J. P. Lange, have each published IILstories of the
Primitive and Apostolic Church, in Germ.; G. Benson, Hist of the First Planting of Christianty,
Lond. 175G. 3 vols. 4; F. W. P. Greemcood, Lives of the Twelve Apostle?, Ac. Bost, 1846. 12: /..
Coleman, Anc. Christianity exemplified. Philad. IS-OS. 2 vols. 8; //. IK J. TViierocÄ, Hist of the
Chr. Church, vol. L Apostolic Age, Transl. by T. Carlyle, Lond. 1852.]
§ 29, The First Pentecost.
I. AcU, 2. 1-41 ; II. Herder, Gabe d. Sprachen. Eig. 1794; Ammon, de novis Unguis. ErI. ISOS;
ITaite, Zur Gesch. d. ersten Chr. Pflngstf. ; {Winers Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Theol. 1827. H. 2;) Bleek, ü.
d. Gabe des yXdiaaai^ KaXilv. (Stud. u. Krit. 1829. vol. IL IL 1 ; comp. Ohhausen, vol. II. H. 8;
Eepl. V. Bleek, 18Sn. vol. I. II. 1. p. 45-64; Ohhaiiffn, ibid. p. G4-66.) ^«n^r. Abb. in d. Tub. Zclt-
6chr. f. Theol. 1830. IL 2; Bäumlein, Abb. in the Studien d. Würtemb. Geistlieb. 1834. II. 2;
Schneckenhurger, in his Beitr. zur Einl. in's N. T. N. S. Billroth; [Expos, of the Epp. of Paul to
the Cor. (in Edinb. Bibl. Cabinet, No. 21. 23) on 1 Cor. siv.]; D. Schnh, d. Geistesgaben d. ersten
Christen, insbes. d. sogen. Gabe d. Spr. Bresl. 1S36; Baur, Krit Ucbers. (Stud. n. Krit. 1838, p. ClSsf.)
Seinecke, Sprachgabe d. ersten Christen. Lpz. 1842.
As tlie founder of a new popular religion, and as the !Mossiah and Son of
God, who must fulfil all the longings of the people, and the prophecies of the
Scriptures, Jesus had awakened a spirit which in independent spirituality was
to rise above every thing earthly, unite men in love, by regeneration, with
the Father of all, and regardless of all national distinctions, bring them mi-
der one great bond of brotherhood in the kingdom of God. A few faithful
disciples, on whom exclusively this Spirit had before rested, waited in close
fellowship at Jerusalem for the promised manifestation of this Sidrit. Early
in the morning of the feast of Pentecost, soon after the Pvesurrection (about
33), on the occurrence of a remarkable natural phenomenon, they felt con-
scious of an extraordinary inspiration, Avhich they regarded as a shedding
forth of the divine Spirit upon their hearts, from without and above them
selves. This internal influence manifested itself to others principally by au
animated and copious style of speaking — a sjyeal-ing tcith towjucs, which, ac-
cording to Luke, was generally regarded as a decisive evidence that Chris-
tianity had arrived at its completion, (a) Such phenomena were regarded in
the primitive Church as the gift of the Spirit, bestowed without reference to
the ordinary state of the heart, and were indeed frequently abused so as to
become subservient to vanity, (b) Such Avas the foct until far into the second
I) Juren. Sat. VL 54.3. Scnec de snperstt (in August de Civ. Dt-i. VL 11); Josfphi Antiqq
VIIL 2. 5. XVIII. 3. 5.
a) AcU 10, 40s. 19, 6. comp. 8. 15s& h) 1 Cor 14.
CHAP. ir. APOST. cnURCn. § 29. PENTEC03T. § so. JERUSALEM. 26
century, (c) and even to a still later period, in seasons and congregations
in which powerful excitements prevailed. At this feast of Pentecost, accord-
ing to the rather obscure account of Luke, a discourse was delivered in seve-
ral foreign languages. A power to do this, however, was not regarded in )
the apostolic Church as the ordinary attendant of this gracious gift ; we have
no account of its repetition, and it is of importance only as indicating that
Christianity was destined to become nniversal. But the great fact^ which .
then took place, was the revelation of the new spmtTthrough which the/
Church was visibly and publicly to be established.
§ 30. Fortune of the Churcli of Jerusalem.
The rage of the people had been appeased by the death of Jesus ; and
when the recollection of his benevolent deeds revived, the feeling began to
prevail througliout the city, that they had imbrued their hands in the blood
of an innocent man, and possibly in that of their own Messiah, "^hen, there-
fore, his timid disciples suddenly announced with great earnestness and con-
fidence that he had risen from the dead, thousands, by baptism, professed
themselves his disciples, and the popular favor was turned toward them.
Alarmed at this, and divided in their own coun.sels (since many of the Phari-
sees, out of hatred to the Sadducees, were willing that the gospel, which pro-
claimed a resurrection, should prevail), the Sanhedrim were irresolute, and
adopted no efficient measures, while the apostles were full of courage, wUl-
ing to sutler shame for Christ, and determined to obey God rather than men.
Still, no sooner had those friendly to their cause become connected with
them, than the Galileans, or Xazareans, became, as before, a much-hated
sect. A party zealous for the law were allowed to stone Stcplien (about 36^\
and Herod Agrijqm looked upon it as a popular measure to persecute the
Christians. James, the brother of John, was beheaded, and Fctcr escaped
the same fate only by mysterious aid (44). {(i) But when, on the sudden
death of Ilerod Agrippa, Q>) all Palestine became a Roman province, the con-
gregation was allowed to become tranquilly established and enlarged. "When
most of the disciples fled, on the persecution after the death of Stephen, the
apostles remained at Jerusalem. There stood together those pillars of the
Church, Peter, James, and John, even as late as near the middle of the cen-
tury. After that, James the Just, the brother of our Lord, is mentioned as
the principal leader among the Christian Jews, although all authentic ac
counts agree in ascribing to him a high degree of circumspection and mod-
eration even in his Judaism, (c) To judge from the epistle bearing his name,
Lo must have been a pious and earnest teacher, especially in his admonitions
in favor of morality, but with no prominent characteristics peculiar to Chris-
tianity. ('0 By Jewish Cliristians ho has since been honored as a kind of na-
tional saint; and although the disciple of Jesus is not very prominent in his
rigid discipline, and in the remote occasion of his death, this was only to
c) Iren. V. C,
(I) Acts 6, S— 7, 00; 12, 1-19. h) Acts 12, 20s& comp. Joeephi Antlqq. XIX. 7, 2. c) Gal. 2, 9.
comp. Acta 1,">, ]3ss. d) Liter. Review, in TluiU, Coiiiin. in Ep. Jac p. 2Sss.; F. TT. Kern, Char-
•cter n. Ursprung d. Br. Juk. (from Ilio Tub. Zeitsclir.) Tub. ISGO.
26 ANCIKNT CliritCll HInTORV. I'KK. I. DIV. I. TU-I, A. D. 100.
prove hirnsc'lf iiioro perfectly ft Christ iaii hero Avlicn ho wan called actnallj
to die. («) The iilaiii testimony of history declares, that the lli>,'h Priest Ana-
nua, a Sadduceo, availing liimself of tlio interregnum whioli took place after
the death of the procurator Felix, had James, and a few otlicrs, stoned tc
death, as transgressors of the }*[osaic law (03). (/)
§ 31. Jevhh Christianity.
D. van ITeijif, Ds. de Jiidaeo-Christianismo ejusqae vl ct enieacltatc, quam cxsc-rult In rem Chr.
Saec. I. Lugil. B. 1S2S. comp. § 85.
The dispersion of the congregation after the death of Stephen was the
commencement of its propagation in other regions. The knowledge of Christ
was probably carried by pilgrims from Jerusalem into all parts of the Ro-
man empire, and yet but a small part of the Jewish population actually be-
ean*e Christian. The principal seat of Christian Judaism among the dis
persed portion of the nation was at AntiocJi^ where the name of Christian
was first applied to the Church by those who were not its members.
The Jewish law was observed with the utmost strictness. Cliristianity was
regarded as a perfected Judaism, whose hopes were already in part, or soon
to be completely fulfilled. It was only with this understanding that it could
have gained general acceptance in Palestine. The Pharisees were inclined to
receive, aud zealously to advocate It, so far as the doctrine of the resurrec-
tion of Jesus was concerned ; and the Essenes Avere fovorable to its religious
spirituality. The assertion, that a Jewish Christianity of an Essene com-
plexion sprung up at an early period, by an accession of a considerable num-
ber of Essenes to the Church, is rendered probable by partial affinities be-
tween the two systems, and certain by witnesses after the middle of the se-
cond century. But as the gospel was proclaimed principally in public assem-
blies, and as conversions from a community so rigidly secluded must have
been extremely difficult, wo can hardly suppose that such an accession could
have taken place in any large numbers, till after the dispersion of the Essene
settlements, aud the desolation of the Jewish country. Besides, it does not
appear that Christianity, in its earliest form, possessed any prominent traits
of an Essene character. As it was believed to be intended for all men, those
who looked upon it through an old Hebrew medium, must have regarded the
reception of the law as a necessary part of the process. According to Luke's
account (Acts x. 11-18), Peter could be induced to baptized proselyte of the
gate, and could justify himself for the act before his brethren, in no other
way than by the assurance of a divine revelation. But as the Church could
not at that time conveniently separate its blessings, the more rigid Jewish
Christians demanded that baptized proselytes should afterwards be circum-
cised.
§ 32. Satnaritaji Christians and Sects.
The first decisive instance in which Christianity broke over the pro-
per limits of the Jewish nation, Avas that in which the gospel was car-
ried to Samaria. The seed which Jesus, regardless of the popular hatred.
e) Euseb. 11. ecc. II. 1. 23. /) Josephi, Antiqq. XX. P, 1.
mAP. IL APOST. CHUECn. § 32. SIMON. § &S. PAUL. 27
had sown in Sychem, Avas liarvested by the apostles. ('/) The Samaritans.
however, were at that time too much taken up with tlie claims of certain
founders of new religions in their own midst, strange phantoms of the truth,
to be much interested in a Messiah from Judea. Dositheus^ professing to be
the propliet promised in the likeness of Moses (Deut. 18, 18), had appeared
among them with a severe exaggeration of the letter of the law, and had
finally starved himself in a cave. (/') Simon Magus obtained many adherents
in Samaria, and perhaps also some in Rome. According to his own assertion,
or at least thai of his followers, he was an incarnation of the Spirit which
bad created the world, to deliver the soul of the world, in bondage to the
earthly powers, by whom it had been confined in a woman, and at that time
in his own wife, Helena. "With the deliverance of this world-soul, all be-
lievers were also to be released from their imprisonment. He Avas, however,
anxious to purchase the Holy Ghost from the apostles, and trembled before
their malediction, (c) In some accounts, he appears degraded to a mere pan-
der to lewdness, {d) and in popular traditions he became the representative of all
magical arts and their fortunes during his day, in contrast with the triumph-
ant simplicity of pious faith. (<) Menandcr also aspired to the honor of be-
ing a Messiah, and a divine incarnation, with power to make his followers
immortal. (./') The influence of each of these three impostors was continued
through some minor sects until some time in the sixth century. They were
often confounded, by those who were not well informed on the subject, with
the followers of Christ ; and perhaps some of them, like Simon himself, at
one time, from worldly policy, may have passed themselves off as such. It
is possible, too, that they may sometimes have really claimed to be Chris-
tians, in accordance with a doctrine by which all religions were mingled to-
gether, and the same God was said to have revealed himself to the Samari-
tans as the Father, to the Jews as the Son, and to the Gentiles as the Spirit.
§ 33. Paul.
J. Pearson, Annales Paul. Hal. 1718. [Load. 1GS9. 4. transl. into Eng. by WiUianu, Cambr.
182C. 12.] W. Paletj, Ilorao Paul, or the Truth of the Scriptural Hist, of Paul evinced. [With a
Buppl. by E. Biley. Lend. 1840. Illustrated by Tate. Lend. 1S3T. Publ. in New York. 1S4;J. In
works. Cambr. (Ma'«.) 1S30.] J. T. Heimen, der Ap. P. Gütt 1S30; K. Schräder, der Ap. P. Lpz.
ISoOss. 5 vols.; Tholuck, Lebensurastäude, Character ii. Sprache d. P.; (Stud. u. Krit 1S35. II. 2.
and Verm. Schrr. vol II. p. 2:2ss.) [Life and Cliar. of Paul, transl. from the Germ, of A. Tho'
lud; and publ. in the Edinb. Bibl. Cabinet, vol. 23.] IL A. Schott, ErOrtr. einiger Chronol. Punkte
in d. Lebensscsch. d. P. Jena. 1S32; J. F. ]Vunn, ii. d. Zeitbest im Leben d. P.; (Tub. Zeitschr. f.
Theol. 1S3S. II. 1) ;— Z. Ueteri, Entw. d. P. Lehrbegr. Zur. 1S24. cd. 5. 1 534. A. F. Vuhne, Entw.
d. P. Lehrbegr. Ual. 1885 ■,—Baur, Paulus (p. 24.)
The development of Cliristianity as a sjjiritual religion for the whole
world, was accomplished principally by the agency of Saul, called after tho
Eoman form Paul. The idea of its liberation from Judaism did not, indeed,
originate with him, for certain Hellenists from Cyprus had before preached
a) Acti 8, 5-17; John 4, 35-33. h) Orig. de princ. IV, 17. (vol. L p. 178) in Jo. torn. 13. (vol. IV
p. 237); Einphan. Oi>p., vol. I. p. 30. c) Acts 8, 9-24; Jiintin. ApoL L c. 26, 66; Tryph. c 120
(Sinioni Deo Sancto. Senionl Sanco Deo Fidio;) Iren. I. 20. Extracts from both Eiiaeh. II. ecc- II
13. Ejriph. Ilacr. 21. d) Joseph!, Antiqq. XX, 7. 2. e) Arnoh. II, 12; Clement, Homil. II, 29s.s.
Recos;nitt, I, 72. If, 7ss. ; comp. Targttin Jeru»hulemi, ad Num. 31, 8; Sueton. Vita Neron. c li
/) Jii,9tiiii, Apol. I c 26; Ej>ii'h. Uacr. 22.
28 ANCIKNT CIIUIICII IIISTOKV. I'Kl:. I. DIV. I. TILL A. I), 10).
tlio gospel to the Creeks in Antioch, («) and Stophou did not deny the charge,
tliat Jesus had coino to destroy tlie temple, and to chaM<ro the cercmoniiil
law. (//) But it was reserved for Paul successfully to justify and triuinjili-
nntly to carry out this idea. lie belonged to the tribe of Benjamin, was a
Roman citizen born at Tarsus the capital of Cilicia, had been educated for a
learned Phariseo in the school of Gamaliel at Jerusalem, and was by occupa-
tion a tentmaker. The traces of a Greek education, whicli his writititrs
Bometimes exhibit, may be ascribed either to tlie school in wliich he had been
educated, or to his subsequent pursuits and associations. "With a cliaraeter
not only great but exalted, able and energetic in worldly things, thougli full
of longings after those which are heavenly, he jdaced himself, in defence of
the law of his fatliers, at the head of those who persecuted the followers of
Christ. Stephen fell before his eyes, and Gamaliel warned the rulers that
they should not contend against God. But while journeying to Damascus, to
persecute those Christians whom he might find there (probably 3G), he and
his companions were suddenly struck to the earth by fire from heaven,
Christ now revealed himself to his spirit as the Saviour of the world, and ha
could no longer resist the mighty power of truth, (c) His rich natural en-
dowments were now illuminated by the gracious influences of the Holy
Spirit, his fonuer self was cast off, and Christ alone lived within him. After
a residence of three years in Arabia and Damascus, bo fled from the latter
city to Jerusalem (39), that he might form an acquaintance with Peter. lie
was soon after invited by Barnabas from Tarsus, to assist in the work of the
gospel at Antioch, When both had conveyed provisions from that congrega-
tion to Jerusalem, for the relief of the brethren there (44), they were sent
on a missionary tour to Cyprus, and some provinces of Asia Minor. They
commenced their labors by preaching in the synagogues ; {'T) but as they
were generally treated with contempt, and often with much abuse by tho
Jews, while they were generally fovored by proselytes, they soon began to
form independent churches, composed principally of Greeks. These they re-
garded, according to the custom at Antioch, as not bound to observe the cere-
monial law, and it was even rumored that Paul had gone so far as to prevent
the Jews from circumcising their childi-en. He himself, however, conformed
to the ritual of the law, at least as far as appeared expedient to prevent all
unnecessary offence to his brethren ; and accordingly, in Christian liberty, he
■was a Greek with Greeks and a Jew with Jews. But at Antioch, some from
Jerusalem maintained that circumcision was indispensable to salvation. In
consequence of the division created by this party, Paul and Barnabas under-
took a journey to Jerusalem (about 50), where, after hearing what God had
already accomplished by their means in carrying the gospel to the heathen,
the three apostles of Jewish Christianity extended to them the hand of fel-
lowship. A charter of privileges was then agreed upon, which was imme-
a) .dcfe 11, 20-22. l)Acts6,13s. c) tfa?. 1, 15s. ; 1 Con 9, 1; 15. 3; ^cf« 9, 1 22; 22, 3-lC ;
26, 9-lS; Ammon,i\e rej^ntlna Sauli convcrsione, Erl. 1T9S (0pp. theoL p. Iss.); Greiling, Hist
Psycbol. Vers. ü. d. pi .tz.l. Ueberg. <1. P. (Ilenkes Mus. 1S06. vol. IIL p. 220.) Straus«, Streit5ctrr.
ir. 1. p. 61ss. ; comp. K Sengel, Obss. de P. ad rem Chr. convcrs. 2 P. (0pp. Hanib. 1S31) ;— C*. G.
i'ücA/«;", dc anno, quo P. ad sacra chr. conversus est, Lps. lS2i d) Comp. Rom. 1, 16; 9, Si*
CHAP. IL APOST, ciirrxn. § .3.3. paul. 09
diately gent forth in a solemn edict to all Gentile Christian.'^, forbidding any
yoke to be imposed upon them, except a few observances like those which
were required of proselytes. Tliis proceeding could not be reconciled with
the original covenant (Gal. 2, Iss.) without considerable ingenuity of rea-
soning, and was not very consistent with the course which Paul sometimes
pursued, but it was a well-intended scheme to harmonize those conflicting
tendencies which were just springing up in the Church, and of which tradi-
tion gives us an account (Acts 15). (>) It was not until Paul, fully believing
himself called of God to be the apostle to the Gentiles, had extensively pro-
pagated the Church among the Greeks, that it became practically indepen-
dent of the prejudices which prevailed in Palestine. During his two long
journeys, and his protracted residences in Ephesus and Corinth, he established
numerous churches in the several cities of Asia Minor, Macedonia, and
Achaia, encountering for greater difficulties (2 Cor. 11, 20ss.) than are men-
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles. Hated equally b}' Jews and by Jewish
Christians, with many presentiments of his approaching death, he went,
about Pentecost in the year 58, to Jerusalem. There, abandoned if not be-
trayed by Christians, he was delivered from the hands of the exasperated
mob in the temple by the Roman guards. For two years he was kept in
bonds as a Eoman citizen, by the procurator Felix in Cesarea ; and when
Festus came into the same office, as the successor of Felix, in consequence of
his appeal to the emperor he was sent late in the year CO to Rome. After
a stormy voyage, he was kept in slight confinement in that city, and during
two years he labored in behalf of the great object of his life, not only with
those around him, but by means of epistles and friends with those at a dis-
tance. It is hardly possible that he could have survived the persecution under
Nero, but he was probably beheaded at Rome (64). That he was liberated,
and that he then for the first time visited the utmost limits of Western
Europe ,(/) and finally ended his life during a second imprisonment in Rome,
appears more like a learned conjecture than an ancient tradition. {(/) His
epistles abound in rabbinical explanations, in arguments stated in the form of
bold and complex syllogisms, in evidences of a highly wrought intelligenco
in connection with a profound spirit glowing with benevolence, and in waves
of thought which appear to struggle with and break upon one another. His
style was concise and often difficult, but he always had the right word fur
every variety of condition, sometimes powerfully convincing or threatening,
and at other times carrying all along with him by his cordial expressions of
affection. A nature like his may have ascribed some things to a divine reve-
lation through visions, which were the result of intelligent reflection, and
which may have been influenced by his peculiar physical temperament. (A)
«) Schneckenhurger, Apoetelgesch. p. Tis».; SchtctgUr, nacliapostol. Zeltalt vol. I. p. llGss. ;
comp. 2>eander, [Hist, of Plant and Train. Ac B. 111. Ch. 4. p. 7&ss. 3 ed. Phil.id. 1S44. 8.]
/) Clem. Horn. Kp. I. ad Corinth, c. 5. g) Kuseb. If. cce. II, 22; — J. P. Mynster, do ultiinis annU
Aiuneris ap. a P. goiti. Ilavn. 1S15; J. T. L. Dam, do loco Euscbii, qui do altera P. captivitntc aglt,
Jen. 1S16. 4;— iE". /'. It. Wulf, do alt P. captlv. dss. II. Lps. ISlOs. ; Baur, die Sogon. Pastoralbr. d.
Paul. Stuttg. 1S35. p. CSss; comp. Tub. Zeit>iclir. 1S3S. II. 3. § 438s. ; Stud. u. Krit 1541. U. 1
1) The visions related by Luke in the AcU of the Apostles, and the allusions to siudlar things in g«a-
ral in the Clementine», are conlirinetl in 2 Cor. 12, 1-?
50 ANCiKNT ciiuncii ni!^Toitv. rr.i:. i. 7)iv. i. till a. d. t'c
His doctrines nro essoiitinlly tlic same with those of Jesus, so far as tiiey pro-
ceed from tiic acknowledgment that Jesus was the Messiah, and are the views
of a profoundly religious mind, aftected by similar rational prepossessions.
They were, however, at the same time, independently founded upon his own
peculiar life and conflicts. In the first, he liad exi)erienced the remarkable
contrast botwccn a period of enmity tc Christ, and another in Avhicli Christ
Lad become his only lifo. This private experience he regarded as a specimen
of the life of mankind fallen from God by sin, and reconciled to God by
dlirist, and hence his evangelical instructions were specially directed to the
awakening of the consciousness of sinfulness. His conflicts had been princi-
pally directed to the liberation of the Christian spirit from the Jewish law.
lie therefore maintained, that if our whole salvation must come from Christ,
the law is not necessary to salvation. The connection between these j)rinci-
ples was made out by showing, that as man has not fulfilled the law, the
works of the law can only lead to condemnation, and salvation can be ob-
tained only by a complete surrender of the heart to Christ ; i. e. by faith
alone, not by a descent from Abraham, not by the merit of our own works,
but wholly from the free grace of God. Paul acknowledged that the old
covenant was divine, but he contended that it was completed by the new
covenant of God Avith man by Christ, so that now it had bo?ome an abroga-
ted institution. In his estimation, Christ was the substance of all religion,
and the sole ruler of the world. The advent of Christ to our world Avas the
lofty central point of all human history, from which he looked back upon the
preliminary revelation which had been given to Jews and Gentiles, and per-
verted by them both, and forward to the final triumjih of the kingdom of
God, when all opposition shall be overcome, and Christ himself shall with-
draw, that God may be all in all.
§ 34. Peter.
Zrayer?toß, Eitil in d. retrin. Sclirr. Ilamb. 1335; comp. K. Hase, Lebon Jesn. p. 112s. [A,
Lee, Life of the Ap. Peter. Lond. 18Ö2. 12.]
The practical energy which Peter possessed, and on which our Lord him-
self appears to have founded considerable expectations, made him the princi-
pal representative at least of the external affairs of the Church, as long as he
tarried at Jerusalem (until about 50). At a later period, when at Antioch,
principally from regard to particular persons, he relapsed to the exclusively
national view of Christianity, he Avas decidedly opposed by Paul (Gal. 2,
lis.), Avho advocated a gospel free for all mankind. In an apostle so prone
to extremes, such an act, Avhich almost seems like a second denial of his
Lord, is no more incredible on the ground that he had before not only toler-
ated, but even been the first to defend Gentile Christianity, than it was in
Barnabas. But his former relation to Paul appears never to have been fully
restored, for the first epistle which bears his name contains no conclusive
evidence of this, and in the memory of the next generation, Peter and Paul
Avere at the head of opposite parties iu the Church. According to testimony
derived from times after the middle of the second century, mingled, indeed,
with many error*, legends and party statements, but proving Avhat must hav«
CHAP. II. APOST. CIIUP.CII. § 34. PETER. § 35. PAKTIE3. 31
been the opinion of the Eoman Church, Peter sufiered crucifixion at Rome
(about C7). (") Jerome is the first who informs us (catal. c. 1), that he at
one time resided at Antioch, and afterwards was for twenty-five years Bishof
of Rome. Although satisfactory evidence from the history of Paul proves
that he could not have resided for so long a time at Eome, and even older
traditions show that he could have sustained no particular office in the church
of that place, since they mention, in different orders of succession, Linus,
Anacletus, and Clement, as the first bishops of Rome ; (h) it is nevertheless
certain, that wherever Peter was, his personal influence would always give
liiin the first position, unless Paul had been by his side. Ilis character is well
reflected m the legend of his flight, from which he was recalled by some
pungent reproof from the lips of Christ himself, and in that of his crucifixion
with his head downwards, (f)
§ 35. Position of Parties in the Time of Paul.
In its progress among the heathen, the gospel necessarily appealed entire-
ly to the general religious spirit which the apostle to the Gentiles recognized
even among them, (") since, with the exception of a few myths which might
serve as types of Christ, and some prophetic announcement, made by the
Platonic philosophy with which the apostles were unacquainted, it found no
promises handed down fi-om the fathers, and only the most obscure expecta-
tions. Even after Christianity had torn itself entirely away from the Mosaic
law, in consequence of its own origin as well as of that of its principal
teachers, the Jewish element was still prominent in the phrases, doctrines, di-
vine worship, and polity of the Church, and it was not remodelled until it
gradually became affected by Grecian modes of thought. Jewish and Gen-
tile Christianity existed side by side, either mutually recognizing or exclud-
ing one another. The former was sustained by the influence of those who
had been called the pillars among the apostles, and possessed an external sup-
port in the necefsities of the poor saints at Jerusalem. (/<) An internal basis
was also supplied, by the concession, that it was a duty which national if not
religious piet}' required, for a Jew to adliere firmly to the law. Each of these
forms of Christianity, however, must finally have felt, that its own rights de-
pended upon the rejection of the other. It was therefore always urged to
adopt the exclusive policy, which was at first precipitated by certain zealots
among tlie Jewish Cliristians, perhaps through a refusal of social intercourse,
or possibly by the uneasiness created in the minds of so?uc Gentile Chris-
a) DionysiuK Corinth, and Cajus Jiom. in Eufteh. 11. ccc. II, 25; (The doubtful Icstiiiiony of Pa-
plas, ih. II, 15;) Tren. Ill, 1. 3; Tertiil. c Mara IV. 5 ;— S rtire Til, de IV-lro Itomac mnrtyre, non
pontifico, L. n. 1710.4; J. G. I/erhst, in d. Tub. QiiRrtnI.«chr. 1S20. H. 4. p. SGTss. ; on the other
h.tnd, Fr. Spun/ieniii, I)s. do tictft profectiono Petri In urbem Komam. (0pp. Misi-oll. I.ngd. B. 1708.
Til. II. P. 831«.); Ji'iur, in d. Tub. Zt-iL^chr. 1S31. H. 4; C. F. v. Ammon, Forth, d Chr. z. Welt-
rel. Lpz. ISIO. vol. IV. p. 819ss. h) Emeh. II. ecc. Ill, 2; Rußni, Praof. ad Rccogn. Petri ; even
the CataloguK lAheiUinuK, about 354. On the other hand, the most recent Cath. assertion: Vol-
linger, KGesch. vol. I. Abtli. 1. p. C^s. ; Wimlischintinn, Vindiciae Petrin.io, Ratisb. 1S86*
Stengldn, in d. Tub. QuartaK^^chr. 1S40. If. 2s.; comp. J>aur, z. Literatur d. Pitnis-Safrc, in his
Paulus, p. GTlss. c) Enxeh. H. ecc III, 1; /li'-ron. catal. c. 1. On the other hand: Tertul. de
pracser. c. 8G. [.\rt, in Kitto'ä .Toiiriial of Bibl. Lit vol. V.]
n) ümn. 1, 19; Arts 17, 2i-29. h) Gitl. a 10- I Cor. IC, les.
32 ANCIENT CIIUUCII HISTOUY. rKK. I. UIV. I. TILL A. D. 100.
tians with respect to the law. (c) If, tliercfore, Paul liimsolf npoke somewhat
equivocnlly of tlio exorhitnnt respect paid to the apostles of Jewish Chris-
tianity (2 Cor. 1_', 11. Gal. 2, 6), his apostleship, which was referred to by
every oi)poiiciit .'is destitute of all external proof of a divine call, would be
barely tolerated by tlio more liberal portion of the Jewish Cliristians, and by
the more intolerant j)ortiün would be po.sitively rejected. Jewisli Christian
ity was certainly in the ascendant in Palestine, and there, until the violent
measures used by Hadrian, no bishops at Jerusalem were chosen except from
among the circumcision, Avith a decided preference for the acquaintance or
kindred of Jesus according to the flesh. (<7) In like manner, in the circle of
Paul's influence. Gentile Christianity alone could have been predominant ;
and in proof of this, an undeniable document exists in the epistle to the Ro-
mans, in whicli the principal idea is the overwlielming superiority of the
number of Gentiles in the Church. It is not, however, probable, that after
Paul had been removed, and the destruction of the holy city seemed like a
divine judgment against Judaism, any churches composed of persons bom
and educated as Greeks or Eomans would be persuaded to observe the Jew-
ish law, although attempts Avere not wanting even long after the commence-
ment of the second century to form associations, and exclude members on
this ground. Accordingly, when we find that Hegesippus called the Church,
which had existed prior to the death of the apostles, a pure virgin, and on
his way to Rome found what he called the irue doctrine with the bishops, we
conclude that he must have belonged to that class of Jewish Christians, which,
after the example of the prophets, and of our Lord himself, was not op-
posed to a Gentile Christianity, (e) The church at Corinth, soon after its or-
ganization, presents a picture of the parties formed especially on these con-
flicting views. One party, which assumed the name of JPeter, may have re-
garded at least some parts of the Mosaic law as still in force, while another,
called after the name of PrtwZ, looked upon the doctrines advocated by him
as exclusively Christian. A third party could find true Christianity nowhere
so well presented, as in the method of instruction adopted by the learned
Alexandrian, Apollos. A fourth, if it was not a mere branch of the Petriue
party, maintained that Paul had never enjoyed the apostolic privilege of a
direct intercourse with Christ, and appropriated to itself exclusively the name
of Christ, because it rejected all apostolic traditions, and relied entirely upon
its immediate union with Christ. (/) Paul did indeed defend his apostolical
authority against these various parties, by whom the unity of the Corinthian
Church was not destroyed, but he did so only on the ground that he had re-
ceived it from Christ himself. He did not deny, that every church had a
right to use, for its own edification, the various gifts of its religious teachers,
but he warned them that every thing which was not built upon Christ was
perishable. He insisted that the Christian was a new man, after the image
c) C. Bitob, de abrog. legis Mos. ex Petri, Jac. et Jo. itemqiie Ecc ab iisdem coDstitutarum
sententla. Monte- Albano, 1S42 ; C. E. Scharling, de Paulo ejusquö adversariis, Ilaun. 1336. d) Eiuteb.
IL ecc. IV, 5; Sulp. Set. IL sacr. II, 31.
e)EMeh.\l. ecc. in, 82. IV, 22. /) 1 Cor. 1, llss. comp. 2 Cor. 10, 1—Baur, ü. d. Chris-
tuspartei in d. Cor. Gemeinde (Tub. Zeitschr. 1S31. P. 4. comp. 1S36. p. 4), n. Paulus, p. 2''0ss.;
Dan. Schenkel, de Ecc. Corinthla priinaeva factionibus turb.ita, Bas. 1S3S; Dr. J. H. GolJfujrn, d
CHAP. II. APOST. CnUECII. § 85. PARTIES. § 3C. JOHN. 32
of God, and was no longer a Greek, or a Jew, or a Barbarian, but Christ was ali
in all, (g) A new tendency, having its origin among Jewish Christians, made
its appearance at Colosse, which promised its votaries a mysterious kind of
knowledge, and a power over the spiritual world, on condition that certain
unnatural austerities were undergone. (/() On the other hand, Paul main-
tained, that the highest wisdom was to be found in the simple gospel of
Christ, and that a Christian had a rational freedom allowed him with respect
to earthly things.
§ 36. JoJm.
Lücke, Vers. e. Vollst Ein!. In d. OfFenb. Job. u. in d. apokal. Lit. Bonn. 1S32. u. Com. u. d. Ev.
Job. Bonn. ed. 8. 1S40. vol. I. Einleitung ; Baumgarten-C niMua, Theol. Aiisl. d. Job. Scbr. Jen.
1S4-3. vol. I. Einleitung;—^. Frommann, d. Jo. Lebrbegr. Lps. lS-39 ; A'. li. JCdatlin, Lcbrbcgr. d.
Ev. u. d. Briefe Jo. Brl. 1S43; — G. C.J. Lutzelherger, d. Kircbl. Tradition ü. d. Ap. Job. in ibrer
Grnndlosigktit. Lps. 1S40; Maur, ü. d. Composition u. d. Charakter d. Job. Ev. {ZnUer'tt Jabrb. 1S44.
P. 1. 3s.); £. Zeller, d. äussern Zcignlsse iL Dasein u. Urspr. d. 4 Ev. {Ihul. 1S45. P. A)-— J. A. IT.
Khraril, de Ev. Job. u. die neueste Ilypotbese ü. s. Entsteh. Zur. 1S45; — TT' Grimm, Job. inErscb.
n. Gruber's Enc3kl. sect. II. vol. XXII. ; comp. Ilasc, Leben Jesu. p. Ess. ll'2s. {A. JUlgenftld, i
Ev. u. d. Briefe Jo. nach ibr. Lehrbegr. dargest Halle. 1S49.]
As far back as the recollection of the churclies in Anterior Asia extended,
John appears as the central point of interest to all the congregations of Asia
Minor, and moving in the same scene of action which had previou!5ly been
under the care of Paul at Ephesus. He is represented as indignantly con-
tending against erroneous teachers, whether of the Jewish or Gentile parties,
or as reclaiming by love those that were lost, and binding all together in uni-
ty, ip) He is said, by the legends, to have been miraculously delivered from
martyrdom at Piome. (h) A residence in Patmos, which, according to his own
narration (Rev. 1, 9), must have occurred in the time of Galba, was changed
by popular rumor in the Church, into a banishment under Domitian. All
traditions, however, agree in declaring, that he attained an age in which tlie
heart alone remains vigorous, (c) and that he finally fell asleep in the midst
of his disciples, in the reign of Trajan, His life and death were vividly re-
flected in many legendary accounts, the earliest of which were noticed by
himself in his gospel (John 21, 22s.) ('/) Even in the middle of the centu-
ry, he was the third among the leaders of the Jewish Christians. The book
of Revelations, whose authenticity is pretty well confirmed, which is evi-
dently conformed to Jewish types and. imagery, and must have been com-
posed prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, manifestly corresponds to such
a position. In that book, the chosen first-fruits around the throne of the
Lamb belonged exclusively to the twelve tribes, but beyond these were an
innumerable company from among the Gentiles, with palms and white robes,
praising also the Lamb that had been slain. {<) The natural progress of a
thoughtful man, as it is evident the author of the fourth gospel was, and as
Cbristnspart (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1S40. P. 2); Dähne, dio Christuspart. Hal. 1841; T. F. Knieicd,
Ecc. Cor. vctust. dlssensiones. Gedan. 1812. 4. g) 1 Cor. 3; Col. 3, 10s. h) Col. 2;—Sc7ineclienhur'
Oer, Ü. d. Irrlebrcr zu Col. (anbang z. 8<-br. ü. d. Prosely ten taufe. Brl. 1S23. u. Beitr. z. Einl. N. 14) ;
Jlheinirald, de pseudodoctorib. Coloss. Vcron. Rlicn. 1S34. 4.
«) Euseh. H. ecc. V, 24. Ill, 2.3. h) Terittl. do pracscr. c. 30. c) Ilieron. in Ep. ad Gal. 6. f?)^»«-
(7M«tm«. dc Trin. VI, 89 ; Pxeudo-nippohjt. (\<s consuinmat. inundi (llijip. 0pp. ed. Fabr. Apper.d.
J. M); com) . Fabricii, Cod. Apoc. Tb. II. p. OSS. e) liei: 7, 4-10. comp. Jo. 4, 22.
3
34 ANCIKNT CIIi:i£( II HISToKV. I'ER. I. DIV. I. TIIJ. A. D. Ufl.
one 80 specially beloved of tlio I-ord must liavc been, duririp a jieriod exten
sivc as tliat of an ordinary t,'eneration, and spent ainong clmrelies wliich had
enjoyed Greek culture and the labors of Paul, will sufficiently account fur
any apparent discrepancies, or tokens of advancement, which one may notice
in passing from tbo Rcveiations to the Gospel and the first epistle of John.
In these later productions, the same spiritual and comprehensive views of
Christianity i)rcvail, which arc so manifest in the epistles of Paul, but they
seem to indicate tliat the mental conflicts of the writer had passed away.
This gospel, moreover, seems to appeal not so much to a spirit conscious of
sin, and specially feeling its need of salvation, as to something exalted in the
existing nature of man, and its aspirations after perfection, Christianity,
therefore, appears there to consist not so much in mere faith in the mercy of
God^Iirough Christ, as more immediately in love, and in the union of the
divine and human in the heart, Avliich was comi)lete in Christ, and is de-
signed for our race. The incarnate Logos is a borrowed symbol of this uni-
ty, partially indicated before in the epistles of Paul, (/) but presented in the
gospel in a dogmatic form. It there appears as a celestial being not belong-
ing to our race, but taking the place of beloved man, although, in conse-
quence of personal recollections of Jesus, it is pervaded by historical facts of
the most perfect human character. The love which John inculcated, is pow-
erful enougli to conquer death, and penetrate through all obstacles up to God.
The most flourishing form of Christianity, in past or future times, is here
partially presented. It consists in a life, even on earth, of tranquil, unbro-
ken, and everlasting rest in God, in which all apparent schism between the
prgisent and the future, the human and the divine, has been overcome.
§ 37. Parties in, the Time of John.
The eame subjects Avhich were destined to agitate the Church in future
ages, began already to bo discussed among opposing parties. The various
views and sects which had formerly prevailed among the Jews, were certain-
ly carried forward in the very commencement, so as to produce similar vari-
eties among Jewish Christians, Even the different conceptions which were
then entertained of Jesus, had their origin in the national expectations of
the Jews respecting their Messiah, But as every account we have of them
belongs to a later age, it may be that the first power of Christian love, com-
bined with the external influence of Gentile Christians, was then sufiicient to
hold together even opposing elements. The feelings of bitterness which, ac-
coi-ding to the prominent recollections of the Church in the next century, the
apostle John entertained toward Ccrinthus, vrere too peculiar to have been
awakened by the existence of any thing in the latter of a merely Jewish
/) The passage in 1 Cor. 8, 6. 15, 47. cannot be explained away ; hence the more distinct and prominent
reference? to a Son of God who existed before tlie world, and created it, whicli are found in the Epp. to
Ihc Colossians. Ephesians and Pliilippisins, form no ground for suspecting the genuineness of thoee
writings. Although all views not merely accidental must have their appnipriate time of develop-
ment, the Jewish notions of the Messiah and the Alex.indrian doctrine of the Logos were so pre-
»iljusted to one another, that they might easily bo supposed to have been all combined together
[n 3 single night.
CHAP. IL APOST. Ciirncil. § 3:. GEEIXTUU?. § 33. TRADITIONS. 35
character. Qi) On the supposition that this Cerinthus taught, as he is said,
especially in Roman and Alexandrian accounts, to have done, that a millen-
nial kingdom of the most sensuous nature was to be expected, that the ob-
servance of the law was indispensable to salvation, and that the origin of
Jesus was merely human, (b) such views were at that time l>y no means tin-
common. If, as Irenaeus declares, he regarded the Creator of the world as
an inferior being, so that the Most High God was not revealed until he ap-
peared through Christ as a superior being, in connection with the man
Jesus, from the time of the baptism till the crucifixion, (c) he must, like John
himself, have meant that the law was only intended for the development of
the kingdom, and that the sensuous glory of that kingdom was merely alle-
gorical. (iT) In conformity with his Alexandrian education, he regarded the
Creator of the world as an intermediate divine being, in the service of the
supreme celestial Deity, (c) Those who looked upon matter as essentially
evil, in accordance with a doctrine springing from an overwrought Platon-
ism, or from Hindoo speculations, and certainly prevalent in Alexandria, must
have been offended at the idea of a revelation of Deity through sensible ob-
jects. Accordingly, the various forms of Docetism agreed in declaring, that
every thing corporeal in Christ was only in appearance, and for the manifes-
tation of the Spirit, and that his life was merely a continual Theophany. It
was against the subtilizing process which this view rendered necessary with
respect to the evangelical history, that testimony was borne probably even in
the epistles of John, and certainly in those which bear the name of Igna-
tius. (/) The Xicolaitans^ whose name was doubtless symbolical, and founded
upon traditional recollections, were merely the first representatives of a large
class of thinkers in subsequent times, who abused the spiritual superiority of
Christianity to all corporeal objects, to give countenance to the Greek frivol-
ity with respect to the relations of the sexes, (g)
§ 38. Traditions respecting the Apostles.
The stories which have been related with regard to a division of the
world by lot among the apostles, of the composition of a creed in Jerusalem
at the time of their separation twelve years after the Ascension, of their
celibacy or continence, and of their martyrdom, belong to the legends of tho
fourth and fifth centuries. According to earUer traditions, which, however,
present no individuality of character, Thomas went to Parthia, Andrew to
Scythia, ('/) Bartholomew to India, (J) and Philip died at Ilierapolis, in Phry-
gia. In one of the most copious, a story is told, and higlily embellished, of
a mission of Thaddens to Abgarus, prince of Edessa, in consequence of an
earlier correspondence between Jesus and that prince. ('•)
a) Iren. Ill, S;—Sc7imidt^ Cerinth e. judais. Clirlst. In s. Bibl. f. Kritik, u. E.x. vol. L p. ISls-s.;
PaHlux, Hist Ccr. (Introd. in N. T. cap. seloctiora. Jon. 1799); comp. Saiir, Clir. Gnosis. Tub. 1S35.
p. IIT. 4n.3ss. h) Kweh. II. ecc. HI, 2S; Epiph. Iint-r. 23. o) /;•<«, I, 26. d) fren. V, H3. e) Tke-
oiloret Ilacrot. fiibb. II, 8: Iren. I, 26. /) 1 Jo. 1, 1-3; 4, 2s. ; 2 Jo. 7; Ignatim ad Ej>hes. c, 7. 18.
id J^myrn. c. 1-8 :— .1 //. XUmt-ijer, de Dooeti?. Ilnl. 1S23. 4. 0) fltr- 2, 6. 14s». ; 2 Pet. 2, lö ; Jud. 11,
UKac rbv AooV, C? ybs , comp. Ireit. 1, 26; Clew. Strom. II. p. 490& ; III. p. ö-22s. ;— -VSre-
tvher, Vermutli. 0. d. Nikolailcn (Gablcr's Jonrn. f. Tlieol. Lit. 1608. vol. V. p. 17ss.); £uMld_ ia
Apooal. .Id. p. 110; Gßörer, Gesch. d. Urchr. I, 2. p. 4(i2ss.
a) EtiseK II. cce. Ill, 1. h) n,Ul. V, 10. c) JbUl. I, 13; K. //««<', Leben Jesu p. 11«.
SG ANCIKNT CIIUllCI! III.STORY. I'KR. I. DIV. I. TILL A. I). 100.
§ 39. ApoxtoUcal Fathers of the First C'cnturij.
Putrutn qui tcrnporlbiis npostolnrum flnrncrunt, 0pp. cd. Coteleriun. Par. 1G72. rep. Clericni,
Anist (109S.) 1724. 2 Tli. f. ; rntrum npp. 0pp. cd. Itusel, Lond. 1706. 2 Th. ; Patrum npp. 0pp. c-(L
Ueffle. Tub. (1*». 1S43.) 'JS47. [A. JIutler, Lives of tlio Father», Mart>T.s, 4:c Lond. 1833. 2 vols. 8,
K. BhkeratcVi, Tlie Chr. Fathers of tho First and Second Centuries. Lond. 1S45. 12; Ahp. Wake,
Ap. Fathei-8. Lond. 1S17. S.]—I/ei/ns, Junius et van Gllse, CommcntL de Patrum app. doctrlna mo-
rail. Lugd. 183.3. 4. [Ilifffer/ekl, d. Erforschungen ü. d. Schrr. A p. Väter. Kerl. ISM. 8.]
When the contemporaries and disciples of the apostles left behind them
any writing.^, they were distinguished by the ancient Church as apostolic
fathers. The genuineness of their writings cannot be perfectly maintained,
especially against the suspicion of having been revised in later times. They
resemble the writings of the apostles not so much in their distinct and intel-
lectual peculiarities, as in their general conception of Christianity, witliout
doctrinal precision or references to Grecian learning. The epistle of Larna-
las treats of the relation of Christianity to Judaism, in the manner of the
epistle to the Hebrev,'s, with an allusion to the temple of Jerusalem as if it
were already destroyed. In spite of the powerful historical proofs we pos-
sess of the genuineness of the epistle, the insipid spirit and the stupid arbi-
trariness of its allegorical explanations, continually suggest doubts whether it
could be the production of a man once regarded as the equal of Paul, {n)
The epistle of Clemens Eomaniis (Phü. 4, 3) to the Corinthians, was intend-
ed to eflfect a reconciliation between the parties which had been organized
among them. It inculcates the doctrine of justification by faith, but, in the
spirit of Paul, it exhorts all to adorn themselves also with good works. Tlie se-
cond epistle which bears the name of the same writer, is generally of a devo-
tional character, but it is a mere fragment, and of a very doubtfid authenticity.
The Shepherd of Eermas is a strenuous exhortation to morality, enforced by
the prospect of the second advent of Christ. It is in the form of direct rev-
elations from God, and visions of angels. In the manner of Jewish Chris-
tians, it displays great confidence in the holiness of good works, but contains
evidence that baptism had already taken the place of circumcision. The in-
dividual Avhose composition it professes to be, is unknown, but the general
use made of it in the churches of tho second century, for devotional reading,
indicates that he must have been an apostolical personage. {I)
§ 40. Political Oc er throw of Judaism.
Josephi de bello Jud. L VIL ; Tiuiii, Hist. V, 1-13.
The obstinacy of the Jewish nation may have required unusual severity
on the part of the Romans, but the extreme violence of the procurator Gcs-
a) In favor of its genuineness : K Uenke, de Epistolae quae Barn, tribuitur, authentia. Jen. Ii27 ;
Jiördam,<\& auth. Ep. B. Ilafn. 1S23; JIaverkorn van Byieinjk, de B. Arnheni. IS». On the
other side: UUmaiin, in d. Stud. u. Krit. 1S28. P. 2; Zug. in d. Zeitschr. f. d. Erzbl=th. Freyb. P.
2s, ; ir^ele, d. Sendschr. d. Ap. B. untersucht, überseUt u. erklärt Tub. 1S40;— /). Schenkel (Stud,
n. Krit 1S37. H. 3.) contends for the interpolation of c 7-12. 15. 16. by some Ther."»pentic Jewish
Christians; Jleberle, in d. Stud. d. Geistl. Würtemb. 1S46. P. 1. Chap. 16 seems to refer to the
Temple of Aelia Capltolina. J) Eom. 16, 14. 'O iroi^rjr- Pastor. Lat translation and Greek Frag-
ments;— Cmfa, Disqq. in Pastorem Ilermac. P. L Bonn. 1820. 4; Jachmann, d. Hirte dos Ilermaa
Konigsb. 1S35.
CHAP. IL APOST. CHUECn. § 40. JERUSALEM. § 41. fMPEEOKS. 37
iius Florm (after 64), could find no palliation except in the insurrections to
which he had driven the people. They had entered upon the war (G6), not
so much in the hope of victory, as in despair of all earthly peace. Legions
had fallen in the mountains of Judea, when VesjKCsian (after 67), and after
his elevation to the imperial throne, the Cajsar Titus (70), arrayed the whole
power of the empire against Jerusalem. The Christian churches, remember-
ing the prophecy which Jesus had left them, abandoned their native land,
and betook themselves to PeUa, on the other side of Jordan. Though famine
and civil war raged in Jerusalem, every otFer of mercy connected with the
condition of renewed servitude was scornfully rejected, and the holy city
was at last destroyed in a sublime death-struggle against the whole power of
the Roman world.
§ 4:1. Tlie Roman Civil Power.
[71 Arnold, Later Eoman Commonwealth. New York. 1S46. 3 vols. 8.]
It was the policy of the Roman government to permit all nations under
its yoke to retain their own gods, but some very ancient laws, forbidding any
Roman citizen to worship divinities not recognized by the State, and any
conquered nation to propagate their religion in other parts of the Empire,
were still in existence. («) Hence, the more Christianity disconnected itself
from Judaism, the more it lost the right of toleration conceded to every
national religion, and by its efltbrts to make spiritual conquests it became ob-
noxious to the laws. In the time of the Caesars, however, so strong were
the inclinations of the people toward foreign religions, and so numerous the
admissions of foreigners to the rights of citizenship, that these laws had be-
come nearly obsolete, and could be restored to their authority only by special
acts of power, (h) There is no other authority for believing that Tiberius
ever adopted Christ as one of his household gods, but the legends of the
second century, (c) Under Claudius^ Christians were expelled from Rome (-53)
merely as Jews, (d) J^ero (64) transferred to the Christians the guilt of his own
incendiary conduct, and caused all who could be found in the city to be put
to death, for although they were generally regarded as innocent of the crime
imputed to them, they were condemned as enemies of the human race. (<)
Under Domitian (81-96) the charge of Christianity was used as a pretext, by
Avhich persons might be convicted of a kind of high treason, that so their
property might be confiscated, and themselves banished or executed. Flavins
Clemens, a man of consular dignity, and belonging to the imperial family, was
put to death, and his wife Domitilla was banished to an island, according to
Roman accounts for contempt of the gods, and giving tliemselves up to Jew-
ish practices, but according to Christian views as martyrs for the truth. (/)
Some persons arraigned before the emperor, on account of their connection,
by birth, with Jesus, were dismissed without molestation, as harmless peas-
«) Cicero de legib. II, 8. h) Fr. W<dch, do Romanorum in tolerandis divcrsis religlonibus dis-
eiplina publica. (Nov. Commcntt. Soc. Reg. Goctt 17*3. vol IIL) f) Terttd. Apologet c. 5. 21.
In favor of it; Iiiaun,<Xe Tiberii Christum in dcorum nnmerum rcforendi consilio, Bonn. ISat.
d) Sueton, Cliuid. c. 25; Amnion, Vs. in Suet. Claud, c. 25. Erl. ISIO. 4. e^ Tucili Ann. XV, 44
ÄU€ton. Nero, c. 10. /) Siieion. Dom. c. 15; Dio Ca.nius (Epit. Xiphilini), LXVU, 14; Eitgtb.
38 AXCIKNT ClItTRClI lIISTOr.T. PKR. I. BIV. I. TILL A. T>. 100.
ants. ((/) Xrrra (96-98) forbudo tliat any one should Ijo accused for being a
Christian, in tho midst of these persecutions, Cliristians made no resistance
further than individually to assert their innocence, and then silently resign
themselves to their fate, (A) Near tho close of the first century churches
were to ho found in all tho principal cities of tho Eastern empire, but in the
West there are no distinct traces of them, out of Italy. The first converts
wcro principally slaves, laborers, and ■vvomon, but so numerous were they,
tliat even then it is said, tho temples of Asia Minor were deserted, and flesb
which had been otiered to idols could find no sale.
§ 42. Constitution of the Local Churches.
C. M. Pfiiff, do originib. juris ecc. Tub. 1719. etl. -i. Ulm. 1750. 4 {Greiling) Urvert d. »post-
Chrlstengem. Halbrst 1S19; Bretschneider, die Verf. z. Z. d. App. reprncsentaiiv-demokr. o. aristo •
kratisch? {A. K. Zeitung. 1S83. N. lOSss. u. Kirchl. polit Zeitfragen. Lpz. 1&47. p. Ms.«.); 7?. liothe,
die Anfänge d. chr. K. u. ilirer Verf. Witt 1S37. 1 vol. ; A. Petersen, die Idee. d. cbr. K. Lpz. 1S.39-
46. .3 Tb. ; [J. E. Riddle, Manual of Cbr. Antt Lond. 1S40. ?,; J. P. WilMn, Prim.Gov. of Cbr.
Cburcbes. Philad. 1S33. 12; A. Keander, Planting it Training, transl. from Germ, by J. E. Kyland.
Pbilad. 1844 S. L. Coleman, The Apostol. & Prim. Church, ic. Pbilad. 1S45. 12; A. Barnen, In-
quiry into the Orig. & Gov. of Ap. Church. Pbilad. 1S43. 12; R. Whately, The Kingdom of Chiist.
New York. 1S42. 12 ; J. L. Monheim, Commentt. on the Affairs of Christians before Const, transl.
from Germ, by Yidal. Lond. 1813. 3 vols. 8; J. Bingham, Origines F.cclcsiasticae, transl. from Lat.
Lond. 1852. 3 vols. S; P. King, Const, of Prim. Clmrch. Lond. 1719. 8; W. Sclater, Orig. Draught of
Prim. Church. Lond. 1727. 8; iV. Bangs, Orig. Church of Christ. New York. 1587. 2 ed. 8.]
The separate existence of the Christian Church was effected quite as much
by the daily religious assemblies of the disciples at Jerusalem, as by their
partial exclusion from the synagogues. The Twelve Ajyostlcs at first regarded
themselves as a perfected or exclusive College for the establishment of Chi-is-
tianity in the world. They had been the special companions of the Lord,
and were now the principal vouchers for the evangelical traditions. They
therefore exercised an undisputed authority over the Church, shared however
in a short time with others, who became distinguished for their spiritual gifts
as apostles and founders of churches. Xext to them in rank were the EkcuX'
gelists, a class of travelling preachers, sometimes also called, in the more ex-
tensive sense of the term, apostles. The Prophet ia was the gift granted to
many persons at that time, by which they were enabled to speak in an in-
spired, enraptured manner of discourse. In the case of Agabus, hojvever,
we have a specimen of a class of soothsayers who only faintly resembled an-
other, then for ever gone. («•) The actual officers of the local churches were
chosen as circumstances called for them, after the model of the synagogue.
aiders (TTpeaßvTepoi, C^rir-t) were appointed to preside, and preserve order in
the church, and Deacons {SiaKovoi), to take charge of the poor, and to assist
in every effort for the common good, (b) The Elders were sometimes called
by the unassuming name of Overseers (iTTio-Konoi), an appellation more con-
sonant with Grecian customs, and first adopted in Grecian congregations.
Chron. II. ad Olymp. 218 ; Rieron. ep. 86. (al. 27.) cf. Phil. 4, 22. g) Ettseb. Hist. ecc. Ill, 15. h) Or
thä other band: ÄVs^n^r, die Agape o. d. gtbeime Weltbund der Christen von Kleuiens ia P.oia
outer Domitian gestiftet. Jena. 1S19.
cJ) AcU 11, 2S. 21, 10s. I) Acts 6, 1-10.
CHAP. II. APOST. CHURCH. § 42. CONSTITUTION. § 4-3. LIFE. 39
Both titles were as jet used indiscriminately, although in consequence of the
personal intluence of some ■who presided in the churches, especially of Jeru-
Balem, the way may have been prepared even then, for the distinction which
became so decided and general in the first ten years of the next century, (r)
The officers of each church were chosen by the people, or with the consent
of the people were installed over them by those who organized them into a
church. Although the office of a public teacher must have seemed most im-
portant, and the necessity of well qualified instructors must have been
urgent, (d) it does not appear that any persons were at first set apart, exclu-
sively for that duty, (e) and every thing like a hierarchy was excluded by
the universal acknowledgment that all believers were members of a general
priesthood. (/) It was looked upon as a matter of conscience, that all civil
suits should be settled by arbitrators selected from the church itself, (g) After (
the excitement of the first establishment of the church had subsided, icomeii
once more returned to a silent submission to the Avord of God, and to the '
performance of their proper duties in the domestic circle. But in addition
to the Deaconesses^ who were employed in charitable offices among the women, )
there were probably, even then, some female preslyters or icidoics^ for the
supervision and instruction of the younger persons of their own sex. (A) /
Every one who applied for admission to the Church was immediately re-
ceived, but those who were subsequently found guilty of gross offences were
excluded by the action of the congregation. In the management of its pub-
lic affairs each congregation was an independent society, but by spiritual fel- '
lowship, and the influence of distinguished travelling teachers, all the con- ^
gregations were so connected together, as collectively to form one great king-
dom of God, of which even in the time of Paul, Jerusalem was regarded as \
the centre. The supreme law was love, and the sovereign power was exer-
cised by the Holy Ghost.
§ 43. Ecclesiastical Life.
Arnold, erst« Liebe cL i. wahre Abbildung d. ersten Christen. Frnkf. 1696. f. & oft. : Stickel et
Bogeiihar'J, Biga commeott de niorali jirimaevoruin Christianorum conditione, Neost ad 0. 1S26.
As the Church at Jerusalem grew up out of the original company of the
apostles, the common fund which had existed in the latter, suggested the
bold thought of a community of goods. Although such a project was much
facilitated by the enthusiastic brotherly love then prevalent, and an expecta-
tion that all existing relations were soon to be overthrown, it was never com-
pletely carried out, and this congregation was soon in need of the charities
of Oliristians in foreign countries, (a) A hypocritical vanity which occurred
in a form not very uncommon in religious circles, was visited with a terrible
c) Cic. ad Attic. VII, 11; Acte 20, 17. 2S; P/dl. 1, 1 ; 1 Pet. 5, Is.; Clem. Jlom. ad Cor.
c. 42. 44; Ifenrnte Past. L 2. A\— Blonde!, Apologia pro sententia Ilier. do Episc. Anist 1616.4;
Cahler, do E[>iscopls primae ecc. Jen. 1SÜ5. 4. d) Acts 6, 2;—/. Tim. 8, 2. 5, 17; // Tim. 2, 24.
e) Forhiger, Ds. de iniincrib. ecc, tempore App. Lps. 1776. 4; Gabler, examinatur Forbi-
geri sent, de Prosb. Jen. 1S12. 4. 2 Pgg. /) /. Pet. 2, 9. 5, 3, cf. Rom. 12, 1. g) I. Cor. 6, 1-S.
cf. Matt. IS, l.'Jss. ;0 Acts 2. 17. 21, 0.— A'om. IG, \.— Tit. 2, 3; 7. Tim. 5, 0; Cone. Land. can. 11
{ifawii, Til. II. p. E66).— //i/sc, .Strc-it-^clirr. P. 2, p. ;3.5<s.
a) Acts 4, 32sa cf. 12, 12. — Musheim, de vera natura coinuiuiiionis bonorum in Eco. lliur. (D.^xa
40 ANCIENT CimilCII IIISTOnV. PKK. I. I»IV. I. TILL A. D. tOO.
(livilio retribution. (//) Tlic ordinary mode of life in each ooiif,'ref,Mtion pre-
soritoil ninny points of coinpariflon with that wliieh existed among the
Essenes. (c) Christians regarded themselves, in contrast witli the world, as
the consecrated people of God. Every intellectual faculty, according to its
peculiar nature, Avas enlisted in the service of the kingdom of God, and when
exalted by the common sjiirit of the Church, was looked npon as a gracious
"•ift of the Holy Gliost. Hence, while there were many gifts, there was but
one Spirit. Tlio most remarkable of these gifts was the power of miracu-
lously healing the sick, at first more especially exercised by Peter, but after-
wards supposed to be a permanent possession of the Church. The Holy
Ghost was regarded as the common spirit of the whole Church, proceeding
directly from Christ, awakening and appropriating to its use the sacred en-
thusiasm of each individual. The external manifestations of this spirit were
sometimes genuine exhibitions of divine power, but were sometimes con-
founded with the fanatical irruptions of a high religious excitemem, nnd in
all cases were regarded as fulfilments of a prophetic metaphor of ilcssianic
prophecy. ((T) The sincere piety which generally prevailed, however, did no*
always prevent the pride which flatters itself on account of its external sei
vices, nor did the extraordinary brotherly love which the great body ot
Christians exhibited, entirely suppress some manifestations of envy and party
spirit. When persecution was expected, it was not uncommon for some
among the Jewish Christians to save themselves by apostacy, and among the
Gentile portion of the Church sins were sometimes committed which were
regarded as unpardonable, (e) Even when Christian morality had been in-
fluenced by Jewish views of personal purity, it had much to contend with in
the sensuality of the Greeks. Fastings and abstinences, which had been re-
garded from a period of great antiquity, as conducive to a pious disposition,
together with some festivals, were very soon introduced into the Christian
Church. Paul, it is true, rejected them when any attempted to enforce them
as a matter of legal obligation, or of personal merit, but he looked upon vir-
ginity as a very desirable condition, and expressed an inferior regard for the
married state. (/) No change was required in the social relations of life, but
they were exalted by higher motives and principles, (g) All hope of an
earthly theocracy was apparently destroyed by the death of Jesus, but Chris-
tians generally believed that Christ was to return to the world a second time,
and many indulged the .hope that they would live to witness his advent. This
faith gave birth to the boldest expectations, partaking generally of a sensuous
character, and while it seemed a national necessity, and a religious consola-
tion to the Jewish, it Avas a source of anxiety and perplexity to the Grecian
congregations. (A)
§ 44. Afodc of Worship.
The devotional exercises of the Christian assemblies, like those of the
Jewish synagogues, consisted principally of prayers, singing of hymns, and
— ,
»d n. ecc Altou. 1743. Th. XL) 6) Acts 5, 1-11. c) Comp. Gß-örer, Gesch. d. Urclir. III. p. 855ss.
<f) Act^. 15-lS; T. Cor. 12, 4. 14, Iss. e) Heb. 6. 4<s. 10, 25ss.— /. Jo. 5, 16. /) /. Cor. 7, Is. S2si
(7) Ep. ad Philemon. 7i) After the Apoc.ilypse, M^itlA. IC, 2S ; /. Cor. 15, 52 : P/iil. 4, 6; ITeb. 10, 37 ,
/. Jo. 2, IS ; James 5, S ; /. Pet. 4, 5.— 7/. T/ies». 2.
ciiAP. II. APOST. cnrncu § a. woksiiip. § 45. DOCTnixEs. 4]
eacred discourses, founded upoa portions of tlie 'Old Testament. Apostolic
epistles were read in the congregation, to Avliich they had been originally di-
rected, but after a single reading they were generally laid aside. Every one
who had the power and the inclination to speak in public, was allowed to do
so with freedom. Baptism as an initiatory rite was performed simply in the
name of Jesus, (a) The love-feast, in whicli were combined the ordinary
meal and the religious service of the primitive Christians, was originally cele-
brated in Jerusalem every day. At its conclusion the broken bread and the
consecrated cup was passed around to every one at the table. (5) In the Jew-
ish Christian congregations the Jewish Sabbath and festivals Avere observed.
Paul denied that any one was bound by positive law to show a preference of
one sacred day above another, (c) Only in congregations composed px'inci-
pally of Greeks, could the members be induced to observe Sunday in com-
memoration of our Lord's resurrection, (<7) and among them no interest could
be awakened in those Jewish festivals, whicli were not connected with some
event of the Christian history, to give them additional importance. It is,
however, not easy to explain why even Paul and John should have discon-
tinued in such congregations the eating of the paschal lamb, according to the
usage of their forefathers, (e)
§ 45. Doctrines of the Church.
No public sentiment upon definite articles of Christian faith had yet been
formed, but in addition to those generally received maxims of piety, which
in some instances had been handed down from the lips of Jesus, and in others
had been gradually developed in the course of free discussion, the whole sys-
tem of Jewish faith passed over into, the Christian Church, and was received
as divine. The only condition of admission to the Church, was a promise to
live a new life, and an acknowledgment of Jesus as the Messiah. In this ac-
knowledgment free scope Avas given to all those views of the nature of the
Messiah, which prevailed among the people, from a simple recognition of him
as the Son of David, and a man filled with the Spirit of God, to a belief in
him as an angel, and an impersonation of some one of the attributes of
Jehovah. In the view of the Greeks the Messianic oflSce had no special sig-
nificance, and Christ Avas to them simply the Lord, and the Son of God. As
far as the reception of the doctrine of the Iloly Ghost may be regarded as au
indication of the development of Christianity at this period, the views of the
Church may be inferred from the baptismal foi-mula, Avhicli was a simple ex-
pression of faith in the divine Father, Son, and Spirit (Matth. 28, 19). This
Avhole transaction was a thoroughly practical matter, and admitted of a great
variety of views.
«) Acta 2, 83. 8, IG. 10, 48; Horn. 6, 3. h) J. T. F. Drescher, de vott, Cliristianorum Agapis. Gies5.
1S24. c) Gal. 4, Oss. ; Cut. 2, IG; Rom. 14, 5; comp. / Cor. 5, G#s. ; Comp. Juaüii. c. Trypli. c. 10,
1-2. d) ActsW, T; /. Cor. 16, 2; licv. 1, 10; narnah. c. 15.— C C. L. Franke, de diet dominie;
ajmd vett. Christ, culebratione, Hal. ls2G; (Coraintt. sei. ed. Volbeding. ISIG. Tli. I. P. I.) e) AcU
20, 5s. ; Eiiaeb. II. ccc. V, 24. I
42 AXCIKNT CIlUnCH IIIäTOUY. TU:. I. blV. II. A. I). 100-312.
,^ 'j ' DIVISIOX II.-FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC CIIURCn.
CrUP. I— STRUGGLE OF THE CHURCH FOR JTS OWN EXIST-
ENCE.
Lactantin«, do inortib. pcKcciitorurn, ed. Btiuldri, Traj. ad. Kh. 1C03. and often. [Tlils work
l< trnnsl. by ßp. Jinruet. Lond. 1713. 8.] — C. Kortholt,(\v iierscfniullonib. ecc. i>riiiiacvao (Jen. 1600),
Kilon. 1GS9. 4; TriUisl. into Germ.; Besclir. d. 10 grossen V»Tf(il;.'g. llarnb. lO'JB; <7j7/t(,n, iJecllne
ami Fall of tlie Horn. Kiiip. Lond. 177Css. 6 vols. 4, and often. [Witb notes by Jlihnan and
Iriiizot. New York. 1S13. 4 vols. 8.] Trans), into Germ, by WenK; and otiiers. Lps. 17SSs8. 19 vols.;
the IGtli cliap. respecting the prop, of Clir. by natural cause», transl. by A. F. v. n'iilterttem,lJamh.
17SS-, G. A. Oslander, Ausbreit, d. Cliristcnth. (Stfiudiin's u. Tzschimer's Arch. vol. 4. sect 2); //.
G. Tzschirner, der Fall des lleidenth. Lps. 1829. 1 vol. ; A. Beugnot, Ilist. de la destruction du pa-
ganisme en Occident. Par. 1S35. 2 vols. \_A. NiUchl, d. Entsteh, der Altkatli. K. Bonn. 1850.]
§ 40. The Jacs.
Zunz, die Gottesdienst!. Yurtr. d. Jud. hist entwickelt Brl. 1332. comp. § 40.
Uninstructed by the past, and unhuinbled by defeats, the Jews contended
against their fate (after 115), and from Western Africa to Asia Minor, insurrec-
tions rolled over the land, always to be quelled in Jewish blood. That he
miglit not be compelled to put the whole nation to death, Hadrian resolved
to destroy its nationality. The people were forbidden to observe their Sab-
baths, and circumcision was punished as a crime probably as emasculation, ('/)
and on the ruins of Jerusalem a city consecrated to Jupiter was built, and in
honor of that divinity and of the emperor was called Aelia CapitoUna.
When reduced to extremity, the nation was called to arms (132) by Bar
Cocliba^ i. e. the Son of a Star, (5) who professed to be the promised Messiah,
and was acknowledged to be such by the distinguished Rabbi Akiba. He
succeeded in conquering Jerusalem, and in consequence of his heroic but
sanguinary exploits, Palestine became once more free. But after all the hor-
rors and vicissitudes of a three years' war, Julius Scveru-'i got possession, by
storm, of Bethar, the last fortress of this Messiah's kingdom. The impostor
himself fell in the battle. The whole of Palestine had become a desert.
Every Jew was forbidden, under penalty of death, to set foot within the holy
city. Those Christians who remained in Palestine suffered much during this
struggle, not only from the Romans, by whom they were frequently treated
as Jews, but still more from the followers of the false Messiah, because they
refused to follow him in his eöbrts to save their common country. {<:) These
national misfortunes were regarded by the Jews as divine judgments for their
inditierence to the law of their fathers, and had no influence in diminishing
their assurance of future success. Schools of learning were established, to
serve as spiritual courts, and centres of influence for the nation in its general
dispersion. Genuine lialhinism was formed on the ruins of the older sects
a) SpartianI, lladr. c. 14. comp. Digest. XLVIIL tit. S. fr. 11; Nov. Just 142. c 1. I) Xum
24 17. After his failure he was called : S<^"'ri3 "13 , filius mendacii. <■) L i>*'o t"</s«. LXVIU
82; LXIX, 12ss. ; Enseb. 11. ecc, lY, 2. C; Justini', Ap. L c 31.— IL Dei/ling. Aeliae Cap. Orl-
gines ef Hist Lps. 1713; Munter, der Jüd. Kries unter Trajan w. lladr. Altana u. Lps. 1;21
CHAP. I. STRUGGLE OF CHKISTIANITT. § 46. JUDAISM. § 47. E0MAX3. 43
at Tiherias^ in tlie school of Ilillel, in which the Mosaic law, in its utmost
extent, though partially accommodated to the times, was taught hy a class
of teachers permanently set apart to this work. The traditions of the scribes
here reduced to writing (Mishna, about 220), with oxi)lanations {Gonara, in
the 4th cent.), constituted, in subsequent times, the principal book for in-
struction and religious law (Talmud). A still greater 'influence was after-
wards acquired by the schools on the Euphrates, in Avhich the Babylonian
Talmud was composed of the same general materials (430 till 521), and be-
came more generally esteemed, on the ground that it was a more distinct
form of modern Judaism. The Jews, Avho were the sources of all the calum-
nies heaped upon Christ and the Church, knew very well how to excite the
Bame hatred against the Christians of which they were themselves the vic-
tims. {'!) The feelings of Christians with respect to the Jews still remained
of a coutradictory character. In a dialogue of Justin, in which the author
replies to the objections of a candid Jew against the vocation of Jesus, and
the transitory nature of the divine law, the position is assumed, that the Mo-
saic precepts and institutions were only prefigurations and symbols either of
what Christ did, or of what happened to him and his followers, (e) It was
even then asserted, that Christianity had been rejected by the people among
whom it originated, and that the few who had embraced it were by no means
the most faithful and consistent Christians. (/) The proofs adduced by
Cyprian are a collection of pertinent and impertinent passages of Scripture,
to show that the Jews were to be cast olf, and that all the prophecies either
had been or would be fulfilled by Christ, (y)
§ 47. The Roman People and Empire.
Kortholt, Pasranus oljtrectator, Kilon. 1G9S. 4; J. J. Ilulderic.i, Gontilis obtrcetator, Tl2;nr. 1744;
Papht, de culpa Christiaiior. in vexatt. inotis a Eom. Erl. 17S9. 8 Pgg. 4 ; Munter, die Cliristin im
beiduischen Ilause yor Constantin, Kopcnh. 1S2S.
From the time of Trajan, the Roman people had been accustomed in a
tumultuous manner to demand that Christians should be put to death. This
proceeded originally from perilous who either derived their support from some
connection with idolatry, or found their principal honor or pleasure in the
cultivation of pagan literature. But internally decayed, as heathenism then
was, it could never have awakened such a powerful opposition, and, in the
course of the struggle, have won for itself once more a high degree of attach-
ment, merely by appeals in behalf of the old idolatry. The Avholo common
feeling of the ancient world, and the chief glory .of the present life, was as-
sailed by Christianity, and the people saw nothing proposed in return but e
severe and cheerless system of virtue, in Avhich tlie world was rendered a
desert, that an uncertain heaven might be won. The hatred thus awakened
endeavored to justify itself by suspicions. The spiritual worship of an in-
visible God was denounced as atheism: participation in the sacred body of
d) Justin, c. Tryph. o. tCs.; Terlul. sd nation. I, 14. e) AidKoyos rrpb? Tpvpwva 'lov^aiov.
Ed. JthJ), Lond. 171»; 0pp. rec. J. C. T. 0(to, Jen. lS42s. Tli. U.-.-^.Vüu.icher, an Dial, c Tryph.
Jnstino rr-cto adscribatiir? (Comnientt. thcol. ed. Ilosonmueller, Lps. 1S-2C. Tli. I. P. 2, p. 184ss.)
/) Juntini, .\p(il. I. c. 53. g) Tostimonlnrnni ndv. Judaeos, 1. III.
44 ANCIENT ClIUKCH lIISTOnV. I'EU. 1. lUV. II. A. I). liJO-812.
Christ was represented as a TLj'CHtean feant ; the privacy of tlie Christian as-
semblies was looked upon jis a cloak for conspiracy, and for secret crimes;
and the fraternal fellowship which generally jirevailed among Christians, was
suspected as the result and the occasion of uimatural lasciviousncss. Tlie re-
proaches heaped upon each other by the Church and the various Christiai.
sects, (n) and the confessions wrung by torture from heathen slaves, with re-
epcc*^ to their Christian masters, (h) appeared to confirm the suspicions of
those who were anxious to find evidences of guilt. The public misfortunes
m which that ago abounded, were all regarded as divine judgments for the
dishonor done to the oflended gods. But to persons of distinction, and to
those who had been educated in the spirit of the times, Christianity appeared
to he a dark superstition of an infatuated rabble. The magistrates were, in-
deed, frequently induced to persecute Cliristians, by the clamors of the mul-
titude, and by their own passions ; but the true reason for it was to be found
in motives of state policy. Christians looked ui)on it as dangerous to take
the oath of allegiance which the soldiers were obliged to receive, or to per-
form the duties of any public or civil office, (c) although man}' overcame
their religions scruples from a regard to personal advantages or feelings of
duty. Although they generally submitted to every outrage inflicted upon
them by the magistrates, whom they regarded as appointed by God, their
vast number and mutual fellowship rendered them formidable to the civil
authorities. Indeed, this consciousness of their own power, and their con-
viction that the empire was destined to a speedy overthrow were so openh*
expressed, (d) that their assurances of fidelity and loyalty appeared quite sus-
picious. At all events, the State was torn by dissensions, and as long a3
any hope remained of overcoming Christians by terror, sanguinary measures
were looked upon as likely to result in good. The fate of Christians was, it
is true, determined by the imperial edicts in every part of the empire, but it
was rendered mild or severe according to the popular sentiment in each pro-
vince and the personal feelings of the local magistrate.
I 48. Conduct of the Indkidual Emperors during the Second and Third Cen-
turies.
Franc. BahJuini, Commtr. ail edlcta vett prince. Rom. de Christianis, Hal. 1727. 4; C. JD. A
JIavtini, Persecutiones Christianorum sub Iinpp. Eom. Eostocli. 180-2s. 3 Comni. 4; Schumann
r. Mansegg, die Terfolguniren d. ersten christl. Kirche. A'len. 1S21 ; G. S. KTipke, do statu et condl:.
Christianorum sub Impp. Kom. alterius post Clir. Saec. Ber. 1S2S.
1. A noble race of emperors, in whom the Greek and Roman spirit was
once more revived, were, in the old Roman style, either inditierent or severe
in their treatment of Christianity. A rescript of Trajan (98-117), in reply
to some inquiries of Plinius (about 110) respecting the conduct to be pursued
towards Christians, directed that they should not be sought after by the civil
authorities, but that all legally arraigned by accusers before the courts, wert
a) Tcrtul. de jejun. c, 17 ; Clem. Strom. III. p. 511 ; Emeb. U. ecc IV, 7. b) Etiaeb. II. ccc. VI,
1. c) Tertiil. de cor. c. 11 ; Apologet c 8S; de Pallio, c 5; Euinart, Acta Martyr, cd. 2. p. 299a
(7) TertuK Apolojet. c. 87. Tlie Apocalypse of John, and many things In the Sibvllinc books, ^M
»Iready announced these.
CHAP. 1 STRUGGLES OF CHRISTIANITY. § 4S. ROMAN EMPERORS. 45
either to Le pardoned if tliey denied the charge or repented, or given over
to death if they continued obstinate. He however allowed, that no uniform
rule could be prescribed in this matter. So many of them in IJithynia and
Pontus were induced to invoke the gods, to anathematize Christ, and to honor
the statue of the emperor with offerings of wine and incense, that Pliny in-
dulged the hope that, by a skilful combination of mildness and severity, he
■would soon be able to put an end to this superstition. (0) The aged Symeov,
the son of Cleopas, and the successor of James at Jerusalem, being accused
before Atticus, the governor of the city, of being a Christian, and of the
family of David, was crucified (107), (A) and I(/nntiiis, Bishop of Antioch,
after a personal audience with the emperor, was torn to pieces by lions in
the Coliseum, for the amusement of the Roman people (116). (<•) About
this time, the people began at their festivals, or in time of public calamity,
to demand the blood of Christians. Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius
(138-161) therefore checked these tumultuous proceedings, by directing that
the strict forms of law belonging to the usual trials should be observed. QT)
The stoical repugnance which Harens Aurclius (lGl-180) felt toward the en-
thusiasm of the Christians, induced hira to allow the popular hatred in south-
ern Gaul and Asia Minor to have its full career of blood, (e) Pohjcarp^
Bishop of Smyrna, the last living relic of Apostolic days, died (169) at the
stake, because he refused to curse the Lord whom he had faithfully served
for 8G years. (/) The miracle of the Legio fulminatrix (174) was cither not
important enough, or not sufficiently authenticated, to turn the philosophic
emperor from his course. ({/) 2. Until some time in the middle of the third
century, the emperors were either inditferent or favorable to Christianity ;
but as the ancient laws still remained unrepealed, its adherents Avere depend-
ent upon the caprice of the municipal governors. The wanton cruelty of
Commodus (180-192) was softened to mildness with respect to Christians,
by the influence of his paramour Mareia, and yet Apollonius Avas put to
death, principally, however, on account of his eloquent apology for Christian-
ity before the Senate. Ilis accuser was executed at an earlier period, per-
haps as his slave. (//) Scptimius Severvs (192-211) merely prohibited the
further propagation of Christianity, (i) The enmity which Caracnlla
(211-217) bore toward the whole human race, amounted only to indilTerence
with respect to the Church. {Ic) The efieminate pleasure which IIdio<jahnlm
(218-222) took in oriental systems of religion, operated favorably in behalf
of Christianity. (J) AVith a nobler appreciation of its spiritual nature, Alex-
a) Pllnii, Epp. X. p. 903. (al. OTs.); Tertul. Apologet, c. 2; Euseb. II. ecc. Ill, 'iZ;— Haver-
saat, Vertlicidiitung tier I'lin. Briefe ü. J. Ciiriston, GOtt 1733. b) Euseb. IL ccc. Ill, 32, comp. IL
tftor Ilegesippus. c) Euseb. H. ccc. Ill, 2G; Acta martyril IgnaL in liuinart, p. Sss. d) Jitsthii,
Apol. I. c. 68; Hitfin, II. ecc. IV, 9; Euseb. II. ecc. IV, 26; comp. SpariUmi, Iladr. c. 22. On Ih«
spuriousness of tlie Edictuni ad Cominuno Asiao in Euseb. IV, 13, and Just. I. c consult Jfajner
de Edicto Antonint pro Christ Argent. IVSl. 4. e) Marcus Aur. irphs iavriv XI, 3; Euseb. 11
ecc. V, 1-8. f) Ecclesiao Smyrnonsis de mnrtyrio Polycnrpi Ep. Encycl. In Euseb. II. ecc. IV, 15.
A fuller recension In liuinart, p. 31s8, g) Tertul. Apologet c. 5; Euseb IL ecc, V, 5. For tli«
views entertained by heathen, see Dio Cass. Epit Xiphilini LXXI, 8; SuhJas, verb. 'lovXtayhs.
Jul. CapitoUn. Marc. Aur. c. 24. A) F.useb. IL ccc, V, 21 ; Hieron. catal. c 42. i) Spartiani, So-
TW. c IT. comp. Tertul. ad Scapul. c 4. k) Tertul. ad Scapul. c. 4. I) Lamprhl. Ilellog. c. 8
46 ANCIKNT CllUUCir HISTOUV. VVAl. I. UIV. II. A. I). 1(M>-8I2.
nn/ler Screrim (222-235) jilaooil tlio stiituo of Christ niiKing liis lioiiBolioli
gods, ftn(l praotically rocofrnizod the Christian conffrc^'ation at Rome as a
civil corporation. His niofhor, Julia Maininaea, wliilc at Aiitioch, took de-
liglit in the learning of Ori<rc'n. (///) In the view of MaxutiltviH the Thraciau
(2-35-2.'38), the Tnurdorer of Alexander, such favor was a sufiicient reason for
persecuting him who liad received it. Among those wlio followed him in
rapid succession in the imperial throne, Philip the Arabian (244-249) was so
favorahlo to Christianity, that the report became almost universal, that he
was himself a Christian, {n) 3. The Church finally became so ]iowerfiil,
tliat it became necessary either to acknoAvledgo its legality, or to persecute it
with all the power of the empire. Decius (249-251) raised the first general
persecution, by requiring the magistrates to institute inrjuisitorial proceed-
ings. Those who sustained office in the Church directly met death, or if
they fled, they purchased life with the loss of property and home. (") To
tliis distressing period, popular tradition has assigned the commencement of
the slumber of the seven children of Ef)hesus, who did not awake until the
time of Theodosius II. (447), and were then astonislicd to find the persecuted
sign of the cross ruling over the imperial city and the Avorld. {p) OaUm
(251-253) was prevented only by the political commotions of his reign from
completing the sanguinary work of his predecessor. F«/ew/7HM (253— 260),
after a brief period of favor toward the Church, sought systematically to de-
stroy it by exterminating its ofiicers. (q) But Gallienus (2G0-2G8) gave peace
to the whole Church, by an edict in which he recognized it as a civil corpo-
ration. (?') Aureliamis (270-275), who at one time had consented to act as an
umpire between contending bishops, determined afterwards, from heathenish
scruples, to persecute the Christians. His death was effected by a military
conspiracy before the execution of his purpose, (s) and during a long period of
rest, the government appeared to have abandoned for ever the unequal con-
test of mere force in opposition to spiritual principles.
§ 49. Internal Ilistory of Paganism
After the middle of the first century, in consequence of intercourse with
the east, and of the pressure of internal elements, the intellectual world made
considerable progress. On the one hand, with a high-wrought religious fer-
vor, it overpassed the proper limits of heathenism, and connected itself some-
times Avith a particular phase of Platonism, and sometimes with the pure
and self-denying mode of life which tradition assigned to the PythagoreaE
system. On the other hand, when it was only partially aroused, it carried
the spiritual element into the world of sense, that it might obtain a control
over the latter by magical arts, and penetrate the mysteries of the world of
spirits. We therefore find, in the very midst of great moral corruption,
and the dissolution of all social and natural' ties, initiations into wonderful
«0 Lnmprid. Alex. Sever, c. 29. 49. comp. 2S. 48. 45 ; Eusel. IT. ecc VI, 21. 23. n) Eus(h. U. ecc.
VI, S4; Ilieron. Cliron. ad ann. 246. o) Euseb. II. ecc. VI, 40-42; Cypri'm, de lapsi?, and his epis-
tles written at this time; LacUint. de niortiU c. 4. p) Gregor. Taron, de gloria Mart. Par. lt>40
p. 215s.; Jieinecciu-^ de T dormientib. Lps. 1702. S.inctor. 7 dormientiiim IlisL Rom. 1742. 4
5) Eweh. n. ecc. VII, 10s.; Cypriani Ep. S2. r) Euseb. U. ecc VI I, 13. «) Eusib. II. eoa
VII, 80 ; Lactant de mortlb. c 6.
CHAP. I. STRUGGLES OF CHEISTIAKITT. § 50. NEW I'LATOXISM. 47
jnysteries, a capricious confulenco in miracles, extreme sell-deni;!).-;, and pan-
gninary expiations, (a) In the attempted union of Pulytlieisni and Mono«
theism, the gods were regarded only as different names of the one God, or as
the organs through which he revealed himself to his creatures. Even the
Stoa, by the influence of Bj^ictetus (about 100), received a character which
no longer sought virtue in perpetual struggles, but in patient endurance.
The literature of that period, generally a forced after-growth of a mighty
nature then extinct, gradually developed the characteristics of credulity and
superstition. Even as early as the time of Plutarch (50-120), with all his
enthusiasm for the exalted models of antiquity, his writings abound in much
which is fantastic. Aclian (about 222) is full of pious legends about the
manifestations of the Deity in nature and in common life. The spirit of the
age is well reflected in the animated but extravagant writings of the African
rhetorician Apidcius (about 170), in which are sensual thouglits side by side
with pious fanaticism, and satires upon superstition mingled Avith supersti-
tious dreamings. {b) This tendency, Avhcn it first came in contact with
Christianity, appropriated to itself many Christian elements, merely that it
might become a better match for its opponent. Tlie real Apollonius of Ty-
ana (3796) travelled about in the character of a reformer of heathenism,
striving to give to it the character of unlimited f.ätli which wo have de-
scribed, and deceived many by the strange revelations which he probably ac-
complished by some magnetic clairvoyance, so that he became honoreu as a
prophet, and sometimes even as God. But in a rhetorical work, in which
Philostrat'iis (about 230) professed to give his life, and attempted to present
him before the world as the Christ of heathenism, he became the ideal of a holy
sage wonderfully honored by the gods, {e) On the other hand, there were
some who attempted to represent the mighty world-spirit of the ancient
Greek philosophy, but they uniformly found, that while aiming to personate
such a character in one respect, they were inconsistent with it in another.
§ 50. Kcic Platonism.
. I. Plotiiii, 0pp. oinni:i; Porphijrii lAher de vita Plotini, ed. Creiner, Oxon. 1S3C. 3 vols. 4;
nop(pvfiiov ((>i\ocT6(pov wphs MapweAAo*', invonit notisque ill. Aiiq. J/aJtts, Mediol. ISIG.— II.
Among the ITistt. of Plul. ospfci:illy, Tennemann, vol. VI. [Ilis M-inii.-il is tr.insl. 0.\f. 1S32. S.]
Ritter, vol. IV. [transl. by Morri^^on, Oxf. 1838. 4 vols. 8; I/enrifs Hist, of Phil. 2 vols. N. Y. 1S41.]
Creiiser, Prepnratio ad Plotini lib. de pulchritud. Heidolb. 1S14; comp. Stud. ii. Krit, 1834. P. 2. p,
837ss. ; Imm. FiiMf, An PIdl. novao Platonicae origino, Berl. ISlS; F. Boutenceh; Pliilosopboruni
Aloxandr. ac Neo-Platonifonim rccensio, (Commcntt Soc. Scient. Goctt. 18'23. Tli. V.); C. Stein-
hart, do dialcctioa Plotini rationo, Numb, ct Hal. 1829; Ejuad. Meletcmata Plotlnianji, Hal. 1S40. 4;
K. Vogt, Noo-Pl. u. Chrislcntli. I5crl. 1830. 1 Th. \_Leices, Biogr. Hist, of Pliil. Lond. 4 vols. ISino.
art. Plot,]
The tendency of Paganism on the side of faith, and the attempt to com-
bine in one system all the sources of truth, reached its utmost limit in what
a) P. K. MüJlei; do bierarchia et studio vitae ascclicao in sncris ct mysterils Graecc Komano-
ruDique latcntib. Havn. 1S(I3, transl. into Genu, in tlie Neuen IBibl. d. gcbunen Wiss. vol. LX.K.
I) Sc/Uosser, Gescb. d. alten Welt u. ilirer Cultur. vol. III. Abth. 3 (18.31.) p. 189s9. lOGss. c) Florii
P/tilostniti quae supersunt, cd. Kitijser, Tur. 1844s. 2 Th. [The two first books rolatinc: t'^ tbe Ufa
of Apoll. Tyau. trans', into I'-ii^-. by C. Blount, fi>l. Lond. 1(58".] /?(•«", Apull. v, Tyand u. Chils
tus, Tub. 1832.
48 ANCIKNT nit'nrii iiistoky. itj:. i. i>iv. ii. a. n. ioo-!5i2.
wns called New riatoiiisni. Tliis system had its origin in tlie discourses of
Ammoniaa Sdccas, of Alexandria, near the commencement of tlio third cen-
tiirj', but is i)resentcd in its most attractive form in the Enncades of I'lotuais
(205-270), and was best represented by Jtimblirhus in the fourth, and by Fro-
clits in the tifth century. Tlie masters of this school were regarded as seers
and saints, -who had broken the bonds of a life of sense, and even on earth
were honored with tho privilege of an immediate intuition of the Deity.
What Pliilo had undertaken, they now completed, thongh in a Avider sense,
in behalf of paganism. While New-Platonism took part in the higher discus-
sions and conclusions of philosoi)hy, it nevertheless stood opposed to all phi-
losopliy, since it did not profess to rest upon careful inquiries into the eternal
laws of the spirit, but claimed to be a revelation from God. Tlius exalting
itself above all such investigations, it became the poetry as well as the reli-
gion of philosophy. It attached itself more especially to the system of Plato,
and professed to be an explanation and a development of his views, but it
aimed to bring together the fundamental principles of all philosophical
schools, and the ideas Avhich constitute the basis of all popular religions.
Even Christianity, therefore, "was acknowledged by those who advocated this
system, but only as it originally came from the inspired soul of its founder.
It did not at first originate in a spirit hostile to Christianity, and it is even
doubtful to what extent Ammonius and PorphjTy were at one time connect-
ed with the Church. It is, however, certain, that it was profoundly affected
by the peculiarities of Christianity, even while it was struggling with that
system, during the third century, for the empire of the world.* The divinity
w'hich it presents is exalted above all human apprehension, and Tvas called
simply the Self-sufiicient One (t6 ev). From his overflowing fulness proceed-
ed the Divine Intelligence, and from this the World-Soul, by which the mate-
rial universe is pervaded with divine life. Evil is only that which is imper-
fect, and is 'the most distant reflection of Deity upon matter. The human
soul which had been produced by the Divine Intelligence, fell, in consequence
of its longing after earthly things, from its original divine life to its present
temporal existence. It therefore belongs to the sensual as well as to tho
intellectual world. But the souls of the good and wise, even in this world,
are in their happiest moments reunited with the Deity, and death is to such
a complete restoration to their home. From a pious veneration for an an-
cestry far back in antiquity, the Grecian gods especially were regarded as
the personal manifestations of the divine life in nature. Some of them were
celestial beings, and some ruled here on earth. These earthly powers were
the national gods (jiepiKol, (?iväpKai), subordinate to the Deity, and exalted
above all passion. The myths were therefore, of course, to be explained al-
legorically. The arts of Divination and Magic were justified on the ground
of the necessary connection of all phenomena by virtue of the unity of the
world-principle. While, therefore, New-Platonism was a new power, it was
♦ Ettseb. n. ecc. VI. 19, and Praep. evang. XI, 19; Socrat. H. ecc. Ill, 23.—Jfos/ieim, de studio
Ethnicor. Christianos imiUndi. (Dss. ad Hist ecc. Alton. 17:33); VUmann^ Eintluss d. Christenth.
auf Porphyr. (Stud. u. Krit 1S;3'2. II. i.^—Keil, de causis alieni Platonicor. rec. a rel. chr. animi. Lps.
17S5. 4. (0pp. ed. Goldhom. Lps. 1S21. vol. 1.)
CHAP. I. STECGGLES OF CIIEISTIANITY. J 61. LITEEAKY C0NTE0VEI:SIE3. 49
nevertlieless a reformation of the old faith. Though it extended itself over
the "whole Roman empire, it emhraced within itself contradictory elements,
and coald maintain its existence only long enough to witness and embellish
the downfall of heathenism.
§ 51. Literary Controversies of Christ iardty.
Deäaus C. G. Baumgarten-Crushis, de scriptoribus Baee. II. qui novam re!, impngnarunt, vel
Itnpugnassc creduntur. Misn. 1845. 4.
It was not until the age of the Antonines that Christianity appeared im-
portant enough to be the object of literary discussion, or sought to defend
itself by literary weapons. The last discourse in which Fronto made an
attack upon Christians, appears to have been merely a legal defence of the
I)roceedings against them under Marcus Aurclius. There can be no doubt
that the negative spirit exhibited in the writings of Lucian exerted a fovorable
influence upon Christianity, since his mockeries, like a death-warning, -com-
pletely undermined all confidence in the ancient gods ; but he has occasionally
derided the Christians also as fimatical simpletons, even while he involuntarily
supplies evidence in favor of their brotherly love, and fortitude in death. («)
A genuine discourse of Cclsiis, written during the persecution under Marcus
Aurelius, has been preserved in the extracts of Origen. (l) The author was
an intelligent man, but full of pride and contempt for Christianity. While
endeavoring to throw suspicion upon its origin and opposing the Church of
his own times, he frequently confounds it with the vagaries of its different
sects, and collects nearly every thing which Judaism Avith its unfulfilled ideas
of the Messiah and its calumnious traditions, together with all that pagan
refinement with its philosojjhy, especially the Platonic, could produce against
it. We have also a Dialogue written by Minucivs Felix (§ 52;, in which
Caecilius brings forward the arguments generally urged by the heathen of
that period against Christianity. In behalf of the Olympic deities, it was al-
leged that history showed that the gods had protected and avenged their
Avorshippers ; that miracles had been wrought, and predictions by divination
had been announced by their votaries, and that a Supreme Deity had always
been worshipped in connection Avith many gods. Against Christianity Avas
urged ; its foreign and barbarous origin, to Avhich all that Avas national must
be sacrificed, and its recent origin, to which all that Avas established must
give Avay ; all that was true or good in Christianity belonged still more an-
ciently to Philosophy, so that the only novelty Avhich it possessed Avas a most
repulsive outward form ; its sacred Scri])turc3 Avere of doubtful origin, and
frequently had been altered ; Jesus Avas said to have been the offspring of
adultery, instructed by magicians in Egypt, and surrounded only by Avretched
fishermen and abandoned publicans, to have died in the expression of unman-
a) 'AKf^avSpoi t) ^f/fvSSixavris, c25. 8>; Utpl rT]sUfpfypli/ovTf\fVTris, c 11-16; 'AAtj^v
IfTTopla, I, 22. 80. II, 4. 11. — A. JEichsladii. Pg. Luel.inns nuin gcrlplis suis adjuvaro rcligioncru
Christ voluerit? Jen. 1S20. 4; K. G. Jacob, Cliaractcrislik Lucians. Ilainb. 18.32; Kühn, Luc. a
criiiilne librorum sncr. irrisorum libcratur. P. I. Grimae, 1344. 4. ^) 'A\rjäT]s \6yos.—Fenger, do
Colso, Epiciiroo. llavn. 1828; C. H. Jachmann, do Celso disseruit et fraginenta Ubri c. Cliristlanos
colk'git Eegiom. 1S3G. 4; F. A. Philipp!, de Celsi pliilosoiihandi gonerc. Berol. 1S3G; Bindemann,
4
50 ANCIKNT CIIUIICII IIISTOUV. PKR. I. DIV. II. A. I). lOö-rilü.
ly sorrows, and finally to have f^'ivon no proof of liis resurrection except what
was derived from liis own followers. Against Christians it was urged: that
they had deified a jjuhlicly executed malefactor ; tliat they demanded a blind
faith ; lliat tliey invited to their society those who were sinners and criminals,
while in the heathen mysteries, none were initiated but those who were pure
in heart ; that the various Christian sects wero intolerant towards each oth-
er ; that they were remarkably unfortunate ; and finally, that if they were not
secret criminals, they shunned publicity, and were enemies to the eternal
city of Home. The opposition which the New-Platonic school made to Chris-
tianity, may be considered as represented by Porpltyrij (233-30.jj. (r) From
all that can be learned by means of a few rather inconsiderable remains, he
appears to have applied his censures iirincipally to the dithcult portions of
the Old Testament, and the deceptive character of tlie allegorical method of
interpreting them, to the composition of the prophecies of Daniel after the
events to Avhich they relate had taken place, to the coiitradiction implied in
the abolition of the divine law by one who came from God, to the disagree-
ment between Peter and Paul, to the death of Ananias, and to the misfortune
of Jesus, in being so misunderstood by a company of pitiable fonatics. Iliero-
dcs (about 800) contrasted the life of Apollonius with that of Jesus, though
in the latter he seems to have mingled incidents in the history of other Mes-
siahs of whom he had heard. lie was an orator concerned in stirring up the
persecution under Diocletian, and had permitted Christians to be put to
death, and Christian virgins to be violated. ('/) All the controversial writ-
ings of that period, so far as they were opposed to Christianity, were subse
quently destroyed by the pious barbarism of the Christian emperors, {e)
§ 52, The Christian ApohgistK.
I. Apologg. Christ. 0pp. (ed. rntdeutius 3faranus.) Par. 1742. f.
II. FahriciuK, delectus argnmentorum et S3'Ilabus scriptorum, qui veritatem rel. clir. as.-eruernnt.
ITamb. 17-2Ö. 4; Tsschirner, Ge.'^ch. d. Apologetik. Lps. 1805; only 1 toI. ; Clausen, Apologetae Ec-
clesiae eljr. ante Theodosiani, Platonis ejusque pliilosophjae arbitri. Ilafn. ISIT; G. 11. van Senden
Gesch. d. Apologetik. Uebers. (from the Dutch PraoC dated 1*31) v. TT Quack, n. 7?. Binder. Stutfg.
1S46. 1 Th.
"^lien the emperor Hadrian was at Athens (about 130) two defences of
Christianity were presented to him, one by the philosopher Arididcs, and
another by the Bishop Quadratus. The latter boasted that there Avere some
among his acquaintance who had been healed, and indeed some who had
been raised from the dead by Jesus, {it) The most flourishing period of
apologetic writings was during the sway of the Antonines, when the Church
was quite as much under the influence of hope, as of fear with respect to its
external condition, and when every opinion was allowed to be pubhcly ex-
pressed. The Apologies of Justin Martyr, (h) written at Flavia Neapolis
Ü. Cel3. u. s. Sehr. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1S42. P. 2.) c) Kara Xpiariavwv Ao'701— Fragments may
be found in IlolstenU Ds. de vita et scriptis Porph. Eom. 1630; (Fahricii Bibl. Gr. Th. IV. p.
207ss.) [Select Works of Porph. transl. by Taylor. Lond. 1S23. S.] d) A0701 <pt\a\-ndfis Tphs
XpiffTiafovs- Fragments in the polemical writings of Euseh. contra Ilicrocl. liber. — Laetant de
mortib. c. ir>. e) Codese. Justin. I. I. tit. 1. const 8.
a) Eu^eh. II. ecc. IV, 8. comp. Ilieron. catal. c. 19s. I) Apologia I. ct II. ed. ThaJemann, Lps.
1755; 0pp. rec Otio. TU. I.— Arendt, Krlt Unters, ü. d. Sclirr. Just (.Tub. Quartalschr. 1S34
CHAP. L STRUGGLES OF CUEISTIANITY. § 02. APOLOGISTS. 51
under a sense of unjust oppres.«ion, are valuable rather for the spirit, than for
the talent or caution displayed in them. Even after he had become an evan-
gelist, he still retained his philosopher's cloak, and having wandered through
all the existing schools of philosophy, he had found peace at last in the gos-
pel of Christ. Although he disparages Greek learning by maintaining that
it had been borroAved from Hebrew sources, he acknowledged that what was
a perfect light in Christianity may have been essentially the same with the
dim revelations of the divine Spirit in the Grecian systems. In this way he
found a point of accommodation by which he coiild unite both systems to-
gether. Occupying essentially the same ground with that which had been
taken by the apostle Paul, he seems cither totally unconscious of the fact, or
to have I'egarded it with the prejudices of a Jewish Christian. ('■) The onl}'
answer which the philosophical emperor, and perhaps also the cynical phi-
losopher Crescens, who was attacked in the second Apology, condescended
to give, was the execution of the Christian philosopher at Rome (lGl-8). (J)
Ilis disciple Tatlarnis from Assyria, wrote intelligently, but with passionate
errors respecting Greek customs and philosophy, (e) The author of the epis-
tle to Dlognetus shows that he had enjoyed a Greek educalion, and that he
was animated by a Christianity which was entirely a new religion. (/) Athe-
nagora»^ by mild and judicious appeals to Marcus Aurelius, attempted to
prove that Christians were innocent of the crimes imputed to them and Avere
worthy of the imperial favor. (7) Mdito^ Bishop of Sardis, especially skilled
in the literature of the Old Testament, a eunuch for the kingdom of heav-
en's sake, and esteemed by his people as a prophet full of the Holy Ghost,
sought justice from the same prince in behalf of a philosophy which had in-
deed originated among barbarians, but had risen under Augustus as a propi-
tious star for the Roman empire, and had advanced simultaneously with
it. (/() The three books of Tluophilus of Antioch (170-180), addressed to
Autolycus, contain a carefully written but narrowly conceived defence of the
Christian party ; (/") and the mockeries heaped upon the philosophers of that
period by Hcrmias^ present a superficial but witty caricature of the paradoxi-
cal questions which engrossed their attention. (Ä-) The Octavius, a colloquy
written by the African rhetorician and Roman advocate, Minuchts Fdix^ in
the style of Cicero, is a clear and concise statement of the real questions gen-
S 25Gss.); C. Semtscli, J. d. Märt. Bral. 1840s. 2 vols.; Otto, de Just. Mart, scrlptis et doctrlna. Jen.
]8tl ; F. C. Bolt, Ü. d. Vcrlirdtniss dor beiden Apol. (lllgen's Zcitselir. 184.3. P. 8). [Art in Kitto's
Journal of BiM. Lit. vol. V.] c) Comp, however, Otto, in Ill?,-n"s Zeitsclir. 1841. P. 2. 1S42. P. 3.
1S43. P. 1. d) C. Semisc/i, ü. d. Todesj. Just (Stud. u. Krlt. 1S35. P. 4); A. Stieren, ü. d. Todesj.
Just (Ill?en"s Zcitselir. 1842. P. 1.) e) Aoyof Trphs"E\\r)vai. ed. Mort/i, Oxon. 1700.— /Z A.
Daniff, Tatinn der Apologet Ilal. 1S37. /) 'EiriffToA?; irpus Aiöyvnrov. ed. B<M, in 0pp. Patrum
»el. Ber. IS.'G. P. L; Otto, in 0pp. Just Th. U.—C. D. a Grosxlieim, Conim. de Ej.ist ad Diogn.
Lps. IS'23. 4; Otto, de Epist ad Dlogn. Justinl nonicn pr.io se fercntc. Jen. 1844. g) ripeaßda
iTff)\ Xpiffriavwv. cd. Lindner. Longo5al. 1774. — Clurisse, do Athenagorao vita, scrlptis, doctr.
Lugd. 1819. 4. [Athcnngoras, transl. Into Eng. ■with notes by Humphreys. Lond. 1714. 8.] /<) Ac-
cording to the Fragments in Eiwb. IL ecc. IV, 26, comp. V, 24; Hieran, catal. c 24; Piper, Me-
ito. (Stud. u. Krit 1S88. P. 1.) )) T[(p\ rrj? twv Xptariavwu TriVrecur. cd. J. C. UV/ Ilamh
.724; Ucbcrs. rait Anm. v. Tliieiicinann. Lpz. 1834. k) Ataavpuhs räiv t{<o (pi\oc76(b<iit'. ed
52 ANCIKXT CIIUrX'H inSTOUY. I'Ki:. I. IJIV. II. A. D. 10O-3I8.
erftlly discussed in his day. (I) Tertnll'uin^ especially in his Apolof^eticus, not
only donionstratod the perfect right of the Church to civil jirotection, hut in-
veighed \vith hitter eloquenoc against the vile amouis of the ancient gods in
the shape of fishes, l/irds, and hcasts. Ori(/cn, Avhosc philosopdiical viewa
"were fundamentally similar to those of liis opponent," with an untiring indus-
try met all the ohjcctions whlch Celsus had urged, and -while doing so, pre-
sented a doctrinal defence of Christianity, with very little care or success in
the discussion of the political question. These works of Origen and Tertul-
lian indicate that their authors fully helieved that Christianity had already
reached a point which rendered its future progress inevitahle. Amohius of
Sicca endeavored, in a controversial work (about 803), to obtain the confi-
dence of the Christians, whom he had before persecuted ; and though it con-
tained many needless speculations, it defended also the more profound doc-
trines of the Church, and exposed the errors of heathenism with much
rhetorical skill, (m) The object of the apologists was : 1) To answer the ob-
jections made against Christians. They met the charge of atheism by point-
ing to the well-known piety of Christians and showing the true nature of a
spiritual worship. To the imputation of unnatural crimes they opposed the
strictness of their morality, and in refutation of the charge of treason, they
appealed to the submission shown by Christians in time of persecution, and
to the prayers which they offered up in behalf of the emperor. The suffer-
ings of Christians Avere ascribed to demoniac agency ; the death of the mar-
tyrs was shown tobe no real evil; the representation of a Deity enduring
sufferings but glorified even in death, they proved was not unknown even in
Grecian mythology ; public calamities were attributed to the divine displeasure
on account of the persecution of Christians ; and although they did not con-
cede that the recent introduction of a religioa was a proper argument against
its truth, they traced the radical principles of Christianity back to a time be-
fore Moses and Abraham — a period prior to the existence of any of tlie Gre-
cian systems of philosophy. 2) To contend against the Hellenistic systems.
By appeals to facts and to reason, they showed the utter insufficiency and the
immorality of polytheism ; they objected to the spiritual explanations given
of the myths as uncandid ; and while they acknowledged all that was true
and consistent with the gospel in philosophy, they proved that this was quite
unsatisfactory as the basis of a national religion. 3) To prove the truth and
divine authority of Christianity. Among the arguments used for this pur-
pose, were, the moral power and divine wisdom exhibited even by poor and
uneducated people, the religions peace conferred by Christianity, its perfect
reasonableness and its rapid and irresistible progress, the triumph with which
the martyi-s met their fate, and the historical proofs of divine assistance.
Dommerich. Hal. 1764. I) Ed. Lindner. Longosal (1760) 1778; Uebors. m. Anin. r. liussicttrm.
Ilamb. 1S24. 4 ; Keu hrsg. erklärt u. übi rs. v. Luhkert. Lps. 1S36 ; Ad fiilem cod. Eogii ct Brus. rcc.
Kihiard. de ^riiralto, praefatus est OreHi. Tur. 1336.—// Meier, Comm. de Min. Fei. Tnr. IS'24.—
Doubtful vrbcther it was written in the oge of the Antonines, or after Tertullian. Probably in th«
former, in) Disputationes adv. gentes. 1. VII. ed. J. C. Orelli, Lpsv 1S16 ; Additanientum. Lpi
1S17; ex nova cod. Taris collat rcc. G. F. JTildebrand, llal. 1S44; Uebcrs. u. eriäut v. E. A. V
■Bemiard. Landsh. 1342. — P. K. Mayer, de ratione et argumento apologetic! Arnubiani. Uava IS15.
CHAP. I. STRUGGLES OF CIIKISTIANITT. § 58. BAEBAHOUS NATIONS. 53
Among the last, a superior place wa.s given to fulfilled prophecies, but next
to them stood the miracles wliich had been wrought by Jesus and his fol-
lowers in the different periods of the Church.
§ 53. Eeliglon of Barbarous Nations.
Roman power and Greek culture had either broken up, renovated, or
adopted into the Roman Pantheon the religions of all conquered nations. In
the East, ever since the time of the Grecian conquests, nothing remained in
Asia., with the exception of the established local worship of some favorite
gods, but a sensuous glow of devotion, or occasionally in Egypt a gloomy,
pensive and mysterious form. In Western Europe, the religion of the Celtic
nations was evidently declining. In Gaul., the Druids, as priests, judges,
eages, and physicians, had monopolized all intellectual pursuits, and estab-
lished a powerful hierarchy. In contrast with them existed a nobilitj', whoso
sole occupation was war. To these two classes the common people gradual-
ly became completely enslaved. But when the common people sunk into
this state of insignificance, the priesthood lost their principal support in op-
position to the nobility, and it was on account of the discord which prevailed
between these states, that the Romans were invited into their country.
Caesar came, and saw, and conquered. The national religion was then re-
stricted within certain limits by the Roman law. Augustus required that no
Roman citizen should take any part in its rites, and Claudius finally prohib-
ited all human sacrifices. It was not, however, so much by the direct power
of their conquerors that the Druids were overthrown, as by the new social
relations then introduced. As early as near the close of the first century,
the Order of the Druids was an independent and learned association, and the
old popular faith was mingled with the Roman mythology, (a) In Britain^ the
power of the Druids, which was continually exerted to arouse the people to
renewed efforts for freedom, could only be destroyed by violence (02). Un-
der the conciliatory administration of Agricola, Roman habits and arts of
life acquired ascendency even to the foot of the Highlands, (h) Hence, no
province of the empire opposed Christianity with any remarkable or long-
continued energy, and the "West presented but little more resistance to its
progress than had been awakened in its own eastern home.
§ 54. Spread of Christianity.
Near the middle of the second century, the gospel had, in the East,
passed beyond the limits of the Roman empire. In Edc.ssa especially it
gained possession of the throne, and a few cliurches were collected in Par-
thia, Persia, and India. Proceeding from Rome, it obtained an established
position in Carthage and in the western provinces of Africa. In Western
a) Caemr; <le bc-llo call. I, 31. VI, 12-lfi.— .7: 0. Fi hk, do Pniidis cd. A. Frick, Ulm. 1744. 4
Duclo», Mem. sur les DniideÄ. (Mem. dc Taoad. dos inscript Th. XIX.) ; Jfonn, Gosch. d. Ileidentli.
im nOrdl. Eur. Lps. u. Dnrmst lS22s. vol. II. p. 853-426. h) K. DdvU», Celtic Eesoarclies on tb«
OrIj;in and Traditions of the Ancient Britons. Lond. 1S04. [I<hm. Rltosoftlie British Druids. Lend.,
O. /nr/ghm, Tlio Celtic Druids. Lond. 1S2T. 4.] Tohmd, Hist, of tlio Druids, witli additions by
TTuihUi'sUm. Montrose, 1S14; 2rone, vol. 11. p. 42G-54S. [Kitl>-n\i lid. .Virff. vol. 11. 1?2?. pp. Sl-itt
.19-122. 490-500; Incidents of the Apostolic A?e in Britain. Lond. :^U. 12.1
54 ANciKNT rui'iic'ir irisTonr. per. r. mv. ir. a. n. 100-812.
Europe it ])ressc(l onward to S|)ain and even gained some possessions in Bri
tain. Flourishing cluirelics from Asia Minor -were jdanted in Lj'ons, Vieniio,
and Paris, from which Christianity was extended to ])arharous nations whose
lansua},'c had never hecn reduced to writing. Qt) Near the chj.se of tlie third
century, churches were established in Armenia, and a few bislioprics were
formed on the Khine and in Britain. The manner in Avhich religion was pro-
l)agatcd was, commencing generally with the large cities, it Avas carried for-
ward not so nuich by organized missions as by ordinary social intcrconrse.
It had become powerful as a popular element, prevailing most among the
lower classes, but by means of slaves and women it had penetrated, as early
as near the end of the second century, every order of society. Abont that
time the Apologists speak of the number of Christians with skilful and en-
thusiastic declamation ; (h) and though even in the commencement of the
fourth century they were far from being a majority of the population, their
intimate fellowship and zeal gave them a predominant influence in society.
The barbarous Jewish origin and the strict and self-denying morality of their
religion, the suspicion of political disaflection under which they rested, and
their simple, lowly character at first, were powerful diflSculties in the way
of its propagation. But to be weighed against these, as secondary causes of
its victory, must be noticed the advantage which it enjoyed on account of
the xmity of the Eoman empire and the general prevalence of Greek cul-
ture, its miraculous powers, and the benefits which it offered to the poor, the
sick, travellers, and those Avho were in any way destitute. Even the perse-
cutions throi\gh which it passed were beneficial, since they were severe
enough to arouse in its followers an heroic courage, and in those who observed
them an admiring wonder, and yet were not protracted or general enough to
destroy the Church. Next to the vital decline of heathenism, however, the
essential reason of its success was the real truth and power of Christianity
presenting itself in the happiest of all forms — a religion adapted to the masses
of the people.
§ 55. The Last Persecution.
Lactant. de mortib. c. 7-13. Eitsei. H. ecc. YIIL IX
In the enjoyment of forty years of peace Christianity had time to per-
fect its victories. It was then that Diocletian (284—305) by his protracted
course of real success, was induced to hope he might restore the empire to
its former glory. lie regarded the restoration of the established religion to
its former ascendency as a primary condition on which such a result de-
pended. His son-in-law the Caesar Galei'ius^ in consequence of bis low dis-
position and heathenish superstition, became the instrument of a party in the
court, which demanded the subversion of Christianity as indispensable to the
stability of their power. The heathen government, conscious tliat it was
sinking in its proper character before the spiritua. power of the Church, com-
menced another struggle, on the issue of which was staked its life or death.
Galerius first removed all Christians from his army (298). Diocletian still
ß) Iren. Ill, 4. V) Tertul. Apologotlciis, c. S". e. Juil. c.
CHAP. I. STKUGGLES OF CHKISTIANITY. § 5G. MAKTYR9. 55
shrunk from tlio contest, for he 'well knew it would be terrible. Finally
when counsel had been sought from gods and men, the destruction of the
Church of Nicomedia (Feb. 23, 303) proclaimed that the persecution of the
Cliristians had commenced. The imperial edict which immediately followed
that event, commanded that all Christian temples should be destroyed, and
the books belonging to them burned ; that all civil officers professing Chris-
tianity should forfeit their dignities ; that Christian citizens should be deprived
of their civil privileges, and that even slaves who avowed faith in Christ
should lose all prospect of freedom, (a) The indignation such a proceeding
provoked against the emperor, and the real or imaginary perils AUnch now
threatened him, required that the whole power of the empire should bo ar-
rayed against the Christians. After two other edicts had been put forth, each
more rigorous than that which preceded it, a fourth (30i) required that all
Christians should be compelled to offer sacrifice by every practicable means, (h)
The persecution raged in nearly every part of the empire. The spirit of the
Church was divided by the most heroic courage and base cowardice. Monu-
ments were erected in honor of the emperor, implying that he had utterly
abolished the name of Cliristian. But in Gaul, Spain, and Britain, the suf-
ferings of the Christians were much m.itigated by the conduct of the Caesar
Constantius Chlorus. His son, Constantine (after 806), inherited his father's
spirit in a still higher degree. In the East, Galerius, tired of the useless effu-
sion of blood, on his deathbed (311) suspended the progress of the persecu-
tion, ((•) but it was immediately renewed in Asia by Maximinus. "When Con-
Btantine, however, had overthrown Maxentius, he, in conjimction with Lici-
nius, the Augustus of Eastern Europe, was induced by his regard for Chris-
tians to proclaim (312) a universal toleration for all religions. (J)
§ 50. The Martyrs.
There are commonly reckoned ten jicrsecutions, as that number is conve-
nient for popular recollection, and accordant with certain allegorical rela-
tions, {a) but some of them scarcely deserve the name. Those who were
disposed to fly from the danger usually found the way of escape unobstructed ;
when any actually suffered they were generali}- those whose lives were re-
garded as of no value, those whose death appeared needful, on account of
their superior guilt, as a warning to others, and those Avho occupied promi-
nent stations in the Church, or slaves. Accordingly, even in the time of
Origen, the number of those who had died as martyrs was very small, and
easily reckoned. {l>) We read of a blind fury, in the times of Decius and Dio-
cletian, which no longer regarded individuals, but vented itself in the sftcrlfico
of whole masses of people at once; but in general, the first notices we have
respecting it arc in the exaggerated accounts Avliich have come down to us in
a) Lact. c. 13. Euseh. VIII, 2. I) Ewieh. de martyrlbus Tnlacst c Z.
c) Lact c. 84. Euseb. VIII, 17.
d) Its contents may be inferred from the edict of 313 : Lact, c 4S. Eusob. X, 5.
o) Apoc. 17, 12!-s. Exod. 7s3.
h) Orig. c. Cels. III. (TIi. I. p. 4Ö2.) Tet comp. It'en. IV, 33, O.—DodiceV, de pnticit.^le mnrtyrca].
In his Dss. Cyprianicis. On the other hand, Ruinarti Traef. ad Acta martyruin.
5G AKCIKNT ClirilCII IIISTOUY. I'VAl I. UIV. II. A. I). 100-3U
legends. Tims wo liml tliat cloven thousand virgins are .said to have perished
with St. Ursula. The most credible evidence on which this story was built,
consists in a false construction of an ancient manuscript, and a revelation from
heaven to a company of monks first in the year 1103, which jtointed out
their bones. The story of the massacre of the Thcban legion (2C8) appears
in a fluetu'iting state even in the sixth century, (r) TIic executions generally
took place in strict coiilbriiiity with the demands of the penal law, but when
the feelings of the populace were especially embittered, or when it seemed
desirable to terrify survivors, the most dreadful illegal torments were de-
vised. {(I) Many saved themselves by denying Christ, and oflering sacrifice
io the gods (thurificati, sacrificati), some by bribing the magistrates to grant
them certificates that they had sacrificed (libellatici), and others by surren-
dering the sacred books (traditorcs). But so great was the joy of the Con-
fessors and the Martyrs, that they were sometimes reproved by judicious
pastors for pressing too eagerly forward to death. The virtues of Greek and
Roman antiquity were revived, as the people surrendered themselves that
they might obtain a home beyond the skies, (e) The power of faith was
triumphant even over the feelings of our common nature, and over the shud-
dering horror which persons of a delicate habit and of refinement are apt to
feel on such occasions. Even children took i)Ieasure in death, and noble
maidens endured what was far worse. (/) Althougli many encountered
death cheerfully, because they preferred it to the disgrace which must have
been the lot of the apostate and the traitor, and because they longed for the
honor and glory which the martyrs attained even on earth in the admiration
of their friends and expected immediately after in Paradise, there was be-
yond all this a genuine delight in following Jesus, which gave to the Church
a consciousness that it Avas invincible.
CUx\.P. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTIO:^' OF THE CllUliCir.
J. IT. Böhmer, Entwickl. d. KStaatsd. ersten 3 Jalirli. Hal. (171S) 173.5. W. K. L. ZUgler, Yrs. e.
prasm. Goscli. d. kirclil. Gesellschaftsformen in d. ersten C .lahrli. Lps. 179S. Möhler, die Einli. in d.
K. o. d. Trineip. d. Kath. im Geiste d. KVerf. d. 3 ersten Jalirh. Tub. IS'25. Ihise, de jure ecc.
Comnitr. hist. Lps. 182S. P. I. J. IT. M. Ernesti, KStaat, d. 3 ersten Jahrh. Xiirnh. 1S30. W. Böh-
mer, die socialen Verb. d. K. alter Zeit. (Alterthumsw. vol. I.) Brcsl. 1S36. K. Rothe, die Anfang«
d. K. n. ihrer Verf. Witt 183". vol. I. {Riddle's Manu;d of Christian Antiquities, Lond. Bhigham's
Origines Ecclesiasticae, Lond. 1S4Ö. L. Coleman, rrimitive Christianitj- Exemplified, Philad. 1S52.
2 vols. S.]
§ 57. Original Documents on Ecclesiastical Law,
The usages and laws which prevailed in particular provinces were not es-
sentially difl:erent from each other, since the general relations of society were
c) Vita Rom wii. (Acta Sanctor. Feb. Th. TIL p. 740.) Triihemii Ann. Hirs. Th. I. p. 4")0. O. IIa-
Uens Rcimchronik d. Stadt Colin. Edited by Groots, Coll. 18.34 Comp. P.hcinwald's Hep. 1S;35. vol.
IX. p. SOlss.— /)!t Bourdieu, sur lo martyre de la legion tliebeenne, Amst. 1705. 12. Jos. d'l^lf, de-
fense do la vCrite de la legion thebeenne. Par. 1741. 12.— Respecting Massa Candida ; in Prudent
Hymn. 13s. sec. Titlemont, Th. IV. p. 17.')ss.
d) Siigitfariits de mart, cscrucialib. Frcf ct Lps. (tC70) '.COG. 4. f) Etiseh. II. ccc. V, 1.
/) Lact. Instt T, 13.
CHAP. IL CONSTITUTION. 57. LEGISLATION. § 58. CLERGY. 57
every where the same, and a continual intercourse "was carried on hetween
the several parts of the empire. They may be learned partly from the wri-
tings of the contemporaneous fathers, in ■which individual facts are referred
to, and partly from later enactment.s, which, without hesitation, refer to primi-
tive usage. The Ajwstolical Constitutions which bear the name of Clemens
Romanus, in the first six books contain the oldest usages and laws prevalent
among the Jewish Christians of the Oriental Church of the tliird century.
In the fourth century, when the seventh and eighth books were added, this
work received some interpolations with respect to ecclesiastical usages, though
not in the sense charged by the Arians. As a collection they have never at-
tained any legal authority, (it) The Aj)ostolical Canons'are a compilation
gradually formed of the constitutions and enactments of Synods during the
fourth century, and therefore are supposed to embrace the traditions respect-
ing law, which had come down from the Apostles. The Roman Church hav-
ing once rejected this collection as a whole, decided (after 500) to receive the
first fifty canons, (i) John Scholasticus (middle of the 6th century) found ah
the eighty-five canons alreadj' in the books of laws used in the Greek Cliurch. (c)
No proof therefore in favor of a regular system of legal relations in the
churches of the second and third centuries can be drawn merely from thi-s
collection, because it bears the apostolic name.
§ 58. The Clergy and the Laity.
The offices of the Church at this period presented very little to excite the
cupidity of ordinary men, and even the honor attending them was counter-
balanced by the dangers. And yet it seemed desirable to increa.so the venera-
tion which necessarily attends the virtues and a faithful performance of offi-
cial duty in the Church, by mysterious forms of ordination, by connecting
them through various associations with the Old Testament priesthood, and
by external tokens of peculiar sanctity. The result was, that even in the
second century the priests (icXr/pof, ordo) were represented as the official me-
diators between Christ and the congregation (X«of, plebs). To speak in the
bhurch, and to administer holy rites, were conceded to be the special prero-
gatives of the clergy, although learned laymen were sometimes heard in the
public assembly, with the consent of tlie bishop, {li) In all things relating
to the business of the congregation, tlie principal care and autliority devolved
upon the clergy, But this power was generally exercised mildly and with a
true regard for the public good, since those who possessed it could use no ex-
ternal means of coercion, and the clergy, being generally without fixed sala-
a) AioToyal tup ay. 'AirocTToAw^, printfld In Otelerius' Edit, of tlio Patres Ajip. Th. I. p. 199.
WelUen lias publ. r new edit of the Ap. Constt Lps. 1S54. 12.]— (?. Krahbf, ü. Ursprung n. Inhalt
der apost. Constitt Hamb. 1S29. J. S. v. Drei/, neue Unters, ü. d. Constitt. u. Kanones der App.
Tub. 18.32.
l) GelaMi, Dccrctum a. 494. {Gratlnn : c. 8. D. XV. § 04.) Dionysii Praefatio. (J/ljn^/. Th. I. p. 3.)
c) Kav&vis fKK\ri(TiarTriKol tIüv ay, 'Axo(TT6\wy, printed in most of theeccles. collections of laws
and in Cuteleriun, I. p. 437.— .V. F. lifgenhrecht. de canonlb. App. Vrat 1823. Krabbe do c<xL
conjnum, qui App. nomine clrcuniferuntur. Gott 1829. 4.
rt) Eu!<,:h. n. ccc. VI, 19. Constt app. VIII, 32. comp. Cone. OirtJi. IV. a. 419. can. 98. (.lAni«i
Th. III. p. 959.) [Cone. Carth. an. 898. can. 22. In Landons Manual of CounciK]
58 ANcir.NT < ini:( II iii-KiKV. ri:i:. I. MV. ii. a. d. 100-C12.
rics, Avcro (loiK-inlüiit iii)Oii tliu voluntary contributions of tlic people. (J)
Tlicir autliority was often inueli slriiitcned by the inlliienco of the confessors,
and tlio idea was not yet removed of .1 pricstliood emljracint,' all true Chris-
tian?, (r) The congregation still possessed the undisputed, tiiough often tho
violated right, to decide upon the exclusion and tho restoration of its own
members, to confirm the choice of its presbyters, to bo heard ujion every im-
portant matter, and to elect its own bishop. This last mcntit)ned jiublic pri-
vilege, near tho close of the third century, was much curtailed by the inter-
ference of the clergy who presided over the congregation, and of the neigh-
boring bishops, (dl As many presbyters were elected as appeared necessary
at tho time, until in eacb congregation such a number was gradually settled
upon as its circumstances seemed to require. In the African churches the
Elders (seniores) do not seem to have been devoted to tlie business of in-
struction, nor to have belonged to the clerical order. Their office did not
then imply a clearly recognized distinction between lay and clerical presby-
ters, and they were probably relics of tho original equality of the clergy and
all God's people in the primitive Church, when all the presbyters were not
fitted for the work of instruction and private members of the Church were
not excluded from it. (c) Deacons were not regarded as belonging to the
proper priesthood (sacerdotium), but as ecclesiastical servants (ministres). As
the number seven originally connected Avith tho deacon's office was not will-
ingly exceeded, the larger churches in the third century were supplied with
sub-deacons. To the appropriate duties of the deacon's office were added li-
turgical exercises, and sometimes also preaching. As they were elected by
the bishop alone, they were sometimes through his influence exalted above
the presbyters. The inferior services pertaining to the Church were per-
formed by laymen, from whom were gradually formed four gradations of a
semi-clergy, called Ostiarii, Lectores, Exorcistae, and Acoluthi. The clergy
became more and more separated from all secular employments, but as they
were generally obliged to pass through the inferior offices, they obtained a
practical education, and many of them in the catechetical schools of the
Church or in the philosophical schools of the heathen, acquired considerable
learning. The rule that no one should be advanced to the higher stations in
the Church until he had performed for a certain period the functions of each
inferior office, was frequently dispensed with by the favor of the bishop or
of the people, and laymen and even catechumens were sometimes imme-
diately elevated to the episcopal office.
I) Ziegler, die Einkünfte des CIcrus in d. ersten 3 Jnlirli. (Ilenkes N. Mag. vol. IV. p. lls-s.)
c) Iren. IV, 20. rertul. de bapt. c. 17. Ex.iort. ad cast. c. 7. Orig. in Jo. torn. 1, 3. (,Th. IV. p. 3.)
de orat c. 23.
d) Cypr. Ep. 31. § 5. Ep. 5D. § \.—Euseh. II. eec. VI, ^X—Cypr. Ep. 6. § ö.—Cypr. Ep. M. S a
Ep. 68. § 6.
e) Ciilvhii Inst. IV, 3, 8. Corrected by Vitringa, de syn. vet. II, 2.
CHAP. II. CONSTITUTION. § 59. BISHOPS. 59
§ 59. Bishops.
Wcdonis ifeimtini {Sitlmafiii) Ds. do Episcopls et Presbb. c. Petavuin. L. li. 1C41. A Bfondel,
Apol. pro sententla Hier, de Episc. et Prr. Amst IWO. 4. On the otlicr side: // HammonJ, Dss. 4.
quibiis Ei)iscopatus jura ex Sc. S. ot antlquitiito adstruuntur. Lond. ICiil. A.— Locke, Ecc. app. p.
lOOts.— Ä7.5«, Ü. d. Urspr. d. bisch. Gewalt. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1S.32. vol. II. sect. 'i.)—Ruthe die Anf. d.
clir. Kirche, p. ITtss. On the other side: Baur ü. d. Urspr. des Episcopats. (Tub. Zeitschr. 1S33. P.
3.) Comp. § 42. note c. {Jamieson, C>prianus Isotiuius. Lond. 1705.]
In the Epistles "which bear the name of Ignatius, the episcopate is repre-
sented as the divinely appointed pillar which sustains the whole ecclesiastical
fabric, and yet much needing the writer's most earnest commendations. So
general and so thorough a change as that which iij any view of the case it
must have pa.ssed through after the middle of the second century, could then
have been effected b}' no personal influence, nor by general consent, but only
by the concurrent power of circumstances. Wherever there Avas more
than one presbyter, some individual on account of his personal influence
would be called to preside, or all would do so in rotation. "When different
portions of the larger congregations met, as they sometimes did, in dilTerefit
places of worship at the same time, each congregation would naturally be
anxious to preserve as much as possible its existing unity, in spite of its acci-
dental separation. This was accomplished by retaining a common connec-
tion with the presbyter who had previously presided over them. But by
this means his jurisdiction became much enlarged and strengthened. The
name Overseer was especially applied to the peculiar office which such a
presbyter filled, (a) As soon as this name became thus appropriated to de-
signate a superior dignity in the larger cities, tliose presbyters who stood
alone in the smaller towns would naturally prefer the original Greek appella-
tion which was common to them all. Ilence. Irenaeus continued to use
both names interchangeably, and this memento of the original equality of
presbyters and bishops remained firmly in the Church for a long time after
new relations entirely inconsistent with it had become established, (l) At
the same time also those Elders of the former age who had been distinguished
for their personal character were always spoken of under the name of BLsh-
ops. The complete realization of the Episcopate may be seen in the Epistles
of Cyprian. The Bishop, as the successor of the apostles, there ai)pears as
the representative of his Church, and at the same time to the Church itself
he is the vicar of Christ; he is espoused to the local congregation, and also
to the general Church ; he is responsible to God alone, and yet is an indi-
vidual organ of the whole episcopate, (c) He possessed supreme power in
the Church, and yet in important matters was to do nothing without tho
counsel of his presbyters, (cf) All ordinations proceeded from him. At first
rt) In Justin (Apol. L c. 65.) still called irapfarws.
h) I/iero». ad Tit I, 7. Ep. 101. (al. S^.) nd Evanfielum. Amhrosids'er. (iniarius Duic.) ad Epli.
IV, 11. ad I. Tim. Ill, 10. Clirymst. Hom. in Phil. I, 1. (Th. XI. p. 195.) Both passages of Jeromo
in Oratian : o. T>. D. XCV. and 24. D. XCIII. [also In GieseUr Ecc. Hist vol. I. p. 100. note 2.] But
Urban JI. in Cone. Benevent, ein. 1. (ifansi. Th. XX. p. 73S.) can bo appealed to on this subject
only when the conte.xt is disregarded.
-) Ci/pr. Oratio ad Cone. Carth. (p. 4«.) Ep. 72. § .3. nd Stephan. Ep. 67. § .3. De unltato Ecc. a 4,
d) Ci/pi: dc nleator c. 1. Kp. 60. § 7. Ep. C. § 5. Ep. 23. § 2. comp. Cunc. CarViag. IV. a. 419. caa
84, 85. (ilansi, Ti). ILL p. 954.)
GO ANC'iiCNT cin;i:cii iiistouv. ri:i:. i. niv. ii. a. d. i'io-3i2.
lio was liiinsc'lf ordained by the iiiipowition of tlie liands of llio presbyter*
but afterwards by the iicigbborin^ bisliops. Every tran-slation of a biskop
appeared of doubtful i)ropricty, altliougli it was often necessarily conceded to
the dciuandrt of ambition and of liigber powers, as well as to tlie conimot
welfare. Many of tlio bishops of the country congregations ( xoiitnln-Konot)
continued from the very commencement of their existence dependent upon
those bishoprics in the city from which they sprung, and others originally
independent gradually submitted to the influence of the neighboring city
bishop. In Africa alone no distinction between the names ever appears. Tho
bishops of the larger cities in like manner becarao exalted in power and au-
thority above tho others. But all bishops possessed the right of perfect
equality among themselves since their prerogatives depended not upon tho
transitory possessions of this world, but upon the common investiture which
they had all received from Christ.
§ GO. St/nods.
ZleffUr, pragm. Darst, des Ursprungs <1. Synoden u. d. Ausbildung d. Synodalverf. (Ilenke's N
Maj:. vol. I. p. 1'25bs.
Ever since the latter part of the second century a number of assemblies,
composed of bishops residing near each other, had been held to obtain the
highest possible authority for a decision of the controversies which had
sprung up. (a) But in the commencement of the third century the provin-
cial synods, at first in Greece, (l) and soon afterwards m the whole Eastern
world, became the formal basis of an ecclesiastical constitution, as the su-
preme courts of legislation, administration and jurisdiction. Their meetings
were held either annually or semi-annually, and every bishop in the province
had a seat and a voice in them, and as exceptions to the rule, even presbyters
and confessors. The bishops were heard not as representatives of their
churches but in their own name, in consequence of a right received from the
Holy Ghost, (c) The meetings however were public, and the people who
were present made their influence felt. The possession of infallibility was
never thought of, and their decisions liad no authority beyond their respec-
tive provinces. ((7) The ecclesiastical provinces which in this way appear as
communities, to which all individual bishops were amenable, generally co"
responded Avith the provinces of the empire.
§ 61. Metropolitans.
The natural presidents of the ecclesiastical provinces were the bishops
of the principal cities (ju»;rpo7roXety). The grounds on which their pre-emi-
nence was founded were generally the apostolical origin of their churches,
the wealth of their congregations, and their frequent opportunities of assist-
ing those who resided in tho provinces. The Metropolitans therefore, as the
first among their equals, soon obtained the right of convening and conduct-
d) Euseb. n. ecc. V. 16. 23. 6) Tertul de jejnn. c. 1-3.
c) Ci/pr. Ep. 54. § 5. Comp. Cone. Arelat. a. 314. {Jfansi, Th II. p. 469.)
d) Ci/pr. Ep. 14. § 1 Ep. M. § 5. Ep. 72. § 3.
CHAP. II. COXSTITUTIOX. § Gl. METKOI'OLITANS. 62. GEKAT BISHOPS. 61
ing the proceedings of the Sjiiods, and of confirming and ordaining the pro-
vincial bishops. But it was only in the East that this Metropolitan system
was completely carried out. The Bishop of Carthage sometimes claimed the
right of a Metropolitan over the churches in Mauritania and Numidia, where
there was no great city naturally possessing the right of precedence, but the
presidency in their synods was abvays given to the oldest bishop (Sonex).
§ 62, The Three Great Bishops.
The same causes which produced the elevation of the metropolitans, op-
erated in a still higher degree to give the largest metropolitan diocese to the
bishops of the three principal cities of the empire, L'ome, Alexandria, and
Antioch. Rome obtained Middle and Lower Italy with uncertain limits,
and by means of a colony of bishops sent into Southern Gaul (about 2o0) au
indefinite influence was secured in tlie aliairs of that region, {n) Alexandria
obtained possession of Egypt, and Antioch of Syria. The successor of St.
Peter received an honorable rank above all other bi.shops, on account of the
majesty of the eternal citj', and the vast and skilfully used wealth at his dis-
posal even when Laurentius could present to the avaricious magistrate the
poor of the city as the treasure of the Roman Church, (b) Roman bishops
of that period have since been canonized, who were great only in their
deaths. No extraordinary individuals were concerned in laying the founda-
tions of her subsequent empire. The first presage of its future position was
afforded in two attempts wliich it made to impose its usages upon other
churches. These were sternly repelled by the Asiatic and African bishops, (c)
The thought of a Bishop of bishops was first advanced in favor of James,
about the middle of the second centurj', by a Jewish party in Rome, and was
regarded in Africa as equivalent to an ecclesiastical tyranny. (</) Tlie first
voluntary recognition of Roman authority in matters of faith, was occa-
sioned by the report that the apostolical traditions had been preserved with
especial purity in the "West, {e) Cyprian saw in the pre-eminence of Peter a
symbol of the unity of the Church. (/) Even when Marcellinus offered in-
cense to the gods (302), the very infirmity of a Roman bishop has been made
a) Cypr. Ep. 67. comp. Gregor. Taron. II. Francor. I, 23. ,
h) Tho proofs are collected by TiUemont. Th. IV. p. 41.. c) § 69. 84.
d) Ep. Clementls ad Jac. in Clem. Homil. (P. app. ed. Coteler. Th. I. p. 605). Ci/pr. In Cone Car-
tliag. {nont?i, Pvoliq. sac. III. p. 91) conf. Tcrtul. do pudic. c. 1.
e) Iren. Ill, 3, 2: "Ad banc Ecclesiam propter potiorom (potentlnrem) princlp.illtntpm nccesse
est omnein eonvenire Ecclesiam, Iioc est cos qui sunt nndiquo Alleles, in qua semper »b his, qui sunt
undlquc, conservata est ea quae est nb Apostolis traditio. [Xlphs Taxnrjv iKK\T](Ttav Sta tJ)»
iKavuTfpav apxh" i^vaym} iriKTav crvfifiaiveiv rvji/ (KKXTjffiav, rovr' fffri tovs travraxiäft'
iriiTTovt, iv 1] ofl virh rüv wavrax^^f ffwrfrripriTai rj airb twv 'Airo(rr6\wv irapiSoffn.)
Comp. Tertiil. de praeser. c. .06. 20s. — (irieshnch, do iiotcntlorc Eecl. Horn, principalitate. Jen. 177S,
(0pp. ed. Gahler, Th. II. p. 1.36ss.). PauliiH in the Soptironizon. 1S19. P. 3. On tho other side : Ka-
terkamp, Ü. d. Primat Münst. 1S20. p. SOs-i. Unnl-ovan;/, de primata R. Pontif. Aus. V. ISIJl. p.
2Sss.— 'J hiersch. In d. ?tuii. u. Krlt. 1S42, P. 2. comp. Xeander, [Chnrcli Hist vol. I. pp. 2n;i-205.]
/) De unit Ecc. c. 3. Here, even In tho penulne text, and often In tho epistles (52. 55), lie ac-
knowledges Rome as the ecclesia principali», withont, bovrcvor, conceding to It a sn|iremaey in
^,onsii:',ent with the parity ot all bisliops (Kp. 71). Aiitlrom. interpretation of Matt 16, IS. in Orig
In Mt. torn. 12. § IDs. 14.
62 ANCIENT ciirncii iiistouv. ri:i:. i. div. il a. i». iw-sia.
to ■vvcfir sucli an aspect in popular rt.'i)orts, a« to promote the glory of the Ro
man see. {[/)
§ 03, The CaÜiolic Cliurch and its Various Branches.
The internal and essential unity of the Church as the kingdom of God on
earth, suggested tiio idea of an external unity also. The effort to attain thin
was much favored by the political unity of the Avliole civilized world. The
religious consciousness which prevailed in the Christian Cliurch with more or
less distinctness, when assailed by theological or moral elements inconsistent
"with itself, was accustomed to appeal to the apostolical traditions which re-
mained in the churches founded by the apostles. From this sprung up the
Great or CathoUc Church., (a) in distinction from the heretics Avho defended
these foreign elements, and who were disunited among themselves. By the
former term was meant the great body in which all the congregations found«
ed by the apostles, and such as were connected Avith them, had hitherto felt
conscious of a unity through faith and love, and which was the only source
of true Christianity, of grace, and of salvation. The first hint of this repre-
sentation Avas given by Ignatius, but it was further developed by Irenaens,
and Avas completed by Cyprian, (h) This unity was realized in many transac-
tions in Avhich the bishops and churches held intercourse with each other.
But Avithout detracting from it, a Church of the East and a Church of
the West began to be distinguished from each other with respect to lan-
guage, customs, and theological tendencies. Peculiar usages, in fact, some-
times became permanent even in diflerent parts of the same metropolitan
diocese, especially in those ecclesiastical proAinces whose boundaries corre-
spond Avith old notional limits. Accordingly, in addition to the dioceses
of the three great bishops, the first outlines of national churches were formed
in correspondence Avith local attachments and interests. Thus the African
Church, connected Avith Rome by feelings of free mutual sympathy, and ex-
hibiting its peculiar spirit in the writings of Tertullian, sprung up, and com-
pleted an appropriate code of laws after the middle of the third century, in
the provincial synods of Carthage, (c) Thus, also, the Armenian Church was
originated, on Avliich Gregory the Fnlijhtcner, Avho by his family connec-
tions had been deeply involved in the political disorders of his country, and
Avhen Christianity triumphed had been brought out of a long night of im-
prisonment to be made a metropolitan (302), so deeply imprinted his OAvn
spirit, that for a long time the superior bishop or Catholicus was selected
from his family, (d)
g) TTarduhi, Acta Concill. vol. I. p. 217ss. Baron, nd a. 302. N. SSss.
a) The former term may be found in Celsns {Ofifj. c Ccls. Y. 59) and C(mstitt. opp. II. 25, and
the latter occurs in Ignat. ad Smyrn. c. S. and in the Epistle to the Church of Smj-rna respecting the
death of Pdlycarp. in Euseh. H. ecc. IV, 15.
I) Ciipr. de unitate Ecc. especially c. 4, 5, 21. Ep. 4". g 2.
f) S<:hel<<traUn, Ecc. afric. sub primatu Carthas. Tar. 16T9. 4. J/! Leydtcker, Hist. Ecc. afric
Utraj. 1694. 4. Morcdli Africa chrlst. Bri.K. 1S16. 3 Th. Miatter, rriraordia Ecc. afric. Ilafn. 15.29. 4.
(1) Agathangeli (revised), Acta S. Gregor. (Acta Sancton Sept Tli. VIII. p. 821sf.) MotU
Choronensiii{abo\itHOi\ Hist. Armen. 1. III. ed. WJiMon. Lond. 1736. 4. M'll. Samtteljan^ Be-
kehr. Armen, durch den h. Greg. 111. Wien. 1S44. — S^tint Jfitrtin, Mcnioires sur TArmenie. Par
\S1S 2 T!i. ChamicJi, Ilistory of Armenia, tjansl. by Audall. Calcutta. 1S2T. 2 Th.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § C4. CIIEISTIAN JJOEALS. 63
CHAP. III.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ Gi. Christian Morals.
Those gifts which the Sjiirit of God Lad bestowed as first-fruits m tho
early periods of tho Church, had now been expended, although Irenaeus tes-
tifies that the power of prophesjing, of speaking with tongues, of healing
diseases, and even of raising tho dead, remained in Lis time. Neither of
these, however, were common, except that method of healing the sick which
consisted in the expulsion of demons, {(i) Abstinence from blood and from
things strangled may have been occasioned by the decree of the apostles, as
it obtained prevalence Avith the Avritings of Luke. {]i) The private life of
Christians was regulated by principles directly opposed not only to the sen-
suous, but to the intellectual pleasures of heathenism. ('•) In their estimation,
the earth was a vale of tears, and the predominant feeling of the noblest
minds was an ardent longing for their home in anotlicr world. Joy in death
and love toward his brethren continued still to be tho distinguishing badge
of a follower of Christ, {d) This spirit became peculiarly powerful in times
of persecution, but in the longer periods of tranquillity, envy and strife, cov-
e'ousness and love of pleasure gained the ascendency. The more earnest of
the public teachers, therefore, regarded the persecutions in the reigns of De-
cius and Diocletian as divine judgments to arouse a slumbering Church. {< )
A pious abandonment even of the innocent enjoyments of the world
{aa-KTiiris) became a prevalent characteristic of the times, but among some
individuals in the Church it was regarded as the ultimate object of all gene-
ral eflbrt. Although marriage had been exalted by Christianity to its true
spiritual meaning, (/) vows of perpetual cLastity were looked upon as mer-
itorious, (j/j and many virgins {awda-uKToi^ sorores) undertook the often un-
fortunate, and therefore gradually discountenanced task, of exhibiting the
power of a holy will as brides of the Lord in most intimate companionship
with the clergy. (A) These vows were not absolutely irrevocable, but the re-
cantation of them Avas threatened with the severest penances. An entrance
into the marriage state after consecration as a Deacon, Avas regarded as of
doubtful propriety, and Avas limited by special restrictions. (J) In the ex-
treme West, one Synod had already forbidden the clergy to enter the m;ir-
riago state, and even the lower clergy Avere prohibited all connubial inter-
course during seasons of public duty. (Jc) On the other hand, all attempts to
0) Ire». IT, 57. Y, C. {^Etuteh. IL ccc. V, 7.) 'Rrtul. .i.l Scnpul. c. 2. ApnU.-. c. '.'o. Ovig. c. Cfl?.
I, 7. A'1I,4. (Th. I. p. 325. 1 GOO.)
1) Tertiil. Apoloji. c. 9. Only tlio Greek Church however h.ns nctiinlly .iilhere.l to It.
c) E. G. Tertul. (le spoctaculis, c. 23. de ciiltu feiinii. II. 2.—f/<'/<:U, ü. d. IJigorisii: (I. !»Uci Cluis-
t*n (Tub. Quartalschr. 1S41. V. 3.)
(.1) Minuc. F.r. c. S. ISiineh. 11. ecc. A'll, 22.
.?) Ci/pr. (h' lap?. (Opp. Amstcl. "On. p. SS.) Kiixch. 11. ccc. A'lII, 1.
/) Teriul. Ri\ uxor. II, S. comp. Oriff. in Nittii. lioni. (Th. II. p. 28S.)
(7) For heathen testimony, Galin In Aliuljei^hi, IIl>t Antelslam. oil. Flrischfi: p. 109.
A) The first trace <K-curs as early as In Jlennae I'aslor III. Sim. P, 11. — Ciqn: Fp. 02 («na
Ancyr. c. 19. X!<:. c S.
i) (hnatitf. opp. \l. \'. Cone. Anc;/i: c.10. Xeocae«. c. 1.
k) Cone. nnOerit. (3ii6-309.) c. 38. comp. c. 66.
64 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOUY. ri;U. I. DIV. II. a. I). lOO-OU.
impose a rigid system of asceticism as a matter of universal obligation, wore
discoimtenancod l»y the Church. In consequence of this, the Church frequent-
ly camo into collision with the various classes of Encratitct, s(jme of whom
rejected the use of wine even in the Lord's Sujipcr (vS/joTrapaoruTai, aquarii.)
§ 05. St. Anthony.
Athananiun, Vita S. Antonii. (Tli. II. p. 4.Wm.) Sozrmi. If. ccc. I. 13. Ilieron. catal. c. 8S. Oth-
er things : Tillemon^ Tli. VII. p. lOlss. [//. liuffner. The Fathers of the IX-sc-rt New York.
1850. 2 vols. 12.]
The more rigid ascetics in Egypt lived as hermits, although, during tlic
third century, most of them continued near their own homes. Elias and
John were their predecessors, and the Tlicrapcutao their countrymen. A
complete withdrawal from the world seemed the necessary consequence of
the rupture between Christianity and the world. This philosophical mode ol
life received its permanent form through the influence of Anthony. TThen
a mere youth, he had become independent and wealthy by the early death of
his parents. On one occasion he stepped into the temple, and heard read
from the gospels the word of the Lord to the rich young man. This, like the
voice of God to him personally, decided his future course of life. He dis-
tributed his goods among the poor (about 270), and betook himself first to a
tomb, and then to a dilapidated castle in the mountain, there to wage a fear-
ful conflict with himself nnder the idea of an encounter with Satan. The
visible form in which his adversary assailed him, Avas sometimes that of a
beautiful woman, and at other times that of wild beasts and monsters. Ills
friends, who brought him bread once in six months, heard his wild shrieks, or
found him powerless and prostrate on the ground. The report of a persecu-
tion of the Christians (311) allured him from his solitude. The Alexandri-
ans gazed upon this man of the desert Avith amazement. In the very courts of
justice, he encouraged the confessors and waited upon the prisoners, but found
not a martyr's death. From that time his fame spread abroad, the desert
became peopled with his disciples, Avhom he directed to engage in prayer,
and manual labor for their own support and for the relief of the poor. lie
himself would Avatch through many nights in succession ; bread and salt was
his only food, and of this he partook only once in three days, ashamed that
an immortal spirit should need even that. He was without human learning,
but endoAved Avith eminent natural abilities, and in the service of the King
of kings Avas exalted above the fear, as he Avas afterAvards above the favor of
earthly monarchs. His Avord healed the sick and cast out devils. "When his
prayers Avere ansAvered, as they not unfrequently Avere, he boasted not of his
power, nor did he murmur when they were unheard, but in both cases he
gave praise to God. No angry person Avent from his presence unreconciled
Avith his adversary, and no mourner uncomforted. He seemed to have been
provided by God to be a physician in bodily and spiritual things for the
whole land of Egypt. In the blissful enjoyment of this earthly poverty, it
was revealed to him that there was one man more perfect than himself.
Since the Decian persecution, Paul of Thebes had resided in a cave of the
desert, Avith a single palm-tree to give him provision, shelter, and clothing.
CHAP. III. ECCLE3. LIFE. § 65. ANTIIONT. § 60. DISCIPLINE. 65
Ninety years had passed away since tidings of him had reached a human ear.
Anthony visited him in season to witness his death (340).'^ In the evening
of his life, and annoyed hy the honors and interruptions of men, Anthony
•withdrew still further into the desert, where he cultivated the fruit needful
for his food, and presenting himself only occasionally among men, to contend
for the true faith, or to protect the oppressed. Ho finiüly attained the age
of a hundred and five years, when he expired (356). His glory sprung
from no books, worldly wisdom, or work of art, but only from his piety ; and
he departed childless indeed, but the father of an innumerable spiritual family.
§ G6. Ecclesiastical Discipline.
L TeHitl. de poenitentia. Cypr. de lapsis. Epp. canonicae Dionysii Altaiandrini (about 262),
Gregorii T/iautnaturgi, Petri Aleaandrini (3u6), Canones Cone. lUiheritani.
II. Tob. Pfanner, de catechumenis antiquae Ecc. Francof. 16S8. — Jo. M'^ini, Commentr. liist de
disciplioa in admiiiistr. sacrnin poenitentlae XIII. priuiis Saec Par. 1051. Antv. lOSl. Yen. 1T02. t
Fliigge, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. Theol. u. Rel. 1798. vol. IL
Candidates for admission to the Church (KaTT])(ovfifvoi) were first careful-
ly instructed, and rigidly examined in all the studies cf the several stages of
their education. They were then admitted by baptisK and confirmation to
all the rights and privileges of a Christian citizen. Such a process was re-
garded as important, because real goodness of heart and a good character were
then of fiir greater value than numbers. A high degree of public morality
was upheld by a rigid discipline. Only public scandals, or otlences voluntari-
ly confessed, were subjected to its penalties. AU who appeared unworthy of
Christian fellowship on account of adultery, murder, or apostasy from Chris-
tianity, were immediately excommunicated. These could be restored to their
former position in the Church only after a series of penances adjusted to the
nature of the offence by the various codes of discipline, and sometimes pro-
tracted to the end of life. The power of a disturbed conscience, and the
terrors of an exclusion from the Church, in which alone salvation was
thought to be attainable, induced many to undergo the most fearful penances.
At that time, few could perceive a distinction between an abandonment by
God and an exclusion from his Church. The power to relax the severity of
the penitential laws in particular instances, was indispensable in times of per-
secution, on account of the multitude of those who fell away and subsequent-
ly returned Avith sorrow. It was usually exercised by the churches and the
bishops with scrupulous restrictions, but by the confessors and martyrs with
60 much indiscretion, that the discipline of the Church was in danger of be-
coming ineffectual. In general the principle was conceded, that every actu-
al penitent, at least in the hour of death, should be admitted to reconciliation
for ail his offences. As a mere outward form in connection with excommu-
nication, particular bishops or synods withdrew ecclesiastical fellowsliip
from whole churches or parties, on account of what was regarded as un-
christian sentiments.
* ITieron. Tita Panii Eremitao. Instances more like tliat of the shoemaker at Alexandria, In
Tita« Patr. P. II. § 121. comp. Apologia Co^)/. Aug. p. 2S5.
66 ANCIENT Cll'JIiCU IIISTORV. rEli. I. UIV. II. A. l>. 100-812.
? 67. 7'hc MontanintK.
I. Kiisrh. IF. coc. V, .3. 14-19. JCjdjihan. liner. 48s. Kindred niattors, ami n tronlmeiit of tlit
5iil)Jeot «hicli ^-rios itnicli bi'yoiid ordinary views of It In all the wrltln(,'S of TertiiUian. II. G.
l(V;'ji«(/o;;/; (lu Montnnjstl.s. Gcdanl. Ur^l. 4. F. Munter, tlfCala ot orac. Montan Istar. Havn. 1829.
C jV. Kirchner, do Montanist Ds. I. Jen. 1882. F. C. A. fkhice(/ler, d. MonUinl.sinus, u. d.
Kirclio des 2 Julirb. Tub. 1S41. Bee also bis Nacbapost Zcltalt vol. II. p. 2D9ss.
Ill an oxcitement wLich originated in Phr^'gia, and extended over all tlie
churches of Asia Minor, not only tlie rigor of ecclc.sia.stical morals and disci-
pline, hut the extraordinary zeal -which prevailed in tlie apostolic Church,
was revived and even exceeded. It was there maintained, that the life of a
true Christian was a continual self-denial, that he should find pleasnrc in
nothing hut God and a martyr's death, and that all earthly delights, even
those which science affords, are sinful. Murder, lewdness, and apostasy sub-
jected those who were guilty of them to a hopeless exclusion from the
Church. No church Avas regarded as genuine Avhich Avould not cany out
this rigid system of morals, or wliich allowed of second marriages, and re-
admitted tlioso who had once been excluded as offenders. Such churches
they denominated carnal (the \|/u;(tKoi), superior to which stood the Church
of the Spirit (the nffvuariKoi), since the Spirit was to be looked for in the
Church, and not exclusively in the assembly of the bishops. An ecstasy
which proceeded from within themselves, or a divine frenzy, they looked
upon as the most exalted condition in which a Christian could be found. A
prophet iu this state was far superior to a bishop. The peculiar form of
apostolic Christianity exhibited iu the Apocalypse, while struggling with
Gnosticism, and pressing forward after a still higher development of religion,
might possibly have become gradually perverted into this Montanism^ but its
assertion respecting higher revelations of truth to be expected in the Church,
indicates a consciousness of innovation. Jfontamis of Mysia is designated by
some contemporary writers at a distance from him, as the author of this
movement. He had probably been a priest of Cybele, and Avas at this time
attended by two prophetic women. "With the imaginative, enthusiastic spirit
which characterized his fellow-countrymen, he announced himself as the in-
dividual in whom the promised Paraclete had completely revealed himself,
that the Church might be carried forward to its perfection just before the
introduction of the millennial kingdom. The heavenly Jerusalem, the me-
tropolis of that kingdt;m, Avas to descend to earth at Pepuza. The Montanists
(oi Kara «tp^-j/nf, Pepuziaui) were expelled from the Church by the Asiatic
bishops (about 170), not, however, without great hesitation, since their new
[jrophecies were not absolutely inconsistent Avith the doctrines of the Church
of that period, and it was therefore difficult to determine whether they were
of divine ov demoniac origin. In Asia, they continued to exist under an ec-
clesiastical constitution of their own, until some time in the sixth century.
In the West, their moral principles obtained an influence Avhich seemed
almost a complete victory. What Montanus had announced in a fanatical
spirit, Tertullian, with his polished and liberal vicAvs, presented to the appre-
hensions of men Avith a kind of twilight distinctness. All that either of
these «An did was boldly to comjdete Avhat nearly the whole Church of that
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § CS. XOVATIANS. § C9. HOLY SEASON'S. 67
age was striving for, and merely to demand of everj one what was admired
in individual saints, but ■which, if it had generally prevailed, would either
have destroyed the Church or the nature of man.
§ 68. The N&vatians.
Cypr. Epp. 41-52. Exmeb. H. ecc. VI, 4.$-4.'5. VIII, 8. Cona. Nie can. G. Cod. Theod. XVI.
tit ö! lex. 2. Soorat. H. ecc. I, 10. IV, 23. V, 21.
In opposition to Cornelms^ the newly elected hishop, Kotatian^ his pres-
byter, violently opposed the readmission of those who had once fallen. This
man was a philosopher who had embraced Christianity in the midst of sickness
and severe spiritual conflicts, and after his conversion had become an ascetic,
and a prudent advocate of the faith generally embraced in the Church.* By
his own party, strengthened by some persons from the African Church, he
was elected a rival bishop (251). The Novatians excluded from the Church
all those who had been guilty of deadly sins, and taught, that while
such should be exhorted to repentance and hope of the divine mercy,
no prospect should be held out to them that they would ever be readmitted
to a Church which should consist only of saints and purified persons (»caSapoi).
They withdrew all fellowship from the Catholic Church, and re-baptized all
who came from it to them. Their party was sometimes treated with re-
spect, generally with forbearance, and by the emperor himself, at Nicaea,
with good-humored raillery, but it was overwhelmed by the authority of the
Catholic Church. Its adherents continued without a visible organization for
some centuries, though in Phrygia they wore sometimes confounded with the
Montanists. In other countries also a similar uncertainty with respect to
the true idea of the Church, and strict discipline, produced similar divisions,
but all these necessarily ceased when heathenism was overthrown, and mild-
er views gained the ascendency.
§ 69. Ilohj Season.% and the Controversy about Easter.
Iliinpinidmis, Festa Christ (Tigur. 1593.) Geiiev. 167-i. Auffusti, die Feste der alten Christen.
Lpe. 1S17-2II. 3 vols. UUmann, Zusaininenst des clir. Fosteyclus mit vorehrlstL Festen. Appendi.v
tu Crcuzer^ii Symbolik, vol. IV. separ.itely piinted from the third ed. Darmst 1S43. SOimlenmaier,
d. Gtist d. Chrislentli. in d. heil. Zeiten, Ilandl. n. d. heil. Kunst Mainz. (1&35.) 183S. 2 vols.
The three hours of the day observed by the Jews as seasons for prayer,
were recommended to those whose secular employments were likely to with-
draw their thoughts from God, as an excellent means of reminding them of
their duty. The dawn of the day, and in times of persecution tlie night,
wa-; preferred for public as.semblies. That they might give special solemnity
to their higher festivals, the jirecodiiig night wa.s made a part of them
(vigilia). In determining what days should be ob.'^erved as holy, they paid
attention to the critical seasons of joy or grief which occurred in the course
of our Saviour's life. We(hwsda4j^ and especially Friday (dies stationum,
feria quarta et sexta), were consecrated as i)artial fast-days (till 3 r. m.) in
commemoration of his sufftrings. The Koman Church regarded Saturday as
• Do Trinitate, 0pp. ed. Jackson. Lond. 1723. {Gallamf, Th. IV.) Comp. Ilieron. catal. c. TO.
68 ANCIENT CHURCH III8T0ET. PER. I. DIV. 11. A. D. 10i>-812.
a fnst-diiy, in direct opposition to tliose wlio regarded it as a Sabbath. Sun^
dn7j roinaincd a joyful festival, in which all fasting and worldly business was
avoided as much as possible, but the original commandment of the Deca-
logue respecting the Sabbath was not then applied to that day. (a) A sea-
pon of fasting of greater or less length in different places (afterwards called
Quadrigcsinia), was observed just before the passover. In Asia Minor, the
paschal supper was eaten as a type of Christ's sacrifice on the night of the
fourteenth day of the month Nisan. But in otlier parts of the Church, the
Jewish festival was altogether set aside. The Kesurrection of our Lord was
celebrated on the Sunday after the full moon in the spring, and the day of
his death on the Friday preceding. When Pohjcarp visited Rome (about
160), this difference in reckoning was discussed, though without injury to
Christian unity.. But the Roman bishop Victor threatened to withdraw ec-
clesiastical fellowship from the Asiatic bishops, on account of their course in
this matter (19G). Public opinion was in favor of the usage in the Roman
Church with respect to this festival, but the violent measures pursued by the
Roman bishop were decidedly condemned by all distinguished teachers, (b)
The fifty days which immediately followed Easter (Pentecost), formed a sea-
son of festivity for the commemoration of the glorification of Christ, and the
last day of that period was kept as the proper Pen tecost, in honor of the effu-
sion of the Holy Spirit. According to the oldest authorities, heretics were
baptized on the Feast of the Ei)iphany^ which was celebrated in conformity
with the views of the heretics, in commemoration of the Manifestation
(eVt^ai/f la) of the Messiah. In this festival the Church had reference to the
revelation of Christ in the flesh, and hence in the oriental churches, after the
close of the third century, the sixth of January appears to have been ob-
served in the double sense of a baptismal and a birth-day festival, (c) Some
churches annually celebrated the days on which the martyrdom of some of
their number took place, as if they^vere birth-days (uatalia), when assem-
blies were held around their graves ; and about the close of the third centu-
ry some amusements were allowed on sucb occasions, instead of the heathen
festivities formerly enjoyed. (<Z) As these martyrs were looked upon as the best
representatives of Jesus Christ on earth, the relation of the Church to them
was that of an affectionate fellowship. Even then we find some indications
of a confidence in their power to aid men either in the present life or at the
final judgment. In accordance with the ancient doctrine of the saving effi-
cacy of an expiatory death, a degree of influence was ascribed to their death
as well as to that of Jesus, {e)
a) F. Liebetrut, d. Tag d. Herrn. Bcrl. 1S3T. F. W. Rücker, v. Tage d. Herrn. Erl. 1S89.
h) Emeb. H. ecc. V, 23-25. Vita Constant III, IS. Socrat H. ecc V, 21. Cbronicon pasch. ed.
Dufretn«. Vax. 168S. Add. N. \i.—Xeander, ü. Yeraula-ss. u. Beschaffenh. d. hit Passalistreitiikeiten.
(KHist Archiv. 1S23. Bt 2.) ReUherg, d. Pascbastreit (Illgens Zeitschr. 1S32. B. IL St 2.) GU^eler
In d. Stud. u. Krit 1S83. P. 4.
c) Clement. Strom. I. p. 407s. comp. Casaiani Collat X, i.—Jablonsky, de orig. fosti natly.
Christi, Ds. L § T. (0pp. Th. III. p. 328s9.) Gieseler in d. Hall. Lit Z. 1S23. p. S36.
d) Greg. Thaumaturgi 0pp. ed. Toss. Mog. 1G04. p. 312. comp. August. Ep. 29. § 9. ad
Alyplura.
e) Ep. Ecd. Smijm. {Eusel. H. ecc, IT, 15.) Ci/pr. de laps. c. 17. (aL :4s.) Orig. exhort ad
mart c. 50.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 70. FESTIVALS. § 71. LORD'S SUPPER. 69
§ 70. Sacred Places and their Decoration.
Cinmpini, vctl. nionninentn. Rome. 1743. 3 vols. f. Jacutii chr. antiqnitatam speciinlna. P.ome.
.752. 4 Milliter, Sinnbilder u. Kunstvorst d. alten Christen. Alton. 1S25. 2 parte. 4. Giüneiken, v.
d. Ursachen n. Grunzen d. Kunsthasses in (L ersten 8 Jahrh. (Kunstblatt. 1831. N. SSss.) [ifrs. Jiime-
ton, Sacred and Legendary Art. Lond. 1848. 2 vols. 8. Lord Lindsay, Sketches of the Hist, of Clirls-
♦ian Art. Lond. 1S47. 3 vols. 8.]
The halls in whicli the Christians were accustomed to as.seinl)le, were fur-
nished for public speaking with an elevated platform, and for the administra-
tion of the Lord's Supper with a table Avhich, near the end of the second
century, was called an altar. Churches began to be constructed after the
close of the third century, and during the reign of Diocletian some were
built of considerable size. "When the people very generally adopted the sen-
timent, that God was present in some peculiar sense in the hou.se of worship,
their more intelligent public teachers reminded them that the world was his
temple, (a) Christians were fond of holding their religious assemblies over
the graves of the dead, and sometimes they even descended into the vaults
of the catacombs to find a place for prayer. Such places, however, at least
in Eome, were never fitted to accommodate their larger assemblies, (h) The
imitative arts had flourished principally in the service of the ancient gods,
and hence the same ' hatred which had prevailed against them among the
Jews, was continued in the Christian Church. Kone but heathen who re-
vered Jesus, as either a sage or a Son of God, or heretics, who mingled to-
gether pagan and Christian principles, ever possessed images of him. In
place of these, however, and with the direct object of excluding heathen
images, were introduced various Christian emblems, such as the cross, the
good shepherd, the ram and the lambs, the fisherman and the fishes (IXGYS),
the ship, the dove, the palm, the lyre, the phoenix, and the cock and anchor.
At first, these were used only in private dwellings, but gradually they were
introduced as ornaments of tombs, and as works of art in fresco or mosaic,
to decorate their churches. But even as late as the fourth century, they
were censured as innovations, (c)
§ 71. Sacred Services.
The worship of the Temple described in the Old Testament, was the
model to which was conformed as much as possible the public services of the
Christian assemblies. In compliance with the .«[lirit of the times, tliough it
was originally a matter of necessity, the Lord's Supper was administered near
the close of the second century as a Christian mystery, with the view of in-
vesting it with an increased sanctity by its seclusion and sccresy. By this
means, a mysterious character was imparted to a number of the usages and
a) Tertul. de orat. c. 24.
h) Comi). If ieron. in Ezceh. c. 40. Aflcr the works of 7?(/«io, -IrriH (7/1/, Boldetii, am\ Ji'itiari,
bco Rontell, Roms KatakotnlH'n. (Rcschreilning dor Stadt Rom, von Plainer, Buniten, and otli.
Stuttg. 1830s?. vol. I. [ip. 3.51-411',.) C. K. lirth'niKinn, 11. d. iiltosfen chr. Bop-flbnl.spstilttcn 11. be«.
d. Katakomben zu Neapel m. lliron Wande'.;oniähldcn. Hainb. 1S39. 4. [C. MnitUind, The Church
In the Catacombs, or a Description of the Prim. Cluircli of Rome, new ed. I/)nd. 1S50. 8.]
c) Cone. Illiberit. can. 30. £pijifuiii. Ep. ad Jo. Ilieros. (vol. IL p. 317.)
70 ANCIENT CllUnCII IIISTOIiY. I'ER. I. DIV. 11. A. I). 100-8R
forms of tliü Clnircli. (a) Tlio Lord's Siq>j>cr was celebrated at tlic close of
every Boleinn asscinhly, but the mncli-abuscd and more infrequent Lorc-Fmni
■was f^enerally lifld iipart from tbo public services, and in the evening. Tlie
bread and the wine Avere in some instances regarded as the symbols of the
body and blood of Christ, and in others as pervaded by the Logos. Thi»
sacred ordinance was supposed to be a thank-offering, and to have some spe-
cial influence upon the resurrection of the body. The consecrated bread was
sent to those who were absent, or taken home for subsequent use, and eometimes
bottles of the wine, labelled with some pious toasts, were even placed on the
coflins of the dead. (?/) Origen found Infant Duptism an old ancestral usage
in the region where he resided, but others advised that, as a matter of poli-
cy, the baptism of even adults should bo deferred as long as possible (pro-
crastinatio). ((■) The solemn act by wbich the worsbip of the gods Avas ab-
jured, taken in connection with tlie Jewish notion of the expulsion of demons,
gave occasion to tho practice of uniting Exarcism with the ordinance of bap-
tism. The principle that baptism was to bo administered but once to the
same person, was universally acknowledged. But tlie African, and even
some of the Asiatic churches, baptized those who came to them from any of
the heretical sects, because they denied the Christian character of baptism
when administered among those sects. The Roman- Church, however, re-
cognized the validity of all baptisms in which the subject formed a full pur-
pose to enter into fellowship with Christ. ((7) Those catechumens who suf-
fered martyrdom before baptism, were looked upon as laptized in Mood.
The reception or addition of a name in baptism, had reference to apostolic
example, and a cycle of Christian names, of Jewish or heathen origin, was in
this way formed. Sponsors (di/uSoxot, sponsores) were introduced in the ad-
ministration of baptism, that they might be sureties for the good intentions
of adult candidates, and for the future education of infants, and as witnesses in
all cases. The seasons in which baptism was ordinarily administered, Avere
Easter, Pentecost, and Epiphany. During the performance of the rite, tho
candidates were clothed in Avhite garments (vestis alba). The imposition of
hands for the communication of the Holy Ghost {x^ipo'iiala.)^ was originally
connected Avith and immediately folloAved by the rite of baptism. But Avhen,
in the "West, the imparting of the gift of the Spirit was looked upon as the pre-
rogative of the bishops, the ceremony of confirmation was perfonned as a dis-
tinct rite. Tho intention of those Avho were about to enter the marriaije rela-
tion^ Avas previously made known to the assembled congregation. The betrothed
parties, after partaking of the Lord's Supper, received the benediction of the
priest. There was ranch contention betAveen the respective advocates of the
a) These were not called rfjsc?7)/?«a area« i until after the Eeformation, and in the Catholic Chnrcb
they were then referred as apostolic to religious doctrines. Controversial writings of ScheMraie
and TenUel. 1678ss. C. Frotnmann, de disa arc. Jen. 1S33. Ji. liothe, de disc, arc Hcidclb. 1S41.
comp. Grossmann, de Judaeor. disc. arc. Lps. ISSSs. 2 P. 4.
h) EuseltM Romanus (Mabillon), de cultu sanctorum ignotor. Tar. 16SS. (ed. 2. 1705.) 4. Beschr
d. Stadt Rom. vol. I. p. 400ss. Bellermann, p. 60s.
c) Orig. In Kom. AT, 9. (vol. IV. p. 565.) On the other hand : Tertul. de bapt. c. IS.
d) Tertul. de bapt c. 15. Cypr. Epp. 69-75. Cone. Carth. III. {Oupr. 0pp. p. 15?5S.>-(Ma»-
chettJ) Escrcitazioni Ciprianiche circa il batteslnio degli crctici. Roma. 17S7.
CHAP. III. ECCLE3. LIFE. §71. CULTUS. CHAP. IV. §72. CAXON. 71
Jewish and the Eoman law, regarding Avhat ouglit to he considered legal im-
pediments to marriage. The dift'erent moral principles of the parties, and tho
precepts of the Old Testament, were looked upon as valid ohjections to all
intermarriages with the heathen, (c) Divorces were seldom recognized by tho
Church for any other cause than adultery. All who had died in the Lord
v.'ere committed to tho grave with ecclesiastical solemnities. The mode of
burial was generally conformed to the usages of the ancient Jews, or to oth-
er customs not inconsistent with the habits i" the ancient Romans. On an-
niversaries of the decease of beloved friends, alms were distributed in their
name among the poor, or gifts were presented in their behalf at the altar, by
which means their names continued to be remembered and mentioned in tho
prayers of tlie Church.
CHAP. IV.— DOCTRINES OF THE CHURCH, AXD OPINIONS OP-
POSED TO THEM.
§ 72. Sources from which the Church derived its System of Fai'h.
The books of the Old Testament Avere at first the only books -which tho
Church regarded as sacred. Although Paul's views respecting them avoided
all extremes, public opinion generally agreed with him, and the clergy
did not hesitate to appeal to them as authority for what they wished to
prove. Melito visited Palestine for the express purpose of ascertaining what
books belonged to the canon of the Old Testament, and finally settled upon
those recognized by the Jews of that region. To these, Origen subsequent-
ly added the book of the Maccabees, {a) and as the Alexandrian version
(LXX.) was in general use in the Greek congregations, all the books em-
braced in it (since the time of Jerome, so far as not contained in the original
Hebrew, called the Apocrypha of the Old Testament) were esteemed as of
nearly equal authority. But the necessity of tho case, and a consciousness
that Christianity had much peculiar to itself, produced during tho second cen-
tury, from tho writings of its founders, a body of Sacred Scriptures exclu-
sively its own. Justin made use of an indefinite multitude of apostolic me-
moirs, among which wo find mentioned a gospel of tho Hel)rews. (Jj) Tlie
unity of the Church, however, rendered it indispensable that there should be
an agreement in aU its pai'ts respecting the canon of its Holy Scriptures.
Marcion was probably not merely tho first witness, but in accordance with
his peculiar views of the nature of Christianity, tho first author of such a
canon. \Iq testifies to one gospel and tho ten epistles of Paul, but those who.
in a short time, were opposed to him, mention four gospels, the Acts of the
Apostles, thirteen epistles of Paul, one epistlo of Peter, and one of John
Respecting tho remaining portions of tho New Testament, the views of the
<■) Tertitl. de inonog:. c. 7. 11. Ci/pr. Jo. lapsia. e. 0.
a) Kmeh. H. ccc. IV, 20. Oriij. in IN. 1. (vol. II. p. 529.)
?/) U^/H«/-, Just, Evv. can. usum fiiisse ostoiulitiir. Lps. 1S19. 4. On the other hand : Credne-,
P.eitr. z. Einl. in d. l$ibl. ScliiT. vol. I. p. 21Is.s. Comp. Hhideniann in d. Stud. u. Krit 1S42. P 2.
Fiantk in d. Stud. d. Gcistlichk. Wurtemb. 1S40. P. 1.
72 ANCIKNT CIIUUfH IIISTuKV. VKll. 1. DIV. II. A. I). 100 812.
Cluiroli wore not tlien quite nettled. (0 Iii docidinR whether any l)ook wai
canonical, they were (letennined on the one linnd hy tlie apo.stolic character
of the author, and on the other hy the Christian popular character of the
book itself. In conformity with the views of the Jews respecting the Old
Te.stamont, the writings of the New Testament were regarded as inspired hy
the Holy Ghost, but this inspiration was looked upon only as the highest
state of religious fervor. The Holy Scriptures, in the ordinary language of
the people, were made the basis of all ])uhlic devotional exercises, and all
were frequently urged to peruse them in private ; hut copies of them were
very exjiensivc, and only a few among the people were capable of reading
them. ('/) In opposition to worldly wisdom, and the esoteric doctrines of the
heretics, the Church appealed to the literal meaning of the sacred writ-
ings. 0) But the only way in which it seemed possible satisftictorily to con-
fute heretics, was by appealing to Tradition^ (/) by which was meant the
doctrines of the Church orally communicated by the apostles to the first
bishops, and propagated by them in an unadulterated form among their suc-
cessors. It was, in fact, an abstract of every thing which the Christian con
sciousness of each age had uttered through public opinion, against views
inconsistent with it. As a summary of these traditionary doctrines, the Apos-
tles' Creed (ej) was gradually formed out of the confessions of faith used in
baptism. As these were intended to bo opposed to the heretical opinions of
the day, this creed possessed a tolerably uniform character, though some of
its particular expressions were still undetermined. The Eule of Faith to
which some ecclesiastical fathers alluded, was only a free amplification of this
creed, adapted to the wants of tlie period in which it was composed. {Ti) In
this way a scale was in practice formed, according to which tradition was
placed in a station superior to that of the Scriptures as a rule of interpreta-
tion and a necessary complement to the system of faith ; and the Creed was
looked upon as superior to tradition, on the ground of its being an author-
ized abstract of it ; but in principle all three were regarded as equally saf*
and necessarily harmonious sources of Christian truth.
§73. Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century . Cont . from % Z^ .
A few Asiatic bishops who had beheld the face of the apostle John, wen
numbered among the apostolic Fathers. Their writings belong to a perioc
anterior to the cultivation of Greek literature and the principal contest with
heathenism, and they had access only to particular books of the Xew Testa-
ment. The Seven Epistles of Ignatius, written while their author was on
his journey to his place of martyrdom, have been altered, certainly in their
c) J. Kirchho/er, Qaellensamml. z. Gesch. z. nontest. Can. bis Ilieron. Ziir. 1S44.
cl)F. m/icA, V. Gebrauch d. II. Sehr, in d. ersten 4 J.ilirh. Lps. i:99. (On the other hand:
Lessiiiff, Sfimnul. Schrr. Berl. 1S40. vol. XI. p. SGlss.) L. v. Bss, Auszüge ü. d. nothw. u. nüul. Bibe!-
les. a. d. KV. Lps. (1S03.) 1S16. See also his Clirvfost. o. Stimmen der KY. f. Bibelles. DarmsL lS2-t
e) Iren. I, 8. 1. Ill, 2. Tertul. de resurrect, cam. c. 3.
/) Iren. Ill, 8s. Tertul. de prescript, c. 13-27. de corona c. 3.
ff) liußni E.\positio in Syrab. X\ix>.—Sir Peter King, Ilist. Symb. of the Ap. Creed. Lend. 1702. &
;0 Iren. I, 10. Tertnl. d. vir?::, vol. c. 1. Tie pr.iofcr. c. 13. Adv. Prax. c. 2. Orig. do prine.
Prooem. § 4ss.— .1. Iltihn, Bibl. d. Syinb. u. Glli-cihi d. Ap. Kath. Kirclio. Brest. I'Ui.
CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. § 73. IGNATIUS, POLtCARr, PAPIAS. 73
more extended, and probably in their most abridged form. But even the
iatter more authentic portions, though regarded as a fabrication of the mid-
dle of the second century, give us an authentic representation of the high-
wrought feelings of a martyr, and of a general desire to secure the Christian
unity of the congregations to which they were addressed, by bringing them
together under the jurisdiction of the bishop. Its general characteristics
are, a spirit formed under the combined influence of Paul and John, a prac-
tical opposition to the system of the Docetae, and a conception of Christian-
ity as something -wholly internal, and independent of historical evidence. (")
The recently discovered Syriac version of his epistles, and especially of his
epistle to the Ephesians, presents us with a much more concise, but a no less
hierarchical text. {!>) The epistle of Pohjcarp to the church of Philippi,
written soon after the martyrdom of Ignatius, with reference to that event
and to various circumstances connected with that church, is a modest and
spiritual work, which refers to Paul, and in some passages reminds us of the
first epistle of John. ('■) Pa2)ias (d. about 103), bishop of Ilierapolis, in his
account of the facts in tlio life of our Saviour, has recorded those things
which he had learned from the lips of such as had had intercourse with the
apostles. Having been in early youth a pupil of John, he took a peculiar plea-
sure in the living word ; and it was only when he was judged by an ago
whose spirit had become essentially dilierent, that he was accused of pos-
sessing a very contracted mind. ('/)
§ 74. Ecclesiastical Literature and Ileresy.
J. G. liosenmueller, de clir. Theol. orig. Lps. 17S6. Marheinecke, Ursprung; u. Entwickl. <1.
Ortliod. u. Ileterod. in d. ersten 3 Jalirh. (Daub. u. Creuzer, Studien. 1S08. vol. III.) B. J. Ililgem,
Krit Darst. d. Ilärcsen u. d. Ortliod. llauptriclit. v. SLandp. d. Kath. aus. Bonn. 1887. 1st vol.
The sole object of the gospel was to awaken and to satisfy the religious
spirit of man, by an exhibition of a true religious spirit. But when it came
among a people highly educated in science, and was pressed by opponent?,
this spirit was obliged to seek for a more definite consciousness of its princi-
ples. Its opponents consisted principally of those who attempted to form
a) Polyc. Ep. c. 13. Iren. V, 28. Orig. in Luc. Horn. 6. (voL III. p. 933.) Eiieeh: II. ecc III
86. M. J. Wocher, die Br. d. h. Ign. übors. n. erklärt Tub. IS'29.— ,/: DaUaeus, do scriptis. quae sut
Dion, et Ignatil noium. circuinferuntur. Gen. IGCC. 4.—Baur. in d. Tub. Zeit.schr. 1V>SS. P. 3. p. 1*»»
J. E. Ch. Schmidt, d. doppelte Rec. d. Br. d. Ign. (Ilenke's Mag. vol. III. p. 91ss. abbreviated in bia
KGesch. Tb. L p. 200s.) G. C. NeU, Vers. ü. d. Br. d. Ign. an Polyk. (Stud. u. Krit. IsSO. P. 4.)—
K. Meier, d. dopp. Rec. d. Br. d. Ign. (Stud. u. KriL 1S36. P. 'i.)—J. Pearson, Vimliriac Ei)p. S. Ign
ncc. J. VoDJiii, Epp. CanUibr. 1G72. 4. (CoUler. PI*, app. Tb. II. P. II. p. 230ss.) Hol/i/; Anfänge d.
Kircbe. vol. I. p. 715»s. Uutlier in Illgen's ZeiU-clir. 1S41. P. A.— Ch. JJii«teidieck, qu.ie do Ignatla-
naruin cjip. autbcntla, duorumquo tc.xluuui rationo bucusque prolatae sunt scntcnliao cnarrantnr.
Gott. 1S43. 4.
h) Tlie ancient Syriac version of Uie epistles of S. Ign. to S. Polyc. tlie Eplieslans and Rmnans,
collected from tbo writings of Sevcrus of Anliocb, Tluiotb. of Alexandria, and otbers. by William
Vureton. Lond. 1845.
c) lien. Ill, 8. Emeh. II. ecc III, 30. V, 20. Wucher, Br. d. apost Väter Clein. n. Polyc. übera.
ni. Coin. Tiib. lo^'O. Reasons in Opposition to its Qenuincncsa: S<:McegU,; Naclinpost Zeita. vol
IL p. 154ts.
d) Aoyiwv Kvpianüu i^riyricTis. Li>st except an inconsiderable fragment Iren. V, 33. Euiel.
H. ecc. 111,39. comp. 3(j. Cliron. ail Olymp. '.'JO. Grabe, Splcil. Patr. P. II. p. 34ss. Munter, Frngmni
Pair. giMec. ll.ifn. 1763. Fa.sc I. p. l&ss. Comp. Ilexs, Bibl. d. beil. Gcscli. vol. I. p. 297ss.
~4 ANciKNT ciirijcn msToKV. I'Ki;. I. div. ir. a. d. ioobi2
Biicli ,a historical oiiilxxliiiioiit of its nature as would aflbrd no room for the
religion of the sjiirit, and of those Avho aimed at such a .«f)eculativo refine-
ment as threatened to destroy every historical element in Christianity. Tho
former j)roceeded ^om the schools of Judaism, and the latter from those of
heathenism. Tlio principles which finally ohtained the ascendency, and for
that reason only became those of the Catholic Church, moved on with con-
scious security between both these extremes, althougli theological science was
at ditleront periods attracted more to the one side than to the other. Chris-
tianity was at first regarded as embracing so wide a range, that Justin did
not hesitate (Ap. I. c. 46.) to consider Socrates, and all those who had lived
up to the light of reason, as Christians. But the more the Church, during
its severe conflicts, became conscious of its true nature, the more decidedly
was every thing opposed to it separated from it as a IltreKy, i. e. as what
ought to have been and claimed to be Christian, and yet really was not. In
this way it may have happened, that instead of an unchristian party, only a
vanquished minority was sometimes excluded. The literature of this period
was sophistical, and neither creative in its essential character, nor attractive
in its style. The energy of faith which theological science then exhibited,
was sufficient to supply the place of both these qualities, but could not call
them into existence.
§ 75. Ehionism. Cont. from § 3.j.
Gieseler, Naz. u. Ebion. (Stäudlin's u. Tzscliirner's Arch. vol. IV. Part 2.) Ilaae, ü. d. Empfäng-
er d. Br. an d. Hebräer. (Winer's u. Engelli. Journ. vol. II. P. 3.) Z. Lange, Beitrr. z. ült KGesch.
Lps. 1S26. vol. I. — Baur and Schwegler (before § 29.) On the other hand: A. SMiemanji, die
Clercentinen nebst den verwandten Schäften u. dor Ebionitismiis. Ilamb. 1S44.
As the whole power and development of the Church was established
among nations subject to Greek refinement and civilization, the Jewish por-
tion of the Christian community, in its seclusion, began to be regarded as a
mere sect, and the old name of yazarencs^ by which Christians in Palestine
had been distinguished, as well as that of Ehionitcs, {a) which was probably
quite as ancient, and had been applied to the congregations at Jerusalem and
Pella, became simply designations of particular sects. Justin Qj) made a dis-
tinction between those Jewish Christians who were satisfied with their own
observance of the Mosaic law, and those who demanded that converts from
heathenism should observe the same law as a necessary condition of salva-
tion. The former he recognized as brethren, though even at that early pe-
riod sucb a recognition had ceased to be universal among his fellow-Chris-
tians ; but the latter he looked upon as incapable of salvation. Origen («•)
found a type of the Ebionites in the blind man who prayed to the son of Da-
vid, Eusebius (<7) looked upon them as persons who were deluded, but not
wholly estranged from Christ, and Epiphanius was the first to pour upon thera
the vials of that wrath which all heresies provoked from him. Even at thia
early period, however, there were not many Jewish Christians beyond the
borders of Syria and Palestine. It is not impossible that a congregation at
a) Epiyhan. haer. 30, 17. On tho other hand : Tertul. de praescr. c. 83.
I) C. Tryph. c. 47. e) In Matth. torn. 16. (Th. III. p. "33ss.) rf) H. ecc. Ill, 87.
CHAP. IV. DOCXniKES. § 75. EBIONISM. § TO. G KOSTICISXT. 75
Rome Avas the only one composed exclusively of thera. But many even of
these had renounced circumcision and all that was essential to their position,
and retained nothing but an empty protest against the apostolic authority of
Paul. Attempts at an accommodation "with this party on the side of the
great Church, Avould not therefore seem probable, nor have we any accounts
of such attempts from contemporary -n-riters. Even the Christianity of Paul
had an acknowledged basis in the JcAvish system, and not only were some
fragments of the Mosaic law unintentionally preserved in the habits and
customs especially of the churches of Asia Minor, but others were restored in
order to promote certain hierarchical ends. The second epistle of Peter, and
the union of the names of Peter and Paul in the watchword used at Pome, may
have been occasioned by those Jewish Christians who needed such a recon-
ciliation with the general Church. (<) Irenaeus was the first who reckoned
the Ebionites indiscriminately among heretics. Their doctrine respecting
Jesus was the same with that taught by Cerinthus ; they adhered to the Mo-
saic law, used only one gospel, Avhich was that according to Matthew, and
rejected the authority of Paul as an apostate. (/) Origen and Eusebiiuj dis-
tinguish between two different classes of Ebionites, which Avere agreed in
their opposition to the progressive creed of the Church, but ditfered from
each other in their Jewish representations of the Messiah. The one regard-
ed Christ as the son of Mary and Joseph ; the other looked upon him es born
of the virgin through the Holy Ghost, and acknowledged him to be a super-
human, but not a divine being, (y) Jerome was the first who appropriated
the name of Nazarenes exclusively to that party which held to the higher
view of the nature of Christ, and were most tolerant toward the G«ntilo
Christians, and he declares that they were united together in the most de-
lightful fraternal affection. (A) "When he wrote, they still maintained their
synagogues, in which were found Elders and Overseers; but in the sofenth
century they had completely dwindled away, unable to maintain their jiOsi-
tion between the parties then contending for supremacy, and to hoiU of
which they professed adherence.
§ 76. I. Gnosticism.
I. Iren. adv. baereses. Tertul. de praescriptionibas liaereticornm. Epi])h. adv. Iiaereses, and
TIteodoret, haereticorum fabb. articles relating to the subject All the ecclesiastioiil vritcrs of this
period, especially Clement and Origen in particular passages. — Plotir.us, irphs roh; ytoiiniKovs.
(Knncad. II. lib. 9.) ed. G. IL Ihigl. llalisb. 1S82. Comp. Stud. u. Krit lS-34. P. 2.
II. JIiiMuet, Dss. previae to his edit, of Irenaeus. Moshemii de rcb. Christ an»(» Const, p. 8.S3S&
[translated into English by li. S. Vkhil. Lond. 1S13. 2 vols. 8. and by Dr. Murdock. New York.
1S50.] {Miaitfr,) Vers, ü- d. kirchl. Alterthiimer d. Onostikcr. Ansb. 1T90. K. A. h:tcahl, de doctr.
gnostica. Ileidclb. 1S18. Xeander, genot Entw. d. gnosL Systeme. Brl. 1318. Swi ilso his Hist of
*
<) SchxoegUr, nachapost Zeita. vol I. p. 490ss.
/) I, 30. (The dilHcuIty of the passage is to bo removed not by correction, bu by punclnation)
Consentiunt quidon» munduin a Peo factum, ca autcm, quae sunt erga Dominun., non similiter: ul
Cerinthus et Carpocrates opinantur.
g) Orig. c. Cels. V, CI. 65. Eiiseh. XI. eve. Ill, 27.
/() In Jesni. VIII, 9. 1.3. XXIX, 20. XXXI. Css. comp. Ep. ad Aug. 112. (al. S9.) Ei>iph. h.icr.
29, 7ss. On the other linnd: Aiigunt. c. Faust XIX, IS. with reference to the Xazarenci s-iys:
In ea perversitate manserunt, ut et gentcs cogorent jiidaizare.
76 ANCIKNT CHUUCII IIISTOUV. PKU. 1 HIV. II. A. 1). 100-31*.
the Clir. IU-1. [Torroy's Trniisl. vol. I. pp. ^00-478.] J.ücl-e, 0. d. Onost. Sy.ttcmo ii. wan nfiiicrll«!
«laffir pctlian U. (Tlicol. ZAt-rhr. Hrl. ISIO. vol. I. Foct. 2.) Gietfler, ('liiircli Hist. [Davl-lson i
Trnnsl. Ediiib. 18-1Ö. vol. I. § 44.] and In Hallo Lit Zelt 1823. N. 104."^?. J. Matter, Hl.»t. crU. da
gnostlclBmc. Par. (1828.) 1843. 2 Tb. J. J. Schmidt, ü. d. YerwandtÄcb. d. gnost thco.s. Leiircn m.
d. licliglonssystomend. Orients, vorz. des IJiiddhalsm. Lps. 1828. (Comp. Gieseler In d. Stud. u. Krlt
1880. vol. I. p. 873s8.) Mijhler, Vers. ü. d. Urspr. d. Gnostic. Tub. 1531. 4. limtr, d. chrlstl. GnosU
In goscliichtl. Entw. Tub. 1S85. and Stud. u. Krit 1837. P. 8. JiiiumgarUn-Cruiiius, Com^. d.
DOesch. vol. I. p. 31s8. Ritter, Gcscli. d. clir. Phil. Ilamb. 1841. vol. I. p. lOÖss. [£". Burton, \n<\.
Into tlio Heresies of Uio Apcst Age. IJanipt Loctt Oxf. 1S29. An Kpltoiiie of tlie Hist of Phil,
traiisl. from the French by C. S. Henry. Now York. 1841. 2 vols. 12. Per. III. § 1. Tennemann' a
Manual of the H. of Phil, transl. by A. Johnson. Oxf. 1832. 8. .;: P. P.tttr, in Kitto's C'ycl. of Bibl.
Lit art Gnosticism. J. D. Maurice, IHst of Philosophy, during the first six centuries. Lond. 18.>4.]
No sooner had Oriental become mingled with Ilellenistic, and especially
•with Plutonic speculations, than the old problem of speculative philosophy
respecting the derivation of the finite from the infinite, became, in conse-
quence of the profound consciousness Avhich the age then possessed of its in-
fernal distractions and longings, the object of an extensively ramified system.
The name Gnosis was applied to an extraordinary insight into divine things,
beyond the system of faith which the people commonly received on author-
ity. The commencement of Gnosticism may be discovered even in the time
of the apostles, (a) but its influence never became suflBciently developed to
appear dangerous, until since the reign of Trajan. (?/) Its usual fundamental
principles were ; a God with no connection whatever with our world, and a
matter entirely underived from and independent of the Deity ; a revelation of
the unknown deity by means of an intermediate divine being, whose contact
with matter gave existence to our world, and all its series of events ; a re-
demption of whatever is divine but confined in the material world, in conse-
quence of the personal interference of a divine being in the affairs of the
world. Wherever the pecuhar principles of Gnosticism gained the ascend-
ency, the intermediate divine being became individualized in a descending
series of celestial natures (alävei), (c) from the lowest class of which proceeded
the Creator of the world (Srjjuioi-pyos), and from the highest the Redeemer.
Gnosticism, like New-Platonism, was obliged to enter deeply into the popu-
lar religion of that period, and to become a philosophy of the three great
forms of religions then in conflict. It even went still further, and aimed to
become a particular form of religion itself. Its oriental element was derived
from Persia, and was a dreamy blending of sense and allegory. Simon and
Cerinthus had already shown how it could be brought into alliance with Ju-
daism, but where no feehngs of piety prevented, its advocates very naturally
recognized their Demiurge in the representations of Jehovah in the Old Tes-
tament. On becoming involved in the powerful movements of Christianity,
Its principles Avere in some measure accommodated to those of the gospel.
and never, indeed, found full development until it became connected with
a) § 82. 37. yet comp. C C. Tittmann, de vestidis Gnostieor. in N. T. fmstra quaesitis. Lps. 177S
jtransl and publ. in Contribb. to For. Theol. Lit New York. 1S27. 8.] J. Horn, Bibl. Gnosis. Hann.
iS05.— P<i«i"S, die drey Lehrbriefe v. Jo. Ileidelb. 1829. Banr, die sogen. Pastoralbrr. d. Ap. Pau-
lus. Stuttg. 1835. On the othir hand: M. Baumgarten, die Aectheit d. Pastoralbrr. verthetdigt
Berl. 1837.
I) Hegesipp. in Emel. II. ecc. IIL 32. IT, 22. Clem. Strom. Til, 17. (p. 898.)
c) In accordance with the system of Aristotle, de coelo I, 9.
CUAP. IV. DOCTRINES. § T6. GNOSTICISM. § 77. SATURNINUS. 77
tliat faith. In the God of the Christian system, its votaries recognized theii
own perfect God, in Christ their redeeming Aeon, in the Christianity which
he rcalhj preached their secret traditions, and in the faith proclaimed by the
Church, the natural mode of representation in which these became adapted
to the popular mind. Its ethical system, in which the greatest contempt for
the world was expressed, harmonized with the most rigid requirements of the
Church, and only a few of its parties were so demoralized as to justify licen-
tiousness, on the ground of an exaltation above the terrestrial law of the
Demiurge. The founders of the different Gnostic parties have been made
known to us in history, but we are nowhere informed of him who originated
the great system common to them all. The predominance of the Oriental,
the Hellenistic, the Christian, or the Jewish element, presents us with a con-
venient principle in accordance with which these Gnostic systems may natu-
rally be classified.
§ 77. II. Syrian Gnostics.
1) Saturnimis, who lived at Antioch in the time of Trajan, taught that
there was opposed to the good Deity (n-arijp ayvuxTros) a wild, tempestuous
kingdom of evil, under the dominion of Satan. From the former emanated
the spiritual world of Aeons. At its lower confines were placed tlie seven
planetary spirits («yyeXoi KoarnoKpdTop€s). Far away from their divine source,
but battling with the kingdom of darkness, these formed the world of sense,
and made man according to their obscure recollections of the image of God.
But the work which they had thus formed, helplessly collapsed, and could
not stand erect until the unknown Father, pitying them, sent into it a spark
of divine life. In opposition to this new race, Satan formed another after his
own image. To redeem the more exalted* race from the power of Satan and
of the planetary spirits, one of the highest Aeons (vovs), as Christ, assumed
the semblance of a body. That men may be redeemed, they must, on their
part, abstain from every thing which brings them under the power of matter.
The followers of Saturninus, for this reason, abstained from marriage, and
many of them even from flesh. («) After a brief period, nothing is known
respecting them. 2) The Disciples of John, in the second century, looked
upon John the Baptist as the true Messiah, though others regarded liim as an
angel in human form. Among the Simonians, he was supposed to have been
the teacher of Simon. Though nothing was known of the Nazoraeans (Men
daeans, Zabians) until they were discovered by missionaries in Persia in the
seventeenth century, their peculiar Johannic system of Gnosticism could only
have originated when a particular party professed adherence to John, and
when Gnosticism was in its forming state. They believed in a kingdom of
darkness as well as of light, in a formation of the world and a struggle
with the powers of darkness by an ambiguous intermediate being (Fetahil) ;
that Judaism was the work of gloomy planetary spirits ; that the redeeming
Aeon appeared to John, and that Jesus was a false prophet, anointed by the
planetary spirits. Baptism they regarded as an act of consecration to be an-
nually repeated, and daily ablutions were practised as a religious duty. (/')
fl) Tre-n. 1, 24. Spiph. hacr. 23.
I) I. Acts IS, 25. 19, 2-7. Clement. Ri'coga I, 54. GO. and Ilomll. II, 23s8. ITieron. in Aggeuni
78 ANCIENT CHURCH HISToliV. I'KI:. I. DIV. II. A. I). 100-312.
§78. III. HfUcnigtie OnosHcs.
1) JJdsi/icIcs, wlio lived at Alexandria in the time of Hadrian, believed
that from the ineffable God {?S(6s afjfiTjTos) proceeded certain images of him-
self according to the numeral relations of astronomy. The first of tlieso
were seven celestial powers (Hwafxtis). who, with the being from whom they
sprung, constituted the first sjiiritual kingdom (oipavöi). From this, in a
gradually descending series, proceeded three hundred and sixty-four other
spiritual kingdoms. The mystical watchword Abraxa», represents the God
revealed in these three hundred and sixty-five spiritual kingdoms, in distinc-
tion from Jiim who js the Inefi^iible. {«) The seven angels belonging to the
lowest of these spiritual kingdoms, the first among whom is the God of the
Jews {apx<^i')i created this world out of matter, and bestowed upon the Iiu-
man race inhabiting it all earthly endowments, together with all the spirit-
ual powers which they themselves possessed. To effect the deliverance of
this spiritual power from its bondage to matter, the first-begotten celestial
power iyovs) united himself with Jesus at his baptism. Though this Jesus
was a perfect man, he needed an expiation for his own sake, and it was he
alone who suffered and died. The Archon was from the first only an uncon-
scious agent of divine providence, and he no sooner discovers, from the words
of Jesus, the actual design of God, than he submitted himself to it with de-
vout reverence. An entrance into the kingdom of the Redeemer, is effected
by a spiritual surrender of the soul to him {nlcms), and is by no means in-
compatible with a denial of him who was crucified. The BasiUdeans^ who
existed late in the fourth century, appear only to have embraced this doc-
trine of spiritual freedom in a still more decided form, and to have claimed
an elevation above all positive religious rites. Qi) 2) Valentine^ who went
from Alexandria to Rome about 140, and died in Cyprus about 160, has
given us a most ingenious representation of Platonic ideas, in his fanciful
scheme of the universe. In the depths of the Great First Cause (^ii'Sor,
TT/aoTrdrop), existed Self-consciousness (iwoia) and Silence (o-ty//). This con-
cealed God reveals himself in three series of Aeons, in the names of the In-
effable, in certain images of God, and in the original types of all spiritual
life, which emanate from him in pairs (o-i'^vyoi), and, in contrast with empty
chaos (Ktfcüfia), collectively represent the fulness of the revealed divine life
(7rXi';/jcd/ia). Every thing in the Pleroma has its individual properties assigned
to it by Measure and Limitation (ö^os). But Sophia, the Aeon most remote
from the great Original, languished on account of its passionate longings tc
c 1. Part 6.—T{rnafU a Jemt narratio origiiiis, rituutn ct errorum Christianorum S. Joannis. Eoiil
1G52. Codex Kazaraeus. liber Adami appellatus, syriace transcriptus, lat redditus a -Vot Xorherg.
Lund. 1S15S. 3 vols. 4.— II. Tyclisen, In the Deutsch. Mus. 17S4. vol. II. p. 414. Ge-^eiiiii-i, Art Z.i-
bier, in the proofslieets of the Encyclop. 1S17. L. E. Burckhavdt, les Nazoroens ou Mandai-Jahia.
Strasb. 1S40.
a) Bellermann, die Gemmen der Alten mit d. Abraxas-Bilde. Berl. ISlTss. P. 3. Gieseier, in d.
Stud. u. Krit. 1S30. P. 2. p. 403ss.
h) The original is scattered throughout Cleiiieut's Stromm. and in the SiSa<rKa\ta avaToKiKT)
ascribed to him. The figurative an«! farciful side and its degenerate state in Ire». I, 24, Oss. II, 16.
2. Epiph. haer. 24.
CII 4.P. IV. DOCTEINES. § 78. VALENTINIAXS. 79
be reunited with its Source. This Wisdom, the Achnmoth^ {;■) agitated by the
intensity of its desires and wandering away from the Plcroma, communica-
ted life to matter and gave birth to tho Demiurge. The Litter formed tlio
world out of chaos in such a way that the divine idea, though correctly, is
inadequately and feebly represented in its actual scenes and events. To re-
store harmony to the Plcroma, a new emanation of a pair of Aeons {Xpitrrot
and llviv^a (lyiov) takes place, and from all the Aeons proceeded the Aeon
Jesus (2q>ti)^), by whom the universe Avas to be properly formed and re-
deemed. It was by this Jesus that tho Demiurge was unconsciously inspired,
so as gradually to form the Avorld according to the type of the divine Plcro-
ma. Hence the Demiurge was often astonished at his own work, and his
creatures shrunk from and adored those very things which tlic higher spirit
created in them. For although heathenism was the kingdom of matter and
Judaism of the Demiurge, individuals were raised uj) by the Soter in both,
Avho, under the excitement of divine powers, and but half understood by
themselves or their age, pointed forward to the future. Conscious of the un-
satisfactory nature of his present system, the Demiurge, under the impression
that he was himself the supreme Deity, and under the influence of an obscure
presentiment, promised his beloved people that he would send them aMes.siah.
This Messiah he furnished, according to his ability, with jjsychical powers.
At the baptism of this Messiah, the Soter became united witli him. Miracles
and prophecies were needful to induce psychical men to confide in the psychi-
cal Messiah, but the simple power of truth was sufficient to collect all men
of a pneumatic nature around the true Saviour. The end of the world is to
be a still higlier restoration ((iTroKurao-rao-ty), for then the Soter will introduce
the Achamoth as his bride, together with all pneumatic Christians, into the
Pleroma, the Demiurge, in peace and joy as tho friend of the bridegroom,
will rule in the midst of all psychical Christians on the confines of the Ple-
roma, and all matter will return to its original nothingness. The Valentinian
was the most influential of all the Gnostic parties, and with various modifica-
tions, continued in existence, especially in Rome, until some time in tho
fourth century. (</) It is said that the school of Ptolemaeu«, (e) a flourishing
branch of tho same party, represented the Aeons, which Valentino had in
fact only described as the forms by which the Deity was developed, more
definitely as real persons. (/) In his epistle to Flora, {g) (of who.se unity and
Gnostic genuineness we need not yet despair), (Ji) he attempts to vindicate
tho creation, and the Testament of the Demiurge, who is regarded as a be-
ing of mere justice, from either of the extremes by which they had been as-
cribed to the supreme God or to the Devil. With an evident attempt to
bring his views into nearer correspondence with the Catholic syst^'Ui, he ac-
cordingly finds in this lact a reason for a partial abolition and a partial pre-
d) Tlioy are the principal subject of Irena^H». Some particulars niny be foun.l In Clement. T>-r-
till. adv. Valentinianos. Epijjh. liacr. 81. Jlür.tei; Oilae gnosticae, lliebnice et Int. Iliifn. 1S12.
e) Iren, pnief. a.l lib. I. § 2. /) Terttil. adv. Val. c. 4. g) Communieiiteil by Fpip/i. liaer. r>8.
h) A. Stiefeii. dc rtolemael ad Floram op. 1". I. Jon. ISW. On the otiier liand, in apolo{,'.v : //!
Roesel, in the .Append, to tlic 2d vol. of tho 2d edit, of Ncander's Hist, of the Chr. Kel.
so ANflKNT CIIUKCH HISTOUY. VKV.. I. DIV. II. A. T). 100-812.
aervation of tho Mosaic linv in conscqucnco of its fulfilment by CLrist.
3) Tho Opiaten, whoso origin may i)erhap8 bo discovered in a Jewish sect
livinp in Efrypt before the time of Christ, professed to believe that the Son
of mnn Avns an emanation from tho Original Source of all existence, and that
from liotli of the."© proceeded tho Mother of lifo (nffv^ia dyiov). This being
liaving espou.sed tho former original typo of mankind, gave birth to Sophia
and Christ, /. c. the principle of Creation and of Redemption. "When Sophia,
tho imperfect, adventitious offspring of this connection, a.spired to be like
God, she was hurled into the great abyss, and there gave birth to Jaldabaoth,
/. e. tho Son of Chaos, (i) the Creator of tho world and the God of tho Jews.
With the assistance of his planetary spirits, tho latter now made, after his
own image, man, whom he indued with life and invested with authority to
rule over divine things in his spirit. But by this very act he had divested
himself of his most important power, and soon saw with dismay that his
creature had become superior to himself. To prevent man at least from at-
taining the consciousness of divinity, he commanded the latter not to eat of
tho tree of knowledge, and then, filled with wrath, threw himself into tho
abyss, where ho produced another image, the Serpent-Spirit (»j0id/iop^or).
But Sophia, now delivered from her fallen state in consequence of the birth
of tho Creator, sought once more to attract to herself and to purify tho spirit-
ual power in the world. She availed herself of the enmity of the Serpent-
Spirit against its parent, to induce man to transgress tho commandment
which had been given him. According to this, what is related in the Jewish
books as a Fall, was in fact a transition to a higher mental state. In great
wrath the Creator now threw men down to the lowest material world, and
harassed them with all the temptations and pains incident to matter. Indi-
vidual persons endowed with high intellectual powers, are raised up by So-
phia, but she struggles in vain to break the bonds which confine men, until
the Aeon Christ unites himself witb the psychical Messiah, and in conse-
quence of the Creator's enmity, was crucified. Finally, Sophia, with all her
spiritual followers among men, will be received back into the Pleroma, and
the God of the Jews, gradually deprived of all his spiritual powers, o-ill be
swallowed up in the empty abyss of matter. Tho Serpent, who had been
the means of man's first exaltation and therefore had been cursed by the
Creator, was, in accordance with his two natures, both honored and feared.
One Ophitic party went so far in their hostihty to the Jews, that they paid
honor to the most abandoned characters mentioned in sacred history as their
highest examples, and were therefore called Cainitcs. Others, on account
of their disapprobation of such extravagance, were called Sethitcs. The pe-
nal code of Justinian shows that the Ophites were not extinct even in the
sixth century. (Jc)
4) Carpocrates and his son Epiphanes, Platonists of Alexandria and con-
temporaries with Valentine, described the Primal Being as the great Unity
(Moi'är) toward which all finite things are striving to return. But tho
k) Iren, I, 30. Orig. c Cels. VI, 24ss. Epiph, haer. Zl.—Mosheim, Gesch. d. Schlangenbruder.
(Vers. e. unpartb. Ketzcrgosch. Hclmst 1746. 174Ö. 4.) G. 11. F. FuUiner, do Opbitli Eint 1S34. 4.
CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. § 7S. VALENTINIAXS. § 79. MAKCION. 81
earthly spirits («'/yyfXot Koa-nonoioi) Avlio have fallen away from this nnitj
are continualh- obstructing this etFort by religious enactments, the most per-
fect specimen of -which is the Jewish law. A few wise men like Plato and
Pythagoras, by means of some reminiscences of a lost state of blessedness,
have sunk back into the divine unity. The same was true of Jesus, who
overthrew the Jewish law. His image was therefore honored by the side of
the statues of other great sages, in the temple of the deified youth Epiphanes",
in the island of Cephalonia. Tlie justification advocated by Carpocrates is
not to be attained by works, but by love and faith, i. e. by a complete sur-
render to the attraction of the great Unity, in the presence of which nil
self-interest, and even all separate existence must disappear. In this state
the mind is exalted above all need of precepts or moral rules. {I)
§ 79. IV. Gnostics^ in an especial seme, Christian.
1) Iren. I, 2". Tertul. adv. Marcion. I. V. AioAoyo? iffpt ttjj fh äfhi/ opbrjs irlartus,
(4tli cent.) eil. W^tsten. B.is. 1GT4. 4. & Orig. 0pp. Tli. I. p. S0:3ss. EpipJi. baer. 41 Exnig. (.')th cent)
IJarst d. marc. Syst. A. d. Armen, v. Xeumann. (Ziitsclir. f. hist Tlieol. 1&34. vol. IV. Sect 1.)—
,1. Hahn, Antitheses Marcionis, liber deperditus, quoad fieri i)otnit restitutus. Eegiom. IS'23. — Jfahn,
de gnosl Marcionis antinonii. Regiom. lS20s. 2 P. 4. lihode, Prolejrg. ad. quaest do Ev. Apostoloque
Mara denuo Institnendam. Vrat 1834. P. I.
2) Iren. I, 2S. Cle/n. Strom. III. p. 54Ts. 55-3. Epiph. haer. 46.
.3) Euseb. IT. ccc. IV, 30. Praep. Ev. VI, 10. Epiph. haer. b6.—Aiigiistin. baer. 35.— i^! Strum,
Hist Bard, et Bardesanlstar. Vit 1710. 4. Ilahn, Bard, snosticus Syrorum primus liymnologus. Lps.
1310. C. Kitehner, Bard, numina.astralia. Ilildbargh. 1S33.
1) Marcion made his appearance at Rome as early as before 139, (a) filled
Avith exalted views of the glory of Christianity, and fresh from a contest
with the remnants of Judaism in the churches of Asia Minor. He had been
excommunicated {h) by his own father, the bishop of Sinope, perhaps in con-
sequence of the conflict of his youthful passion with an inexorable ecclesias-
tical discipline. He availed himself of a connection with Cerdo, a Syrian
Gnostic, to form a theoretical system, in which a strong contrast was pre-
sented between the law and the gospel, and between the period before, and
that after Christ. He made a distinction between three great powers {npxai\
viz., the holy original Being (3fös dya3oy), the righteous Creator (ßrjjxiovpyui
SixMior), and the material world {vXtj) with its wicked ruler {nomjpüs, 8iußo\os.]
The celestial relations of these ])rinciple3 to each other were not carried out
in his theory. With the limited power in his possession, the Demiurge
created a world like himself, and from its inhabitants the Jewish nation were
selected as the objects of his peculiar favor. To them ho gave a law, by
which justification was to be obtained by works alone, and in connection with
them maintained an impotent struggle with the empire of evil. Prompted
by infinite love to man the good God then had compassion, and by the spirit-
ual manifestation of Clirist revealed his own nature, wliich had before been
entirely concealed. All this occurred on a sudden, and with no prepai'ation.
I) Clem. Stroa "^XI. p. Slls,"». Iren. I, 2.". r.uwh. 11. ccc. IV, 7. — Geieniu.i, da Inscriptlono Pboe-
nicio-Graeca in Cyrc».<ilc.-a nuper reporta a<l Carpocratlanornni haero-iin portinonto. Hal. 1835. 4. Aa
to their spuriousness comp. Kupp. Kp. crit (Stud. u. Krit 1^33. P. 2.) Gexeniim in d. H;ill. L. Z. 1S.S5.
p. \(i1.—Ful(lner, do Carpocratianls. (HlgensS Denk-schr. d. hist, theol. Gesellscli. Lps. 1S24. p. ISOea.)
a) Just. Apol. I. c 20. I) Epiph. baer. 42. 28.
6
82 ANCIKNT ClirilCll illSToKV. I'Ki:. I. DIV. IF. A. 1). 100-812.
Those wlio l)clievc in Clirist, und froui a voluntary love to God live a holy life,
.sli.ill rocoive i)frlect blessedness in liis celestial kingdom, wliile all others be«
long to the kingdom of the Demiurge, and by his riglitcous sentence, accord-
ing to their works, shall find a limited degree of blessedness or i)erdition.
That tlie ages before might be placed on an equal footing with those after
Christ, our Lord was supposed, during his sojourn in the world of the dead,
to have offered salvation to the heathen and to all who had been lost under
the Old Testament, on condition that they would believe on him ; while all
the truly pious of the ancient dispensation, like the people of that nation on
earth, were so habituated to the administration of the Demiurge, that they
were kept back from faith in him. (c) Maroion tliought he found evidence
of the character of the Creator from the condition of the world, from the
sensuous nature of the Avhole representation given of Jehovah in the Old
Testament, and from the obvious distinction between the real Christ and the
Messiah held forth in prophecy. He professed to form his scheme of Chris-
tianity upon a literal interpretation of the sacred Scriptures, and he would
acknowledge nothing as Scripture except a collection of the epistles of Paul
(6 (möcTToXoi) and a gospel of our Lord similar to that of Luke. Ecclesiasti-
cal tradition since the time of Irenaeus, accuses Marcion of having expunged
from his text of even these sacred writings whatever was supposed to be
inconsistent with his theological views, ((I) but on the other hand it concedes
that he suffered enough to remain to render those Scriptures irreconcilable
with his system, without the most violent process of interpretation. The
question therefore has necessarily been raised, whether he did not use an older
gospel than any which we now have, and one of which Luke's is only a re-
vision ? (e) It must however be confessed that the authorities in favor of the
superior originality of Marcion's gospel are as yet, when taken in detail, of
very doubtful validity, and that those ecclesiastical fathers who assert that
he, in like manner, corrupted the epistles of Paul, (/) in forming such an opinion
must certain!}- have had the authentic documents before them. Besides, if
iTarcion in his extravagant view of the dissension at Antioch (Gal. 2, llss.)
could look upon the other apostles as Jewish perverters of the gospel of
Christ, he may have felt justified by omissions, or by exjjlanations, in Chris-
tianizing, according to his view of the phrase, every gospel belonging to the
Scriptures, inasmuch as no documents in the possession of the Apostolic
Church, without some alteration, would correspond with his ultra-Pauline
notions. Ilis ethical doctrines constituted a vigorous system of asceticism
which he enforced by his own example, and if any one felt unable to comply
with its requisitions," the alternative was to remain a catechumen, (g) He
c) Iren. I, 27. 3.
d) A. ITith», d. Ev. Marc, in s. iirspr. Ge'^t.ilt. Kuiiigbb. 1S23. (,7/iilo. Cod. npocr. Tli. I. p. 401ss.)
j-y/ii!S(l. de canone Marc. lb. lS2i.—Ch. E. Beckn; Examen crit, dc TOvang. de Marc Sü-asb. 1S3T.
r. 1. 4.
e) IfilM'h!, d. Ev. M.irc. ii. d. kan. Er. des Lu-. Tub. 1846. B<uir in Zellors thcol. Jahrb. 1S46. P. 4.
/) On tlio other hand : Ldffler, Marcionem Panli Epp. et Lucae Ev. adulteras.-c dubitatur. Traj. et
Viadr. 17--S. (Conimtt, theol. cd. Velthttfifu Scv. Tli. I. p. ISOss.) Schellhiff, de Marc Panlinaruin Epp.
emendatorc. Tub. 1795. 4. Against Tertullian's assertion th.!! M.arc!on omitted tlic cliief doctrines ii
Col. I, 15-17. we certainly liave no other .ilternative tlian to suppose tli.it that father invented them.
g) ITi'er. ad Ga!. C. (i. Epipli. 42, 4. Comp. Tertul. de praescr. 41.
CUAP. IT. DOCTRINES, g TO. TATIAN, BAEDESAXES. g SO. CLEMENTINES. 83
rejected all mysteries, and allowed women to administer baptism. Ilis life
was spent in efforts to establish a congregation of those Avhom he was accu.s-
tomed to call his companions in hatred and in persecution. The Marcionites
continued as an ecclesiastically organized party until some time in the si.xth
century. Many divisions however existed among them, since the speculative
tenets which he left in an incomplete form were perfected in various ways
by additions from the different Gnostic systems, and many among the Gnos-
tics endeavored to get nearer to the Church by joining their communion,
2) Tatian also seems to have found no way to justify his gloomy views
of the world, but by a dualistic theory. His Demiurge Jehovah had obscure
impressions by which he became conscious of a dependence upon tlie orifi-
nal source of light. He gave offence to his brethren of the Church by main-
taining that Adam must have been finally lost. He prescribed a system of
abstinence as the best means of disengaging oursciVes from the world after
the example of our Saviour. A party of Encratites, calling itself by the
name of Tatian, or by that of his pujjil, Severus, existed as late as in the
fourth century.
3) Bardesanes (Bar daizon), who resided at Edessa (about 170), would
seem from his place of residence, as well as from some of his Gnostic formu-
lae, which strongly remind us of Valentine, to have properly belonged to the
number of the Syrian Gnostics. Bat the story of his change of faith at an
earlier or later period is not as well authenticated as the general oi)inion that
he was not prevented by his Gnosticism from denouncing in a very practical
manner certain extravagances of the Gnostic schools, from asserting man's
internal freedom in opposition to all necessary control of fate, {It) and from
being a strenuous defender of Cln-istianity, and a distinguished instructor of
the Syrian Churches,
§ 80. V. Judaizing Gnostics. Comp. § 35. 75.
Crednev, ü. Essäcr u. Ebioniten. (Winers Zcitschr. f. wiss. Theol. IS'2". P. 28.) Idem, die Evv. d.
Juilenclir. (Beitrr. z. Einl. in d. bibl. Schrr. Hal. 1$32. Vol. I. p. 2GSss.) Schneckenburgei; ü. e. über-
schncn Pankt in d. L. d. Ebion. v. d. Person Jesu. (Tub. Zeitschr. 1S30. P. I. p. 114ss.) B<iui\ d.
Ebionitar. orig. et doctr. ad Essenis repi'tendsL Tub. 1S31. 4. Idem, in d. Tub. Zeit.-^ciir. 1S31. P. 4
1S3G. P. 3. 1S33. P. 3. & chr. Gnosis, p. 300s9. Schliemann (§ 75.) Comp. Baur\n ZellcrVtlieoL JaJirb.
1844. P. 3. ScJtu-egler, naehap. Zcita. vol. I. p. 3C3ss. [^1. Ililgeiifeld, kriu Unters, ü. d. Evv. Just d.
Clem. HoiJi. u. Mareitms. Halle. 1S50. S.]
In the Clementine Homilies an attempt is made to reconcile tlio Ebionito
form of Christianity with that maintained by Paul, by .'showing that Judaism
and Christianity were essentially alike. TIicso Homilies wore written in a
lively and im])rcssivo style, and i)rofess to present us with the doctrinal
and polemical discourses of the ajiostle Peter, addressed principally to Simon
Magus, but interwoven with the romantic history of Clement, the ostensible
author, (./) The doctrine inculcated in them respecting God, is rigidly mono-
theistic, but all created existences are developed in contrasted forms, which
/() rifpi fluapfxfvrji. Frasrments in OreUi, do falo. Tnr. 1S24. p. 2fl2ss,
o) Ta K\r)u.(vria, tliree prologues and nineteen (orl.Lrinally twenty) Hondlies. Tn CoM-n: P. apfk
Th. I. p. SOTss. Comp. D. v. Colin, ClenientiiKi in Erscli. u. Grubers Encycl. A'ul. XTIH. p. 86s3.
84 ANCIENT ClILnciI IIISTOltY. VF.V.. I. IJIV. II. A. I), lf.o-,31'.'.
however nro not alisoliite, aii<l in tlieir earthly state are related as male an<l
female (a-vCvyim.) Tlic Orif^'inal JJein^' lias made a division of the world, and
assigned it to two principles wliicli proceeded from himself. To one of the-e
called Satan, ho has committed the present dispensation of things, and to
Christ (also called (To(j)ui, rri/f C/xa ayiov, v'tos ^(ov) the future beyond it, al-
though Satan even now, as an avenging power, advances the cause of good-
ness, and the world has never been destitute of some men of the future age.
Moreover Christ became incarnate in Adam, and revealed the primitive re-
ligion which had been corrupted by Satan through the woman. To restore
it, Christ, whose influence pervades all human alfairs, appears ngain in the
persons of the patriarchs and Moses, changing merely his form Avith the
name. The revelations thus given, however, were much obscured by the Old
Testament prophets, who having been born of women (Matth. 11, 11.), pro-
claimed partial error. Once more Christ appeared in the person of Jesus, to
re-establish the primitive religion and make it wiiversal. Of course the
genuine religion of Moses which had been perpetuated as an esoteric doc-
trine, and genuine Christianity, could not be opposed to each other. To es-
cape from the power of Satan's kingdom, men must live an ascetic life, and
receive from the earth nothing but the bare necessaries of existence. The
use of flesh and wine was prohibited, but marriage was recommended. The
Homilies were composed or revised about the middle of the second century,
at Rome, with the view of reconciling Jewish Christianity, then declining in
that city, with the general Church, by means of an Essenic-Gnostic theory,
and of vindicating that form of Christianity, not only from the Gnostic ha-
tred of the Jews, but from the prophetic system of Montanism. While Peter
is exalted as the true apostle to the Gentiles, the careful silence which they
maintain with respect to Paul, renders it probable that in the person of Si-
mon Magus, not only Marcion but Paul himself may be aimed at in some re-
proaches which would admit of such a reference, (h) They presuppose the
existence of a sacerdotal system, of a cliair of St. Peter at Rome, and of a
patriarchate of James at Jerusalem. The adaptation of the Uomilies to the
promotion of ecclesiastical interests probably occasioned a revision of them,
to make them conform to the views of the Catholics, and to meet the altera-
tions which the heretics were supposed to have i)reviously made in one of
the sacred books, (c) It is impossible now to determine whether tlie Homi-
lies were the literary composition of a single individual, or contain an expres-
sion of a distinct form of Ebionism then in Rome. But the Ebionites whom
Epiphanius describes (d) as existing in his times, with their synagogues in the
h) Horn. XVII, 19. II, 17. Even in the Epistle of Peter prefixed as a Prologne: Tivts rüv öirb
f^vwy rh Si' e/xov v6,utnoy a-mSoKiuaffav Kripvyfia, rov (X^pov apdpwnov avouov Tiva ^-ai
(pKvapdSrj irpocT-qKtxfjLfvoi SiSaffKaXiav. But in opposition to this reference first proposed by
Baur, comp. XUdner, KGesch. p. 242.
c) Trcsorvcd in tlie Trans, of Kuflnns: S. Clementis Kccognitiones (avayvwa-fis of the first
qnarter of the third cent.) cd. Coteler. Th. I. p. 4Söss. E. G. Geradorf, Lps. 1S;33. The original Titid
perhaps also of the Homilies w.is irtpioZoi (jrpäf«is) Uirpov or KATjjUf^"^- '^^^ \^iest revision
and compilation of tbe pseudo-Clementine writings: irtp\ Twf irpd^fwv sjrtSjjuiä»' t« rov IleTooi
iirtrouii, ed. CoteUr. Th. I. p. 749ss. d) Uacr. 80. comp. 19, 1.
CHAP. IV. DOCTIIINES. § SO. CLEMENTINES. EBI0NITE3. 85
ancient abodes of the Essenes, and in Cyprus, maintained the same principles
respecting the division of the world, the various transmigrations of the prin-
ciple which they call Christ, with the semi-Gnostic peculiarity, according to
which this principle had no connection with the son of Mary and Joseph
until his baptism, the corruption of the Old Testament by a series of spurious
prophets, and the necessity of a similar asceticism. Although they still re-
quired circumcision and the observance of the Jewish Sabbath, while the
Ilomilies demanded only baptism, their national separation does not neces-
sarily imply that they did not tolerate Gentile Christians, and even the Ilonii-
lies allow a special pre-eminence to circumcised believers, (e) The only thing
indicating the ancient grudge felt by Jewish Christians, appears in their idle
legend respecting Paul. (/) The gospel commonly received by the Ebionitos
was used both among them and in the Homilies, and many things indicate that
the work of Clement, with regard to the travels of Peter, which they pos-
sessed, was of a kindred origin with that of the Ilomihes. Epijjhanius
thought that this phase of Ebionism, which he looked upon as best exhibited
in the persons of Ebion and Elxai, originated in the time of Trajan, from a
combination of the Ebionites with the Elkesaites and Sampsaeans. He says
the Elkesaites sprung originally from a branch of the Essenes (Oa-arjvoi), and
according to their own explanation, their name was given them because they
believed that the divine power was concealed in the bodies of its human sub-
jects, (g) The name of Sampsaeans was given because those who were so
called turned their faces in prayer, not toward Jerusalem, but toward the
rising sun. (h) The Elkesaites are mentioned by Origen as a Jewish sect,
even in his time, (i) The ascetic system of the Ebionites, taken in connection
with the fact that they believed that the mission of Christ was merely to
abolish the sacrifices, has very much the appearance of Essenism. But if at
an early period they extravagantly extolled celibacy, (k) their subsequent en-
couragement of early marriages shows that those views of life which ordina-
rily prevailed among the Jews had finally gained the ascendency over rigid
Essenism. The independent position however which the latter maintained
with respect to the Old Testament, gave it a much better prospect of con-
tinuance as a Jewish system, than that which ordinarily was received among
the Jews.
§ 81. VI. Influence of Gnosticism ttpon the Cliurch.
It was jirincipally through the influence of the Gnostics, that the arts and
sciences were introduced into the Church, that the Churdi itself became con-
scious of its true character, that tlie Jewish element in Cliristianity was re-
pressed, and that its vast importance in the alfairs of the worhl, and of God's
kingdom, became appreciated. It is, however, difficult to estimate their
If) In the Contestatio prefixed. {CoUler. Th. I. p. «08.) /) Kpiph. lia r. 30, 15.
H) Ilaer, 19, 2: 5iä rb \))\. ('^H or bx^ Ka\oiabat hvvauiv, Hal (^CS) KfKaXvu^tvov. —
I7eilejie>ininff, ü. d. Urspr. d. Elkcsnilen. (AiijienJ. 1. to his Orison. Vol. II. [liitucAl, in Niedner'i
Ci-itsclirift for Sept. 1803.]
/() Ifaer. 53, 2: So.uvf'äioi (pixrivfvovTai 'HAia/coj (rroin 'IJIITV
«) In Euseb. II. ecc VI, 33. A) Kpi/Ji, hacr. 30, 2.
86 ANCIICNT ClirKCIl IIISTOUV. I'Ki:. I. IMV. ir. A. p. 100-;312.
number or tlioir iiitliiciicc. We do not often find evidence tlmt in any par-
ticular locality tlieir number Avas superior to that of the orthodox, and yet
some of them were to bo found in almost every place, and in animation and
spirit their writers excelled those of the Church. The minds of tlio Greek?
■vvcro attracted by tlicir striking opposition to Judaism, the intellect of all
men was gratified by tlieir promise of a dominion over matter and their inde-
pendent development in the direction of a perfect knowledge, the fancy was
stimulated by the boldness of iheir heaven-storming systems and by the op-
portunity of contributing something without much trouble to fthe foz*mation
of them, and even the Church could not but admire the contempt which
they inculcated for the world. But the teachers of the Catholic Church were
impressed Avith the conviction that it was essential to the very nature of
Christianity that it should be a religion for the people, that all true religion
was something more than a speculation, and that piety itself required that
the revelation which God had made in Judaism and in Christianity, and indeed
in all human history, should be one in its principles. They therefore placed
themselves in direct hostility to the exorbitant pretensions and the allure-
ments of the Gnostics. The arbitrary forms which the fancies of the Gnos-
tics had constructed, could not long resist this united opposition, especially
when the additional power of the New Platonists was brought against them.
Even in the third century Gnosticism had lost all creative energy, in the
fourth it was completely powerless, and in tlie sixth only a few vestiges of it
remained.
§ 82. Maniahaeisin.
I. 1) All accounts given in the Greek Church refer back to; Archelai (Bishop of Ciscar, about
278.) Acta dispulationis cum Manete. {Zacagni, Coll. monument, vet. Eccl. gr. et lat Rom. lOOS. 4.
and Mansi Th. I. p. ll'20ss.) The Oriental accounts, later indeed, but derived from oridnal ancient
documents, are in : Ilerhelot, Bibl. oriental. Par. 1607. f. art. Mani & Silv. de Sitcy, Memoires sur di-
verses antiquites de la Perse. Par. 1793. 4. p. 42ss. Fragments of Mani's writings, especially Epistola
fundamenti,in: Fahricii Bibl. gr. Th. V. p. 2S4ss. 2) Titus Bo»trensis{i.\iovLtZ6Q), Kara. Wavixa'^uv.
{Canisii Lection, ed. Basnag. Th. I.) Epiph, haer. 66. Augunthnis : Contra Ep. Manichaci. C. Fortu-
natum, C. Adiuiantum, C. Faustum 1. 83. De .actis o. Felice Man. 1. 2. De natura boni. (Tli. VIII.) De
gen. c. Man. De morib. Ecc. cath. et morib. Man. (Th. I.)
II. Beausohre, Hist, de Manicliee et du Manichoisme. Amst. 1734ss. 2 vols. 4. A. A. Georgil Al-
phabetum Tliibetanum. Rom. 1762. 4. Reichlin-Melilegg. Theol. d. Manes. Frkf. 1825. A. V.de Weg-
nern, Manichaeor. indulgenfiao c. brevi Manichaeismi adumbrat. Lps. 1S27. Gieoeler, ü. Reichlin-
Meldegg, Wegnern & Neander. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S2S. P. 3.) Bmir, d. man. ESyst. Tub. 1S31. (Comp.
Schneckenburger in d. -Stud. u. Krit 1S33. P. 3. and Ziiigerle in d. Tub. Quartalschr. 1841. p. 574ss.)
F. C. Trechsel, ü. Kanon, Kritik u. Exeg. d. Manlch. Bern. 1882.
The religious conflicts which took place on the confines of the Eastern
world finally gave birth to Manichaeism. The history of its origin is founded
upon traditions and uncertain documents. On the re-establishment of the
Persian empire (after 227) under the Sassanj^es, the Magusaean sect, which
had defended the doctrine of absolute Dualism, and various foreign systems
were driven from the kingdom. Mani, a Magian of this sect, having dis-
covered many joints of agreement between the doctrines of Mithraism, of Bud-
daism, of Gnostic Christianity, and the principles of his own paternal faith,
believed himself called to combine these popular religions, especially Parsism
and Christianity, into one universal religion. He pi'esented himself before
CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. § S2. MANICIIAEISM. 87
the Christians as the Paraclete and an apostle of Christ. Rejected by them
and persecuted by the Magians, he is said to have been flayed alive under
Baharam (272-5). — Manichaeism, as it existed in the fourth and fifth centu-
ries, accounted for all events which have taken place in the world on dualistic
jjrinciples. God in his kingdom of light, and the Demon with his kingdom
of darkness, were directly opposed to each other — good and evil being in
their nature identical with light and darkness. After long internal conflicts
among themselves, the different powers of the demoniac kingdom became
united in their opposition to the kingdom of light. The primitive man, who
was the first-born of God, and who, in connection with the four pure elements
contended for the kingdom of light, was overthrown, and was afterwards de-
livered, but a portion of his light was wrested from him and borne down to
the abodes of darkness. God then brought into existence through the agency
of the Mother of life (^wi/ Trvevfia)^ the present universe, that it might bo a
new receptacle of this lost light. The vital power of this universe is the
light retained in the bonds of darkness. Two new heavenly powers, Christ
and the Holy Ghost, then proceeded from God, that they might redeem it
from its imprisonment. The first is the Sun and Moon, and the other is the
Air, which attract toward themselves all the powers of light in the earth.
To retain these in his possession, the Demon formed man after the image of
the primitive man, combining in him as in a microcosm the clearest light
with his own darkness. From hira descended the race of man, into whose
souls the light penetrated. But although they were endowed with an inhe-
rent liberty to continue as they were, in spite of the necessity of evil in na-
ture, they soon fell under the temptations of matter and the illusions of the
Demon (Judaism and Heathenism). Christ himself then appeared on earth,
and merely endured the semblance of suflfering, and is regarded in this system
as the type of all imprisoned light (Jesus passibilis). By his doctrine and his
attractive power he commenced the process of liberating the light from its
bondage, but even the apostles misinterpreted his instructions by giving them
a Jewish sense. The Scriptures possessed by the Church have been partially
corrupted by the Demon, and pai-tially composed by unknown writers.
Mani came to reveal the secret relations of the universe, and to secure the
means of human freedom. Complete truth can therefore bo found nowhere
except in his writings. In the end there will be a complete separation be-
tween the light and the darkness, when the powers of darkness will have be-
come conscious of their inability to contend with the light, and will resume
their strife with each other. The Manichaeans assumed the name of a Church,
which possessed a hierarchical form of government, and consisted of two
great classes. The first was composed of the perfect (electi, pcrfocti), who
alone possessed a knowledge of the mysteries ; and the second was made up
of the Catechumens (auditores), who were instructed principally in mythical
allegories relating to the philosophy of religion and of nature, and were al-
lowed to hope for pardon for their participation in the business and pleasures
of life, in consequence of the intercessions of the perfect, for none but the
perfect undertook the duties of self-mortification (signaculum sinus, oris et
rnanus), and were sustained by the others principally on olives. Their pccn-
83 ANCIENT (^IlUnCII lUSToUV. rKK. I. DIV. II. A. 1). 10f>-312.
liar views of nature demanded tliat baptism should bo performed in oil, and
in some congrcj^ations they jrave occasion to an abominalile mingling of the
olomoiits in the Lord's Supper, Tho forms of -worship practised by the
Auditors were simple. Sunday was observed as a day of fasting, and the
anniversary of Mani's death was celebrated as the great festival under the
name of tho Feast of tlie pulpit (ßniJta). The Manichaeans were still in-
creasing in number in the fourth century, and were then scattered in every
part of tlie Oriental world, and in Africa, Sicil}', and Italy. Many persons
of noble minds were attracted by tho promise which tlieir system held out,
that it could solve all mysteries, and exalt man above the various parties
which then distracted the world. Even then, however, they were persecuted
with fire and sword by the heathen emperors, on the ground of their being a
Persian sect. For this reason, as well as on account of their debasement in a
corrupt indifference, by a pretended exaltation above all outward things, they
sunk in the sixth century beneath the equal hatred of the Magians and the
liishops. Still we find some vestiges of a secret and solitary Manichaeism
even in the Middle Ages.
§ 83. Historico-Ecdcsiastical Theolorjy.
The ecclesiastical literature of the second century was partly of a devo-
tional character, and partly consisted of controversial writings against pagans
and Gnostics. Especially in the conflicts with the latter, a Christian theolo-
gy was formed, in which an attempt was made to hold fast the historical ba-
sis of Christianity as the common property of all, and to apprehend its prac-
tical relations in a scientific manner. Hence all philosophy was studiously
declined, and true Christianity was thought to consist whollj^ in its historical
traditions and documents, and those obvious truths which could be easily
coiupreliended by the people. The representatives of this tendency were
Ireuaeus and TertuUian, Avho also indulged in the expectation of a millennial
kingdom nigh at hand. («) Irenaeus was a disciple, and perhaps also a com-
panion of Polycarp, during the journey of that martyr to Rome, and was a
bishop of Lyons (177-202). He was a perspicuous, judicious, and philosoph-
ically educated instructor, with youthful recollections reaching back to apos-
tolic times, and now came forward as the opponent of the Gnostic specula
tions. As his writings were regarded almost in the light of foreign produc-
tions in the country where he resided, they soon became little known, and
were at an early period lost, {b) The only literature which the Latin Church
possessed, consisted entirely of translations, until the appearance of Quintus
Septimius Florens TertuUianus. He was at first a heathen rhetorician, and
an advocate in Rome (about 190), but afterwards a presbyter in Carthage,
his native city (d. 220). His character was severe, gloomy and fiery, but by
great exertions he achieved for Christianity, in the Punic-Latin dialect, a
literature in which an animated rhetoric, a sound and vivid conception of the
a) Iren. V, 8-3. TeHul. adv. Marc HI, 23.
V) With the exception of a ftw epistles and fragments, nothing remains but his 5 b(X>ks against
the Gnostii*, tAf^-yo? koI ävarpoTr)) ttjs tI/fi<5onViou •yv(i;<Tft>is, in an old Latin translation, the
Ist Book and a fi-w iVniriiunts in the (>nj.'ina1. 0pp. ed. Grabe. Oxon. 1702. J/ii,<.s«e7, Vat. 1710. Yen
CHAP. IV. DOCTRIXES. § S3. TEETULLIANUS. § St CYPEIANUB. 89
ideal, profound feelings, and legal intelligence contended for the supremacy.
He placed a liigh estimate upon that consciousness of God which he contend-
ed might be found in the depths of every soul, but he was fond of contrasting
with proud irony the foolishness of the gospel with the worldly wisdom of
his contemporaries, and the incredibility of the divine miracles with the or-
dinary imderstanding of the world, (c) His writings are partly controver-
sial, and in these he exhibits the utmost confidence in the catholic views, in
opposition to those of Pagans, Jews, and Heretics, and partly devotional.
They are, however, so written, that the devotional element constantly ap-
pears in the former, and the polemic in the latter, in behalf of a strict moral-
ity and discipline, {d) The Montanistic views are perceptible in them all,
but they become prominent and hostile to the Eomish Church in proportion
to the degree in which the latter withdrew ita countenance from Montanism,
for the Roman Church, rather than Tertullian, experienced a change of sen-
timent on that subject, (c) And yet the Avestern portion of the Church con-
tinued so tolerant toward Montanism, that some female martyrs adhering to
that system in the African Church have always continued to be acknowledged
as saints, (/) and Tertullian finally became so prominent, that he is regarded
as the actual type of the Latin theology. That theology was then disinclined
to any philosophical theories respecting divine things, and was entirely occu-
pied with questions relating to the condition of the Church, and matters in-
dispensable to salvation,
§ 84. Thascius Caecilianus C[rpriaitus.
I. 0pp. Ci/pnani ed. liigaltiut. Par. 164S. f. Fell. Oxf. 1GS2. f. ed. 3. additae sunt Dss. Cypr.
Dodwelli. (Oxf. 1684.) Amst. ITOO. f. P>aluz. Par. 172G. f. GoMhorn. Lps. lS3Ss. 2 P. Vita Cypr. per
Pontiinn, ejas Diaconum (Cypr. 0pp.) Among the actis niartyrii the two older bcijinning, Cum
Cypr. and Itnper. Valeriano. — II. Pectmuy), Annales Cyprianici before Fell's edit If. F. Schmieder,
Ü. Cypr. Sclir. v. d. Einh. d. Kirche. Lp?. 1S22. K W. Itetiberff, Cypr. nicli s. Leben u. Wirkeu.
Gütt. 1S31.
The Church of his times is well represented in the life of Cyprian. Ilav
ing enjoyed as a rhetorician, and perhaps also as an advocate in Carthage, all
the pleasures of heathenism, he became impressed with a consciousness of the
vanity of his life, and sought deliverance in the Church (246). Although, in
the excitement of a new birth by bai)tism, he had sold his possessions, and
distributed them among the poor, a sufficient amount of real estate and rcve-
1734. 2 P. f. L. III. c. 1-4. in grnccum serni. restltuta per IT. G. J. Thiersch. (Stnd n. Krlt 1S42.
P. 2.) Iren, fragmni. anecdota ed. C. JA /'/;'/; Hftg. Com. 1TI5. (Synt dss. Stuttp. 1T20.) Comp.
Eaueh. IL ccc. V, 4*. 20. 26.— I/. Dodirfll, Dss. In Ir. Ox. 16S9. Mnimuet, Dss. ]>racviae in Ir. llhros.
A. Stieren, de Ir. adv. Iiaere.«e3 operis fimtibus, indole, doctr. et dignitiito. Gott. 1S30. 4. Idem, Iron
In Ersch. u. Grubcr's Encyel. p. II. vol. X.XIII. ./. Jf. Prat, Hist, de S. Irenee. Lyon ct Par. 1S43.
c) Apologet c. 17. I)e poenitent c 1. Do virgg. vel. c. 1. L)o resurr. c. 8. C. Marc. I, 10s.— Dn
came Ch. c. 5. Pe praeseript c. 7. Adv. Ucrmog. c. 8.
(/) Opp. ed. Pigiiltiux. Par. (1035. 1011.) 1C04. f. Sender et Schüt:. Hal. 1770ss. 6 Th. Leopold
Lps. lS39.'^s. 4 P.— ^. Neander, Antignosticns, Geist des Tert u. EInl. in dess. Schrr.Berl.lS25
Hall. L. Z. 1S2.5. N. 271ss.) [Antigno.sticiis, Ac. trnnsl. by J. E. liojland. Lond. 1S5I. vol. II, S.]
e) Tertul. adv. Praxean. c. 1. De virgg. vel. c. Is. De pudic. c. 1. Comp, llieron. cutal. c. 08. — ./
G. ffdß'inann, Tertul. omnia in niontanismo scripta videri. Vit 173S. 4. J. A. yOsstlt, de vera nctat«
scriiitor. Tert. Hal. (17.'j7.) 170S. (Opp. Fa'^c. III. Hal. 1S17 )
//; Vulesius, Acta SS. Perpetuae et Felielt Par. 1664.
00 ANCII'.NT ClIIKCII llISTdKV. rj;i:. I. liIV. H. a. I». 100-312.
nnes roinained in liis i)Osscs.siun to enable liirn to puirorni splendid acts of be-
noficenco in the nccoinplif-liment of liis plans. He enjoj'ed the instructions,
but his heart never became imbued with the profound sentiment« of Tertul-
lian, and his zeal was wholly expended in the administration of the affairs
of the Church. All his Avritings were drawn forth by i)assin^' events, and
by their siiiii»lo and ardent eloquence they exerted a considerable influence
on those events. The leading thought in all his writings is, that tlie Church,
being one in Christ, should be governed as a single kingdom hy the bishops
appointed by Christ. He refused the hishopric of Carthage to which he had
been elected, until, in spite of an opposing jiarty of presbyters, he recognized
in the tumultuous exi)ressions of the poi)ular will the mandate of God (248).
Ilis i)lans for the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline were suddenly inter-
rupted by the persecution under Decius. lie fled (250), but from his place
of refuge he continued arbitrarily to govern his church by means of rescript»
and vicars, and apologized for the little attention he paid to the counsel of
his co-presbyters and the will of the people, by referring to the necessities
of the times. A great multitude of those who had fallen in time of persecu-
tion afterwards begged that they might bo readmitted to the Church.
Cyprian at first refused to do this with extreme Montanistic severity. But
the power of pardon in such cases was generally conceded to the confessors,
who in the present instance exercised it without regard to his views. A
power thus abused he refused to acknowledge. The hostile presbyters, led
on by Felicissbmts, whom thgy had ordained a deacon, now stirred uj) the
offended confessors and those who had formerly relapsed, until an insurrec-
tion against his authority was eftectod. They represented that it ill became
one who had himself fled like a hireling, to exalt himself above those who, in
times of persecution, had exhibited some signs of human infirmity, and least
of all those who had then heroically maintained their constancy. They de-
posed Cyprian, and chose Fortunatus, one of their own number, in his place.
Cyprian apologized for his flight, by pleading that he Avas led to it by a divine
revelation, and declared that ever}- one who resisted his authority was a
rebel against Christ. After Easter, in the year 251, he returned to his
charge, and at a synod of the African bishops represented his own cause as
the common cause of the episcopacy. "With this view, the synod put down
the opposition of the presbyters. With respect to those who had relapsed,
he obtained a moderate decision, which enjoined that they should not be
given over to despair, nor admitted to pardon, except in immediate danger
of death, or after a long and thorough repentance. Accordingly, when a
pestilence was prevalent, and during the incursions of the barbarians, ho
freely administered to them consolation and assistance. The intimate con
nection which he had ordinarily maintained with the Eoman Church, and
which had been strengthened by a common interest in opposition to the Xo
vatians, was interrupted (after 253) by the controversy respecting the bap
tism of heretics. In opposition to the Eoman bishop, Cyprian contended,
that truth was to be ascertained, not by an appeal to usage, but to reason ;
that each bishop was equal in authority to every other ; that the laws of nc
province were a uniform model for those of another, and that a diversity of
CHAP. IV. DOCTEINES. § S4. CYrEIANUS. § So. CLEMENS ALEX. 9 1
usages was not inconsistent Avith the general unity of tlio Cliurcli. Stephen
refused to receive the African messengers whom lie sent to Rome. Cypriau
appealed to the Asiatic hishop3, in whose name Finnilian, bishop of Caesa-
rea, wrote an epistle full of bitter derision of tho arrogant pretensions of
the Eoman bishop. In a synod convened at Carthage, the African bishops
unanimously protested against Rome (§71). While these things were tran-
spiring, Valerian published his edict against the Christian-s. Cyprian had
now become too conspicuous to find safety in another flight. Having ac-
knowledged himself a Christian and a bishop, ho was banished by the pro-
consul to Curbi, but he was afterwards permitted to return to his garden at
Carthage. After a year's respite, sentence of death was pronounced against
him as an enemy to the Roman gods, ana ihe chief of a criminal association,
lie was accordingly beheaded on the fourteenth of So[)t. 258. No obstruc-
tion, however, was offered to his admiring friends, as they performed the
last offices of atiection to him in his death, and as they did honor to his life-
less remains.
§ 85. I. T7ie School of Alexandria.
n. K F. Guerike, de schola quae Alexandrine floruit, cateclietica. Ilal. lS24s. 2 P. C. F. G.
Ifanselbach, de scliola, quae Alex, floruit, oat. Stettin. Iy26. P. I. comp. Matter, de IVcole d"Ali'xnn-
drie. Par. (1S20.) 1840. 2 Th. liitter, Geseh. do tliristl. Phil. vol. I. p. 421ss. [Epitome of the Hist
of Phil, trausl. from the I'rencli by C. S. Henry, vol. I. pp. 207-220. Keander, Hist of the Chr.
Kol. transl. by J. Torrey. vol. I. pp. 526-55T.]
About the middle of the .second century arose in Alexandria an ecclesias-
tical school, under the superintendence of tlie bishop, after the model of the
schools of philosophy. Sooner or later, it was unavoidable that the science
and literature of Greece should become enlisted in the service of the cause
of Christ, {a) This had already been unintentionally commenced by the
Apologists, but it was now consummated from a direct purpose and prefer-
ence in the Alexandrian school. Among those who i)resided over this school,
was Fautacmis (about 180), j)reviously a Stoic, and since immortalized by
nis pupils, (h) Titus Flavins Clemens., probably from Athens, did not embrace
Christianity until mature years, and after exhausting all tho advantages of
Greek and Christian culture, he professed to have found in Pantaenus a cor-
rect interpreter of the Scriptures. He first became the assistant and then
the successor of his chosen teacher in the management of the school (about
191-202), until just before the persecution under Scverus, when lie betook
himself to the house of one of his pupils. The last trace we have of liim
was at Jerusalem, in the year 211. In a work which he divided into three
parts, according to the successive steps of Conversion, Discipline, and Free
Insight, he has collected in a motley form, princi|)ally from tho trea-
sures of Grecian wisdom, Avhatevcr is favorable to Christianity, contended
against every thing hostile to the gospel in Gnosticism, determined with
«) {Soweerain) Le Platonisme dövoiK>. Colojr. (Ainstcrd.) 1700. 3fo»hem. de tnrbnts per rec. Pin-
-on. Ece. Ilelmst 1725. On the otlier liand ; Jialtii», defense des S. P^re.», accuses de Platonisme.
Par. 1711. 4. Jieil do doctorlbiis vet. Ece. culpa corrnptae per Plat sententlas Theologlae liberaiidbi
Lps. 1793ss;. 22 Cinmt 4. (0pp. cd. GohUtori). Lps. IS^I. Th. II.)
I) Euiteb. n. ece. V, 10.
02 AN'CIKNT ClIUUCH IIISTUUV. I'KU. I. IJIV. II. A. I). 100-312.
miicli lihcrnlity mid niodenitioii many controversial question.s in ccclc.'^ia.'itical
ethics, and in an anitnatcd and supgcstivc form lias ventured only to hint at
his peculiar views, (c) Ori'jcn, horn at Alexandria (1H5), was the son of
Leonides, whoso martyrdom (202) he was prevented from sharing by tho
gentle violence of his mother, who controlled his passions, and educated him
witli pious care. With a soaring spirit, a firm character, and an iron dili-
gence ('Afid/itiiTJof, XfiXiceWfpof), he soon made himself master of the Alex-
andrian learning, and a scribe well instructed unto the kingdom of heaven.
Tho youth of eighteen years was raised to the dignity of President of the
School, and continued to live in poverty, refusing all compensation from his
pupils, and practising the utmost abstemiousness. Before ho renounced h\?
early views of the literal interpretation of the Scriptures, in a moment of
bold enthusiasm, ho yielded a literal obedience to one of their supposed re-
quirements, (d) His superior development appears to have received as much
assistance from the lectures of Ammonius Saccas (e) as from the writings of
Clement. Tho instruction of the children of his school ho coinmitted to an
assistant, while ho conducted the more advanced pupils through the whole
range of Grecian studies, to the intellectual comprehension of the Scriptures,
and to the philosophy of Christianity. His irregular ordination as a presby-
ter at Caesarea (228), afforded a pretext for the manifestation of the aver-
sion which his bishop, Demctrhts, entertained toward him, and he was ac-
cordingly thrust out of the Church (231). This episcopal violence, however,
was respected only by those who took no interest in scientific investiga-
tions. Origen continued to live sometimes in learned leisure at Caesarea,
and sometimes in foreign countries on business connected with the Church.
Ho died at Tyre (254), luiving previously confessed his faith with unshaken
constancy during the Decian persecution. By his employment of the Alex-
andrian Philology in the criticism and interpretation of the Scriptures, he
became the acknowledged master of a scientific method of scriptural investi-
gation, by the grammatical as well as the allegorical style of explanation.
His work on the Principles, is the first attempt to comprise the princiiiles of
Christianity in a single scientific work. Only a part of his writings havo
c) Aoyos irpoTpe-mtKhf irphi"E\\rivai, 'natSaywy6s, ^Tpu/iarels. ITomily : Tis o aw^o
fi.(vos irXovaios ; cd. C. Segaar, Traj. 1S16. More candid and bolder are the Glosses upon tlia
Scripture?, viroTviziiicrdi, wbich are lost with tlie exception of a crippled exiilanation of the Cath.
EpistJes, under the title of Adumbrations. Perhaps, also, tlie (k rwi/ irpoipriTiKwi' eKXoyai
belonged to this work. Hymnus in C. Salvatorcm, ed. r. Piper, Gott, 1&35. 0pp. ed. Sylburff,
lleidelb. 1592. f. and often. PotUr, Ox. 1715. f. Yen. 1757. 2 Th. f. Pocket edition in the 3d part of
the Bibl. sacra, ed. P. Klotz, Lps. 1S;31-S4. 4 Th.—HoßUde de Grnot, de Clem. S. de vi, quam Phil,
pr. inpr. platonioa habuit ad Clem, informandum. Gron. IS'26. CoUn, Clem, in Ersch. u. Gniber"s
Encycl. vol. XVIII. p. 4ss. Daehne, de yvwan, Clem, et de vestigils neoplatonicae phil. in ca ol>-
viis. Lps. 1S:31. F. P. EyUrt, Clem. als. Phil. u. Dichter. Lps. 1S32. Baur, Chr. Gnosis, p. 602ss.
Kling, Bedeutuns; de« Clem. f. d. Entst. d. chr. Theol. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S41. P. 4.) [Art. Clem, in W
Smith's Diet, of Bio?, and Mythol. Kew York. 1S52. 2 vols.]
d) Mutt. 19, 12. comp. 5, 29s. Euseb. IT. ccc. YI, 3. comp. 23. Orig. in Matth. torn. 1.5. (Th. IIL p.
6."lss.) comp. 5oAHife<-;\ Ori^. ü. d. Grundlehren d. GIaubenswi.ss. Stuttg. ISJo. p. XXXIIIss. Or
the other hand: Engelhnrdt, in d. Stud. u. Krit. ISSS. P. 1. p. 157ss.
e) IT. A. nHgl, der Bericht d. Porphyr, ü. Orij:. Bepensb. 1S35. Redepenning, App. 2. to vol. I
I. Krüger, fi. das Yerli. d. Orig. zu Amm. Sacc. (Illgons Zeitschr. 1843. P. 1.)
CTIAP. IV. DOCTRINES. § So. ALEXANDRIAN THEOLOGY. § ST OEIGEN. 93
come down to modern times, some of them in a Latin translation by Jiußnus,
and others in extracts by the orthodox -writers of his age. (/) Clement
reached Christianity through philosophy, Origen reached philosophy through
Christianity. The former proceeded in the style of an eclectic jdiilosopher,
in whose conception of a complete gnostic the Stoical ideal predominated,
with its calm tranquillity derived not from the human but from the divine
spirit ; the latter showed a more decided predilection for Plato. Both grasped
after a knowledge which should comprehend the universe, but their efforts
were characterized more by a literary fondness for philosophy, than by philo-
sophical depth, as they developed the religious ideas involved in tlie facts of
Christianity, smoothed away the difficulties which must attend a one-sided
and purely historical conception of it, and elevated it above the extremes of
Judaism and of Gno.sticism, even though its truths were received in a limited
form. Taken together, their doctrines constituted one comprehensive whole,
whose form was a philosophy of Christianity, whose substance was the free-
dom of the mind in its everlasting activity, and whose source was the Deity
himself.
§ 86. II. Characteristics of the Alexandrian Theology.
1. Philosophy was to the Greek what the law was to the Jew, an in-
structor showing the need of Christ, and proposing a proper pattern of
righteousness. God has revealed his true nature in appropriate methods,
through the Logos to all nations, {a) The highest revelation he has ever
made of himself is in Christianity, by means of which many a retired vil-
lage has become an Athens. The position of the faith of the common people
is that in which a merely historical Christianity is received on the authority
of others (ttio-tis), but the higher position of the perfect Christian is that in
which truth is contemplated with a free insight, and a full consent of the
mind {yvüxrii). The doctrines of the Gnosis were described as those secret
traditions which originally proceeded from Christ, but they were in fact the
free scientific speculations respecting well established ecclesia.*tical tradi-
tions. Qj) The Scriptures were looked upon as the result of divine inspira-
tion, though in different degrees, and it was thought that every part of them
should receive a signification worthy of God. "Where such a meaning was
not supplied by the mere words, the hidden sense was devolopod from the
/) 1) For tlie restoration of the Septua^nt Revision of the t<;st of the O. T. and Ifa tmnslatlon»:
TO «{airAcl. llexajilor. quae supcrsunt ccl. B. de ilontfaitson. Par. 1713. 8 Th. t C. /■'. Rihrdt,
Lps. lT69s. 2 Th. 2) Scholiao arjufiuxTftr, commentaries rjfio«, ami practical cxfK)!>Itli>n9, «J/iiXi'ai
on most of the sacred books, only a few loss liniM>rtant parts of which are preserved In Ruflnus and Je-
lome. 8) Ucfi] apxüy, 1. IV. Half of the 3d, and the greater part of the 4th vol. are extant in the Greek,
the remainder Is in I'ufin's LaL version, cd. K li. linlfpfnning. Lps. 1S36. 4) Kara KtKcrov. —
0pp. cd. <7. et r. V. Delarue. Par. 1788.'«. 4 Th. f. J.ommaU»ch, Ber. 1S31-44. 17 Th.— //hW»im,
Origeniana, prefixed to his edit, of tlie Commentaries, (Par. 1079.) and In the 4th vol. of tlie edit, of
Delarue. G. ThomaKiuK, Ori?. Nnrnb. 1*17. E. li. Itedepenning, Ori?. Leben n. Lelire. Jlonn.
1S41-6. 2 pts. [Article from tlic IJritisli Quart P.ev. in Eclectic Map. of .lanuary, 1S46. pp. Sl-101.]
n) Clem. Strom. 1. p. 2.S1. VI. \\ 7C1. On the otiier side: V. p. 020. VI. p. 757.
I)) Meander, de fldei gnoseosque idea see. Clem. Ileidlb. ISll.
di an<'Ii:nt ciifiifir histokv. i'Ki;. i. div. ii. a. d. 1(10-312.
letter by means of allegorical interpretations, (c) 2. God is linaited only by
hU own Avill, and is inHcrutablc to bis creatures, yet be bas revealed biniself
not only by means of tbe Logos, wbicb be voluntarily and from all eternity
ncnt fortli, and -wbicb is at tbc same time God and tbe all pervading reason,
but also by means of tbe Holy Spirir, tbe personal source of all sanctification.
Botb of tbese are develoj)mcnts of tbe divine essence, and altboiigb essentially
Bubordinato to tbe absolute Deity, tbey constitute a unity Avitb bira. By tbo
agency of the Logos, who must therefore have existed before it, God
created tbe Avorld of spirits, all of whom were originally equal in dignity and
power, but as God is eternally active, tbe scries of worlds by which be is
developed can have neither beginning nor end. 8. The spirit alone is worthy
of confidoncc, matter is tbe form in which evil is manifested, and yet it is the
vessel in which the spirit must be purified. Each world-sphere is adapted to
that peculiar state of the spirits inhabiting it, which has been produced by
the exercise of their moral freedom. Even the present condition of man
must have been produced by something voluntarily done, involving him in
guilt. The Fall of man spoken of by Moses, is an allegorical representation
of a fall anterior to man's present earthly existence, in which he is doing
penance for what he then did, and passing through a process of purification.
Moral freedom continues an inalienable attribute of fallen man, unimpaired
even in death. 4. The Logos, that he might fully reveal himself in Christ
assumed an ethereal body, by means of a human soul (^v^'i). The plan of
Christianity being the same with that of the moral universe in general, of
course embraces all intellectual beings in all worlds. To those who are in an
inferior stage of moral improvement, Christianity is a redemption, but to
those who are perfect it is a free fellowship. ((T) 5. There is to be no resur-
rection of the flesh, but a development of higher organs, (e) not an earthly
but a celestial kingdom of Christ, not an everlasting punishment in hell, bat
on the other hand every thing wliieh has fallen from God shall at some period
be restored to its original source {n-rroKaTtuTracris rdv Triiirajj').
§ 87. in. Influence of Origen.
The doctrines of the Church were defended by Origen in a variety of
ways. It was through his influence that the expectation wliich then prevailed
with respect to a near approach of Christ's second advent, and a millennial
Kingdom, bpgan to be regarded as heretical, or at least fanatical. For centu-
ries his influence upon tbe whole Church was powerful, by means of his writ-
ings and a circle of followers which gathered around him, and formed a
seminary of eminent teachers and bishops for the Church. He was himself,
however, well aware that his doctrines were not suitable for the common
mind, and his views of Christian science allowed him intentionally so to write
that his language was unintelligible, and even conveyed error, to all but tlie
c) J. A. Ernenti. de Orig. interpretationis grainrn. auctore. (Opp crit Lncrd. 17C4 p. 2SSs5.) ('. Ii.
ITdgenhach, Ob«s. ctrca Orig. niethodum interpret S. Sc. Bas. lS-28. Conipi {Illrzel) in Winers kriL
Jonrn. ISiJ.x vol. III. part 4.
r/) Oi-Uj. in Jo. toin. I. (Th. IV. p. üi.; e) Orig. Opp. Th. I. p 35s.
CHARIT. DOCTRINES. § ST. DIOXYSIÜS. § 8S. AFKICANUS, IIII'POLTTÜS. 95
initiatöd. (a) Jl'is ideal tendency to go beyond historical traditi<jns and those
pccnliarities which so strongly contrasted Avith ■\vliat was common iu the
Church, were sure, sooner or later, to call forth opposition. Tlie first objec-
tions urged against him were of the vaguest character, and generally of a per-
sonal nature, or founded on gross exaggerations. Methodius, Bishop of Tyre
(d. 311), finally attacked his doctrines respecting the development of worlds,
the resurrection and the freedom of the wiU. {J>) Ilis discii)les made every
effort to vindicate the honor and orthodoxy of their illustrious master. The
orthodoxy of some of his views was shown hy comparing them with the in-
definite creeds of that day, and others Avero excused on the ground that they
were advanced only as hypotheses. Even when in prison the learned Para-
l>]iilus of Caesarea wrote an apology, which was afterwards sealed, as it were,
with his own blood (309), and was completed by Emclius. (c) Among Lis
immediate pupils, Dionysius, his successor in the office of instructor after 233
and Bishop of Alexandria after 248, has rej)resented especially tlie depart-
ment of ecclesiastical learning, with great zeal for the Church, but with much
liberality with respect to genuine science, (<iZ) and Gr&gorius, after 214, Bishop
of Xeo-Oaesarea, and surnamed Thuuinaturgus by the orthodox of subsequent
times, represented Origen"s i)ractical ascetic tendency, {e)
§ 88. A]}pendix to the Literary Hintory.
A pious veneration for Christian antiquity has usually preserved with
much care the names of some writers who are not fairlj' entitled to a plave
in history by their character or influence. Athenagoras^ according to some
uncertain accounts, the predecessor of Pantaenus in Alexandria, wrpte with
considerable philosophical talent a defence of the doctrine of the resurrec-
tion (about 1 80). (rt) Julius African us, a presbyter at Nicopolis (Emmaus) and
a friend of Origen, though more advanced in age (d. about 232), was a learned
annalist, and by some extant letters appears to have been a judicious critic of
the Scriptures. (I) Hii^iJolytus, a bishop, and a contemporary of Origen, was
.said by Eusebius and Jerome to have left valuable writings in explanation of
tlie Scriptures, and in refutation of heretics, (c) The titles and fraguients of
") Orig. c. Cels. Ill, 79. Stromin. VI. in Tlievon. Apol. I. a<lv. Ruf. c. IS.
V) Ile/jl acacTTacreair, Trepi töiv •yivr\TÜiv, irepl aure^tivffiov. Frnsm. in Epii'h. liaer. C4.
Phot. cod. 2.34, 200. comp. Socrnt. II. ccc. VI, 13.
c) .Viiologiae pro Oiig. lib. VI. üroek Fni^'. iu Phot. coil. IIS. The fir.'it bonk is in KiiUn's trans-
huion.
d) Fragments: Rom. ITOT. f. GaUanil. r.ibl. PP. Tli. III. p. 4Slss.
e) Eis 'Cipiyfvy\v TTpuartxuvriTiiihi Kal TTavqyvptichs \nyo^. 'EniffJoKi) kukoi tm). His life
by Gregorius Nyss. from narratives supplied by bis jrrandmotlier. 0pp. c. vitn cd. O. VoKsiim^ Mos.
11301. 4. Fra;,'ments of liis writings in An(/. Maii X. Coll. Tli. VII. P. I. p. ITOss. C^nnp. Eusiib. H.
eco. VI, 30. VII, 14.
«) riepi h.i'0.(TTäa«t!^ ruf viKpitiv, ed. liecltenherg, Lps. 1G>5.
h) 'S.povnypa'püiv irfi/T« a^rovZä.a^laTa. 'ErriiTT. TTfpl Tf,s Kara 'S.ovaä.vvu.v iaropias
written to Origen, witli tlio reply of tlie latter,— 'Eitktt. -rrphs 'Api<TT(i5r]v, a barinony of tbc ge-
nealogies of .Jesus. Poiith, Rcll«!. sacr. vol. II.
c) Ei(n,'h. H. ccc. VI, 20, 22, 40. Ifieron. catal. c. Gl. P/iut. cod. 121. Eheiljexn in .lostWKnu BlbL
or. vol. III. P. I.
96 ANCIENT CIIUKCII HISTOIiy. I'KR. I. VIV. II. A. I). 100-312.
his works aro thought by many to indicate an oriental character, and a de-
frreo of oduciitlon soinowiicro between that of Origen and that of Ircnacns. (il)
lUit his statue, found in the A(/cr Veraniis, near Kome (1551), with tlie Eas-
ter cycle en^Tiived njjon his cathedra and a catalogue of his writings, imply
that lie must have resided in the vicinity of Kome, and tliat tlie Portus Ro-
maniis mentioned as his bishopric, must have been the port near Ostia, (e)
Yet, as Prudentius had sung the martyrdom of a highly esteemed Novatian
l)resbyter, who, in view of death, returned to the Catholic Chnrch, and after
his execution near the mouths of the Tiber, had been conveyed to the Roman
catacombs, (/) and in the time of that poet had been honored with a mag-
nificent martyriuni, and a great annual festival at Rome, the discoverers of
this statue came to the conclusion that the martyr was the same person as tho
ecclesiastical writer, (g) Later martyrologies, however, indicate that the mar-
tyr came to Rome from Antioch, where a lively interest existed in favor of
ISTovatianism. (Ä) Zactantivs Finnianus, an Italian preceptor to the prince
Crispus, in whose misfortunes he was probably involved (d. about 330), com-
menced, during his residence as a rhetorician at Nicomedia, in the midst of
the last persecution, his treatise on the nature and achievements of Chris-
tianity, in contrast with those of Heathenism. In this work he has shed all
the rhetorical splendor of his age upon the gospel, and has acquired the ap-
pellation of a Christian Cicero. His belief in a principle of evil appointed
by God, and of equal rank with Christ, and in a millennial kingdom, may be
regarded as a lingering shadow of the preceding century. (/)
§ 89. Apocryphal Literature.
Among the Jews, the heathen, and the Christians of this period, it was
thought that the truth might, without impropriety, be defended by means of
what was untrue. The lives of their heroes and saints especially might be
embellished as much as they pleased, and the credit of such compositions
might be aided by attaching to them some celebrated name. In tliis way was
produced, within the Church as well as beyond its pale an apocryphal litera-
ture, composed partiallj' of harmless fictions and popular legends, and partially
d) Ifippol. 0pp. ed. Fabricius. llanib. ITlCss. 2 vols. f.
e) E. J. Ximmel, de Hip. vita et scriptls. P. I. Jen. 1S39. Z. F. W. Seinecke, Leben u. Sehir. d.
Hipp. (Illgen's Ziitschr. 1S42. P. 3.) On the other side: 0. G. üaenell, de Hipp. Gott 1S3S. 4. as
Bishop of Bostra.
/) Peristeph. hym. 1 1.
g) According to Winkelmann, Werke, ed. by Meyer & Schulze, vol. XVII. p. 334. the statue be-
longed to the time of Alex. Severus — certainly too early— according to Platiier, in d. Bescreib. d.
Stadt Rom. by Platner, Bunsen, & oth. vol. 2. p. 829. the latest period Tras that of the 6th cent [See
JBuiisen's Hipp. & his Age. Lond. 1S53. C. Wordsicorth, H. & the Church of Eome, 4. Lend. 1SÖ3. and
articles in the Jan"y Nos. of the Edinb. & English Reviews for 1S53.]
1i) The combined evidence thus obtained may be seen In Gieseler, [Eccles. Ilist transl. by Da-
vidson, Edinb. vol. I. p. 249. note 9.]
i) Institutlonum div. 1. VII. De mortibns perseculorum. De ira Dei. De opificio Dei, vel de forma-
tione hominis. 0pp. ed. Bünemann. Lps. 1739. Lebrun et Lenglet Dufresnoy, Par. 1745. 2 Th. 4.
O. F. Fritzsche, Lps. 1842. — i. 2 P.— ^ G. Ph. Ammon, Lact opiniones de rel. in systema redactae,
dss. IL Erl. 1S20. IT. J. Spyker, de prctio Instjtutionibns Lact tiibucndo. Lugd. 1S2Ö. L. Jlamknechi,
itudes sur Lact Strassb. 1S37.
OIIAr. IV. D0CrEINE3. § S9. APOCRTPHAL WRITINGS. 97
of intentional forgeries, (a) "Writings of the former kind liave been so tho-
roughly revised by the Gnostics and Maiiichaeans, that their origin and pri-
mary design can no longer be determined with any certainty, and even their
dogmatic character is for the most part indeterminate and contradictory. In
this respect they are a fair exemplification of the age which gave them birth.
Even in those rare instances in which the deception was discovered and cen-
sured by the Church, as in the case of the Acts of Paul and Theckla, written
under the impulse of a warm affection for Paul, and an almost poetical sen-
timent in behalf of the duty of self-sacrifice, the work remained for a long
time in circulation among the Churches, (h) 1) Among those called Acts of
the Apostles may be noticed a cycle of histories pretending to give an account
of the miracles wrought by the apostles, collected and revised so as to favor
the interests of Manichaeism, by some one under the name of Leuciiis Cha-
rinus. (c) 2) Jewish imitations of earlier prophetic visions were sometimes
used by Christians with their own interpretation, and sometimes counterfeited
by Jewish Christians, to show the completion of the Messianic proj)hocies by
facts taken from the life of Jesus, {d) 3) Some lost prophecies, ascribed to
Ilystaspes, an ancient Persian seer, gave to the Asiatic Christians a prophet
of the Messiah, from their own native region, (e) 4) The Si/hillijie Oracles
were written by many different authors in the course of several centuries. (/")
The oldest of them were composed by heathen and Jewish writers to sub-
serve their own peculiar views, and in many instances probably as a poetical
amusement. But the principal part of them consisting of reproaches against
heathenism, and predictions of its approaching overthrow, were written by
Christians, probably not so much to oppose and alarm their enemies, as to en-
courage their friends. By those apologists, however, who were conversant
with pagan literature, they were made use of as divinely inspired writings.
a) Iren. I, 26.—Mo8heim, de causis snppositt Hbror. Inter Clirist (Dss. ad H. ecc. pert Th.
I. p. 217ss.)
b) Tertul. de hapt. c. 17. Acta S. Puuli et Thocklae, ed. Grabe, Splclleg. Th. I. p. Slss. [Apocr.
New Test Lond. 1521.]
c) Twv'AiToaTÖKüiv ■iT(pi6^oi. Phot c(k1. 114. Acti S. Thomae, ed. J. C. Viilo, Lps. ISM.
Apokr. Ew. s. Leben Jesu. p. 13s.
d) Fahricius, Codex pseudcpigr. V. T. cd. 3. Ilainb. 1712s. 2 Th.— The book of Knoch the Pro-
pliet, trans, from an Ethiopia MS. by A'. Lnurence.O^f. (1?21.) WiZ. A. G. Iloffinnn, Am Buch He-
noch in Uetiers. mit Commentar. Jena. 1S.3.3-S. 2 Abth. [Lond. Clirist. Observer, (in Littell's Rel. M.i?.
1329.) Book of Enoch. M. Stuart,in Bibl. Rcpos. for Jan. 1S40. pp. 86-136.]-E7.rae 1. IV. (Fabric. Tli.
1. 178ss.) Versio Aethioplca, lat angliccqiie rcddlta a H. Laurence, Osf. 1920.— Ai Siad^xai rüv
5w5€/to naTpiapx^f, ed. Grabe, Spicil. Th. L p. 145ss. Comp. C. I. Kitzach, do testani. XII. Patr.
Vit 1810. 4.— Asccnsio {avaßaTiKiv) Isaiao vatis, opu.sc apud. Aethlopas compertum, c. v*rs. lat.
anglicannque ed. R. Laurence, Oxon. 1S19. Gieseler, vetiis translntlo lat vlslonis Jcsal.no Ott pracf.
ot notis ill. Gott 1S32. 4. comp. XiUach tn d. Stud. u. Krit 1S30. P. 2. Lücke, Elnl. z. Apok. p. 12J^ss.
Gfrorer, Gesch. d. Urchr. vol. I. 1. p. 05s9.
«) Fr. Walcfi^ dc Ilysta'spc. (Comm. Soc. Re?. Gott Th. L p. 3s8.)
/) Sibylllnorum Oraenlorum 1. VIIL cd. Sercatiun GiiUaeit», Amst 1099. 4. On th^ see also I.
XL-XIV. inAngeli Mnji Seriptonmi vetf. nova cullecllo. Rom. 1^2^. 4. Th. III. p. S.—Iileek. ü. Ent't.
a. Znsammens. d. Sib. Orak. (Theol. Zcitschr. Brl. 1S19. P. 1. 2.) [Pavld BlondeU, Treatise of the
Slbylls. Lond. ICCL f.]
98 ANCIENT CllflXII msTOUV. PER. I. DIV. 11. A. I). lofJ-312.
§ 90. Suhordinailonists and Monarchians.
I. All neoonnt.s of the >r()n(irclilri.is nrc derlvcfl from the fmrty hostile to and finally vfctoriotif
nvci thoin, as e. g. TertuUian, -who hated them n.s opponents of Montanism ; E[/ijih<iniun ami Tlteo-
doret, who rc^iarded tliem with flic prejudices of the Athanaslan party; and Kuneliug, the most liii-
[inrllal, hut not unaffected by the spirit and views of the a?e.
II. Martini, Vrnpn. Gesch. d. doprna v. d. Gotth. Ch. In d. ersten 4 .Talirli. liost. ISW. vol. 7.
iSMeiennarher, ü. d. Gegcns. zw. d. Sabell. ii. Äthan. Yorst. v. d. Trinität (Tlicol. Z(it«chr. Tri. 1S22
P. 3. p. iOriss.) Jleinichen, do Alogls, Theodotianis, Artomonitl.«. Lps. 1829. L. Lavge, Gesch. u.
Lehrbepr. d. Tnltarlcr vor d. Nie. Synode. (Beitr. z. KGesch. vol. II.) Lpz. 1531. Jilem, Abh. in
Illgen's Zcitschr. 1S.32. vol. II. Vt 2. p. ITss.) 1883. vol. III. Pt. ]. p. 65s.s. Pt 2. p. ITSss. Comp.
Gieeeler In d. Stud. u. Krit 1S.33. P. 4. p. 12ir.s. Bavr, d. chr. Lehre v. d. Dreielnipkelt n. Mensch-
werd. in gesch. Entw. Tub. 1841. Th. I. p. 132ss. G. A. dfeier, d. Lehre v. d. Trin. in hist. Entw.
Ilamb. u. G. 1S44. vol. 1. p. 74ss.
The wliole effort made by the Clmrch of tliis period to rise above the
religion of mere feeling to the possession of clear ideas, -wa-s now concen-
trated in the inquiry, Who was Christ ? The ansAver of the Jews, declaring
that he was the Son of God, reminded the Greeks of the sons of deities in
their mythology, (n) As, however, the doctrine of the divine unity was
considered indispensable, and as Christians could not feel that the essential
glory of Christ was adequately expressed, when it was said in Jewish phrase,
that he was anointed and filled with the Holy Ghost, the attention of all was
turned to the philosophic theory of the Loffos, regarded as that by which
God contemplated his own nature, and revealed himself in the universe as
far as it is an image of the divine life. Two parties sprung up after the
middle of the second century, neither of which hesitated to call Christ, in a
Hellenistic sense, not only a Son of God, but God himself. One of these be-
lieved that the Logos had an existence before our world, and was an exact
image of the Deity, but a subordinate person. The popular expres.sion with
respect to the generation of this Logos, must have been understood as im-
plying either with the Gnostics, that it was an emanation from the divine
essence, or with the Alexandrians, tliat it was an eternal procession from it
by an exercise of the divine will. According to this view, the Holy Spirit
was regarded as an actual person, but one so subordinate and so little regard-
ed, that many who looked upon the Son as a person, held that the Spirit
was merely a power of God, or a mode of his operation. This relation of
the divine economy has been denominated, since the time of Tertullian, the
Trinifi/. The otJicr party, either from its regard to the doctrine of the divine
unity (fiompxia), held that Christ was a mere man, but born of the virgin by
the power of the divine Spirit, and exalted to be the Lord of the whole
Church, or from a regard to Christ's dignity, believed that he was a revela-
tion and manifestation of God on earth, (b) Those who held to this last
view, were, by their opponents, called Pairijyassiani. Justin informs us,
that even in his day it was not regarded as inconsistent with Christianity to
hold that Christ was a mere man, and Tertullian reluctantly testifies, that in
his vicinity this was the common sentiment, (c) The first kind of Monarch-
fl) Justin. Apol. L c. 21. C. Tryph. c, 69. Comp. Plinii Ep. X, 96.
I) Athf)iii(r. Lcg.it c. 10. In Justin, c. Tiyph. c. 12S. The distinction between the two kinds
jf Monarchianism : Orig. in Jo. tom. 2, 2.
c") Jut/in. c Tryph. c. 49. Tertul. adv. Prax. c. 3.
CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. § 90. 6UBOEDIXATIONI5TS & MOXAECHIANS. 90
fanism has ahvays, since that time, been rejected as often as it has made its
appearance, inasmi;ch as no one would then presume to think of Christ in
less exalted terms than those in which the Gnostic heretics represented him.
But even where no such a rejection took place, it naturally followed that no
one had any great timidity in denying a mere man. On the other hand, the
Monarchians of the second class were regarded in many parts of the Church
as orthodox, and were not generally very seriously opposed, until an assault
was made upon them by persons at a distance, which was repelled by
an appeal to apostolical traditions, and to the Holy Scriptures. But the
Subordinationists, whose vieAvs were more conformable to those of the com-
mon people, gradually gained upon public sentiment, and by various means
at the command of the hierarchy, utterly destroyed even the second kind of
Monarchianism, which had been rendered suspicious by the ease with which
it was confounded with the first. By ingenious references to reason and
revelation, the views of the triumphant party respecting the Logos were
made to correspond with the philosophy of tliat period.
1) Epiphanias speaks of a party in Asia Minor (about 170) whom he wit-
tily calls Alogi, because they rejected the doctrine of the Logos and the gos-
pel by John, together with the doctrine of the Millennium and the book of
Revelations. They were probably the same persons as those mentioned by
Irenaeus as having rejected the gospel by John, and the idea of the pro-
phetic gifts of the Spirit. It is evident that they were opposed to the Mun-
tanists, but we are left in doubt whether they took offence at the word Lo-
gos merely as a learned expression, or whether they were really Monarchians.,
as they were regarded by Epiphanius. (^Z) 2) Praxeas, distinguished as a
confessor in the time of Marcus Aurelius, and sent from Asia Minor to
Rome to induce the churches in the latter city to refuse all felloAvship
with the Montanists, taught without molestation the second kind of Mo-
narchiauism, respecting the incarnation of one divine Spirit in Christ. In
Carthage, however, he was accused of heresy by Tertullian. (< ) But Thc-
odotus^ the Tanner, who came about the same time from Byzantium to Rome,
and began to propagate the first kind of Monarchianism, was driven from
the Church by Victor^ Bishop of Rome. His party was distinguislied for
secular learning, made use of the Scriptures as of a merely liuman jiroduc-
tion, and Avas at one time powerful enough to elevate one of their own num-
ber to the See of Rome itself. It Avas not long, hoAvever, before their bishop
Avas attacked by persons sent by God, or by episcopal influence, and com-
pelled to abdicate. From this party proceeded another Theodotus, a money-
broker, Avho became the head of the Melchizedecians^ Avho are said to have
honored Melchizedek as a heavenly Redeemer, superior to the eartldy. Ar-
tcmon Avas also excluded from tlie Church of Rome, for maintaining that the
established doctrine of the Churcli had ahvays been, that the Redeemer A\-aa
no more than a man, and that this had never been perverted or changed until
(7> Kpiph. haer. 51. 54. 3. Iren. Ill, 11. comp. EuKfh. 11. ccc. ATI, 25.—.)/: Jft^iM. hist. kr\l
Aufklär. d. 8treiti?k. d. Aloger. Q. d. AiM.k. Frkf. ii. Lps. ITS'».
e) Tertnl adv. Praxean.
100 ANCIKNT CIiniCH HISTORY. PKR. L DIV. II. A. P. lOO-.OlÜ.
tlio time of Zci)liyrimis, ^vho then occupied the episcopal chair (201-218). (/)
8) Koetits, of Smyrna, and probably a presbyter in Ej)hesus, was excluded
(about 230) from liis diurch as a Patripassian. That he should have repelled
this accusation in such decided terms, is only to bo explained on the ground
that ho held to the second kind of Monarchianism. (,'/) To this also, Bcryl-
lu8, of Bostra, professed adherence. He denied that our Saviour had any
personal existence prior to the incarnation, or tliat there was in Christ a di-
vine nature distinct from that of the Father. lie, however, conceded that
the Godhead of the Father dwelt in the person of Jesus. Under the instruc-
tion of Origcn, he finally renounced these view.s, and embraced another sys-
tem of faith. (/<) Salellhis, a presbyter of Ptoleraais (250-200), expressed
the same doctrine in terms still nearer those commonly used in the Church.
According to him, the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, were only the difler-
ent forms in which the supreme Unity, which unfolds itself in human atfairti
as a Triad, reveals himself to men. In the Pentapolis, his doctrine was re-
garded as orthodox, until Dionysius, of Alexandria, brought against him the
prelaticaJ authority, and the stores of learning. But when the latter, in the
course of the controversy, carried the doctrine of Origen so far as to assert
that the Logos was created by the Father, was unequal to him in nature, and
began to exist in time, Bionysius, Bishop of Rome, maintained against him
a doctrine which the Alexandrian bishop would not have denied, that the
Son had an eternal existence in the Father, (i) 4) Paul of Samosata, after
260 Bishop of Antioch, appears to have effected a union of the two kinds of
Monarchianism, although the first was decidedly predominant in his system.
He maintained that Jesus, as a man, was begotten by the Holy Ghost, and
that the divine Logos which tlien began personally to exist, had a peculiar
connection with him. The Syrian bishops were violently opposed to their
Metropolitan, conspired against him at three different Synods, and at An-
tioch, in the year 269, proclaimed his deposition. Their enmity seems to
have been much excited by his political position and worldly honors, (I) and
it was not until the year 272, when the imperial power co-operated with
them, that their act of deposition was carried into effect. The fall of this
powerful bishop decided the fate of the Monarchians, who are henceforth
mentioned only as isolated individuals, and as heretics already condemned
(SabeUiani, Samosateniani.) In the public acts of this Synod, the Sabellian
form of expression, according to which the Son is of a nature similar to that
of the Father (öfiooCaios rä naTpi), was also condemned. (?)
/) Tertal. de praescr. append, c. 5S. .F««e&, H. ecc. T, 28. Epiph. haer. 54. 65. Theodorti.
Haeret. fubb. II, 4ss.
g) IHppolyt. fls tV aipeciv Notjtou rtvos. (Ed. Fabric. Tli. II. p. 5ss.) Epiph. haer. 57.
Thiocloret. Ill, 3.
h) Eneeh. II. ecc. VI, 83. comp. 20. Uieron. catal. c. 60. comp. OHg. 0pp. Th. IV. p. 6J5.—
Ullman}}, de Beryllo Bostreno. Hamb. 1835. 4. comp. Stud. u. Krit 1S86. P. 4. p. lOTSss.
i) Emeh. II. ecc. VII, 6. Athanas. Ep. de sententia Dionysii. (Th. I. p. 545ss.) Gallandii Bib.
PP. Th. III. p. 495. vol. XIV. App. p. IIS. B^iml. Ep. 210. Epiph. baer. 62. Thtodoret. II. 9
\Schleiermaeher, transl. by M. Stuart, in Blbl. Repos. vol. T. p. 265-353. VI. p. 1-SO.]
K) Euseb. II. ecc. VII, 27-30. Epiph. haer. 65. A. Maji N. Coll. Th. VII. P. 1. p. 6S. 299ss.—
Ehrlich, de errorlbus Pauii Sam. Lps. 1745. 4. J. B. Schwab, de P. Sam. vita atque doctr
Ilerbip. 1S3!>.
t) Athanas. de synod. Arim. et Seleuc. c 48. (Th. I. p. 917.) JTilar. de synod, c S6.
SECOND PEEIOD.
FROM CONSTANTINE TO CIIAKLES THE GREAT.
§ 91. General Vietc,
neathenism was now destroyed and Christianity became the religion of
the State. The eifort to attain a more perfect intellectual apprehension of
the doctrines of the Christian system, produced a great agitation both of the
Church and of the empire. The Churc!i and the State exerted a reciprocal
and mutually pervading influence upon eaoli other, and by blending together
the political and dogmatic interest, an unfavorable result was produced in
both. The rights of the congregations were still enforced in almost all in-
stances by popular insurrections and intrigues at court. The unity of the
Church was carried out by sacrificing the independence of its several parts,
and the whole became subject to the two great bishops residing at old and
new Kome. The power of the monks nearly equalled that of the clergy.
Grecian and Christian usages and morals were blended together, and nm-
tually corrupted one another. From the midst of these doctrinal conflicts,
and from the fanaticism of the Desert, a class of characters was produced, in
which the Holy Ghost allowed the spirit of the times to attain, on a grand
scale, the end for which it indefinitely longed. At the close of this struggle,
the State was distracted by another relating to images. Christianity gave a
final glory, an internal life and a consolation in misfortune to the Roman
empire, but could not prevent its overthrow. A new and simple faith ob-
tained a victory over Christianity by means of the sword, and closed against
it its own native East. Greece alone continued Roman, and gradually sunk
with its Church into a long apparent dcatli. The German nations broke
into the Western Empire, but soon bowed themselves before the cro?s, and
gave to the Church a new life. The period naturally falls into two divisions
of nearly equal length : tlie Churcli of the Roman empire, to which the ad-
jacent oriental countries belong, and the Church among the Germanic na-
tions, to which the Roman bishopric, from the time of Stephen II., was
transferred.
DIVISION I.-TIIE IMPERIAL CHURCH.
g 9'2. Original Authorities.
1) Eiisel). (§ 1-1.) El's T'bv ßlov KwvcttvlvtU'uv. 1. IV. Vit« Constant, ct Paneprrtcns, ed. 11 fin'
<c/i«H. Lps. ISoO. Ilistoriao ceo. Etisebii. I. IX Rufino intorprcte sell. Ipsius liufini, cd. Ciicci-
ari. Rom. 1741s. 2 Th. 4. Ilistoria ccc. Scriptures graeci, c notis Valexii cd. G. I}fa<Un(r, Cantftbr.
1720.3 Th. f. Xicephorus Callistius, ikkKtio: luTopia, cd. Fronton U Piic, Tar. IG.*?!!. 2 Tb. £
102 ANCIENT CIIUKCII II1ST0I:Y. TKI:. II. DIV. I. A. D. »I2-S0O.
2) .Vi/Z/dV// ,SVivr/, lllst. furra, cil. I/ofmeister, Tig. ITOS. (0pp. cil. I/ieron. a Prnto, Vc-ion. ITll»
2 Til. f. noffxaAlo;' s. Cliroiilcoii i)asclialo, od. Car. du Fiesne Dom. du Gange. Par. 16-)8. f. LiUl.
Dindorf, l\onn. ]S:!2. 2 Tli. Theophanea Confessor, Xpovoypacpla, c notis Goari ct ComheßslU
Tar. Jljß.'i. Ven. 1729. f. 8) Ammianus Marcellinus, Eerum gest. 1. XXXI. ed. Ernesti. Lp-s. 1778.
1S:J5. Zosimus, iffTopia vfa, e<i. Jieitemeier. Lps. 1784 Im. ßekker, llonn. 18-37. [TUe Greek
Kccles. Histories by Euscb. Theod. Socrat Sozom. and Evagrius, have been newly translated and pub-
Iblicd, with lives of the autbors, In 6 vols. Svo. Lond. 1842-C.]
Most of the public original documents are contained in the acts of coun-
cils and the imperial codes. EiiseMits was influenced in the history of his
own times at least by gratitude, {a) His Ecclesiastical History was freely
translated, and continued to the time of the translator by Rufinus (395). (J)
Among the Greeks it was continued by the advocate, Socrates ScJioJasticus
(306-439), and Ilcrmias Sozomcnns (323-423). The former was a candid and
plain writer ; the latter was full of monastic notions, and wrote in a florid
style. Both were completed by Theodoretiis., bishop of Cyrus, with a great
abundance of theological learning (325-427). (c) All of these were com-
posed in the spirit of the ascendant party in the Church. The Ecclesiastical
History of Philostorghis (300-425), is a panegyric upon the vanquished par-
ty, and is preserved only in the extracts made by Photius. Evo(jrlus., a dis-
tinguished advocate of Antioch, continued the history of the Catholic Church
(431-594) with special attention to political circumstances, and an extreme
passion for orthodoxy. Extracts from Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret,
are preserved in a manuscript work of Tlieodorus Lcctoi\ and fragments of
his continuation of Socrates (until 518) have been preserved by Nicephorus.
The history oi Nicei^Jiorus Callistius (which at first consisted of twenty-threo
books, and reached to the year 911, but now consists of only eighteen books,
extending to the year GIO), was compiled in the fourteenth century from
older historical writings and original documents in the church of St. Sophia.
It was written in an elegant style, and its -sentiments are honestly expressed,
but it is characterized by servility and superstition. Sidpiciiis Scvo-us, at
first a lawyer, and afterwards a presbyter in Gaul, wrote a concise summary
of imiversal history (until 400) with a strong ecclesiastical spirit, but it is
important only for what relates to his own times, and to events occurring in
his own vicinity. The Easter- Chronicle (written until 354, under Constan-
tius, but with later additions until 028, under Heraclius) is principally a cal-
culation of the passovers from the beginning of the world, but it is enlivened
by a chronicle in Avhich many singular documents and accounts are communi-
cated in a simple style, and in an ecclesiastical spirit. Theopliancs Confessor
wrote a continuation of an older chronicle down to his own time (285-813),
and with much learning made use of original documents which would other
wise have been lost. His work is pervaded by the spirit of a monk and of
a martyr to his zeal for image worship. Among the last of the heathen his-
torians, Ammianus JlarcelUmis, in those portions of his history of the em-
pire which are extant (libb. 14-31. 353-378), has recorded the ecclesiastical
events of that period with the impartiality and sound common sense of a sol
a) Socrat II. ecc. 1, 1.
I) E. J. Kiinmel, do Paif., Eus. intcrprete I. II. Ger. 153S.
c) F. A. Jlo'.z/iausen, dc funtibiis, quibus Socr. Soz. et Tlieod. usi sunt Goctt. 1?25. 4.
CHAP. I. VICTORY OF CIIKISTIANITY. § 93. CO^'STANTINE & UI5 «OXS. 103
di?r, and Zosimits, a court officer iintler Tlicodosius IT., has described (in de-
tail 284-410) with minute art tlie dark shades in the character of the Chris-
tian emperors.
CHAP. I.— VICTORY AXD DEFEAT OF CnRISTLiXITY.
J. G. ITdffmann, ruina snpcrstitionis pajanae. Tit. 1738. 4. S. T. liüdiger, de statu ijaganorum
sub. Imp. Christ, post. Const Vrat. 1825. Beugnot. (before § 46.)
§ 93. Constantine and his .Sons.
I. 'Whatever relates to them in EnBeh. and Zosimits. — II. ^fartini, d. Einfiii i. d. chr. Rel. aU
Staatsrel. durch Constant Munch, 1813. 4. J/rtJiso, Leben Const Brcsl. 1S17. KM^ de commuta-
tione, quam Const auctore societas chr. subiit Traj. ad Kh. 1818. 4 {Hug) Denksehr. s. Ehrenrctt
Const. (Zeit=chr. f. d. Geistlichk. d. Erzb. Freyburg. IS'29. P. 8.) Arendt, \l Const u. s. Verb. z.
Cliristenth. (Tub. Qiiartalschr. 1S34. P. 3.) [Eafieh. J'ainp/tilits, Life of Const In 4 books. New
transl. Lond. 18-15. 8.]
As fast as he could wisely do so, and by all the means which an absolute
monarch can bring to bear upon his favorite plans, Constantino gradually be-
stowed upon the Church security, wealth, privileges, and every thing wliich
could make it attractive. By the arts of state policy, the contest be-
tween the rulers of the Eastern and "Western division of the empire had
been identified with that between the ancient gods and the crucified Re-
deemer. No sooner had this been decided by the complete destruction of
Licinius (323), than Constantine openly expressed a desire to see the whole
Roman world once more united in one common religion. He, however, free-
ly acknowledged the right of all those who desired, to pereevere in their ad-
herence to the obsolete superstition. Only a few temples in the East wero
despoiled, that their ornaments might be used to adorn the new Christian
Rome; some others were destroyed on account of the immoralities practised
in them, {a) and a law against sacrifices Q>) was probably directed merely
against such immoralities, or was never executed. The emperor still re-
mained Pohtifcx JIaximxis, and some of his enactments indicate that he hon-
ored, or at least feared the magical arts of the old paganism, (c) Political
interests seemed imperatively to require that Christianity should bo estab-
lished as the religion of the State, that those religious questions which were
then producing innumerable divisions might be decided. That Constantino,
however, acted in these measures from a sincere attachment to Christianity,
is evident from what he did before the chivalrous emperor had degenerated
into the tyrant, and from his interest in those ecclesiastical matters with
which the mere policy of tlio ruler could have liad no connection. The
same sig^ which had originally given liim the victory (Labaruin, 312), (</)
had also conducted him to univcnsal dominion, and ho therefore regarded
himself as tlie favorite of Heaven, c.nllod to secure an equal dominion for the
a) Emeh. Vita Const II, 55-00.
h) Acconlinfc to a reference which Constnns made to It (e) and Eiixeh. Vita Const II, 4.").
c) Constit de haruspicinae nsu. a. 3'2I. L. 1. Cu<l. Theod. do pnizan. (XVI, 10.) Zosinx. II, 29.
<7) £■(/«.»/>. Vita Const I, 27-31. /.'/c/kh^ de iiiorlib. c. 44. ä3<>»i. I, 3. L'ujin. I, 0. Comp
yii:(irii, Piinejryr. Const, c. 11. — IMnkhen, Excurs. I. iid Vitain Const
104 ANciKNT ciiriicir iiistoiiy. I'ki:. ir. imtkuial ciiuncii. a. d. 3i2-8oa
cross of Christ. And yet lie wns r.ot restrained from desecrating that verj
cross liy liarids dct'iily iiiil)riic<l in blood, in the blood of his own son (320)
That he rcniaincd anioiif: the catechumens, and never received baptism until
the year in which ho died (337), is accounted for by a reference to a super-
stitious opiuion then prevalent among many Christians. Not only has the
Church from gratitude conferred upon him the title of the Great, but even
heathenism has given him a place among its divinities. "While acquiring and
maintaining his authority, he won many battles, formed a system of govern-
ment wliich acted with all the regularity of an artificial machine, built a
metropolis for the world in a position the most admirable of any on earth,
and lived to experience and to deserve many misfortunes. In one respect lie
was certainly great or fortunate, for when seated in the highest position then
attainable, he seems to have understood what the necessities of his age re-
quired. Ilis sons followed out and even extended the political system and
favorite plans he had bequeathed to them. The temples were closed, and
those who should venture to sacrifice were threatened with death, (e) In
Eome alone an asylum for the ancestral gods was allowed to remain, as a
special fiivor solemnly conceded to the majesty of the Roman people. (/)
§ 94. Juliamis Apoatata.
I. Juliani 0pp. (Misopogon, Caesares, Orationes, Epp.) et CyrilU Al«e. c. Julian. 1. X. ed. Span-
hem. Lps. 1G96. 2 Th. f. Jul. Epp. Accedunt fragm. breviora, ed. Ueijler, Mog. 1S2S. The series ol
Christian lampoons begins with Grtgorii Ka-. in Julian, apost. invcctivae duae. The pagan panc-
gvrics with Lihaniiis, especially with his Oratio parentalis. A true and fair account in Ammian.
Marc. XXI.-XXV, 3.
II. //. P. a Tfenke, de Theol. Jul. Ilelmst. 1777. 4. (0pp. 1802. p. 353ss.) A. Leander, Jul. u. s.
Zeitalter. Lps. 1S12. (Scldossers Eec in d. Jen. L. Z. Jan. 1S13. p. 121ss.) Idem. [II. of the Chr.
Uel. and Church, vol. II. pp. 36-67.] C. If. ran Iferwerden, de Jul. rel. chr. hoste eodemque vin-
dice. Lngd. 1S2T. G. F. Wiggers, Jul. d. Abtr. (lUgen's Zeitschr. 1S37. vol. VII. p. 1.) IT. Schuhf,
do phi), et morib. Jul. Strals 18-39. 4. F. S. Teuffel, de Jul. Imp. christianismi contemtore et osorc.
Tub. 1S44. [A short account of the Life of Jul. the Ap. Lend. 16S2. 12. Life of Jul. Lend. 16S2. S.
Two Orations of J. transl. Lond. 1793. S.]
Julian had been educated for the Christian priesthood, but he had learned
to regard Christianity as a tissue of subtle formulas, and as a religion of sla-
very. The victory it had acquired over the religion of his ancestors he as-
cribed to the violent measures of him who had been the murderer of his
father's family. By an acquaintance "witb the poets of antiquity and the
philosophers of heathenism, which he had acquired in secret, he found what
seemed to him a higher life. Having attained the throne by a bold use of
favorable circumstances (3G1), he looked upon himself as destined by the
gods to bring back the delightful times of antiquity. His religious views
were of the New-Platonic school, and in his restoration of paganism, he in-
tended to ingraft upon it aU the excellencies of Christianity. Christians
were removed from civil oflices, condemned to rebuild the temples which had
been destroyed, and excluded from aU professorships in which the national
e) Const-intis Lex adv. sacrif a. 841. L. 2. Cod. Tluod. de pagan. (XVI, 10.) Comhintii Kesrr.
ad Taurum. a. 853. ibid. L. 4.
/) L. 3. Cod. Th-ecHl. de pagan. (XVL 1;'.)
CHAP. I. VICTORY OF CIIRISTIAXITr. § 94. JULIAN. § 05. PAG \NISM. 1 J
Uterature was taught, (a) Even the claims of justice were conceded in such
a way as to favor his hostile design ; all sects -were tolerated, all banished
bishops were recalled, and tlie Jews were invited to rebuild their sanctuary.
Those who had remained heathen now began to lift up their heads, and the
ever venal multitude returned to their deserted temples. These very etibrts,
however, merely showed how well Constantino had understood the age in
which he lived. The ridicule and hatred of the Christians Julian met with tlie
weapons of a philosopher rather than with those of a universal ruler. In
his controversies with the Galileans, lie endeavored especially to show that
they were condemned by their own sacred books when they deified a de-
ceased Jew, complied with the new custom of honoring otlier deceased per-
sons, and renounced Judaism. (//) The virtues he exhibited in his official duties
procured peace and esteem even from tho.se who personally disliked him, and
those ditferenccs which existed between him and his people did not make
him a tyrant. The more beautiful traits of the Greek national spirit could
not be developed in him, but he was nevertheless a hero and a philosopher
on the throne, and a pious and virtuous man in private life. Even his de-
clamatory vanity was connected with his high regard for the free judgment
of his people. After a busy reign of twenty months as sole emperor, and
after a restless but fruitless life, he fell while yet a youth in a battle with the
• Persians (363). Though he passed away like a flying cloud, he was, with the
exception of Athanasius, the greatest man of his century.
§ 95. Fall of Paganism.
After Julian, the empire was governed by Christian emperors, hut hea-
thenism continued undisturbed in its civil relations until the reign of Theo-
dosius I. This monarch having conquered the Goths and suppressed the
heretics, felt bound also to persecute the pagans (381). It was at this time
also that Gratianus had the altar of Victory removed from the hall of the
Roman senate. It was in vain that Symmachus, in the name of the senators,
implored that an altar with which the early and happy recollections of so
many venerable fathers were connected, and already so dear even to the ten-
derest youtli, might bo spared. In vain did he plead in tlio name of the
eternal city itself, that in tlie present uncertain condition of things, tlie usages
of their ancestors might be respected, and a religion under which they liad
conquered the world might not be exterminated, {a) In the exercise of his
power as sole ruler (392), Tlieodosius proclaimed every form of idolatry a
crime, and everj- attcmi)t to learn tlio secrets of tlio future by anim.'d sacri-
fices, high treason. (A) Those enthusiastic teachers who relied wholly upon
the spiritual jOwer of the gospel to overcome all its opponent'*, were out-
numbered by tlio zealots who urged the emperor, as a matter of conscience,
a)Jul.'Ex>. 42. Ammian. Marc. XXII, 10. Orot>ii, Hist. VII, 80. The mlsumlerstnndini; iu
Soco?«. V, IS. Socrnt. Ml, \1. 7 heoilorct. \Uft ece. III,?.
h) Marquis (VArgenn, Duft-nsc ilu pngaiil?iiio jior I'Einp. Julli^n. Eer. 17C4. cd. 3. 1TC9.
a) Syinmuchi 1. X. Ep. CI. (Kil. Puri-uii, Xeost. Nein. 1C29.)
&)L. 12. Cod. Theod. de pagan. (XVI, W.)—Stiiffl-en, de Theodosii M. In rem clir. niiTiUs.
Liigd. 1S2S.
lOG ANciKNT ciHTHc;ii iii.sr(»i:v. i'Kk. ii. imi-khial ciiuiicii. a. d. S12-S00.
to destroy itii-xnnisin by tiro and sword. Tlie populace were excited by vio-
lent monks to rise atjainst tlio temples. It Avas to no purpose that Lihanius
eloquently interceded for those edifices which he had just assisted Julian to
embellish. ('•) A few of the more beautiful ancient temples were saved, to be
converted into churciies. "When the mysterious Serapion at Alexandria was
destroyed, and the statue of the god v;as broken to pieces, the Egyptians
expected, according to an ancient prophecj', that the world would sink back
into its original chaos, (d) Philosophy sought consolation in magical arts,
and hojics were entertained that the power of Christianity was destined to
extinction during the year 399. (r) The heathen oracles withheld their re-
sponses, and the Sibylline books were consumed in the flames. Before the
middle of the fifth century, idolatry was completely exterminated in every
part of the Eastern empire. In the West, where the continual incursions
of the barbarians rendered the emperor's authority less effective, it was found
impossible wholly to put down the worshij) of the gods, to whose vengeance
the devastation of the empire was ascribed. Hence, after Rome had been
plundered by the barbarians, Augustine (42G) and Orosius (417) found it ne-
cessary, by labored apologies, to prove that Christianity was not responsible
for the calamities of the times, the former taking the ground that the whole
history of the world was only a development of the kingdom of Christ, con-
ditioned by the opposition of men. (/) The great multitude indeed followed*
where fortune and power led the way, but Augustine found by experience,
as Libanius had intimated, that it was easier to exclude the gods from the
temples, than from the hearts of the people, and that Jesus was not often
sought for from disinterested motives, {g) Heathenism maintained its ground
only here and there in some remote districts (paganismus, 3G8), where it was
protected by the rustic simplicity and honesty of its votaries, in particular
individuals or families of an exalted character, and in the schools of philoso-
phy. A few philosophers fell a sacrifice to the frantic zeal of the Christian
populace. The learned and amiable Ilypatia^ who presided over the Xew-
Platonic school of Alexandria, was horribly murdered in a church, not with-
out guilt on the part of Cyril the bishop, (a) Heathenism, however, from
its very nature, could never attain ascendency by its martyrdoms. Jus-
tinian I. destroyed its last intellectual hold, by abolishing the schools of phi-
losophy, and he annihilated even those secret vestiges of it in Piome which
had become concealed under an inditYerence to all external forms of wor-
ship. (/) Photius alone preferred a voluntary baptism of blood in defence
c) Orat ad Theodos. virtp rwv UpSiv. 0pp. ed. Heiske. Th. II. More complete: Novus S. Pa-
tru;n Ornec. Saec. IV. delectus, rec. Z. de Sinner. Par. 18-12.
(i) liußni, n. ecc. II, 22-80. Sncrat. V, 16.
e) Sozom. VI, 35. A-ugustin. de Civ. Dei. XVIII, 53.
/) ^ii(7"s<. de CivitateDei. 1. XXII. c. comment Jo. L. Vi vis et Coqmiei, Ilamb. 1G62. 2 Th.
J. van Goenf!, de Aug. Apolojeta sec. II. do Civ. Dei. Ainst ISSS. Pauli Oroaii adv. Tajranos bjs-
torlar. L. VII. (Ilormcsda nmndi, Moestltia) rec. Siff. ITuverl:a7np,'Lus<^. 1738. 4. T/i. de Jfoorner.
de Oros. vita ejusque Hist, libris. Ber. 1844.
(7) Liban. 0pp. vol. II. p. 17T. Aug. SeTm. G2. in Ev. Jo. tr. 25, 10. h) Socrat. VII, 15.— Wems
dor/, de Hyp. pliilosopha D.ss. IV. Vit 1748. 4. Jliindt, IIyp.itia. (Verm. Schriften. Ludwigsb
182S. vol. I.)
i) rrocopii, nut. arcana c. 11. Theophun. Chronogr. ad ann. 522. Comp. Aijaihiae ^i^t II, 30.
CHAP. I. VICTORY OF CHEISTIAmTY. § 95. MALN'OTTES. § 9G. MASSALIANS. 1 07
of freedom, to a constrained baptism in behalf of Christianity ; and the
Mainottcs, in their mountain homes, defended at the same time their 0A\-n
liberties and the ancient gods of Sparta. So many religious phra-ses and fes-
tivals connected with idolatry were preserved at Rome, that it may more
properly be said to have been incorporated into the life of the Church than
abolished. The last adherents of the ancient faith were found in the seventh
century, inhabiting some remote valleys of the Italian islands.
§ 96. Massalians and Ilijpsistarians.
L Epiph. haer. SO. Cyrill. Alev. de adoratione in spiritu et verit, I. III. (I'ar. Th. I. p. 92.)
Gregor. Naz. Orat. XVIII. § 5. (0pp. p. 333.) Gregor. Xi/ss. adv. Ennom. 1. II. (Tb. II. p. 44i>.)
II. UUmann, de Ilypsistariis. llcidelb. 1823. 4. On tbe other side: Boehmer, de Hyps. I'raefa-
tus est Neander. Berol. 1S24. together with various replies.
Many persons had no confidence in the ancient gods, who nevertheless
had no faith in Christ. These were indifterent about what might be the re-
sult of the great struggle for religion, or without professing adherence to any
particular Deity, they contented themselves with the most general forms of
piety. The more sincere portion of this class longed for some religious fel-
lowship, and therefore associated themselves together. Accordingly, the
JIassalians of Syria and Palestine (Eiichites, Euphemites, 2eotrf,3f(j. and in
Africa Coelicolae), conceded, indeed, that there might be many gods, but
actually worshipped, in their splendidly illuminated oratories, at morning
and evening twilight, only One universal Euler. The Hypsistarians (v^iarM
Sew TTpoa-Kvi'ovvTfs) of Cappadocia can be reckoned in the same class with
them, only on the ground that both were worsliippers of but one God, for
their peculiar sentiments respecting the eating of meats and the Sabbath in-
dicate that they must have been a kind of jjrosdytes of the gate. That they
ever had any connection with Parsism, is very doubtful. The indilleronce
of the former class and these latter sects of the fourth century must have
disappeared, after a few generations, before the internal and external power
of Christianity.
§ 97. Christianity luidcr the Persians.
Christianity made no very great progress in Persia, on account of the
newly awakened national si)irit, the volatile character of the people, and the
superficial knowledge then i)0ssessed by Christians of the Persian system of
religion. In the fourth century, however. Christian congregations existed
in every part of that country under the Metropolitan of Seloucia. But in
consequence of the hatred felt against them by the priestly caste, who were
bound together by the closest bonds, and some suspicions of a political na
ture awakened against them, they became victims of a persecution, after 84;3,
wliich raged almost without interruption for a whole century, and nearly an-
nihilated the Church, (a) No parties bearing the name of Christian could
find an asylum there, except those whicli had been expelled from the Roman
empire. Chosrocs II. conquered Jerusalem (614) and put to death all Chris-
tians Avhom he found in Palestine. Ilcracliua restored the holy city to free-
a) Eimeli. Vita Const IV, 9-13. Sozom. II, 9-14. Socr. VII, 13-21. Theodortt. V, 3S. AcU
Martvr. Orient, ct Oceid. cd S. E. As8e7minus. lloni. 1T4S. f. P. I.
108 ANciicNT ( ini:ci[ hi.stouy. i-ki;. ii. i.Mri;i:iAL church, a. d. 8i2-8oa
dorn, and triumphantly reinstated tlio cross in its former glory (C21-628)
Armenia fell at last beneath the ])Ower of the Persians (429), but its Chris-
tianity was more heroically defended than its freedom, (h)
§ 98. Ahyssinia and the Diaspora.
The preservation of two young men belonging to the murdered crew of a
Grecian vessel, was the occasion of the conversion of the Abyssinians. One
of these, named FnnncntiKS, obtained influence at court, received episcopal
ordination from the hands of Athanasius (327), and lived to see the whole
nation professing the Christian faith, (a) Cosmas, the Indian traveller, found
(before 535) Christian congregations at three diflerent points along the coast
oi the Last Indies. Thomas was honored by them as their apostle, but they
must have been originally composed of mercantile colonies from Persia. (//)
The existence of a church at Chumdan, in China (after 636), witli all that is
related of it, is proved only by a record discovered by the Jesuits, (c) Ara-
bia was furnished with an apostle with many rich gifts by the Emperor Con-
Btantius. But wherever Christianity became prevalent in that country, it
was violently assailed by the Jews. "Whole nomadic tribes received baptism
at once from the hermits of the desert, but probably without much inquiry
into the nature of Christianity, or further practice of its precepts.
§ 99. Mohammed.
I. The Koran : arab. et lat. ed. Maraccius. Patav. 1698. f. Petersb. ITS". 4. Flügel. Li>s. (1834.)
IS41. 4 Ahulfeda, (14th cent) Hist, anteislamica, arab. et lat ei.'Fleincher, Lp#. 1S31. De vita
Muhamedis, arab. et lat ed. Gngtiier, O.xon. 1723. f. (The 1st Part of Abulfeda's Ann. Moslemici,
arab. et lat ed. Reiske, Ilavn. lTS9ss. 5 Th. 4.) Comp. J. v. Ilatnmer in the Wiener Jahrb. 1S35.
vol. 69. January, &c. [The Koran; transl. from the Arab, into Engl, by G. Sale. Lond. lS-29. 1844.
2 vols. 8. Selectiims from the K. with an interwoven comm. transl. from the Arab, with notes, etc.
by E. W. Lane. Lond. 1844. 8.]
II. J. Gagnier, la vie de Mah. Amst 1732. 2 Th. G. Bmih, Life of Mob. New York. 1532. 12.
\_W. Irving, Mob. and his Successors. New York. 1852. 2 vols. 8. S. Ockley, Hist of the Saracens,
comprising the lives of M. and his successors, &c. 4 ed. Lond. 1847. 8. A. Spret^ger. Life of Mob.
Allahabad. V2.]—Garcin de Tossy, Doctrine et devoirs de la rel. musulmanc. Par. 1S26. Ch.. För-
ster, Mahometanisme unveiled. Lond. 1S29. 2 vols. 8. iMttinger, z. Theol. des Korans. (Tub. Zeit-
sclir. 1831. P. 2.) J. V. Zfammer-PurgstaU, Mob. d. Prophet Lps. 1887. Comp. Umhreit, in d.
Stud. u. Krit 1841. P. 1. G. Weil, Moh. de Proph. Stuttg. 1843. [TT. IT. Xeole, The Mohani. Sys-
tem of Theology. Lond. 1828. ^.I—Tychsen, quatenus M. aliarum rell. sectatores toleraverit?
(Cmmtt Soc. Goett Class. Hist Th. XV. p. 152ss.) Mohler, Verb, in welchem naeh d. Koran J. C.
zu M. steht (Tub. Quartalschr. 1830. P. 1.) A. Geiger, was hat M. aus dem Judenth. aufgenommen ?
Bonn. 1833. C. F. Gerock, Christologie d. Koran. Ilamb. 1839. [// Prideaiix, Nature of Imposture
In the Life of M. Lond. 8vo. II. Martyn, Controv. Tracts on Chr. and Mahommedanism. ed. -S
I.ee. Lond. 1824. 8. J. B. White^ Comparison of Moham. and Chr. Banipton Lectt Lond. S. TI' T.
Thompson, Pract Phil, of the Mohammedans, transl. from the Per. of Jany Muh. Asäad. Lond
1839. 8. Art in Kitto's Journal of BibL Lit vol. I.]
The Arabians were a free, warlike, and imaginative people, subsisting
V) Elisaeus, History of Vartan, transl. by Neumann, Lend. 1830. 4 p. 123s. Saint Martin.
(§ 63. note d.) Th. I. p. 306ss. Th. II. p. 472ss.
a) Uufn. I, ^.—Johi Ludolß Uist Aethiopica. Frcf 1681. f III, 2. and Cmtr. ad U. Aeth. ih,
1691. C p. 5S;3ss.
V) Cosmas, Toiroypaipia xpic^TiaviK^. {Montfaucon, Collectio nova PP. graec. P.ir. 1706. f. Th.
IL) L. IlL p. 178. 1. XL p. 3:36. comp. P?ii!ostorg. Ill, 14.
c) Kircheri China illustrata. Horn. 1667. f. p. 43s&
CHAP. I. VICTORY OF CIIßISTIANITV. § 93. MOII.VMMED. 109
opon their flocks, and with only a few commercial towns. "With no literary
cultivation, they took great delight in a poetic language. From the most
ancient times, the Caaba at Mecca, originally consecrated to the worship of
the one God, had been the national sanctuary, but more recently each tribe had
possessed a deity for itself. Judaism, Christianity, and Parsism, had severally
found entrance into Arabia, and it was not uncommon for them to be com-
bined or exchanged the one for the other. Mohammed (b. 571) belonged to
the race of Ishmael, the tribe of the Koreish, and the family of Ila.'jhem,
whose business it was by inheritance to take charge of the Caaba. lie was
originally a merchant and a herdsman, of a quiet temperament, with very
little indication of his future cliaracter, though frequently lost in religious
reveries. All at once he began (611) to proclaim: "There is no God but
God, and Mohammed is his prophet." On this fundamental principle was
constructed a system of faith and morals, which combined together the four
forms of religion prevalent among his peojjle. Mohammed was acquainted
with these only as he had found them in his intercourse with men — Judaism
in its Talmudic, and the life of Jesus in its apocrj'phal form. His professed
object was to re-establish the religion of Abraham, the great ancestor of his
nation ; and as he regarded Judaism and Christianity as divine revelations,
he in the Koran honored their founders with legends of their miracles. His
opinion respecting what he called the later corruptions of these systems, be-
came gradually more intolerant, and was aggravated with respect to the
Jews by motives of personal hatred. It became still more developed, as he
advanced beyond the idea of a national toward that of a universal religion —
an Islam, without which there was no salvation. His system of religious
ethics demanded stated seasons and forms of prayer, fastings and ablutions,
almsgiving, a pilgrimage to Mecca, an earnest contention for the faith, and a
willingness to die in its behalf. A confidence in the doctrine of an absolute
l>redestination, raised the courage of a brave pecide by inducing them joy-
fully to surrender themselves to the will of the Almighty. He prohibited
his followers the use of wine, but indemnified them by an unrestrained
allowance of sexual pleasures. The prospect of sensual enjoyments in an-
other world gave the finishing stroke to this system, and adapted it suleh' to
man's sensuous and intellectual nature. He then presented it to liis fellow-
men with all the peremptoriness of a direct revelation from heaven, and in
all the fanciful richness of the popular poetry. Few in his native city were
disposed to put confidence in his messnges, and he was even obliged to escape
the swords of his fellow-citizens by flying (July 15th, 622, Iledschra) to Me-
dina. By bold predatory exi)editions from this jdace, ho conquered a part
of Arabia, and the remaining portion was convinced by his success that ho
was indeed an apostle of God. His personal appearance was remarkably pro-
possessing; he was eloquent, enthusiastic in jdety, as well as artful in policy,
80 bold in his measures that he even resorted to assassination to etFect them,
yet ordinarily just and magnanimous enough to bo esteemed by an adoring
people as a messenger from God. In his private life he was faithful, sincere,
and temperate, though addicted to women. "When first called of God to his
work, he could neither read nor write ; his travels could nave given no great
110 ANCIKNT CIIfnCH HISTOllV. riJ:. H. I MI'KIIIAL CIiriKir. A. I). 312 900.
iiiformjitioii, nn<l most of uliat lio knew lie Lad .'irqiiired at Mcfca, to wliich
pilfrriiiiK resorted from tlio Avliole oriental world, lie jirofesscd to receive lii«
revelations, as occa.«ion called for tliein, from tlic lii)s of the angel Gabriel,
in inspired language, tliougli in the day of his prosperity they wore not witli-
ont a reniarkalilo adaptation to his desires. They were preserved sometime?
in popular tradition, and sometimes in detached manuscript fragments, until
two years after his death, when they were collected as hol}' scriptures (Al-
koran) by Ahuhrl-r. This prophet, poCt, priest and king of Arabia, died (032)
in the midst of his plans of conquest, from the effects of a slow poison given
liim to test his i>rophetic powers.
§ 100, Victories of Mam.
Oelgner, des effets de la rel. de M<il). pendant le8 trols prem. sii-cles. Par. ISIO. Mit Zds. de«
Verf. V. E. D. M. Frkf. 1810. J. J. Dölünger, Muh. Kel. nach Ihrer EntAvlck,. n. ihrem Einflnsw.
Munch. 1S3S.
To his successors the C<(li]>h<i^ Mohammed left the assurance tliat God had
given them the world to be conquered for Islam. This sj-stem had even then,
in its various sects, been developed in some splendid forms of life. The Ro-
man empire had become debased by effeminacy, and the oriental Church was
split np into factions. But a religious enthusiasm which has seized the
sword, cannot be overcome, at least by ordinary armies, and Christianity had
hitherto been far from cultivating the military virtues. The Arabians suc-
cessively conquered Egypt and Syria before 640, Persia before C51, and the
African provinces before 707. "With extreme difficulty Constantinople with-
stood the storm. The conditions on which the patriarch Sophronius had sur-
rendered Jerusalem (637), were generally complied with by the Saracens, so
far as they refen-ed to the Christian population. Christians were tolerated
in the exercise of their religion on the payment of a poll-tax. but many of
them renounced their faith, and followed the fortune of their conquerors.
Mohammed defended Jesus'from the attempts of Christians to deify him, and,
according to a prevalent tradition, Christ is at his second advent to become
the last Caliph. The efforts of the Christian apologists were confined princi-
pally to a defence of the divinity of Christ, and of the doctrine that God
could not be the author of evil. The only reply of the Mussulmeu was with
their swords.
CHAP. XL— THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE.
§ 101. Conflicts and Sources of Ecclesiastical Life.
As the various parties became developed within the Church, the latter
was necessarily urged to a more precise determination of the essential arti-
cles of its faith. The unity of the Church, which had been externally estab-
lished, operated unfavorably to an unrestrained diversity of opinions. No
sooner had the common external enemies of the Church been overcome, than
its consciousness of essential unity becatne so obscured by the rancor of indi-
vidual parties, that not onJy elements foreign to Christianity, but some of
CHAP. II. DOCTRINE. § 101. CONFLICTS, SOl'ECES. 1 1 1
the mere modes in which real Christianity was received, were rejected by tho
Church. Indeed it was for a long time uncertain which of the parties in
this contest would prove to be the Catholic Church. The passions of the
peojile and of the government were enlisted in the conflict. The nutural de-
velopment of the ecclesiasticiü si)irit was determined by mechanical majori-
ties and imperial decisions. Tlic Oriental Church endeavored to fathom tlie
mystery of tho divine, while tlie Western attempted rather to explore the
abyss of the human nature. Tho whole literature of the Church was in-
volved in these theological disputes, which became, especially in the East,
central objects in the history not merely of tlio Church, but of the empire.
Tradition and the Scriptures were as usual regarded as tlie standard of au-
thority, but Avhile individuals sought salvation only in the word of God, tlie
living voice and opinion of the Church became in practice more and more in-
fluential. Yincentius of Lirinvm (d. about 450) proposed that the tradition
which could plead in its behalf the established usage of the primitive Church
and imivers;il consent as the conditions of its proper organic progress, in op-
position to all heretical innovations and ecclesiastical rigidity, should be
regarded as the warrant and the standard of the true faith. {<t) Those por-
tions of the sacred Avritings which had been suljects of suspicion at an early
period, were still opposed by many in the time of Eusebius. (J) But the
unity of the Church rendered it indispensable that all portions should
1 e agreed respecting its sacred writings, and accordingly near the close of the
jburth century the disputed books were almost universally received. "Wo
have, however, no well authenticated law on the subject of the canon, with
the exception of a decree i)assed by an African synod, wliich seems to have
been adopted in other countries as a part of the common law of the Church.
Various translations were in use among the Latin portions of the Church ;
one of these, the Itala^ used at Rome, was, at the request of the Bishop Da-
masus, amended by Jerome^ and in connection with a version of the receiveil
text of the Old Testament, maintained its position and found acceptance in
spite of mucli opposition.
I. The Aki.vx Coxtroverst.
L 1) Itospertiiig Pome frajriiH'iit* Ol" tlie writinsä of A rinn : Fithn'cii Hllil. 2t. Tti. VIII. i>. ;<iiiK
e<p. Ep. ml Eiisob. Nicoin. (in Kpiph. liacr. CO, C. Thtodaret, H. ccc. I, 5.) Kp. ml Aloxandr. it
fra^m. from the QiKfia (in Atluin. d. Synoil. Arirji et Polciic. 0pp. Th. I. p. S>5v) rhilimiorgiuii
(§92.) Fra-.'iiifnt.i Ariatior. .iboiit .OS^. {Ang. Miji N. Coll. Rom. 1^2?. Tli III.1 S) Partakln- tlio
least of a i>artisan character: Athiina.iiuiy f'tiseliiiiit, and Sucraifi. A partisan Irratiso: Kj>ij>h.
hacT. C9. 73. 7.-)s.
II. »'.ifc/i. Hist. (]. Ketzereien, vol. H. III. Tiiira»ii, Storla critica flella vita «11 Ario. V.-n. IT^t'.
{fititrk') Vers. e. Ge.<cli. <1. Arlanlsm. Rrl. 17^:1. Möl.Ur, Äthan. «1. riros«o n. <I. Kirch.- seiner Ait.
Mainz. l-;27. 2 vols. /„ FMngf. in Illgens Z.ltsehr. 1S.'?4«. vol. IV. pt 2. vol. V. pt 1.— Wrh^i; 1!<"<||.
tutio verae chronoloe. rernm ex controv. .Vrlanis inde ab a. S.'.'i usc^ne ad n. .Vxl exortarum Krcf. l^'.'T.
— F. f?. .Brn/r, d. chr. L. V. d. nr<luini?k. n. Mensi'hw. Oottps. Ti'ih. 1<5(I. Th. I. p. .SOiVs. H. A.
Meier; L. v. d. Trin. vol. I. p. 134:13. J. A. Vomer, Enlwicklungsgescli. d. L. v. d. IVrnm Chr. In d.
o) Commonllorlr.nl i>ro calh. fldel an'i<|nilate et nnivorsifate ailv. profanas omnium haer. novl-
totes. Deiilio ed. f/<-r:ng. Vrat 1830.
?/) II. ere. III. .3. Vf, 2."): 6ao\o-yovfifv:i, i.vTi\(yöfX(i<x, vö^a.
1 12 ANCIENT CllUnClI HISTORY. VKll. II. IMI'KKI.VL CllUnCII. A. ]). 312-SOO.
ersten 4 Jiihrli. 1S1.'). I'jirf, II. [J. JT. Kneman, Tlio Arians df the 4th cent. Ixind. 1S39. 8. J. Whit-
aker, llint, of Ariivnlstn illsdo^itMl. I.,on(l. 1791. 8. IK B^rrimann, Aa hist. Accoutit uf controverslts
on the Trinity, iu 8 i<crinons. Lend. 172.').]
§102, The Synod of Nicaen. 325. Cont. from %Q0.
T. Etuteh. Vita Con.st, III, Css. The Creed : TJieodoret, I, 12. Socrat. I, 8. Respecting its com-
position : Eiifteh. Otesnr. Ep. ad Caesnrienscs. Athanan. Ep. do dccretls syn. Nie. &, Ep. ad Afros.
Oelasii Cyziceni (about 47G) "S.vvrayfxa röiv Karary^v iv'HiKaia.a.y'iau avvoQovirpaxßfVTwv.
{ilanal Th. II. p. 759ss.) [Landon, Manual of councils. Nicaoa. pp. 4.30— 3S.]
II. F. O. Iftinaencamp, Hist Arianae controv. ab initio usque ad syn. Nlcaenani. Marb. 1S45. —
Jttig. Hist. Cone. Nie. Lps. 1713. 4. — Miin-icher, ü. d. Sinn d. nie. GlanbensformeL (Ilenlces N. Mag.
vol. VI. p. 334ss.) EiMnschmidt, d. Unfcblbark. d. Cone, zu Nicäa. Neust 1830. [./ ÄVj.v«, Athana-
fius & the Council of Nice. Lond. 185.3. 8. If! A. Ifammnnd, Definitions of faith & canons of Disc
of the 6 oecumenical councils, «& code of the univer. Church, and apost canons. Lond. 1843. New
York. 18«. 12.]
The contradiction involved in the idea of a God existing at the same time
■with another, or of a God subordinate to another, was yet to be declared and
overcome. Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, maintained that the Son was
at some period created out of nothing by the divine ■will, that he "was the
first of all creatures, and the Creator of the "world, that he was endo-wed ■nith
the highest natural gifts in the highest state of development, and that he vras
not truly God, though he might be so called. Arius had been educated at
Antiocb, "was eloquent in prose and verse, a skilful logician, though not biased
by any predominant intellectual tendency, and a rigid ascetic in his habits of
life. Proceeding from the ground of the ordinary doctrine of the Church,
he attempted to find some clear idea which should at once be consistent with
Monotheism, and opposed to Sabellianism, His Bishop Alexander, produced
in opposition to his views (after 318) the other side of Origen's doctrine, ac-
cording to which the Logos was from eternity begotten from the essence of
the Father, and was consequently equal to the Father. At a synod held at
Alexandria (321), Arius was deposed and excommunicated. But the people
and many of the oriental bishops attached themselves to his party ; many
perhaps, like Eusebius of Nicomedia, not so much because they shared in his
sentiments, as because they looked upon them as harmless, and others, like
Eusebius of Caesarea, because they regarded such subjects as lying beyond
the bounds of human knowledge or of divine revelation. The emperor Co7i-
stantine, having made many fruitless efforts to induce the parties to give up
what then seemed to him a useless controversy, summoned a general assem-
bly of bishops at Nicaea, principally for the settlement of this question.
More than 250 bishops, almost exclusively from the East, came together.
Both Arius and Alexander were in a minority, since most of the bishops
dreaded in the former an exaggerated system of subordination, and in the
latter a covert Sabellianism, or an open Tritheism. But Alexander's friends,
through the influence of the court bishop, Eosius of Cordova, induced the
emperor to embrace their cause, and dictated the decision on matters of faith.
The only embarrassment which they experienced arose from the readiness
with which the Arians subscribed all their articles, until the expression as-
serting that the Son was of the same essence with the Father (tm Trarpl o^ioo'v-
o-tor) was proposed and rejected, and became henceforth the watchword of the
CHAR II. DOCTRINE. § 102. ARIANISM, XICAEA. § 103. ATI! AN ASICS. I I'd
new orthodoxy. Most of tho opposing bishops, out of reverence for the
imperial authority, or for the sake of peace, on finding that it could be inter-
preted so as to harmonize with their views, gave in their subscription to this
creed. Arius was banished to Illyria, and was accompanied by only two
Egyptian bi.shops. Three months afterward.^, EuseUus of Nicomedin^ who
had promptly subscribed not only the creed but the condemnation of Arius.
was compelled to share his fiite. The Emperor commanded that all the writ-
ings of Arius should be burned ; all who would not surrender his works were
threatened with death, and his followers were to be regarded as the enemies
of Christianity. It was for this reason that the latter were sometimes called
PorjjJiyrians.
§ 103. AtJianasius and Arius.
A controversy thus decided by the mere authority of an incompetent and
unstable sovereign was sure speedily to bo renewed. Äthananiun five months
afterwards was made Metropolitan of Alexandria, and became the leader of
the Nicaean party, which even when a deacon he had completely governed at
Nicaea. By his enemies he has been described as a tyrant ; by the emperors
he was sometimes persecuted, sometimes honored, and always feared ; and by
the Egyptians he was beloved as a friend of the people, and venerated as a
saint. During twenty of the forty-six years which ho spent in the episcopal
oflSce he Avas a fugitive for his life, or in banisliment. His life was often pre-
served through the fidelity of his friends, who Avere ready to die for him. The
great object of his life was to contend for tho divine dignity of Christ, and
in this for all that was essential to Christianity, in opposition to a new hea-
thenism, (rt) The Arians regarded themselves as the special advocates of the
divine unity, and an intelligible fwrm of thought. Conatantine finally recurred
to his earlier view of the uselessness of this controversy, and was satisfied
with a creed drawn up by Arius in the most general terms (328), At a synod
convened at Tyre (335) Athanasius was deposed and banished to Gaul. Arius
died on the very day in which he went in solemn procession from the impe-
rial palace to the church of the apostles (336), according to his enemies the
victim of a divine judgment, but according to his friends poisoned by magical
arts. (&) Euschius of Kicomedia^ after 338 Bishop of Constantinojile, again
became the leader of the party which had been the true majority at Nicaoa, .
and taught that the Logos was from eternity begotten of the substance of tho
Father, and was similar in nature (o/xoioi^o-toy) but subordinate to the Father.
This party, then called the Eusehian, and at a later period tho Scminrian^
embraced those who had been known as Arians, and had the complete ascend-
ency in the East, (c) but tho West had been pained over by the personal
energy and [)rcsenco of Athanasius. An attempt was made to reconcile both
portions of the imperial Church at a synod convened at Sardica (847), but so
a) Collections for a biography of Athanasius may be found in tho cillt. of his works by JA>»i(/5i«-
ton, and in TUlenumt, Th. VHI. Mdhler (bef. § 102.)
I) Socnit. I, 33. Sosom. I, 29s. Honorable & trnc; Athanan. Kp. ml Scrap. (0pp. Th. I. p. 670s8.)
Ad Episcc. A eg. et Lib. § 19.
c) Esp. at the Synods of Antloch, 341, and Ancyra, 35S. Äthan, de synuJis § 22ss. SocniU II
lOss. Epiph. bacr. 7-3.
8
114 ANCIKNT ClIUltrH llISTonV. VVM. II. IMrEIlIAL ClimCIf. A. T>. r?i:i-SOO.
unsuccessful was it that tlic two iiartics came to a complete rupture with each
other, and the oriental lield distinct sessions in the neigliborinfifcity of 7V(j%v-
popolü. Constantivs was compelled to restore Athanasius to the see of Alex-
andria by a throat of war from Lis brother, but as soon as he became the
solo ruler of the empire (353) he had tho cathedral of Alexandria taken by
storm, and endeavored also to eradicate tho Nicaean faith from the Western
portions of the Church. The occidental churches were compelled to condemn
Athanasius and accept of a Semiarian creed at synods held at Arelate (353),
at Mediolanum (355), and at Äri7ninum (359). After these triumphs a
schism in the dominant party became developed subsequently to the second
synod of Sirmium (357), in the contentions between the Eusebians and the
decided Arians. Among the leaders whose names they bore, Acacius, Bishop
of Caesarea endeavored at first to conceal this schism, by refusing to ac-
knowledge any of the controverted articles, on the ground that they were
unscriptural, (d) but Aethts and Funomius, in accordance with the assertion
that the divine nature could be as easily understood as the human, carried
out the views of Arius with greater acuteness and logical consistency, and
denied that Christ possessed any divine nature (apofioios, 'Avofioioi). (e) After
the death of Constantius (361) the Athanasian party attained once more its
natural strength in the "West. In the East Valens (364-78) was so furious
against it that he spared not even the Semiarians. The result w%as that the
latter adopted views much nearer those of the Athanasian party (after 366.)
The struggles of these various parties were maintained quite as much by the
weapons of court intrigue and insurrection as by proofs derived from the
Scriptures, from tradition, and from logic. Synods were arrayed against
synods, and force was opposed to force. Athanasius, whose last years had
been spent in peace among his own people, died about 873, while the conflict
was yet unabated.
§ 104. Minor Controversies.
1. MarceJhis, Bishop of Ancyr'a, and a leader of the ^N'icaean party, repre-
■sented the Logos as the eternal Avisdora of God, Avhich became the only begotten
Son of God first at the Incarnation, and after the day of judgment will once
more become one with the Deity. Pliotinvs, Bishop of Sirmium, regarded the
man Jesus as the Son of God, only as far as he was ordained to bring the di-
vine kingdom to its complete realization, and as he was filled by the Spirit
and was a power of God. The deposition of Marcellus (336) was regarded
in the West as a martyrdom for the Athanasian cause. The doctrine of Pho-
tinus was condemned by the Eusebians at Antioch (after 345), and he was
himself deposed at Sirmium (about 351), but even the Athanasian party
liastened to relieve themselves of the reproach of his opinions by a rejection
of them at the Synod of Mediolanum (347). («)
d) Philostorg. lY, 12. Soorat II, 40. Sosom. IV, 22.
«) Philostorg. Ill, 15-lT. Epiph. haer. "iG.—P/iilonforg. TI, 1-4. VaUsius J»d Socrat. V, 10
Fabricii Bibl. gr. Th. VIII. p. 2G2ss.— C. P. TI'. Klose, Gesch. u. Lehre des Eunom. Kiel. lS.9e.
a) Fraguients, esp. wepl vworayri^. M.ircelli.ina ed. IT. G. Rettberg, Goett. 1794. Against lilm
Euseh. Ciies. kxto, MapKfWov and Trspl ttjx iKKXTiffiaffriKrj? äeo\. (both sfter Eitneb. Do
CHAP IL DÖCTPJXE. § lu4 MACKDONIANS. § 105. 1st. SYN. OF COKSTTLE. 115
2. Tlie doctrine of tlie Holy Spirit from its very nature necessarily par-
ticipated in the fortune of that of tlie Logo?, but as no ecclesiastical party
was formed with the special object of de^'elojiing it, it remained in an indefi-
nite state. "When the Eusebians clianged their ground, but retained the Se-
miarian doctrine respecting the Spirit, Athanasius perceived the necessity of
maintaining his equality with the Son, and gave to those who opposed his views
the a])peUation of (after 3G2) fighters against the Holy Ghost (jrufvuaTOfxaxoi) ;
but when Macedonius of Constautiriople became a leader of the Semiarians,
they were called Macedonians. The views of the Church however still re-
mained unsettled, and many learned men looked upon the Spirit as an opera-
tion of God, others as a creature, others as God, Avhile others still from defe-
rence for the Scriptures, formed no conclusion on the subject, (h)
. 3. The more distinctly the divine nature of Christ Avas recognized, the
less were men willing to regard the humanity in connection with it as pro-
perly represented by a sensuous nature. Wlien therefore ApoUinaris, Bishop
of Laodicea, a philosopher who had been classically educated, and was
then a friend of Athanasius, distinctly proposed (after 3G2) the opinion which
had extensively prevailed in the primitive Church, but which was then prin-
cipally favored by the Arians, that the Logos connected himself only with a
human body and an animal soul, with which he sustained the same relation
as was ordinarily borne by the human spirit (vovi), he met with opp ^sition in
many ways, (c)
§ 105. The Synod of Constantinople and the Holy Trinity.
The Emperor Theodosius /., who had been educated in the Nicaean creed,
during his protracted and powerful reign triumphantly accomplislied what
had long been the consistent eifort of the Church. He first proclaimed that
none but those who received the Nicaean creed should bear the name of
Catholic Christians, and denounced their opponents as deluded and ba.se here-
tics, who must ultimately endure the divine as they would speedily tlie im-
perial indignation, (rs) But when he entered Constantinople (380) he found
Gregory of Nazlamen^i the bishop of tiie Nicaean party, preaching in a con-
venticle belonging to the suburbs of the city. This bishop he brought at the
head of Ids legions into the Church of the Apostles, and drove tlic Arians out
of all the churches of the East. To legalize these violent proceedings a coun-
cil Avas called together sA Constantinople (381.) (J) This second general synod
monst. ov. Par. 1628. f.) Cyrilli ITieroa. Cat. XV, 27-83. For liirn : Äthan. Apol. c. Ariaii. § 21-35.
About him : Epipli. haer. 72 — Äthan, de synodis, § 26s. Socrai. II, 19. I/ieron. cntal c. 107. — Klose,
Gesch. u. Lehre d. Marc. u. Phot. Hainb. 1S'!7.
h) Basil, Ep. 113. Äthan. : ad Pallad. (Tli. I. p. 9.52.) ad Pcrapion. (Th. I. p. ICCss ) Ejiiph. jiaer.
74. Gregor. Nag. (3S0) Orat 87. Comp. UUmann, Greg. p. 378ss.
c) p-riigiiicnts of ApoUinaris in : Gregor. Ni/m. ; Theodoret^ liner, fabb. IV, S. A. Leontiun Bi/zant.
«dv.fraudesApollonarigtaruinl.il. (Gallandii Bib). Tli. XII, p. 70öss.) PrinclpHl work in opposi-
tion: Gregor. Kyss. Ad-yos a.i'Tipl>i}TiKhi TTfibs ra 'AiroWiyapiov. {Gallandii Bibl. Tli.
VI. p. 517ss.)
(() L. 2. Cod. IVieod. de fide oath. (XVI, 1.)
?/) J/rt«.siTh. III. p. 52Iss. liußn. II, 2). Socrat. V, 6*s. Tlieodoret. V, 'is.— 1'ümann, Gregor
V. Naz. p. ir;4.«s. ÄM/X-«i, Theod. p. 142s8.
I IG ANCIKNT CIIUKCII IIISTOI'.Y. VVAl. II. IMI'KIilAL CHURCH. A. D. 312-80a
haviiif^ been diniinislied by the witlidruwal of the Macedonians, consisted of
150 bisliops chosen under the arbitrary dictation of tlie emperor. The Ni-
caean creed was revised and clothed in sucli terms as had become established
during Uio more recent controversies, and in this new form was confirmed by
them. The Ennominns, Macedonians and Apollinarians were condemned sis
heretics, (c) The Arians were tolerated in the "West under Valentinian II.,
until TJieodosius obtained their suppression as the price of his a-s-istanco
against tlic usurper Maximus (388). With the fifth century they completely
disappeared in all parts of the Roman empire. The synodal edicts of the vic-
torious party declared that the Son and Spirit were co-equal with the Father
in the divine Unity. In the theological discussions held from the time of
Athanasius to that of Augustine, the views of all parties were gradually so
accommodated and carried out, that the contents of the apostolic creed were
exalted to the speculative idea of the Trinity consisting of three divine per-
sons in the unity of the divine nature. In this form the doctrine was pro-
claimed as a theological mystery. The article which declared that the Spirit
proceeded also from the Son (filioque), was generally adopted in the Western
Church, and at a synod of Toledo (589) it was incorporated in the confession
of faith. It was not very difierent from what had been vaguely taught by
the Greek ecclesiastical writers of the fourth century, but it did not awaken
attention and opposition among the Greek churches as an interpolation in the
Nicaean creed, until some time in the eighth century, (d) In the creed bear-
ing the name of Athanasius, which has generally been received in the West
since the seventh century, and has evident marks of the character of the Latin
Church of the fifth century, the doctrine of the Trinity is expressly set forth,
and its reception is made a condition of salvation, (e)
§ 106. Ecclesiastical Literature.
With the exception of the cloister and the desert the most celebrated
school for the education of the teachers of the Church was at Athens. («)
A few of these might have taken a high rank among sophists and rhetoricians,
but in consequence of the serious character of Christianity they became ec-
clesiastical fathers. They regarded their classical attainments generally with
mingled sentiments. The twilight of ancient poesy even then cast a lingering
radiance over the Church. When Julian excluded all Christians from the
schools of ancient literature, the two Apollinarii hastened to resolve the con-
tents of the Scriptures into a series of epics, tragedies, and Platonic dia-
logues, (b) Prudentius (d. about 405) in the evening of his political life,
that he might do something for eternity, wrote some songs adapted to his
times and to the conflicts and triumphs of the Church, but exhibiting less
c) Suiceri Symb. Nicaeno-Const expositum. Traj. ad Kh. 1718. 4
d) Augmtin. de Trin. IV, 20. Cone. Tolet. symb. & can. 2. {MimiTh. IX. p. OSl.) Euaeh.
de ecc. Theol. Ill, 4. Epiph. Ancor. ^ 9. (Th. II. p. U.y-J. G. Walc\ Hist, eontrov. de proces-^n Sp
8. Jen. 1751. Ziegler, Geschichtsentw. v. dogma v. 11. G. (Theol. Abb. GOtt. 1791. vol. L p. 20-lss.)
e) WaUrland, Crit. Hist of the Äthan, creed. Cimb. (1724.) 1723.
a) Archly, f. Gesch. by Schlosser 4- Bercht, 1833. toI. I. p. 217s3.
b) Socrat III. 16. Sozom. V, 13. probably thence X/jkttos iraffxa.!'.
CHAP. IL DOCTEIKH. §106. SCHOOLS OF ALEXANDRIA & ANTIOCH. 1 17
poetical than rhetorical character, (c) Two schools, situate«! the one at Alex-
andria and tlie other at Antioch, were especially remarkable for the ditlorent
manner in which they treated the Scriptures. la the former prevailed an al-
legorical system of interpretation and a bold spirit of speculation, both of
which had been exemplitied in Origen, though his peculiarities were in some
instances exchanged for what was common in the Church, and in others were
abandoned. In the latter, tlie simple signification of the words was more par-
ticularly investigated, tlie circumstances of the original writers and speakers
were better appreciated, the divine was more carefully distinguished from
the human, and a merely formal use was made of philosophy, and this more
after the method of Aristotle, (d) I. From the Alexandrian school proceeded
those who represented the theology of their century : Athanasiiis^ a didactic
rather than an exegetical writer, who ingeniously and enthusiastically reduced
all Christianity to the simple doctrine of the divinity of Christ ; (< ) and the
three Cappadocians, Gregory of Xyssa (d. about 394), who, next to Origen,
was most distinguished for his scientific profundity and originality, (/) his
brother, Basil the Great, Metropolitan of Caesarea (d. 379), equally zealous
for science and monasticism, but more remarkable for his talents in the ad-
ministration of ecclesiastical atl'airs, (g) and the abused friend of his youth,
Gregory of Xazianzen (6 '^(okoyo^, d. 390), by inclination and fortune so tossed
between the tranquillity of a contemplative life and the storms of ecclesia.-;ti-
cal government, that he had no satisfaction in either, neither a profound
thinker nor a poet, but according to the aspirations of his youth an orator,
frequently pompous and dry, but laboring as powerfully for the triumph of
orthodoxy as for genuine practical Christianity. (/() Next to these wore En-
sebh(s of Caesarea (d. 340), whose simjjle but not artless stylo was like that
of one whose knowledge was abundant, who was fond of peace, and disin-
c) 0pp. e<L ITeinsius. Amstel. 16i37. 12. CellariM, Ilal. nOS.—.Viddeldorpf, do Pruil. ct Thco-
logia Prud. ISiSss. 2 P. (Illgcns Zeitscbr. 1S32. vol. II. part 2. Abli. 5.) For other references seo
I/age's Lfben Jesu. p. 33.
d) Munter, d. Antioch. Schule. (Stäudlins u. Tzschirners Arch. vol. I. P. 1.)
e) His writings were occasioned by his circumstances. They were partly controversial in behaJf
of Christisnit_v, the Nieene faith and himself personally, and partly devotional for the promotion of
monasticism. 0pp. ed. J?, de Montßmcon,Va,T. ICSOss. 3 Tb. f. Giiistinitini, P»«nv. et Ljvs. 17TT.
4 Th. f. [His select treatises against the Arians in two vols, and his IIistoric.il Tracts In one vol. have
been pubL in the "Lib. of the Fathers anterior to the division of the East & WosL" transl. by im-m-
b^i-s of the Engl. Church. Oxon. 1S30. — His orations were transl. by Parker. LoniL 1713. S]
/) Ao-yos KaTrixT)TtKhs A fxeya^. Polemical writings ajjainstEunondus & .\pollinnrl», Iloinlllo«
& Ascetic tracts. 0pp. ed. J/or^/iiK«, Par. 1015. 2 Th. Append, add. <?/•«■/««•>•, P«r. lOlS. ncnwllc-
tine ed. (Par. 17Sl>. Th. I.) interrupted by the Hevolutlon. Jjitcly found and relating to tho Arians ifc
Maccd. inyl. Maji Pcrr. vett. Coll. Rom. 1S84. Th. VIII.— X P. lle>jn», do Gr. Xyss. Lug«!. B.
1S3Ö. 4. J. liiipp. Greg. v. N. Leben u. Meinungen. Lps. l^U.
17) Asainst Eunnmius, on the Holy Spirit, Homilies .fe Letter'^. 0pp. ed. Pronto Diienttn, Par.
K.IS. 2 Th. f. Garnier, Par. 1721ss. rep. /.. de Si'nnfr. Par. KJOs. 3 Tii.-J. K. Ffixxtr, do vita n.-us.
Groning. 1S2S. AVosv, Pas. d. 0. Strals. 18% A.-Tuhnius, Has. M plotlnirans. Hem. 1S;?S 4. Ani-
m.advv. In Ba.s. opp. Bern. 1342. Fasc. I. [On Solitude, transl. by litirksdoU. Lond. 1 075. 8. A Sei.
Pas^^ages from Basil. Lond. ISIO. 8.]
h) Apolosnes for his offlc al errors, Eccle."». discourses of all kinds EpLstle^ Poems Opp. cd. More'-
Uii-% Par. 1G30. 2 Th. f. Cleiiiencet, Par. 1773. Th. I. 0>i!ll,iu. Par. ISIO. 2 Th. C [Ills Panegyric on
Maccabees is transl. by Collier. Lond. 1710. '^.]—nim(inn, Greg. v. Xaz. Dnrmst. 1?25 [Trans!. Into
Engl, by O. F. Cox, Lond. 1851.]
1 18 ANCiKNT ciu;k(;ii iii.sTOiiV. TKi:. n. iMi'i;i:iAL ciiuiicii. a. i>. 312-800.
clincd to the new lurnmliio of oiiliodoxy, (/) and the blind l)l<hjinv.n (d. 395)
in spirit and in fact the last faithful follower of Origen. (Z) In the Latin
Church were : Uilarim^ Bishop of Poictiers (Pictavium, d. 3G8), in his ac-
tions, suübrinfifs and writings, the Athanasius of the "West ; {I) Amhrosius.
Arclibishop of Milan (.'!74-'.)7), a zealous praefect even in the Church, fot
■whoso freedom and orthodoxy he contended, fearing tlic Lord of all more
than the sovereign of this "world, and more influential by his simplifying imi-
tations of Greek models than by any thing original in his -works. (///) IL Lu-
ciamts, a presbyter of Antioch, whose Scriptural learning acquired additional
honor by his death (311), is generally regarded as the founder of the Antioch-
ian school. Busebius, Bishop of Emisa (d. 300), whose classical ültainments
and eloquence were acknowledged even by his opponents, was a Semiarian
only so far as he defended the indefinite terms of the primitive creed as more
scriptural in doctrine than the later speculations, (n) Cyrillus, with various
changes of fortune (350-86), was Bishop of Jerusalem and a Eusebian, but he
obtained the honor of canonization in consequence of his acknowledgment of
the Nicaean creed, though he never used it in his popular instructions, (o)
JSphrem (d. at Edessa about 378) became the principal instructor of the Sy-
rian Church (propheta Syrorum), by transplanting into it the Greek learn-
ing. (^>) Diodoriis^ Bishop of Tarsus (378 — about 9-i), and llieodorus^ Bishop
of Mopsuestia (893-428), both of whom had been at an earlier period pres-
byters at Antioch, developed the peculiarities of their school in the most de-
narToScTTT) IcrTopla, Chronicoa ed. Morus. Amst. 1653. f. completed from the Armenian ; ed.
hyAucher, Ven. ISIS. 2 Th. 4. in Greek & Lat. ed. A. Majus. (Scrr. veterum. Col. Th. VIII.) Upoira-
paffKev)] evayye\iKri, 1. XV, ed. Vigerws, Par. 1628. f. Ucinichen, Lps. 1S423. 2 Th. Gah/ord,
Oxon. 1S43. 4 vols. 'Airö5ei|is 6^077. 1. XX. (I.-X.) c. n. Montacutii, Tar. 162S. f. (The parts de-
fective in the 1st & 10th B. are completed in Fabricii Delectus arg. et syllabus scriptt.) Comment
on the Psalms & Isaiah. Comp. Fahricil Bibl. Gr. Th. YII. p. oOöss. J. Hitter, Eus. de divinitate C.
placita. Bon. 1823.
X-) L. de Spiritu S. in the transl. of Jerome. (0pp. Th. IV. P. I.) L. adv. Manichaeos. {Combeßsii
Auctiiar. gr. PP. Th. II.) L. III. de Trinitato. (ed. MingarelU, Bonon. 1769. f) E.^positio VII. canon:-
carnm Epp. ; the transl. of which was procured by Cassiodorus through Fpifihayiius Scholast. and
the orig. test of which Lücke has partially restored by means of Matthaei's Scholi.ie : Quaestiones ac
vindiciae Didymianae. Gott. 1829-82. 4 P. comp. Com. ü. Br. d. Job. p. 299ss. P. v. Cvlln, Did. in
Ersch. u. Grub. Enc. vol. XXIV.
l) De Trinitate 1. XII. L. ad Constantinara. De synodis adv. Arianos. De synodis Ariminensi et
Seleucensi. Comment, on Psalms & Matth. 0pp. ed. Benedictt. (Constant) Par. 1693. Maßet, Veron.
1730. 2 Th. f. Oherthin; Wire. 1735ss. 4 Th. A. 3f,iji Scrr. veterum Col. Th. VI.
m) Hexaemcron. De officiis 1. III. De fide 1. V. De S. Spirttu 1. Ill, 92. Epistles. 0pp. ed. Bene-
dictt. Par. 16S6-90. 2 Th. t Gilbert, Lps. 18393. 2 V.—F. Bohringer, die K. u. ihre Zeugen o. KGesch.
in Biographien. Zur. 1S45. vol. I. pt 8. [Ambroses Christian Offices have been transl. by Humphreys,
Loud. 1637. 4.]
n) Hieran, catal. c. 91. comp. 119. Soorat. II, 9. Sozcm. Ill, G.—Eiiseh. Opusca (3 Discourses
& excget & dogra. fragments) ed. Augu^ti, Elberf. 1829. Evidence that the Discourses belong to a
certain Euseb. of Alex, of the 4th or 6th cent. & information T3specting the genuine writings: 77ülo.
Ü. d. Schrr. d. Eus. v. Alex. u. des Eus. v. Em. Hal. 18;52.
o) Catechoses (about 347.) 0pp. rec. Toiitlee, Par. 1720. Yen. 176.3s.— (7ö«n, Cyr. in Ersch. u. Gru-
bers Encykl. vol. XXII. p. 14Sss. J. J. van VoUenlioven, de Cyr. Hier, catechesib. Amst. 1837. [St
Cyril 's Lectures, 3 cd. in Lib. of the Fathers. See note #.]
p) Comment on tlio O. T., Devotional treatises. Homilies, Hymns. 0pp. ed. J. S. Asseman. Eom
1732SS. 6 Th. f. Auscrw. Sclirr. ncbers. v. P. ZingerU, Insbr. IS-SOss. 5 vols.— C a Lengerke : d«
Ephraomo Sc. S. interprete. Hal. 1823. 4. De Ephr. arte hermeueutica. Regiom. 1S31. [•/ Aiiüeuen
Lib. d. Eph. Syr. Lps. 1853. S.]
CHAP. II. DOCTitlNE. § IOC. THEODORE OF MOPS. § lOT. STXES. EPIPII. 1 19
cided form. The first was destitute of classical education, and the last inter-
preted the Old Testament "without an acquaintance with the Hebrew ; but by
his bold separation of the human element in the writings of inspired men,
in opposition to the common views of the Church, he incurred the suspicifm
and finally the condemnation of the Greek Church, though in the more re-
mote East he has always been honored as the Interpreter, (y) Arius was a
pupil of Lucianus, and indeed most of the Eusebians were educated in the
Antiochian school. But as even this school could not have si)rung up with-
out the influence of Origen, to whom the Arians no less than the Athanasians
appealed, the opposition of the two schools was princii)ally of a scientific
cliaracter, and produced no suspicion in the Church until the close of the
fourth century. It was a conflict between the allegorical and the historical
method of interpi-etation, between ecclesiastica} '3hilosor)hy and ecclesiastical
biblical theology.
II. The Op.igexistic Coxtrcverst.
§ 107. Synesim^ E2)iphanius and Hieronymus.
Those doctrines which had been left undetermined by the Apostles' Creed
and the various ecclesiastical controversies, Avere freely agitated in many ways
as late as the close of the fourth century, (a) Syneshts, a faithful discii»le of
Ilypatia, was made Bishop of Ptoleniais (410-31), notwithstanding the reluc-
tance with which he resigned the leisure of a private life, and his open avowal
that his philosophical opinions were inconsistent with the popular ftiith. (^o
In consequence, however, of the exclusive respect then paid to ecclesiastical
orthodoxy and an ascetic life, a strong party was gradually formed in oppo-
sition to Origen, or rather to the free theological investigation occasioned by
the cultivation of Grecian learning. At the head of this party stood Epiplia-
nius of Palestine, the perfect model of a monkish saint. In the year 3(37 he
was made Bishop of Constantia in the island of Cyprus, where he died in
403. (c) In a not altogether pure narrative of events which he professes to have
taken place in Ids day, and in his work against the heretics, he has brought a
confused mass of historical knowledge into the service of a passit)nate but
pious zeal, (d) Having in these works placed Origen in the list of heretic.««, (e)
he demanded of the leaders of the Alexandrian school in Palestine, John,
g) Hinron. catal c. 119. Socrat VI, 8. A cntilogueof flie writings of DIotlonis (prlnclnally lost
as yet): Astemnni Bibt orient Th. III. P. I. p. 29.— A. Mnjo: N. Coll. Rom. 1332. vol. VI. p. 1».
Spicil. Iloiiian. Ilotn. ISIO. Th. IV. p. 490s.s. Thcoilorl quae snpersunt omnia eil. A. F. » Wegneni,
Til. I. Oomnitr. In proplictas VII. Ber. 1S">4.— /'. L. Sifffit. Tliood. Mops. VeterlsT. ixibrl.' Interiire-
tandi viiidex. P.cgiom. 1S-2T. 0. Fridol. Fritzsche, (l»»Jh. M. vita ct scrlptis. llnl. IS*-.
«) Comp. Hii^run. prooem, in 1. XVI II. in Ksniam
V) 0pp. cd. /'«■Mr/iM, Par.(lC12)]CI0. f. C. r/ii/o, Commtr. In Pyn. liymnum II. v. 1-2». Hal
1S42. 4. [Select Poems of Syn. transl. by IT. Ä linjil. I^)nd. 1S14. i\—Aem. Th. Ctdimcn, de Syn.
PliUosoplio. Libyao pentnp. Mctropolita. Ilavn. 1S31.
<■) f-pij>h. liacr 51, 80.
d) Tlavdpiov, adv. liaercscs, prefixed to the 'AyKvpurSi, do lido sermo. 0pp. ed. Petavliis. Pai
1822. 2 Th. f. Comp, l/leron. catal. c. 114. Socrai. VI, 10. 12. Sozom. VI, 32. VII. 27. VIII, 14s.
e) llaer. 44. Of a similar character: C. II. E. LominaUich, de originc et progrcssu haeroJis Orl
geiiianae. L]is. 1S4C. P. I. 4.
120 ANCIKNT CIIfKCll IIISToltV. VIA:. IF. IMI'KKIAL CIIL'IiCH. A. I). SI2 SOO.
Bisljop of Jerusalem, Hieron\ miip, mid Kufliiiis, tliat they should Biistain hi»
opinion f.'J'Ji). Ifieronymi/s (Joroinc) of Stridon (about 331-420), after many
conflicts in tlio world and in the desert, i)resided over a coinitany of hermit«
and pious Uomaii ladies at Bethlehem. In a dream he was once permitted
to choose whether ho would become a Ciceronian or a Christian. He then
abjured all worldly literature, though be never seems to have taken the vow
in a very rijrid sense. His spirit Avas active, his knowledfro extensive, his
policy worldly, and his enthusiasm intense for all that was then esteemed for
sanctity. Though destitute of profound tliouglit or feolintr, he was the means
of introducing Greek-ecclesiastical and Hebrew learning into the "Western
portion of the Church. In his exposition of the Scriptures, the Alexandrian
tendency was predominant, but the Antiochian interpreters were consulted,
and all kinds of sentiments are rapidly and cautiously, learnedly and conve-
niently thrown together. (/) At one time Origen was extolled above all
human authors, and the suspicions which many entertained respecting him
Avere imputed to a malignant jealousy of liis reputation, (g) but it was charac-
teristic of a nature like that of Ilieronynius, afterwards to abandon him.
This produced a rupture between Ilieronymus and Eufinus, in consequence
of which their characters are utterly blackened in each other's writings, (h)
Hvßnits withdrew to Aquileia (d. 410), where he endeavored to spread the
fame of Origen in the West by translations from his Avorks, and to save these
from imputations of heresy by alterations of them, (i)
§ 108. Chrijsostom.
I. Opp. ed. B. de ifontfaitcon ; Par. 1718-38. 13 Tli. f. rep. Par. 1S34-39. 13 Th. 4. Comp. Fahridi
ßibl. Th. VIII. p. 454SS. [Most of the Homilies on the N. T. arc transl. i- publ. in the Lib. of the
Fafliers, see § IOC, note e. His treatise on Compunction is transl. & publ. by Veveer. Lond. 1723. 8.
and that on the Priesthood, by Bunce, Lond. 1759. S.] — PMadii Episc, Ilclcnopolit. Dial, de vita
Jo. Chrys. ed. Bigot, Par. 16S0. 4. and in Montfuucon, Th. XIII. Socrat. VI, 3-18. Sozom. VIII,
7-20. AVritings of Ilieron. & Theophil. in Hier. Opp. Vallarsi, Th. L Ep. SGss.
II. Stilting, de S. Chrys. (Acta Sanct, Sept. Tli. IV. p. 401ss.) A. Xeamler, d. h. Joh. Chrj-s. n.
d. Kirche bes. des Orientes in dessen Zeita. BrI. (lS'21s.) lS32ss. 2 vols. [Joh. Chrys. ik the Oriental
Church in his times, from the Germ, of Neander, by Stnpleton, Lond. 1S33. 8.] Buhringer, d. K. n.
ihre Zeugen, vol. L Abth. 3. [Art. in Kitto's Journal of Bibl. Lit vol. I.]
Most of the Egyptian monks in their controversies with the followers of
Origen residing among them, described God as a pure spirit, and could form
no conception of Ilim Avho made man after his OAvn image except in a hu-
f) Commentaries, Literary history, Chronology, nistories of saints, Satires, Epistles, &c Opp. ed.
Erasmus, Bas. 1516ss. 9 Th. f & oft. Jfirtimiai/, Par. lC9.3ss. 5 Th. f. Valhirgi. A'er. 1734si 11 Th.
4. A'en. 17C6ss. 11 Th. 4. [Sei. Epp. of Jerome, transl. into Engl. Lond. 1630. 4. Epistle to Xepotian
transl. Lond. 1715. 8.]— For him. M(irtiana^\a\i(^<\e S. Jerome. Par. 170G. 4 Slilting, de S. Hier.
(ActaSanct Sept Th. VIIL p. 41Sss.) Against him : Clericus, Qnaestt lliernnymianae. Anist 1700.
Of him: jPficreZsio/u, Hieron. Ilavn. 1797. D. v. CtiW», Hier, in Ersch. n. Grub. Encykl. Sect II.
vol. VIII.
g) Ilieron. Opp. vol. IV. Th. II. p. 6S. 480.— Ep. 57. ad Theopli.
/i) Ilieron. Epp. 8S-41. liufin. Praef. a'd Orig. dc princ. & Apol. S. Invectivarum in Hier. 1. U
nieron. Apol. adv. Ruf. I. II. & (a rejoinder to Itufin's lost answer) Kesponsio s. Apol. 1. III.
i) Ti/runnii liiißni Oii[>. eA. VaUdrsi.XeT. 1745. f. Th. I.— JAn*. de /?«'>«/•<, Monumenta Ecc
Aqnilejonsis. Argent 1740. f. p. SOss. & de Hujino. Ven. 1754. 4. J. ff. JTarzuUini, de Turannii Kuf
Ode et rel. Patr. ISJS. Ciicciari it Kimmtl. (% 92. n<i;e b.)
CHAP. II. DOCTKINK. § lOS. TUEOPIIILÜS. CHRYSOSTOM. 121
man form (:intliropomorphites). 77i€Op7iilug, the crafty and violent Bishop
of Alexandria (385— il2), who had hoon an admirer of Origen, suddenly
became convinced that he wa.s a heretic in consequence of some oflenccd
received from the followers of that teacher, and some threats from the An-
tbropomorphites, who.se fanaticism he wished to render subservient to his
purposes. He passed sentence of condemnation upon the memory of Origen
(399), and was sustained in his decision by the Roman Church, (a) Those of
the monks who favored Origen were much abused by him, but found a pro-
tector in John, Bishop of Const^aiitinoiile, ealle>.l in subsequent ages Chn/sox-
tom. Contrary to the wishes of Thcophilu.s, as well as his own, he was taken
from Antioch, and (after 398) presided over the church at Constantinople.
Theophilus was summoned by the Emperor to the capital, where, after be-
coming thoroughly acquainted with the state of aflairs, he contrived to ob-
tain the po.sition of judge instead of defendant. C'kri/sostom, with sincere
Christian earnestnea*, had carried out the intelligent metliod of Scriptural
interpretation pursued in the school of Antiocli, and tlio rhetorical i)rinciples
of Libanius, and had exemplified in his own life, as far as was possible for
any man, the ideal of the priesthood, which in his youtliful fervor he had de-
scribed, (i) llis habits were strictly monastic, ho was poor with respect to
himself, but rich in his benefactions to the poor, and mild in disposition, but
terribly eloquent in opposition to all courtly extravagances. I3y the Empress
Eudoxia and her dependants such a man was soon doomed to destruction.
At the synod of The Oah (403), after many confused and absurd accusations,
Theophilus pronounced against him a sentence of deposition and bani.sh-
ment. The lamentations and threats of the people were powerful enongh to
effect his speedy recall, but the Empress, like a modern Ilerodias, finally suc-
ceeded in having him banished to Pontus. (40-i) Innocent I. pleaded his in-
nocence in vain, (c) Praising God for all tliat had taken place, he died in
extreme distress (Sept. 14, 407). The body of the saint was brought back t<>
Constantinople (438) in a triumphal procession, {d) The goodness of Cliry-
so.stom was highly honored by an age which forgot and misunderstood the
splendid talents of Origen.
III. The Pelagian' Coxtroveksy.
I. 1) The polemical wrilincs of Aii'jn^tiuf : Opp. Th. X. c.M. Bcnollctt Ilitron. Kpp. -W. .-ul
Ctesli)hontein. Dlall. adv. I'dagianos 1. III. (Tli. IV. P. II.) Orosii Ai«)lo;:ftl«-iis contra. IVl. Ac-
count of the controversy in I'ale.'tino. ^\'^. ("pp. c<l. Havcrkamp, Ltisi). IT.IS. 4.) Mitriu» Mfrcator,
Comnionitoria. 420, 4:M. (Opp. ed. TinUu:. Par. 1CS4.) 2) Frasinrnt-s of PdngiuK k CirUitliin may
be found in these polfiiiioal writings »id 8omo tn^atlso» of IVladu^ have liven prcsorvo«! hocnii*«
tlii'y wore mistaken for works of Ilieronymus. Doforo tlie controver:«y : Kxi>«»ltt. In Vf>[K Paiiltnai
(Ilicr. Ojip. Th. V. p. 9259s.) In the time of the controversy: Kp. nd Demotrliulom (<<il. Semler, II«!.
1775.) &, Libel), ndci ad Innoc. I. (Hier. Opp. Th. V. p. 12.'!W.) Fracment« of the iM>lem. troatlvs of
Jittiaiiiin of E.-lanum in Au^-ustlnc Sc Mercatur. 8) Ori^nal docuincnts in August. Opp. Th. X.
3/ansi Th. IV.
II. G. J. VoSHti H. de contruversii«, qiias Pel. (^nwjue rollqiilao movorunt Lnpl. 1GIS. 4. nuct. ed.
a) J/iiHsiTh. III. p. 970SS.
h) Ufpl Itp-jKTvfrji 1. YI. cd. J. A. Ji^ngtl, Stiittg. 1725. /-<v), Ixdris. IS-'M. [traii-1. Ir.'.u Y.nA by
Bunce, Lond. 17.W. S.] Uebers. v. Ha«clb.ieh. Stral.«i. 1^20. v. Ritter. Hrl. 1^21.
c) .Vanü Til. III. p. lOOÖss. rf) S»ci;tt. Vit. 44. XUej.h. XIV, 43.
122 ANilKNT ClirUCII IIISTOUV. I'Ki;, II. IMIM.niAL CIIUKCII. A. V. 3I2-WO.
G. Vosn. Aiiist. 1C:.5. 4. XortKii H. IVl.-igiaim. I'at. Km«, f. (Opp. Veron. 1729. Th. I..) Cnrnerii Y><*
VII. quibu» Intoyra coiitliietiir l*cln(,'liin(>r. lllst. (In his edit, of Mercator. I'ar. 1G73. Th. I.) G. F
Wiggeis, pragrii. Darstell, des Aiipiistliii.-iniis u. relauianisin. I5rl. l^■21. vol. I. Ilanib. ISy'i. vol. IL
[An Hist rroscntatlDH of Ausiistinlsm & Vv\. from tlie Gonn. of O. V. 'Wl^'^.'ers by G. B. Kimrton.
\nilovor. 1S40. 6. Art. in Cliiisf. Spcct. on Karly II. of Thcol. vol. IV. p. Ü'Jlss. lor the year 1832.
Princeton Thcol. Rssays. vol. I. p. fenss. An aide Hist, of Au^'ustinlsm has been written in French
in Taris, by ^f. Ponjalo'.] J. G. Voi(/l, de thcoria Aufrustiniana, Scmipcl. ct Syncrj,nst, GoetL 1S20.
T.i-nt-.en, dc rd.igianor. doctr. principiis. Colon. 1S33. J. L. Jaeobl, d. Lehro d. Pelagiu.s. Lpz. 1S4.3.
§ 109. Pclagianisyn and Augustiimm.
The Irecdoin of man is identical with liis dependence upon God, but when
we reflect upon the subject both tliese relations appear vei-y different. In
their controversies with the Montanists and Manichaeans the Greek fathers
gave special prominence to the doctrine of human freedom. The Latin
Church, which liad been much aftected by Tertullian's Montanistic spirit,
gave greater prominence to the doctrine of man's dependence, and its writers,
without denying tlie innocence of children or the Ireedom of adults, demon-
strated the necessity of divine grace in opposition to human freedom, by
proving that ever since Adam's fall the nature of man has been continually
depraved. Pelagius and Coelestius^ pious monks, driven by the incursions of
the barbarians from Britain (Bretagne ?), their native country, first to Rome
(409), and afterwards to Africa (411), that they might promote the interests
of morality, were especially zealous for the freedom of tlie will. In oppo-
sition to the views then prevalent in Africa, they maintained that man's na-
ture was not corrupted by the fall of Adam, and that even where Christian-
ity was not known men might render themselves by the power of their own
wills proper subjects of divine grace. They acknowledged, however, that
men received much assistance from the Church, where it could be obtained,
and that those who Avere subjects of the kingdom of Christ participated in
more exalted blessings. Augustine perceived that if this doctrine were con-
sistently carried out, men's confidence in redemption and in the Church, as
indispensable to salvation, would be seriously endangered. In behalf of
these, therefore, he maintained his theories of Original Sin and Predestina-
tion^ alleging that, " in consequence of Adam's fall man's nature has been
burdened with an infinite guilt, and is incapable of good by its own power.
By divine grace, therefore, without man's co-operation, and through the in-
strumentality of the Church, a new life is imparted to some, while others are
abandoned by divine justice to their own corruption, and from all eternity
were ordained to condemnation."
§ 110. Augustinus.
I. Opp. edd. Benedidini, Tar. 1G79-1T00. 11 Th. f. (recus. c. app. aericw.) Antn. KOOss. 12 Th. f.
(Ven. 1729SS. 12 Th. f. IToGss. IS Th. 4.) Par. 1835-9. 11 Th. ^—rosHcUus, vita Ang. & Indicnlus Ope-
rum (about 432) ia the tditt of his works. The life of Aug. by an anon, writer (ed. Cramer, Kil. 1S32.)
was compiled from the Confessions & Possidins. Gennadius, de viris illustr. c 3S.
II. C. Biiulemann, d. h. Aug. BrL 1S44. vol. I. Bohringer, d. K. n. ihre Zeugen, vol. I. Abth. 3.
K. Branne, Monnika u. Augustin. Gremma. 1S46. [Augustine's City of God, transl. Lend. 1620. f.
Meditations by Stanhope. Lond. 1745. & Confessions by Wattii, Loud. 1C31 12. His Confessions. 3 ed,
rovi?e<l by Pus-eij (& republished in Boston, 1S42. 12.), in vol. L Sermons in vols. 16 & 20, & Com-
ment on Psalms in vols. 24 & 25, and on John in vol. 2G of the Lib. of the Fathers. See § 106, note e.
P. Schaff, Life & Labors of St. Aug. from the Germ, by T. 0. Porter. New York. 1SS4. 12.]
Aurelius Augustinus was born at Tagaste in Numidia, Nov. 13, 354. His
CHAP. IL DOCTRD^E. § löT. AUGUSTINE. 123
Oiind liad been deeply imbued during cliildbood witb tbe principles of Cbri^;-
tianity, throiigb t)ie instructions of his mother Monica. But when only n
youth of seventeen years he studied the Roman classics, and gave himself up
to worldly pleasures. Cicero's eloquent pleadings for the value of Phi-
losophy re-awakened his desire for something more certain and eternal.
The Scriptures were too simple for his glowing tancy. Scduco<l by the prom-
ise of tbe Manicbaeans that complete truth would bo revealed to all whose
reason independently investigated its own depths, lie continued for nine years
under their instruction, when be became satisfied that he had been deceived,
and doubted whether any truth could be known. But on his acquaintance
with New-Platonism another life seemed open to his pursuit. As an in-
structor in eloquence he visited Rome in 383 and Milan in 385, still devoting
himself to the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. Prompted by some recollec-
tions of early childhood he was induced to listen to Ambrose sinijdy as an
orator, that he might compare the Platonic wisdona with the gospel. Then
commenced in his heart, principally through the influence of the writings of
Paul, a severe struggle between the temporal and the eternal, the progress of
wdiich was much assisted by the prayers and tears of his motiier. In a sud-
den transport of his feelings be became satisfied of his own miraculous con-
version, and on Easter-night, 38Y, he, with his natural son, was baj)tized by
Ambrose. lie immediately resigned his professorship of rhetoric and re-
paired to his uative city, where, with a company of devout associates, he lived
in retirement from the world until ho was ordained in Hippo Begins (Bona),
first a presbyter (391), afterwards an assistant bishop (395). Then commenced
bis ecclesiastical life, and tbe AfVican churches were subsequently governed
by his intellectual energies. Ilis influence became predominant in evorv
part of the West, and bis fame bad extended througli the whole Church,
when be was for three months besieged in his own city by the Vandals, and
died August 28, 430, singing the Penitential Psalms. — Ilis earlier writings
treat of Rhetoric and Philosophy, and are for the most part lost. His theo-
logical writings, consisting of devotional, doctrinal, and especially controver-
sial treatises, are diffuse, full of repetitions, artificial, and often insijiid by .
mere plays upon words. Ilis interpretations of Scripture exhibit no extensive
knowledge of languages, or historical accuracy, {it) And yet all bis Avorks
are characterized by an exuberance of intellectual life, a profound knowledge
of the human heart, and an all-controlling love to God bre;iking forth in the
most impassioned forms of speech. lie never shrunk from a thoiiglit, how-
ever startling, and in his writings ho has freely expressed the most liberal, as
well as tbe most tremendous concejitions wliich over rose in an inquiring
spirit, according to the exigencies of his train of rciisoning. In his Confes-
sions (about 400), with tbe i)roud self-abasement of a saint, as it were in a
confessional before God, ho has freely described himself in big intellectual
nakedness. (Ji) Ilis i^e<rrtc?a</o7W (about 429) contain indeed a severe criti-
rt) jr. iV. Clausen, Aiiijustinus S. Scr. Intcrprcs. Ilnfh. 1S2S.
I) Coiifessioiuiin I: XIII. pracf. Meander, Bor. 1S2-3. od. Bruder, Lp."«. 1837. Trnnsl. »s an cxci-l
!eiit work of devotion into the various langunses of Europe. [Koviseil fVom a former Enpl. tran»l. bj
124 AXCIKNT CIIUUCII IIISTOUV. I'Ki:. II. IMI'KUIAL CUVllCU. A. I). 812-Wo.
clsni on liis writings by liis own liaiid ; but it is evident, also, tbat they were
intended to recall or mitigate whatever in his earlier works wa.s favorable tc
the Pelagians. In his writings against the Manichaeans lie had given promi-
uence to some sentiments favorable to the freedom and goodness of the hu-
man will. In liis controversy with the Donatists the idea every where j>rc-
vailing is, that of a Clmrch which is the only source of truth and certainty.
In his oAvn life there had been the most direct contrast between the opera
tions of sill and of grace, and his exalted piety took pleasure in uncondition
ally rejecting himself that he might live wholly upon God's grace in Christ.
§ 111. Victory of Augustinism.
The controversy commenced with personal reproaches against Cocleiiti't.*,
At a synod held at Carthage (412) he was expelled from the Church, wlien
he betook himself to Ephesus, and Avas there ordained a presbyter. Pelagius
had previously gone to Palestine, where he was opposed by Jlieronymus on
the ground of his being a follower of Origen. Augustine, at first, in a very
respectful manner, by writing, and through Orosius^ his messenger, opened a
controversy with him. At a synod convened at Diospolis in Palestine (415),
ho was accused of maintaining that men could live without sin, but his con-
demnation was prevented by John^ Bishop of Jerusalem. The African
Church, however, convinced by Augustine of the danger which threatened
the cause of truth through him, condemned him at the Synods of Milete and
Carthage (416), and was sustained in its decision by the concurrence of Inno-
cent I. Zosimii.% the successor of Innocent, entirely mistaking the impor-
tance of this controversy, at first gave protection to the Pelagians (417), but
afterwards, when the African Church and the imperial court demanded tlieir
condemnation, with a similar ignorance he denounced them in his Epistola
tractatoria (418). Julianus of Eclamim and eighteen other bishops were de-
posed and driven from Italy as Pelagians. These generally took refuge at
Constantinople, where I^esforius, in accordance with the general spirit of the
Oriental Church, received them. This gave occasion for a connection of their
cause with that of the heresy of Nestorius, in consequence of Avhich the Pe-
lagians were condemned with the Nestorians at the general Synod of Ephe-
sus (431).
§ 112. Semipelagianis7n.
Jo. Geffcken, TTist. Setnipelacrianismi antiqnissima (till 434) Goctt. 1S26. 4. Wilder/!, Angnstinis-
inus u. Pelagianismus, vol. II. (fill 5'29.) [Seebcf. § 109. Also .in Essay of Prof. Wiggers in Xied-
ner"s Zeitschr. for Jan. 1S54.]
The Greek Church had never taken any real interest in this controversy,
and even at a later period it simply taught that human nature had been ren-
dered infirm in consequence of Adam's lidl. But even in the Western
churches the whole system of Augustiuism had never been sincerely and
openly accepted by the public mind. Augustine himself received informa-
tion that an intermediate opinion had been propagated among the monks of
E. B. Pitieij, & publ. in the Lib. of die Fa'hcrs (sec § 106, note e.) vol. I. Oxf. 1J40. & ropuW. Bos
ton. 1S42.1
CHAP. II. DOCTRINE. § 112. SEMU'ELAGIANS. CASsIAN. FAUSTUS. 125
Massilia, principally through the influence of John Cassianm (a), a disciple of
the Desert and of Chrj-so.stoni. According to tliis view (afterwards called
Semipclagianisni), themoral power of man has indeed been enfeebled, but
not destroyed, in consequence of Adams' fall, and henco divine grace and hu-
man freedom conspired together, and acted in concert with each other in the
work of man's salvation. This doctrine, which conceded as much to tlio
Church as to the free moral nature of man, and without which there seemed
to be no special advantage in a monastic life, obtained great favor. Thd
Church, however, had too decidedly committed itself on the side of Angai-
tine, the authority of this father was then too great, and the reasoning by
wliich his doctrines were sustained was too irresistible, to permit a general
and open departure from his principles. In the West, therefore, there was
always an obscurity and instability of sentiment on this subject. In Gaul
Semipelagianism was decidedly in the ascendant. Acting under the direc-
tion of the Synod of Arelate (472), Fuusti/s, Bishop of lihegium, but pre-
viously Abbot of Levius, drew up a Semipelagian confession, which was sub-
scribed by all the bishops at the Synod of Lyons (475), (i) From policy and
a pious regard for Augustine, the sacred name of that father was not men-
tioned, but this was only to assail with greater recklessness the character of
his followers. A sect of Fredestinariam, distinctively so called, never ex-
isted except in the imaginations of their opponents, and an extreme defence
of predestination professing to have been put forth at that time, is, if not a
Jesuitical, at least a Pelagian work, (r) In Africa and Koine a tendency to
Augustinism prevailed, and through liomish influence at the Synods oi Arau-
sio (Orange) and Valentia (529) a decision was obtained in favor of the ex-
clusive operation of divine grace, ((T) although predestination, which must
necessarily be inferred from this, was evidently evaded. As both ])artic3
therefore shrunk from extreme views the controversy never produced an ac-
tual schism in the Church, although sometimes a monk or a presbyter was op-
pressed by his bishop, now in the name of Augustine, and again in defence
of human freedom. But just as Augustine has been regarded as a saint by
the whole Church, Cassian and Faustus have always been honored as saints
in their own country.
a) De institntiscocnoblorum 1. XII. Collationes Pstrum XXIV. Do inwirn. Clirlstl mlv. Nestor.
1. VII. 0pp. c(l. Alarchis Gazaeua, DuacL ICIC. 3 Th. auct Atrebatl. 162S. f.— Wijjj/ers, do Jo. C'-u»\
Masslliciise ciiiin. III. Rost. 1S24S.4.
i) De gratia Dei ct humanae mentis liboro arbltrlo. (BIbl. PP. Liigd. Tli. VIII.) J/.imi" Th. VIL
p. 100"»3.
c) In tbe 2d voL of the Predestlnatus. Ed. Sirmond, Par. IWa & Gallandii Tb. X. i>. SMa-
Wiggera, vol. II. p. 329s8. [Xeander, Hist vol. II. p. Wis«.]
d) ifami Th, VIII. p. 711s». [Laudon'a Man. of Council», p. *iT.]
I2G ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOKV. rKII. 11. IMI'KKIAL CHUKCH. A. I). 812-800.
IV. COXTÜOVEÜKIES IIKSPECTING THE TwO NaTUIIES OF ClIIM.ST.
1. Lilterali (Arclildloc. Garth, about 553) Brevlarium cniisap Ncstorlanorum et Eutyclilan. Kil
G'lrneriun. Par. 1C75. and in Jfanni Th. IX. p. C5!).S8. {Gelasiua I. f) Breviculus Hist. Kulyclilan-
Istanim 8. go«ln do nomine Acacil. (Manni, TU. VII. p. 106' 68.) Lfontiim ByznnlinuK : dc sectis
actio 6-10. Contra Kiityelilnnois ct Ncstorian. (GdUandii Th. XII. p. C21p.s. 6.JSss.)— II. M'ulcJi,
Ketzerlilst Th. V.-AIII. Baur, L. v. d. Drcioinipk. vol. I. p. e03si?. vol. II. Durner, Entwick-
lungs^.'0.«ch. d. L. v. d. Person Chr. Stuttg. ISGO. p. 50ss. \R. J. y^ Xhtrfurce, On the Incarnation ol
T. C. 2 P(l. Lond. 1S49. Thilad. 1849. p. 151ss.]
§ 118. The Ncalorkni Controversy.
I. Orip. Pociimcnts in 3f(in.si Th. IV. p. 607?.«. Th. V. VII. p. 241s.«. Jfariits Jfercator, do
haoresi Nest. (Opp. vol. II.) Socrat VII, 29ss. Eragr. I, 7s.s.
II. Juhlonslci, Do Nestorianismo. I5er. 1724. 4. Gengler. ü. d. Verdaminiing d. Nest. (Tub.
Quartalschr. 1835. P. 2.)— Sal ig, de Eutychianismo ante Eutychen. "Wolfi-nb. 1723. 4.
The doctrine of a divine nature in Christ had now forced its -way to a
general acceptance, and tliat of his human nature had always been taken for
granted ; but -when men reflected upon the relation Avhicb these sustained
toward each other, they were in danger of either asserting their unity so
strictly that the human nature was Avholly lost in the Deity, or, to secure the
existence of the human nature, of maintaining its separation so rigidly
that the unity of Christ's person would be destroyed. The natural tendency
of each school induced the Alexandrian to adopt the former, and the An-
iiochian the latter extreme. Accordingly, when Xcstorius, originally a pres-
byter at Antioch, but after 428 the Metropolitan of Constantinople, full of
zeal for orthodoxy, and according to the customary language of his school,
carefully distinguished in opposition to Apollinaris between the two natures
of Christ (Mary being called xp'-o'totukos, not 'äeorÖKos. and the relation of the
natures, awücfieia and fVoiVr^o-if), so that the qualities (idiüfj-aTa) co-operated
in the accomplishment of man's redemption, Ci/ril of Alexandria (412-444:),
the nephew, and in every respect the successor of Theophilus, advocated a
union of natures ((^v<ri/cr) fvwa-n) so complete, that the peculiarities of each
were predicable of the other. These opposite views, sustained respectively
by the two great eastern bishoprics, and by the schools of Alexandria and
Antioch, from their peculiar nature, alforded ample occasion for misunder-
standings and unhappy inferences. Both parties were charged Avith having
destroyed all faith in man's redemption ; Nestorius by his assertion of the
doctrine of two independent natures, and Cyril by his denial of the human
nature of Christ. Cyril succeeded in arraying the Roman Church against
Nestorius, by connecting the controvcr.ey Avith the Pelagian. ISTestorius was
condemned at the Synods of AJc.randrla and liome (430), and Cyril pub-
lished his doctrines in twelve Anathemas, to which Xestorius opposed twelve
others, (a) A general assembly of the Church was convened by Tlteodosius
II. at EphcKxts (431), in which Cyril and his bishops pronounced condemna-
tion upon Nestorius before the Syrian and Greek bishops had arrived. On
the arrival of these bishops they chose John of Antioch for their president,
and deposed Cyril. The latter, however, well knew how to gain the favor
a) 3Iiinsi, Tb. IV. p. 1067ss. p. 1099ss, Mxtenscher, Colin, DGesch. vol. L p. 290s8.
CHAP. II. DOCTEINE. § 113. JIESTOPJANISM. § 114 EUTYCIIIANISM. 127
of the emperor, and to produce dissension among the bishops of the opposite
party. lie even became reconciled to John of Antioch, having finally con-
sented to subscribe (433) the articles of faith which that prelate had induced
his party to adopt at Ephesus, (A) in which the two natures of Christ were
especially distinguished. In such a strife of mere intrigues, Nestorius, with
his monastic learning and want of practical tact, was no match for his op-
ponents. He was soon deserted by all parties, and died in wretchedness
(about 440), with his character misunderstood and his doctrine misrepresent-
ed. The only advocate of his opinions by Avhich the conflict Avas continued,
was the theological school of Edesm^ a branch of the Antiochian, and this
gradually witlidrew to Persia. Under its influence, the Persian churches
persevered in their opposition to the Synod of Ephesus, and under the name
of Chaldean Christians, or Christians of St. Thomas, as they Avere called in
India, or ITestorians, as they were called by their opponent.?, they became
numerous, and carried far into Asia the principles of Christian beneficence
and Grecian refinement. But even in the imperial Church, a disposition
friendly to Nestorianism Avas continued, especially under the influence of
/Ö«.«, Bishop of Edessa (436— i57), and the learned Thcodoret. (c)
§ 114. Tlie Eutychian Controversy.
Acts in Mansi Tb. VI. VII. Emgr. I, 9ss. II, 2.
The controA^ersy which had been thus violently and deceptively settled
burned faintly still, Avith Alexandria and Palestine on the one side, and Con-
stantinople and Asia on the other. When, therefore, Eufychcs, an archiman-
drite of Constantinople, obstinate in his dispo.sition, but Avell versed in the
Scriptures, taught, in direct opposition to Nestorianism, that every thing hu-
man in tlie nature of Christ Avas absorbed by his divinity, and became one
nature Avith it, Flavianvs, Bishop of Constantinople, had him condemned at
a synod of his diocese (448). (a) Leo the Great approved of this decision in
an epistle in Avhich, though he maintained that the two natures of Christ acted
in perfect harmony, he clearly distinguished between Avhat Avas divine and
what Avas human in the life of Jesus. (A) Dloscunts of Alexandria (4r4-ir-ol),
Avho, in defending Eutyches, felt that he Avas equally defending his predecessor
Cyril, succeeded at the general synod of Ephesus (449), through the influ-
ence of an excited populace, in justifying Eutyches and deposing Flavian.
We are assured by the emiieror Theodosius II., that the decision Avas obtained
in a perfectly legal manner, on the basis of the prior decrees of Ephesus and
Nicaea. But on the sudden death of the emperor (450), the general feeling
of displeasure at the violent proceedings of Dioscurus found a public ex-
pression. The empress Pulchcria and her husband Marcianvs convoked a
General Council at Chalcedon (451), Avhose decision Avas secured by the mode
//) Mansi Tli. IV. p. 8T8. comp. 7S18. 803s8.
c) AMemani Do Syris Nestoriatiis. (IMhl. Orient. \Um. 17'2S. f. Tli. HI. T. II.) KJ edjfsu L.
inart'aritae lie vorit. flilei. (.1. Mnji N- Coll. Tli. X. 1'. II.) [A. Grant, Hist, of the XostoriftDS.
New York. I'irno.]
a) The Act.s in tlie Actio I. of Chalce<l<in. JOinn Th. A'l. p. C40ss. [Landon, p. IGTss.]
6) Ep. fu\ Flnvianuni. Leo)i. 0pp. edil. £.illei-ini. Ep. 2S.
128 ANCiKNT ciii:i:cn iiistoky. pki:. ii. iMri:i:iAL ciiuitcir. a. i>. 812-800.
in -wliicli it -was constituted. Dioscurus was deposed, Eutyches was con-
demned, not only Ibas and Theodoret, but even Cyril were declared or-
thodox, and tlio doctrine of the Cliurcli was established on the basis of the
Ilonian epistle : Two natures are Avithout confusion but inseparably united in
tlie one person of Christ. The Synod of Ephesus has ever since been regard-
ed as the Kobber-Synod (a-vvoSos Xrja-rpiKr}). (c)
§ 115. The MonopTiysitcs. The Contest respecting CJialcedon.
Acts In ifansi Th. VII. p. 4S1-IX. p. 700. Zeontius Jii/z. de scctis liber, actio 5-10. and Contra
Eufychlanos et Ncstorian. 1. III. {Gallnndii, Bibl. Th. XII.) Writings and Frajrments of the
Party Leaders in A. Mitji N. ColL 1S33. Th. VII. P. I. and Spicil. Eom. Tli. III. X Ecagr. II, 5ss.
The Alexandrians, who gave special prominence to the divine nature in
Christ, and yet were unwilling to connect themselves with the Eutychian
party, felt much aggrieved by the action of the Council of Chalcedon. They
were called by their opponents Monophy sites, and these opponents were
called by them Nestorians and Dyophysites. The controversy was at first
conducted by insurrections of monks and of people, and in Palestine was
attended with bloodshed, but in Alexandria and Antioch each party set up
its rival bishop«. The emperor Leo I. (457—474) sustained the decisions of
Chalcedon, though with a judicious moderation. Peter FuUo (yva(pevi) hav-
ing assumed the oflBce of Bishop of Antioch, and introduced into the liturgy
a Monophysite formula, which asserted that God had been crucified (thence
called Theopaschites), was expelled by the emperor. In the revolutions
which then took place so frequently in the imperial palace, ecclesiastical con-
troversies were made subservient to political intrigues. "When the emperor
Zeno Isauricits was overthrown by Basiliscvs (476), the latter strengthened
his party by gaining over the Monophysites, and published a circular in
which he condemned the Synod of Chalcedon. (a) The insurrection in Con-
stantinople by which Zeno was restored to his throne (477), was under the
direction of the Catholic patriarch Acacius. The Monophysites, however,
had exhibited so much power under the usurper, that the emperor, by the
advice of the patriarch, endeavored to reconcile them by publishing a creed
called the Henoticon {h) (482), in which the disputed articles were entirely
avoided. Felix II., the Roman bishop, placed himself at the head of those
zealots who were opposed to this fellowship with the Monophysites, and
excommunicated Acacius (484). But even the more rigid portion of the
Monophysites in Egypt withdrew from their own patriarch, who had been
so easily pacified (thence called \\Ki^a\oi). Though both parties equally
reviled the Henoticon, it was the means of external peace in the Oriental
Church, and Anastasius (491-Ö18), who attempted to free the state from
both parties, was equally hated, threatened and calumniated by both. Justin
I. (518-527) decided against the Monophysites and expelled their bishops,
but in Egypt, where their cause was popular, he was politic enough not to
assail them. In Alexandria, however, they fell out among themselves, for
c) Lercahl, die sogen. Eäubersynode. (Illgen's Zeitschr. vol. VIII. P. 1.) [London, p. 286. 113.]
a) Ecagr. Ill, i. h) Ibid. Ill, 14. Berger, Henotica Orient Vit 1723. 4.
CHAP. IL DOCTRINE. § 115. SEVERIANS. § IIG. JUSTINIAN I. [OQ
tho Severia?is, so called from Severus their leader, the expelled Patriarch of
Antioch, who ■was rather inclined to confound the divine with the human
nature, and acknowledged that the principal attribute of the latter was the
corruptibility of the body of Christ (therefore reproached as ^?5apTo\ärpai),
were opposed to the Julianists (^A(ji'äapTo8oKT]Tai), the followers of' Julian of
JIalicarnassus, who taught that there was such an absorption of the human
nature into the divinity that nothing mortal remained, (c)
§ IIG. Justinian.
Proeopius (cl. about 552), especially his military LiKtory, and bis hist, of tbe court: 'Av/kSoto,
riist arcana, ed. OrelU. Lps. 1S27. Contin. of tho Imp. Hist 552-559. by Agathias, cd. Niehuhr.
Bon. 1828. (Corpus Scrr. Byzant. P. III. 1S29-44.
Justinian /., in the course of his long and frequently brilliant reign
(527-565), by the successful weapons of his generals restored the Roman
dominion in Africa and Italy to its former splendor. Dutiful toward the
Church, temperate even to monastic strictness, covetous and yet prodigal,
active in many departments of business, and untiring in his diligence, though
moderate in natural talents, he Avas eager to acquire the reputation of a mas-
ter in every kind of human knowledge. Even while burdened with tho
cares of his despotic reign, ho digested from the treasures of Eoman juris-
prudence a code of civil law which has been ever since the source of legal
science for all civilized nations. He then attempted in like manner, as a
theologian, to annihilate aU heresies, reconcile all parties, and establish a
true system of orthodoxy for all future time. But while he loaded the
Church with gifts, he increased the distractions of both Church and State by
his creeds, and efforts to establish uniformity. In all these he doubtless be-
lieved that he was guided by his own sagacity, while he was really the mere
tool of court divines and eunuchs. Ho was disposed to favor the Council
of Chalcedon, but Theodora well knew how to direct his edicts so that they
generally were favorable to the Monophysites. This woman, having shame-
lessly spent her youthful beauty amid all tho dissipations of Constantinople,
was exalted, by the favor of the emperor, to bo the sharer of his power over
the empire, and the sole mistress of himself. On the throne she was tyran-
nical, but her disposition was lofty and her morals were irreproachable.
1. On finding that the discussions which he had ordered between tlie Catho-
lics and the Monophysites were of no avail, {a) the emperor hoped to win
the latter by allowing them to use their formula asserting siini)ly tliat one of
the sacred Trinity was crucified (503). But while this only embittered the
feelings of the Catholics, it was not enough for the Monophysites. Anthi-
mus (535), tho Monophysitic patriarch, Avho had been appointed through
Theodora's influence, was removed the next year by the Catholic party, and
Vigiliris,, who had been assisted in his attainment of the Koman see (538)
with the secret understanding that he Avould favor the Monophysites, found
c) Gieseler, Monophysltarum vett. varlae de Chr. personn opiniones inpr. ex Ipsonim effatis recen»
Dditls lllustr. Oott. 183.5. 3S. 2 P.
a) CoUatio Catholicor. c. Severianis a. 5:M. {Jldnii Tli. VIII. p. SlTss.)
9
130 ANCIKNT CliriiCIl IIIST(»l:V. I'Ki:. 11. IMI'KRIAL CIIUUCII. A. I). , ",1^-800.
no (lilTiciilly in nUsdlviii',' iiiraself from his oath, (h) 2. Tlie nariic of Oviger
was dear to ii monastic party in tho East, not so iiinch for liis scientific char-
acter ns for the relation of liis system to tlie Monoj)li3-site.'?. This party
gained fj;reat inihionce at court by means of Theodorus Ascidas^ Metropohtan
of Cacsafca in Cai)pndocia. Tlie Catholic party, liowever, found means
through Mennas, tlie Patriarch of Constantinople, to procure from the empe-
ror a condemnation of Origcn, 3, Theodoras soon revenged himself by con-
vincing tlic emperor that tho Monophysites Avould be reconciled to the
Cliurcli by a sentence of condemnation upon Theodore of Mopf,v.entin^ the
instructor of Nestorius, Theodorct of Cyrris and Ihas of Edesso^ the princi-
j)als of the Antiochian school. Tho errors of these teachers liaving been
collected (about 544) into three chapters (tria capitula), "were accordingly
condemned by Justinian, {r) Though tlie Monophysites were much delighted
with this act, they were on that account no more partial to the Council of
Clialcedon, The Catholics, on the other hand, looked upon it as a direct
assault upon that council. To quell these discussions, Justinian convoked
the fifth CEcumenical Council at Constantinojile (553), which, in compliance
with tho imperial theology, condemned the three Antiochian teachers, {d)
YigiUus, who at first led the West in its opposition to this proceeding, lost
the glory of his martyrdom by frequent vacillations and concessions. Pela'
gius became his successor in consequence of his acknowledgment of the
imperial synod (555). A large portion of the Western bishops now broke
olf connection with Eome as well as Constantinople, and the liberty of the
Church found some bold champions not only against the despotism of the
emperor, but the pliant disposition of the Roman bishop, (e) 4. The last
attempt of Justinian to draw over the Monophysites, was made when he had
(564) the doctrine of the Incomiptilility of Christ's body adopted as an
article of the authorized creed. He had just commenced the work of ex-
pelling those Catholic bishops who resisted him, when the Church was deliv-
ered from tlie confusion produced by his zeal for the faith by his death, {f)
§ 117. The Edict of Peace and the Monophynte Church.
Xo sooner had Justin II. reach the throne, than he issued an edict
(565), (rt) in which he admonished aU Christians to unite with him to pro-
mote the glory of the Redeemer, and to contend no more about words and
persons. The apostolic Catholic Church, however, was at the same time
assured that its present position would be maintained. The arbitrary man-
ner in which the imperial laws for the regulation of faith had for some time
been enforced, rendered such a request from an emperor peculiarly grateful
to the public mind. The successors of Vigilius were now more zealous in
^) Liherati Breviar. c. 22. Tiyilii Ep. ad Justin. {Jfaitsi Th. IX. p. S5.) ad Mennam.
[J bid. p. 8S.)
c) Jiixtiii. ad Mennam adv. impium Orig. (Jfaiisi Tb. IX. p. 4S7ss. couip. 895ss.)
d) Acts in Jfunsi Tli. IX. p. 157ss.
<■) Esp. Fiiciindtis JTerinitineiisis (abont 5JS) pro defensione trium cspitt 1. XII. (0pp. ed. J.
Sirmoml. Par. 1629. GalUnulii Th. XI.)
/) Kragr. IV. SS-40. Kalch. Ketzergofch. vol. X. p. STSssw
a) Ecagr. V, 4. Xic€i>h. XVII. 85k
CHAP. IL DOCTiJINE. § 117. MONOPHTSITES. § 118. MONOTHELITES. 131
enforcing the authority of the fifth oecumenical council in the West, than
he had formerly heen in opposing it. It was not, however, generally
acknowledged until subsequent centuries, when it was not opposed, because
the subjects in dispute were nearly forgotten. In the East, each party
retained possession of all that it had obtained. In opposition to the Catholic
patriarch of Alexandria, who was sustained entirely by the emperor's power,
the Monophysites possessed a patriarch of their own (after 536), and consti-
tuted the Egyptian national Church of the Copts^ with which was connected
the Ethiopic Church, (h) The Armenians availed themselves of the occa-
sion Avhen the Ilenoticon was enacted, to renounce the authority of the Synod
of Chalcedon, and thus in the sixth century, when they were subject to the
Persian yoke, they entirely renounced all connection with the Church of the
empire, {c) The apostolic zeal of Jacob Baradai (541-578) gave the Mono-
physites of Syria and Mesopotamia a permanent ecclesiastical constitution,
and the name of Jacobites, {d) These disruptions from the imperial Catholic
Church were gradually confirmed by the peculiar customs of the i)rovinces
where they took place, until by the conquests of Islam, to which they con-
tributed, they became irreparable. In the conquered provinces, the Catho-
lics, on account of their connection with the empire (hence called Melchites
from Ti^.td), were even more oppressed than the Monophysites, and their
patriarch generally resided at Constantinople.
§ 118. The Monothelite Controtersy.
I. Orig. Documents in J/imsJ Th. X. p. 8G3-11S0. Th. XI. p. 190-1023. Anastasii Bibüotliccarii (about
670). Collect:mea de ii?, quae spectant ad Hist. Monothcl. e<I. Sirmond, Par. 1620. and GalUindii Th.
XIII. mcephori (Patriarch of Constant d. S2S), Breviarium Hist. (6ii2-769.) ed. Petaviiis, Par. 1G16.
II. F. Comhejidii, Hist, liacr. Monothelitarum. In liis Anctuar. PP. Par. 1648. II, 3.
"While the emperor Ileradius (after 622) was re-establi.shing the power
of the empire in Syria and Armenin, he endeavored to reconcile the Mono-
physites with the imperial Church, by conceding that although there were
two natures in Christ, there was but one manifestation of will (fvepytia ^fav-
SpiKi]). Cyrus, who had been appointed by the emperor patriarch of Alex-
andria, succeeded by this expedient in gaining over the Severians of his
diocese (633). But when SopJironnis, a monk of Palestine, and aftor 634 Patri-
arch of Jerusalem, who happened tlicn to be in Alexandria, excited a violent
opposition to it, the emperor published a creed ("E/cSfo-tr, G38) (a) composed by
Sergiu.t, Patriarch of Constantinople, and approved by Ilonoriu», tlie Roman
bishop, (//) which assumed that there was but one Christ and one will (Jv
^iXrjiJLa). In this he had more regard to the final adjustment of the contro-
versy, than to the victory of the imperial party. But in such nn age, a dis
putc thus awakened was not easily set to rest. The Roman bishojjs aftei
#
I) Taki-eddini Makritil (d. 1441), Hist Coptornm cbrist arab. et. lat. ed. WeUfr. Solisb. 1828
Mich. Lequien, Oriens in IV Patriarclmtus dlgestiis. (Par. 1740. 3 Th. f.) Th. II. p. 857ss.
c) Saint-Martin, Mini, sur I'Annen. Th. I. p. 829ss. Eccl. Armcniacne canones sclectL {A.
iftyiN. Coll. Th. X. P. II.)
d) Asuemani, ]5ibl. orient. Tli. II. I.equien 1. c. Th. II.
a) Mansi Th. X. p. 9y2s.
I) Ilonorii Ep. ad Sergium. (.l/iOist Th. XI. p. J.37. comp. 579.)
f32 ANCIKNT CllUr.CII IMSTOUV. TKIt. II. IMI'EUIAL CIIURCII. A. D. 312-«».
John IV. (fiSO), with a stricter reforcnce to tlic true faith or tlic injury of
thoir rivals than to tiio ortliodoxy of their jtredeccssorH, placed themselves at
the head of the opposition to tho Monothelitcs, and excluded tho patriarch
of Constantino]tlo from the communion of tho Church. A law (rvrrof) (c)
enacted hy Comtans IF. (G48) was intended to enforce peace by an arbitrary
l)ro]iil)iti()n of tho controversy. But 3/artin I. of Rome, at the first Synod
of Lateran (C-tO), condemned the Monothelites and both the imperial laws.
Ho was consequently first imprisoned, then condemned at Constantinople for
treason, and finally he died in great distress. (J) To allay the strife which
now threatened the precarious power of the empire in Italy, the emperor
Comtantine Pogonatus convoked the sixth o-cumenical synod at Constanti-
nople (C80). This assembly, under the influence of Afjotho^ the Roman
bishop, besides condemning llonorius, (/) recognized in Christ consistently
with tho doctrine of two natures, and certain passages of Scripture inter-
preted so as to conform to it, two wills made one by the moral subordination
of the human. The Monothelites, however, obtained one more transient
victory in the Greek Church under rhilij) Bardanes (Tll-YlS). But after
the elevation of Anastasius II. to the throne, they were generally rejected,
and only a small remnant sustained themselves in the convent of St. Maro on
Mount Lebanon, under a patriarch of their own. (/)
§ 119. EccJcsiaKtical Literature.
Cbrysostom and Augustine were still peerless models for the churches in
which their languages were respectively spoken. The energies of the Alex-
andrian and Antiochian schools were exhausted in party strifes. Cyril (d.
444), whose natural acuteness was under the guidance of his passions, ex-
ceeded the characteristic limits of the Alexandrian spirit, {a) and Theodoret.^
Bishop of Cyrus (d. 457), the last of the Antiochian school, though a judi-
cious expounder and a devout historian, could not escape the malediction of ,
the Church, (b) The qualities of both schools appear to have been once
more combined in the collection of the Epistles of Isidore of Fdw^ium (d.
about 440), who, though a resident in Alexandria, was the friend of Cbrysos-
tom, aud found among the monastic virtues liberty to be mild in science and
fearless in his opposition to the powerful both in the world and in the
Church, (r) The writings which assumed the name of Dionysius Areopagita,
indicate that the Athenian Xew-Platonism had become Christianized near
the commencement of the sixth century, and they have ever since been the
model of those dispositions which strive to die to themselves, and are wait-
c) Man«i Th. X. p. 1029s. 0) Munai Th. X. p. S513.
«) Mansi Til. XI. p. 556. 6'32. 731.
/) Leqiden, Orions Chr. Tli. III. p. Iss. Walch, vol. IX. p. 4T4ss. •
(I) Commontarics, Polpni. Treatises, Homilies, and Letters. 0pp. ed. J. Auhert. Par. 163S. 7 Tli. t
On Matth., Hebrews, and 7 dogm. Essays in A. 3/aJi Col. Th. Till.
h) Commentariea, History of the Church, Hist, uf Heresies, Lives of Saint*, and Polem. Treat-
ises. 0pp. edd. Sirmnnd et Garnier, Par. 1742-84. 5 Th. £ Schvhe et Xoesxelt, Hal. 17C9-74. 5 Th.—
EichUr, de Theor. Epp. Paulinar. interprete. Lps. 1S22.
c) Epp. 1. IV. ed. liitterhuH, Ildlb. 1G05. f. Epp. ineditae, ed. S:hott. Antu. 1023. f. All together
P«r. 16&S. Ven. 174,'). f. — U. A. Kiemeyer, de Isid. Pelusiotae vita, scriptis et doctr. Hal. 1S2Ö. comp
Arch. f. KGesch. 1S25. P. 2. p. 197ss.
CriAP. II. DOCTEINE. § 119. PIIILOrOXUS. B0ETHIU5. CASSIODORUS. 133
lug patiently for a conii)lote union witli tlie Deity. (^'T) The Aristotelian sys-
tem of logic was used in all tlieological controversies. John Philojioiain
(middle of the 6th century), ihe acute expounder of Aristotle, and the inde-
pendent Christian philosopher, but an adherent of the Monophysites, declared
himself in the Greek Church decidedly partial to this tendency, though not
unfriendly to many doctrines of Platonism. He was accused of Tritheism,
because the ideas entertained by the Church on the subject of the divine
nature and personality were not satisfactory to him, and he took ofience at
the doctrine of the resurrection, which he described as a new creation, since
with the form he maintained that the matter of the body was gone, (e) The
Koman Church became acquainted with Aristotle through the labors of
Ä. M. T. S. BoetJdus. In the Avritings Avhich bear his name, Aristotelian
formulae are used to defend the doctrines of the Incarnation and the Trinity.
But in prison his mind had been raised above the fear of death l)y tlie conso-
lations of a pious heathen philosophy, lie died (524) in defence of the
interests of his native land, and the Church has invested him with the glory
of martyrdom. By birth, merit, and success he resembled the nobler Ro-
mans of the Augustan age, and indeed he may be regarded as the last speci-
men of the race. (/) The sciences which had been created by the peculiar
character of the Greeks and the Eomans, necessarily shared in tlie decUning
fortunes of those nations. The last signs of Ilellenic refinement disappeared
in the sixth century from every portion of the empire except Rome and Con-
stantinople with the ravages of the Barbarians, of the Pestilence, and of the
Church itself. A meagre collection of traditions was all that now remained,
because it had been appropriated to her own use by the Church. Even
C'aj<sioiloriis (a consul and a monk, d. about 562) attempted to preserve only
those fragments of science which he thought might be serviceable to the
Church. {(/) Scriptural exegesis consisted entirely of such compilations from
the treasures of former times as had been commenced in the East by Proco-
pius Gazaeus (about 520), and in the "West by Primasius of Adrymetum
(about 550). (Ji) A system of doctrines had likewise been formed for the
d)Ylfp\ T^j Upapxiai. Tltpl t5)s (KK\f(Tta<niKJis jfpapx'ay. Tlfpl btiaiv ovoixiruv. Wtp'l
IxvffTiKTii äfu\oylai. Kpii. XII.— Opp. ed. CorJeriiis, (Antu. lö:U.) Par. lG-14. 2 Th. f. Con^liintini,
Ven. KS.'is. 2 Tli. f. Uebers. ni. Abhli. v. Km/dhardt, Sul/.b. 1S2.3.— ,/; DalUm, de scriptLs qii.ie .<iib
Ign. et Dion. A. nouini. circuinfer. Gen. ICOtJ. 4. Kngelhardt ; De Dion. Plotinizante. KrI. IviO. De
orig. scriptor. Areop. Erl. 1S22. A. I/e/jlerii:/!, i\. clir. .Mystik in ilircr Entwickl. u. ihren Denkuialen.
Goth. 1S42. 2 \o\i.—BitumQarUn-Ciii''iiin. tie Dion. A. Jen. 1S23. Kovised in Opp. tbeol. Jen. ISvJC.
p. 2G5SS. On tlio other si.le : liitUr, Giscli. d. clir. Pliil. vol. II. p. 519.
e) Respectir.g liiin: Jo. DainuHc. de baere«. c. S3. Pliot. c. 21-23. 55. 75. Kicfph. XVIII. 45-19.
Leont.-Byz. de sccli?, act. 5. — S<:har/enhurg, de Jo. I'liil. Tritlieismi defensore. Lps. 17Ö?. (Coninu
tlieol. cd. Vtlthuxen, etc. Tli. I.) Trecfmel, Jo. Phil. (Stud. u. Krit. l'-35. P. 1.)
/) Cotnnientaries nnd translations of Aristotle — Do diinbiis nat. et una persona. Quod Trinitaa
sit units Deu."«, eto. — De consolatlonc pbilosophiae, ed. /fe//rec/tt, Curlno. 1"'.'7. and often. Uebers. v.
FreiUig, lüira. 1704.— Opp. od. KoUi, IJa.".- 157(ls.— (Gervalsc) 111st, dc IJoOce. Par. 1715. 2 Th.
Ilexjne, Censura BoCtliil. (Opuscc. Tli. VI. p. 143s-<.)— /'. //cjnc/, lloeth. (Erscb. u. Grubcr's EncykL
vol XI. p. 2S3ss.) GuHl. Baur, de IJoCtbio. Darinst 1S41.
(7) De artibiis .ic diseiplinis liboraliiiin lilt Institiitio ad dlv. lectlones. Hist Ecclcsiae tripartita.
Variae Epp.— Opp. ed. Gavet. liothoinug. 1C79. Yen. 1729. 2 Tli. t.—Stumllin, ft. Casslod. (Jkrchiv. f.
KGescb. 1K25. p. 259fs. 3Slfs.)
h)J,F. S. AugHStin,i\e citcnis PP. graecis in N. T. II;d. 17G2. (Xoef^dti Commentt. »d IL
ere Hal. 1S17.
134 AXCiKNT fiiri:ni fiistoky. pki:. ir. i.\iri:i:iAL ciiui:cir. a. d. .•512-800.
Latin Chiircli (!) from sentences taken from the more ancient fatliers hy 7»/c?ö.
rwj», Bishop of Ilisprih's (d. GBO), and another more complete, and on account
of its application of Aristotelian formulae more scientific, was compiled for
the (Ireek Clnirch by the monk JoJin Damascenvs (d. 754). The latter
also collected together the various decisions "which had been given by th«
Church in its earlier religious controversies, and thus settled these disputes
for his Church for a thousand years after him. (I) A Roman catalogue of
apocryphal and rejected works, which had been gradually enlarging from the
time of Ilormisdas (514-523), and had finally become essentially fixed about
the middle of the sixth century, exhibits the contracted spirit as well as the
state of criticism at that time, for even some of the more ancient fathers are
rejected as apocryphal because they were inconsistent with some Roman
assertions, or did not correspond with the later orthodoxy. (?)
CHAP. III.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
Bibliothcca juris can. veterls, op. Guil. et Ilenr. JmMli, Par. 16C1. 2. Tli. f. SpiMer, Geseh. »J.
can. Eechts bis a. d. falscli. Isidor. Ha!. 177S. (Works, ed. by WächUr, Stnttg. 1S27. vol. l.)— Planck;
Gesch. d. kirchl. Gesellscliafts-Yerf. vol. I. p. 276fs. Hase, de jure ecc. P. I. p. 82ss. P. II. C
Riffel, Gesell. Darst. d. Yerh. zw. K. u. Staat. Mainz. 1S86. vol. I. p. 114ss.
§ 120. Legislation and Books of Law.
Ecclesiastical laws were enacted sometimes by synods and sometimes by
the emperors. The first idea of general laws for the whole Church seems to
have been derived from the General Councils, with whose decisions were
soon nnited those of the inferior synods and the canonical institutes of a few
fathers, which individual bishops had collected for their private direction,
but which passed into general use. Such collections are first noticed in the
Synod of Chalcedon, where, however, they possessed no general authority, (a)
But even then it had become customary, at least in the Greek Church, to
regard the canons of certain synods as possessing the authority of general
laws. This agreement seems to have become complete in the sixth century,
but it was not until the second canon of the Trullan Synod (Quinisexta 692)
that the constituent parts of the Greek canon law which had long been in
use, were recognized as legally binding, {l) The African Church at the
Council of Carthage, 419, gave its sanction to a collection of its own domes-
tic canons, (c) which was gradnaUy accepted as a part of the general ecclesi-
»■) Sententiarum s. de summo bono 1. III. comp. § 167. note a.
Jc)Xl-r)-y)\ yvuxrecDS' a) to, <pi\o(ro(piKd, ß) irepl alpeaeuv, y) e/cSocris aKptß^s r^s op^o-
5oJoi> TrlffTewi. 0pp. ed. 2/ich. Zequie», Par. 1712. 2. Th. f.
l) Threefüld test in Mansi Th. VIII. p. 153ss. Since llincmar of P.heinis it is commonly quoted
BS Decretum Gelasli (494}, thns by Grati.<in: c. 3. Dist XV. comp. GieseUr, KGcsch. vol. I. Abth.
II. p. 8S.3S. [Davidson's transl. voL II. p. 110. § 114. note 2.]
a) Kcspccting collections called apostolic : See § 57. comp. J. W. Biukell, Gesch. des Kirchen-
rechts. Gioss. 1S43. vol. I.
h) Acts and 102 canons : J/(jji«i Th. XI. p. 927-1006.
c) JusMli Bibl. Th. I. SOSss. Matisi Th. III. p. C95ss.
CHAP. III. CONSTITUTION. § 120. TUEODOSI.VN & JUSTINIAN CODES. 13^
ftstical law. Of the Roman Church of the time of the Council of Chalcedon,
we only know that in its collection the Nicaean canons were mingled with
those of Sardica. The civil laws, so far as they relate to ecclesiastical affairs,
may generally be found under their appropriate titles in the two collections
of imperial laws called Codex Theodosianus, 438, and Codex Justinianciis,
534, and the Xovels attached to each. The efforts of Justinian to give a
scientific form to political and civil law, must have had a considerable influ-
ence upon ecclesiastical law. John Scholaaticus^ successively an advocate, a
presbyter at Antioch, and the Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 578), arranged
the canons which he found in the ordinary collections, together with the
second and third epistles of Basil relating to the canons, under fifty titles
according to their subjects. (iT) This digest, on account of its adaptation to
general use, as well as the reputation of its author, soon became a standard
authority in the Greek Church. A collection of civil laws relating to the
Church, prepared by this same John, contains extracts from the ten Novels
of Justinian, arranged under eighty-seven chapters, {e) Another collection,
embracing the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Justinian, sometimes in full
and sometimes abridged, together -with an appendix containing the four
Novels of Ileraclius, has been crroneoush^ attributed to Theodore Balsamon,
but really belongs to the seventh century. (/') The practical wants of the
Church called forth a work in which the civil laws relating to the Church
(i/o/ioi) were arranged in harmony with the ecclesiastical laws {Kavuvd), and
which has since been called the Komocanon. Under the fifty titles of the
collection of canons by Scholasticus, the corresponding civil laws were intro-
duced, and even these Avere principally derived from his book, (y) The peni-
tential laws were systematized, and their severity was accommodated to the
mildness of his age, and of his own disposition, hy John i\xQ Faster (vrja-TfVTt'js).
Patriarch of Constantinople (585-595). (h) The old code of the Koman
Church, (i) called by Dionysius Translatio 2>risca^ was gradually increased
and strengthened in authority after the Council of Chalcedon, by translations
from the Greek books of laws. The incompleteness and want of arrange-
ment which characterized this work, induced Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian
and a Roman monk, to revise it, and to form a new code (498-514). (i) The
first part contains a faithful translation of the principal articles of the Greek
synodal laws, the canons of Sardica, and the African collection. The second
part contains all the decretals which could then be found at Rome, by eight
popes, froiu Siricius (d. 308) to An:istivsius IF. (d. 498). This Codex Dionijiii
d) JuhMU Bibl. Tb. II. p. 499-C02.
e) 2i'vo'ya»7i; viapwv Ziarä^iwi/. Uniirinlod.
f) Tü>v (kkK SiaTa^fwv <Tv\\oy>i. JuHMi Blbl. Tli. II. p. 1217-147S.— /'. li. JJiener, de
tollcctioniliiis canonnin Kcc. graecao. Ber. 1S27.
0) JmteUi Bibl. Tli. II. p. C0.'}-672.
Jt) 'AKo\ov^ta Koi ToJiT M 4^oixo\oynviJ.fvwi: The existing Koconslon formeil from later
revisions is in Morini Comm. liist de discip'.ina in adininistr. sacr. pocnitentiae. (Par. 1C51. f.) Von.
1702. f. p. 616ss.
J) In Leon. 0pp. Th. III. p. 47.?S8. and .V-tn»» Tli. VI. p. llOSss.
1) Kd. Fr. Pi'homM, Par. lG-7. f. JiisUUi Bibl. Th. I. p. 07ss. comp. Balhrin. P?. In Leoa
Oi>p Th. III. p. 17466.
I3G ANCIKNT Clin:! II III>TuI;v, WM. IF. IMTKIIIAL CIIl'ItCH, A. I). .';l2-Soc
was iiiucli favored l)y tlio pojiCH, iiud liccaine a standard legal aiitliority not
only in tho lloinan Clmrcli, wlioso domestic laws were found in it, but in
almost all tlio West. Later decretals ■\vcro iLereforo gradually appended tc
it. Tlio book of laws for the Spanish Church originated in the first half of
the sixth century, and was probably revised by Juiilore of Jlisjialis, whoöc
name it bears, but continual additions have been made to it since his time. (Zj
It contains in the first part not only tlie greater i)art of the fJrcek synodal
laws, but the canons of the Spanish and Galilean councils, and in the second
part, besides the decretals of the Dionysian code, a few letters from the
popes to the Spanish and Galilean bishops. Other systematic compilations
made during this period are of less importance. They are the Breviarium
of Fulgcntius Fcrrandiis, a deacon of Carthage (about 647), a work which
had no dependence upon the Dionysian code, (m) and the Concordia of
CrO'Scoiiiits, an African (about G90), which was an analysis of that code
according to its contents, (n)
§ 121. The Jioman Empire.
The cultivation of the fine arts had entirely ceased from the time of Con-
stantino, and no ornaments could be found for his new city and his trium-
phal arch in the very forum of Rome, but by spoiling the ancient monuments.
Nearly the whole intellectual energy of the age was enlisted in the service
of the Church, so that the only science which seemed to flourish without
ecclesiastical influence was jurisprudence. In consequence of the founding
of Constantinople, the whole power of the empire was directed to the East,
and after the division made by Theodosius (395) the East and tlie "West re-
mained permanently separated. But so perfectly had the various nations
conquered by the Romans been made to feel as one people, that both these
divisions regarded themselves as only ditferent parts of the one great empire.
While the Germanic nations stormed at the portals of the West, and even
when they broke through them in the fifth century, the civil constitution and
the habits of the people remained Roman under the long dominion of the
Goths in Italy. The East was governed by a lifeless and rigid mechanism,
the moving spring of which was at Constantinople. The extinction of the
reigning families and the ascendency of the army, rendered abortive the fre-
quent eflorts to establish a popular hereditary monarchy, but the want of this
was in some degree supplied by the imperial nomination of colleagues and
successors. But the majesty of the Roman people and the confidence that
they were destined to universal dominion had been transferred to their rulers.
In this form it was now consecrated by the Church, and systematically de-
fended by arguments sui)plied l\v jurisprudence. Amid all the agitations pro-
tluccd by dynastic changes, this idea of an imperial government ai>pointed by
God for supreme dominion on earth became profoundly fixed in the hearts
of the people.
/) Collcctio canonum Eccl. Ilispaniae. Mntrit. IsOS. f. Epistolßc decrctales ac rescr. Eom. Pontiil
cum. Mutr. lS-21. f. (o<l. A. Oomalee.)
?H) Ju«Mli Bill. Th. I. p. 456SS. n) JiislMi KM. Th. I. Append, p. 83s3.
CHAP. III. COKSTITUTIOX. § l-- KKLATIONS OF CHURCH & i^TATK 137
§ 122. Forcer of the Emperor over the Church.
Tlie emperors, accustomed to exercise the power, not only of an absolute
sovereign but of a supreme pontiff, endeavored to sell their favor to the
Church at the price of its ancient liberties. A decisive influence was gained
by them in the right of nominating the bisliops, especially the metropolitan.
The Church on the other hand was anxious to compel all its members to ob-
serve the well defined and slow process of a regular advancement from the
inferior to the superior stations, and disapproved of all translations of a
bishop from one diocese to another, as nothing less than spiritual adultery.
The emperor frequently entertained the appeals of those who considered
themselves aggrieved by the bishops. A regular system of punishments was
then appointed by the Church for all who should thus appeal from its deci-
sions to the emperor, {a) The emperors called together the general councils
of the Chui-ch, presided in them through their envoys, and published their
decrees as laws of the empire. (l>) As none but the Catholic Church was en-
titled to civil privileges, when dilTerent bishops were opposed to each other,
the emperor himself was obliged to decide which of them belonged to the
orthodox church. Hence many laws, even on matters of doctrine, were
enacted by them, and those who obtained their ends by court favor en-
couraged them in this and commended them for it. The imperial edicts were
also published by being read in the churches, (c) Many bishops who longed
for the imperial favor were pliant tools in the hands of ambitious rulers, and
the Italian clergy had some reason to suspect that a Greek bishop, for his
own emolument, could be induced to grant, without fear or shame, any
request which might be made of him. (d) The emperors, however, were ft'c-
quently the mere tools of an ecclesiastical party, and their laws for the regu-
lation of doctrines, when not confirmed by the authority of the Church, sel-
dom survived their authors. The freedom of the Church never wanted bold
and successful advocates, and though it was practically violated in every pos-
sible way, its legality was always acknowledged by the emperors themselves, (f)
The people generally regarded it as the highest princij)lo of law, that God
has bestowed all power on earth upon the monarchy and the priesthood, but
that he had assigned to each of these certain immovable boundaries whicl)
neither could transgress Avithout guilt and peril. (/)
§ 123. Power of the Church over the State.
The severity of the ancient Roman laws Avas much mitigated by the influ-
ence of Christianity whenever they did not fall in Avith the prejudices of
the Church, and thus a way was prepared for an acknowledgment of tho
a) Cone. Antioch. can. 12. [L<in<lon, p. ."J^. can. 12.1 Conxtunt. I. can. C.
I) Cone. Conntant. I. Ep. ml Tlicodos. (Jdinsi Tli. III. p. :>:>;.)
c) L. 20. Coil. Theod. <le rebus cccl. (XVI, 1.) ot Gothofredus ad li. I.
(1) .Vdnsi Th. IX. p. 153.
<•-) On the other hand Constantine's cjilscopacy {Euneh. vita Const. lA", 24.) w.is roferreil to wltl)
the .same semblance of argument ns was used for the sovereignty of llie bishops: Sozom. .,\t.
liußn. I, 2.
/) Gela.«iiis I. nil Amistasinm a. 404. {.U.in.ii Tli. AlII. p. 31.)
I3S ANCIKNT ClirUCII IlISToUV. I'Kl:. II. IMTKIilAL nn:nCII. A. I>. 312-800.
f^cnonil ri^'hts of man. (c) Some bishopü went so far as to oppo.sc even capitai
punishments, on the pround tliat their ])arl)arity wa.s incon.sistcnt with rca.son
and humanity. (!>) The right of asylum which liad formerly been conceded
to a few of tlio ancient temples was extended to all Cliristian churches, and
proved a serious detriment to the administration of ju.«tice. But Chryso»tom
lived to enjoy the triumph of seeing the very minister who.se exorbitant
power once tlireatencd to abolish this privilege, clinging to the altar for his
own protection, (c) Great political power Avas acquired by the bi.shops in
consequence of their personal influence among the people, and the devotion
of the emperors to theological controversies. The law gave them a certain
right to superintend the affairs of the congi-egations both in town and
country ; they also possessed a certain right, frequently usurped but finally
regulated by law, of acting as intercessors for those who were unfortunate or
criminal, and a certain kind of patronage was conceded to them for all 2>^r-
Bonae mhcraMlcs. ((T) The Church undertook the censorship of the morals
of civil functionaries, and summoned to their bar those who were above hu-
man enactments, (e) No one dared to meet the fury of a Governor of the
Pentapolis but Synesius the bishop. AVhen a whole city had fallen a sacri-
fice to the wrath of Theodoshis /., Ambrose ventured to give utterance to
the monarch's conscience, and the royal offender was excluded from the
Church. (/) AVhen an unlimited power was exercised by the civil rulers,
the Church thus became a safe retreat for popular freedom, and saints played
the part of tribunes of the people. Sometimes even royal honors were be-
stowed upon bishops, and Avhat was at first accorded by pious humility,
pious arrogance took care to demand and retain. From the truth that heavenly
things were superior to earthly, the inference was drawn that the hierarchy
should be greater than the monarchy, and should have precedence in earthly
dignity, {g) In his City of God, the secular power is described by Augustine
as an irrational despotism which commenced with a fratricide, and tends to
subversion that it may give place to the celestial kingdom.
§ 124. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.
Stti/ck, de oris, et iisu .jurisdictionis ecc. Hal. 1710. 4. (Opuscc. Th. XIV.) IT. M. I/ehfnxireit
Ilist, jurisd. ecc. Dss. III. 17T3ss. 4. Bruno Schilling, de ori^'. juri-sd. ecc. in causis civil. Lps. 1525. 4.
C F. A. Jungk, de Oiig. et progressu episcopalis jud. in causis civil, laicoruin usque ad Justinian.
Der. 18-32.
Although the sentence of the episcopal court, in its capacity of a court ot
a) Euseb. Vita Const, IV, 26. L. 2. Cod. Tlieoct. de poen. (IX. 40.)— C G. de Rhoer, Dissert, de
cfToctu rel. clir. in jurispr. Eom. Gron. 1T7G. IT. O. de Meyi>enhufg, de ehr. rel. vi et etfectu In ju?
civile (speciatim Institt. 1. I.) Gotting. 1828. 4. Troplong, do rinfluence du Christ snr le droit civi!
des Romains. Par. 1S4-3.
I) Ambro.". Ep. 25. 2Ö. (al. 51.52.) .4m(7«w«h, Ep. 133. 184. 153.— L. 15 et 16. Cod. Theod. do
poen. (IX. 40.)
c) Cod. Theod. de liis, qui ad Ecc confngiunt (IX. 45.) Socraf. VI, 5. Sozom. T III, 7.
d) Cone. Sardic. can. 7. Ambros. do Offic II, 29. Const. 22. 24. 27s. 80s. C. de Episa
judienti*. (I, 4.)
e) Cone. Arehtt. n. 814. c. 7. Gregor. Is.nz. Orat 17. (Th. I. p. 271.)
/) Synesii Ep. 57s. 72. SO.— /?H/f?i. XI, 13. Tlieodoret V, 17. Sozom. VII. 24. I^ 13. Cod. TTteod,
de poen. (IX, 40.) Comp. 7. L. F. Tafel, do Thessalonlca. Ber. 18:39. p. XLVIIss.
g) Constitt. apont. II, 34. Chri/sost. de Sacerd. Ill, l.—Sulp. Severi Vita M.irtini. o. 2a '
CHAP. III. CONSTITUTION. § 124. ECCLE9. JURISDICTION. § 123. PEOPERTV. 1 39
arbitration possessed a certain legal authority, (a) its voluntary jurisdiction
was not much needed under a Christian government, and after the sixth
century it was less resorted to. The claim that all causes relating to mar-
riage and to wills (causae mixtae) should he decided there, was generally
resisted by the secular tribunals, but the obstacles to marriage laid down in
the Mosaic law were recognized by the civil code, and were sometimes ex-
tended even to si)iritual relationships. Divorces very rarely, and the marriage
of divorced persons still loss frequently, Avero permitted by the episcopal
courts. These first became the ordinary tribunals for the clergy in civil causes
about the time of Justinian I., (J) but the municipal courts continued to exer-
cise jurisdiction as at first in criminal causes until Valentiiiian III. gave (452)
the plaintiff tlie privilege of choosing before which of tliese courts his cause
should be tried, (c) Justinian I. assigned particular parts of every such
criminal cause to each of these courts, (d) and Heraclius (623) entirely ex-
cluded them from the municipal courts, (f) According to ecclesiastical usage
it was thought unbecoming for a clergyman to appear in his own cause either
as plaintiff or defendant before a civil tribunal. (/) "When cited before the
emperor the bishops would indeed make their a{)pearance, but a sentence of
condemnation was not readily acknowledged except where a synod concurred
in it. In all matters purely ecclesiastical the episcopal courts and synods were
regarded as the only competent tribunals, (g)
§ 125. Church Property.
Jt-roinc a Costa (Richard Simon.) Hist, de loriginc ct du progrOs des revenus ecc. Frcf. 1GS4. 21.
Tliomassin. (§ 9. note b.) ^
The clergy were supported, especially under the first Christian emperors,
by revenues supplied by the government, by a portion of the propertj' they
inherited from the old temples, and by ecclesiastical possessions falling to
tliom from heretics. Though they often j)rcached to the people tliat they had
a divine right to the first-fruits and the tithes, their preaching was not much
regarded, {a) But when Constantine confirmed (321) to the people a com-
plete right to devise property at pleasure to the Church, such bequests be-
came an inexhaustible source of wealth, (b) It was not long before one
could scarcely die without being reminded of his duty to the Church, and a
law became necessary in which tlie clergy were forbidden to solicit such be-
quests (370). (r) As this wealth, however, was pos.sessed by the Church in
trust for the poor, it was looked upon with much afiection. All institutions
of benevolence originated in the Church, {d) Its wealth contributed to its
/ower and freedom. The management of the funds was generally in the
fl) Sozom. I, 9. The legal pa.«8npes in Ifase, de jure ccc. P. I. p. 53.'«.
I) Nov. 8.3. Praof. et § 1. Xoc. 12:?. c. 21.
c) L. 47. Co'l. TlieoJ. do Kplsc. (XVI, 2.) Xnv. 1. do Episc. judlclo In Aniani Collectlone,
d) Xov. 12.3. c. 21. § 1. e) Jn.stHli \V\h\. Tli. II. p. 13Cls.
'') Cone. Carth. III. a 397. can. 9. IV. a. 419. can. 19. Clialc, can. 9.
g) L. 1. Cod. Theod. do rcl. (XVI, 11.) JmUnl Kov. 123. c. 21. $ 2.
«) Bingham, Origg. eccl. V, 5. h) L. 4. Coil. Thfod. d« Kpl.^v. (XVI, 2.)
c) L. 20. Cod. Theod. do Episc. Comp. Ilieron. Ep. 34. (at. 2.) ad Nepotlan.
J) L. C. Cod. Theod. de Eplsa (XVl, 2.) Gelaaii Ep. IX. § 27.
140 ANCIENT cmuu'ii liisroiiv. n:i;. ii. imi'kkiai- ciii"i:(;ii. a. n. 312-»«.
bands of tlio bisliop, tlic distribiition of tlicm was regulated by certain i)rtj.
eise forms, and the alienation of the proj)erty was controlled by prescribed
conditions. Every ctmrcli Avas the legal heir of all the property which it?
intestate clergyman had accumulated from ecclesiastical revenues. "Whatever
tlio Church possessed was secured by an investment in real estate. This wag
variously taxed according to the disposition and wants of the different gov-
ernments, but it was usually exempted from extraordinarj', personal, and im-
proper burdens, (e)
§ 120. The Congregation ami the Clergy.
As the clergy were generally independent of the favor of the people by
their ecclesiastical possessions, the congregations were entirely shut out from
all participation in the government of the Church. Sometimes the people
still gave etFect to their wishes in a tumultuous manner, when a bishop was
chosen, and a certain influence was exercised on such occasions by distinguished
citizens, and was legalized by Justinian I., but it was disapproved of by the
second Synod of Nicaea (787). {a) In the West, however, and especially in
Rome, the people asserted their right to participate in elections, and the power
of the clergy was too dependent upon popular opinion to allow of many im-
portant privileges being withheld from the congregations. Even then some
voices continued to be raised in favor of a priesthood of all Christians before
God. (6) The clergy succeeded in throwing off the burdens Avhich the State
had imposed upon it, and a series of civil enactments became necessary to
prevent the entrance of too many persons into ecclesiastical offices. These
required that no person should be ordained except to supply the place of a
deceased clergyman, and none who owed any service to a master or to the
state without the consent of those to whom it was due. An unsuccessful at-
tempt was made to procure a law by Avhich none but indigent persons on
whom the state had no claim should be ordained to the sacred office. On the
other hand the spiritual power was frequently strengthened by the ordination
of distinguished philosophers, advocates, and high civil officers. In such
cases the law required that all landed property burdened with obligations to
the state should be surrendered to the municipal authorities. The clergy
were principally supported from the funds of the Church, but even as late as
the fifth century some ecclesiastical laws recommended that they should sus-
tain themselves by agricultural or other pursuits, {c) In the fourth century
the ordination of deaconesses was looked upon as a Montanistic custom, and
after the fifth their office was in the West entirely abolished. {(T) The choice
of all his clergy came into the hands of the bishop, although the presbyters
once more augmented their authority by their attempts in some instances to
become independent pastors both in town and country. In this way they
e) L. 1. Cod. 7neo(f. do annona. (XL, 1.) L. 15. IS. 21ss. Cocl Theod. de cxtraord. (XI, 6.) L. fti*
156S. Cod. Theod. de Kpisc.
0) Justin. Kov. 123. c. 1. Xov. 13". c. 2. Cone. NIc, II. can. 3.
1) August, de Civ. Dei. XX, 10. Ambrosiaster ad Eplies. 4, 11,
c) Cone. Carth. a. 419. can. 52. 53.
d) Ambroniaster in I. Tiai. 3, 11. Cone. Epaonense, c."vn. 21.
CHAP. III. COXSTITUTIOX. § 1'20. CLKRGY. § 127. PATIUAECnS 141
hoped to attain the position of the country bishops who had been supplanted
ever since the fourth century, and that the episcopal name might become les5
common and more important. Other jjresbyters, together Avith the deacons
as the clergy of the bishop's cliurch (cathedralLs), constituted the bishop's
privy council. One of these was cliosen an Archpresbyter, to preside over
the public worship, and another Avas appointed an Archdeacon, to preside
over the eijiscopal court, (e)
§ 127. The Patriarchs.
D. Blonde!, traite hist do la Prlmaut6 en I'cgl. Gen. 1641. f. J. Morini Exercitt ecc. ct bibl. (D?.
I. (le Patriarch, et Primat origg.) Par. 1609. C Janu.% de origg. Patriarch, clir. 1)^ II. Vit i'li. 4.
nwmansini I, 7-20,
The great dioceses and prerogatives ot the Bishops of Some, Alexandria,
and Antioch were recognized at Nicaca, on the ground of their being estab-
lished upon usage. («) At the Synod of Constantinople (381) the Bishop of
N'eio Rome was associated witli these, in rank next to the Roman bishop. (&)
His diocese was continually increasing, but at Chalcedon (-4.51) it was consti-
tuted of Thrace, perhaps already a part of it, (c) the more distant part of
Pontus, and Asia Minor. To him also was granted the privilege of receiving
complaints against the metropolitans of other dioceses, {J) since the foreign
bishops who were continually going to and from the imperial court formed
around him an almost perpetual council, (e) As by this arrangement the
Metropolitans of Ephesus, Ileraclea and New-Caesarea were subjected to his
jurisdiction, to save their dignities from detriment, a new ecclesiastical office
was introduced, to which the name of archbishop or exarch was applied. In
the fifth century, however, the name of Patriarch which had before com-
monly been applied to all bishoi)s was exclusively used to designate them.
To the patriarchs belonged the duty of ordaining the metropolitan.s, con-
vening synods of their whole dioceses, bringing to an iseue causes of more
than ordinary importance (causae majores), and deciding finally all cases of
appeal which might be submitted to them. These four great dioceses which
in the East alone corresponded tolerably well with the great provinces of the
empire were gradually made to include every part of the Church. Some
bishops, however, especially in the West, and in the East all in the island of
Cyprus, preserved their independence. The Bishop of JcrumUm was reck-
oned at Nicaea, as a mark of honorable respect, among the great bishops, and
after a long struggle he succeeded in throwing oti' the jurisdiction of the
Metropolitan of Caesarea, and at Chalcedon received Palestine as an inde-
pendent diocese. (/) The exorbitant and much abused power of the Alex-
andrian bishop was broken at Chalcedon. The two Eastern patriarchates
were also stripped of their power in consequence of the Monophysites and
e) PerUuh, v. Urspr. d. Arcliidinc. Ilildesh. \1U.
a) Cone Xic. can. 6. b) Cone. CotmUtnt. I. can. 3. c) Tims according to Socrat. II. ecc V, 8.
d) Cone. Cfuilcedon, can. 23. et 9.
«) 2wo5os fvh-i)ixoiffa. Cone. Chalc. Actio. IV. {ifansi Th. VII. p. 91s.)—./: Ä VnUr, r. 4
fiivoh. fV5. (KHist. Ardiiv. 1S23. V. 3.)
/) Cone. Kic. can. 7. Cone. Chalc. Actio VII. {Munni Th. VII. p. ISlss.)
142 AXCIKNT ClIUKCH IIISTOKY. I'KI:. II. IMTKIIIAL C1IUI:CII. A. I). Sl.'-V»<J.
Arabians. The Bishops of Old and Xew Rome alone stood as the representa-
tives of the Eastern and Western divisions of the era[>ire, and watched each
other with a jealous eye. The Patriarch of Constantinople was generally
powerful on account of the favor of the emperor, but he was also the subject
of the imperial caprice, while the Roman bishop was much more indepen-
dent, in consequence of his political position, and hence often became the
champion of ecclesiastical freedom and the prevailing orthodoxy. AVhca John
the Faster (after 587) assumed the title of an oecumenical bishop, Grefjory the
Great pronounced such a name unchristian, and in opposition to it took for him-
self the more Christian designation of a servant of the servants of God ; Greg-
ory's successors, with more sincerity, soon after assumed the name of a Uni-
versal Bishop. (</) Neither title was at tliat time entirely unknown. In the
edict of the usurper, Phocas, an acknowledgment was made, s-imply from
political and personal considerations, that the Roman Church was entitled to
the first rank. (Ä) Both these patriarchs were successful in their own pecu-
liar spheres, but the same political events which reduced the territories of the
one proportionally enlarged those of the other.
§ 128. The Roman Bishopric lefore Leo.
Epp. Kom. Poiitiflcum a S. demente usque ad Innoc. III. ed. Constant. Par. 1T21. rep. Schoene-
man??, Gott 1796. Tli. I. (until 432.)— C?. Salmasii, Libror. de Priinatu Papae P. I. c. apparatu. L.
B 1645.4.
The Roman bishop exercised a metropolitan jurisdiction over the ten
suhurbicarian provinces, which was as for as the political district of Rome
extended, (a) while the metropolitanates of the diocese of Jfalia, especially
Milan, under Ambrosius and his successors, claimed to be fully equal to him
within their respective dioceses. But Rome was the only see Avhich could
claim to be apostolic, and was almost the only medium of ecclesiastical connec-
tion with the East. The high reputation which it possessed with respect to
apostolical traditions, Avas so successfully and dispassionately used in the con-
troversies of the East, that the party which had the favor of Rome might
generally be sure of ultimate victory. Hence, her opinion and her decision
as a mediator was continually sought for and as readily given. And even
when her interference was disregarded, as in the case of Chrysostom, it was
always in behalf of humanity and the people. In consequence of its attach-
ment to the Nicaean creed when the whole Eastern Church was Arian, Fast
IJhjria sought a connection with the Roman Church, and the Bishop of
Thessalonica was regarded as a Roman vicar. This same state of atlairs
made the Roman court at the Council- of Sardica (847) a Court of Cassation,
for the reception of appeals in the case of bishops. (A) The Eastern
churches, when they were so disposed, and when united among themselves,
(7) Gregor. 1. "V. Ep. ISss. VII, 3Sss.—C. Jf. P/itf, de titak Patr. oecumenici, porno cridis. 17:35. 4.
{Tenipe Ildr. Th. IV. Sect. I. p. 99ss.)
/() Anaxttfi. in Vita Bonifacii III. Paulus Diac. gestaLongob. IV, 37.
a) Kortholt, lie Ecc. suburbicariis. Lp?. 1730s. 4. Dioeccsis üomae: Campania, Thoscia et Ui:;.
bria, Picenuin suburbicarjam, Sicilia, Apulia et Calabria, Bruttii et Luconia, Samntani, Sardinia, Cor-
Bica, Valeria.
h) Cone. S<trd. can. 8 et 5.
CUAP. III. CONSTITUTION. § 129. ROMAN SEE. § 129. LEO THE OIIEAT. 143
never hesitated to disregard tlie interference of the lioraan Lislioji, and the
Synods of Nicaea and Constantinople were entirely independent of his iutlu-
ence ; but when the patriarchs contended with each other, or with the impe-
rial court, his powerful friendsliip was generally sought by both parties, and
was often purcliased by concessions. From observing these facts, Innocent I.
became convinced that even in his day, nothing in the whole Christian world
could be brought to a decision without the cognizance of the Roman see, and
that, especially in matters of faith, all bishops were under the necessity of
consulting St. Peter, (c) The position of the Roman bishops in the state,
was that of powerful subjects who could be judged only by the emperor hiin-
self, {(T) but who, as in the case of Lihcrius for his defence of the Nicaean
creed, might sometimes be abused by him. (r) But, altliough the glory sur-
rounding the apostolic chair had already become so attractive, that those who
contended for it sometimes pressed toward it over the bodies of their com-
petitors, it was still the subject of derision and complaint among the hea-
then. (/) The recollection that this Avorldly glory commenced only in the
time of Constantine, gave occasion to the remark, that Sylvester (314-335)
lived long enough to do and witness what was suitable for a Roman bishop,
according to more modern views.
§ 129. Leo the Great, 440-401.
I. Leonis jr. Opp. eil. Pasch. Quesnel, Lngd. ITOO. 2 Tli. f. 1\ ct If. BuUeritti, Ven. 1753-5'
8 Th. f.
II. W. A. Arendt, Leo d. Gr. ii. s. Zeit. Mainz. 1S.35. G. PertiieJ, P. Leo's L Lebon n. Lehren.
Jen. 18-13. — Grienhach, Ds. locos comnnincs tlicol. colleetos ex Leone M. sistons. llal. 17CS. (Opuscc.
ed. Gahler, Th. I. p. 45ss.)
Leo /., justly called the Great, whether reference is had to his character
as a prince, or as a teacher of the Church in his day, was the real founder of
the subsequent greatness of the Roman see. Hitherto it had owed more to
its peculiar circumstances than to the power and sagacity of its bisho^is.
Wliat he now did was from a woll-dermcd aim, and a clear presage of a more
gloi'ious future. Regarding the Roman Church as in possession of the true
succession from the Apostle Peter, he looked upon it as the rock on which
the Catholic Church was built, and upon the Roman bishop as appointed by
God to be the head of the whole Church, and to have the care of its inter-
ests. Ilumbly conscious of his ])ersonal unworthiness for such an office, he
proudly trusted that Peter himself acted tlirougli him. He retaineil a firui
hold upon the oppo.sing Illyrian Cliurch, by the protection he gave to itii
bishops against the arcliiej)iscopal see of Thessalonica, which was reminded
that if he had shared with it some of his cares and duties, ho had by nc
means resigned any of his plenary powers, (ft) The disturbed state of the
African Church on account of the Arian Vandals, supplied liim with an occa-
sion for drawing Africa witliin the jurisdiction of the Roman patriarch,
imder the plea of tlie necussity of the case. Some complaints against the
c) Con-4(tnt. p. 89S. Spr,.
<}, Ep. Concilii lioin. ml Gnitlnn. n. 878. (ConKtimt. p. 529.) e) Theodortt. 11. eic II, 16a«.
/) Uieroj}. V.\>. 01. ml P.iiiini.icli. Ammhin. Marc. XXVII, 8. 9.
«) L<o ml Aiiastiusiiim Tlussnlciii. (0pp. Tli. I. p. C?G.)
ll-l ANCIKNT CllUnclI IIISTOnY. VVM. II. IMTEUIAL CAIVUCU. A. D. 812-800.
pcvcilfy of llilariiiH, llio Metropolitan of Arelate (Aries), supplied liiin witli
a pretext for inteiforing witli tlio affuirs of Gaul, Ililariu.'«, who was really
no severer toward others than toward himself, was ohlit,'ed to atone for the
indifleroiico with which lie heard of tlie .sensitiveness with wliich Rome had
heard of these comphiints, and for his refusal to acknowledge any trihunal
for him beyond the Alps. Valcntinian III. enacted a law Avhich declared
the apostolic see the supreme legislative and judicial authority for the whole
Church. Q>) Leo had dictated this law, and had satisfied the emperor that it
would be wise to unite the already crumbling provinces with the capital by
an ecclesiastical bond. It was originally intended only for the "West, but
even there it was ineffectual again.st Uilarius, (r') and in consequence of the
decay of the empire beyond the Alps, it became an empty legal title, to take
effect only in subsequent times. It was even then uncommon for a Roman
bishop to preach, but Leo declared that this was to be one of his ordinary
duties. As a proof that this was not neglected, he left ninety-six sermons
for various festivals, distinguished for their ecclesi.'istical spirit, their rhythmi-
cal harmony, and their grandiloquence, but without very strict logical con-
nection. If the work on the Call of all nations was written by him in his
early years, (<?) he proposed in it an accommodation of the controversial
questions then agitated in the "West. His epistle to Flavianus presents a
decision upon the theological disputes of the East. The tyranny of Dioscu-
rus, and the atrocities of the Robber-Synod, were a scandal to the whole
Church. Leo spared neither tears nor bold reproofs to prevent the evil con-
sequences which might follow that synod. The death of Theodosius II.
occurred in good time for his wishes, as no authority was superior to his with
the imperial pair who then ascended the throne of the East. His legates pre-
sided at Chalcedon, and every acquittal or condemnation which took place
there was in Leo's name. "When Attila had crossed the Alps, and Rome lay
helpless before the scourge of God (452), Leo, in his pontifical robes, went to
meet him, and the pagan conqueror of the world turned his hosts another way.
Attila may have seen good reasons for listening to the prayers and warnings
of the priest, but so miraculous seemed this deliverance of Italy, that in the
popular account of it, Peter himself stood by the side of his successor with
a brandished sword. (<)
§ 130. Tie Faimcy after Leo. Gregory the Great, 590-604.
Liber diunnis Horn. Pontificum, (Legal Usages of the Eom. See, collected about 715.) e<l. uoU
Hen. Roin. 1G58. Garner. Par. 16S0. 4. {Iloffmanni, nova Scrr. ac Monum. CoUectio. Lps. 1733. 4.
Th. II.) Anastasii Bihliothecarii (about 870), liber pontificalis s. vitao Roin. Pontif. a Petro Ap.
usque ad Nicol. I. (with the orig. docc only from the time of Constantine, 70S.) ed. BlancJUni^
Rom. 171S-S5. 4 Th. f. {iluratori, Rer. Ital. Scrr. Th. III. P. I.)
I. Greg. if. Expositio in Jobum s. Moralium 1. XXXV. Liber pastoralis curse. (Ingolst 1S25.)
DIalogorum de vita et miracc. Patrum Ital. et de aeternit. aniniar. 1. IV. Epp. 1. XIV. 0pp. ed Bene-
V) Leon. 0pp. Th. L p. 642. and Theodosii Nov. tit. 24.
c) Pertkel, Leo's Streit mit d. B. v. Aries. (Illgcn's Zeitschr. 1843. P. 2.)
d) De vocatione omnium gentium. Quesncl has, however, merely shown that it was possible for
Leo to be the author of this treatise. Comp. Perthel (as above), p. 127ss.
t) Heyne, de Leone Attilae et Qenserico supplice facto (0pp. acad. Goett. 17SS. Th. III. p. 134ss.)
CHAP. III. CONSTITUTION. § 130. GREGOEY TIIE Gr.E.V.T. 1 45
.lictt. Par. Ui'.'i. 4 Th. f. GaUiccioll, Yen. 176S.SS. 17 Th. 4. Paulus Wamefridi (about 775), de
vita S. Gregorii. JodnnU Ecc. Horn. Diaconi (about S75), de vita S. Greg. 1. IV. Both in tlie 4tb
vol. of the Benedictine ed.
ir. Maimbourg, Hist du Pontiflcat do S. Grfg. Par. 1CS6. 4. G. F. Wiggers, de G. M. ejasq
platitU antbropoL Kost. 1S39. P. L E. W. Marggraff, de G. M. viU Bcr. 1S45.
The Roman Lishops, "who after the sixth century wero called Popes,
as the Alexandrian bishops especially had before been designated, ackno^Y-
ledged that they, above all others, were bound to execute the edicts whicb
the Church sent forth from her councils, (^fi) but the historical ba:«is on which
their power was claimed was derived from the divine right of St. Peter.
Sometimes a vague and inconsiderate reference was made with the same
object even to Paul as the supreme head of the Gentile Church. (//) As the
imperial government was frequently powerless in Pome, the popes, by their
patrimonial rights as great proprietors, and by their episcopal court«, were
able sometimes to supply its place. More than once they delivered Pome
and the surrounding country from the hands of the barbarians. When,
therefore, the la^t shadow of the "Western Empire had disappeared (-iTCj, and
Arian monarclis had set up a German kingdom in Italy, the popes were
regarded by the Roman people as their native lord.«, and with the exception
of some instances in which they were abused by their conquerors, they were
the actual masters of the country. The Roman clergy of that day were pow-
erful enough to proclaim, that every interference of a layman in the affairs
of the Church, Avas by its own nature invalid, and that the successors of St.
Peter could be judged by none but God. (c) But when Justinian I. recon-
quered Italy, they again became dependent upon Constantinople, and even
their ancient reputation for orthodoxy was thus endangered. This continued
until the time of Gregory /., who saw that the only condition on which
ecclesiastical power could be enjoyed, was that they should throw off this
political dependence. In the midst of the embarrassments produced by the
settlement of the Longobards in Italy (after 508), he contrived so to use that
event that it prepared the way for their independence. lie was, however,
compelled himself to publish a law of the emperor which he regarded as
inconsistent with the law of God, (</) and to congratulate a regicide on his
accession to the throne, {e) lie was originally of a patrician family, and on
the road to the highest civil offices, when he suddenly renounced the world,
and turned the palace of his ancestors into a convent. From this he was
called to the government of the Church, but in the midst of pontifical splen-
dor his monastic severity became intense. Toward his doi>eudants he was
more and more imperious in his demands of duty to the Church, but lavish
in his expenditures upon the poor and the idle. By means of hi<< school for
music, he effected considerable improvements in psalmody, (/) and to the
public worship of Rome he imparted that mysterious pomp for vhich it has
a) Gelahii Ep. 13. (Vami Th. YIII. p. .M.) I) Gregor. .V. in I. Weg. 5. (Th. III. V. II. p. eSO.")
c) Cone, Rom. III. sub Symniaclio a. 5i>2. (.lAinoi Th. YIII. p. '26Cs.) Ennodii, L. apolo-,'. pro
Byn. IV. Rom. s. pahnari. (Munti Th. YIII. p. 2<4.es.)
d) L. III. Ep. 65. ad Maurlc. e) L. XIII. Ep. 31. nd Phocnni.
f) Gerhert, de can tu et muslca sacra. Banib. et Frib. 1774. Th. I. p. 247ss, />. AnUmi/, arcbaed
Lebrb. d. Oregurian KGesangs. Miinst, 1S29. 4.
10
14G ANciKNT ciiriicii msTf)i:v. pi;i:. ir. impkuial cin;i:rir. a. d. »12-soc.
since hoeii (listin^'iiislie<l. To llio sjuTaniciit of llie Lonl'e Supper cspcoiallj',
he pave tliee-^scntial characf er of a sacrifice of tlic ManH^ ((/) and tlioronplily im-
bued tlie j)opiilar iiiiiid with tlic notion of a Pvrfjntory. If Ijc did not authorize
tlio burning of the Palatino library, ho certainly had a great contempt for
•worldly science and literature, and thought it a sha«io for the ■word of God
to bo restrained by the rules of Donatus. {h) In his practical works he has
done quite as much to promote in the whole "Western Church a blind eccle-
siastical credulity as an intense zeal in behalf of the Church. lie was full of
passionate ardor to promote the kingdom of Christ, but that kingdom was
identical with that of the Poi)e. His successors sometimes acknowledged
their allegiance to thewemperor, but it was only when they were compelled
to do so. When contending for the faith, and about images, they never
hesitated to exclude even the monarch and the patriarchs of his court from
the communion of the Cliurch.
§ 131. General Councils and the Catholic Church.
The Synods of the Patriarchal and Metropolitan dioceses continued to be
the regular authorities for legislation and superior jurisdiction. The efforts
of the Church to attain general unity rendered it indisj^ensable, that as far
as political circumstances would allow, deputies of the whole Church should
be assembled for deciding .theological controversies. These general assem-
blies of the Church were in fact composed only of bishops residing within the
Eoman empire, and their organization was much influenced by the caprice
of the emperor and the patriarchs ; but as the main body of the Catholic
Church was found within the empire, and bishops from countries called bar-
barian were admitted to seats, these assemblies were looked upon as the
proper representatives of the Catholic Church, (a) Near the close of the
fourth century they therefore received the name of CEcumenical Synods,
although it was sometimes difficult to distinguish them from other orthodox
synods. Seven of these synods, in fact, gradually attained the authority of
oecumenical assemblies, and to these in the West was added the Synod of
Sardica, and in the Greek Church the Second Trullan Synod. The primary
object for which they were assembled was to determine theological questions,
but they also formed canons upon various legal subjects, and when occasion
called for it, they were the highest judicatories of the Church. Legal ques-
tions were decided by a majority of votes, but in matters of faith, unanimity
was secured by an exclusion of the dissenting minority. The ultimate de-
cisions were disregarded by those whose consciences were violated by them.
No one could pretend that all of them were true, as in the fourth century
synods were arrayed against each other. A celebrated bishop entirely de-
spaired of them, (h) and even less passionate teachers acknowledged, that
when the s[>irit of the Church shoiüd become more perfectly developed, a
0) Grtg. L. sacramentornm de clrcnlo anni s. Sncrauientarinm. Ordo et canon missae Grego-
rianiis in t'lp Codex liturg. Ecc. Kom. cur. U. A. Paiiie!, Lps. 1S47. — LUienthal. de canone missM
Greswriano Lucrd. 1740.
h) Ep. ad. Leandr. prefi.xed to the Expositio in .lobum.
a) EuBfl. Vita Const III, 7. ?.) Greg. Kaz. Ep. 55. ad. Trocop. (Tb. I. p. ?14.)
CHAP. III. CONSTITUTION. § ISl. (ECUM. SYNODS. CHAP. IV. ECCLE5. LIFE. 147
better expression of it might be expected from the Synods, (c) But even
at Chalcedon the decisions of the Kicaean Fathers were looked upon as an
immutable law, expressed by the divine Spirit himself. ((T) Past ages "wero
not supposed to possess any authority greater tlian the present. Ilence, from
about the time of the fifth oecumenical council, it was generally supposed
that every such oecumenical council, in matters of faith, declared the truth
in an infallible form in consequence of the Holy Spirit especially bestowed
upon the bishops. In these general assemblies the Catholic Church felt itself
to be what it was so anxious to be, viz.: The divine kingdom of Christ on
earth, the only source of truth and salvation, pervading, indeed, the whole
earth, but constituting a single external community, independent of all civil
power, and directed according to ecclesiastical laws by the Holy Ghost
through the bishops.
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 132. Religious Si^irit of the People and Ecclesiastical Discipline.
An earnest struggle was for some time kept up between primitive abste-
miousness and hostility to the world on the one hand, and the worldly-mind-
edness which had now entered the Church and those means by which it
sought gratification 'On the other. Plays, dances, oaths, and loans upon usury,
were declared to be sinful. But as a complete renunciation of the world was
found to be impossible in the new circumstances of the Church, a liigher sys-
tem of morality was devised for tlioso wlio would be perl'ect, and wore will-
ing to practise unnatural self-denials, and another of a lower nature, in which
many indulgences were allowed, was formed for ordinary Christians. The
former system ran great risks in consequence of the pride and hypocrisy
which were soon found to be incidental to it. From a nobler spirit of dis-
simulation, some persons of an eccentric character quietly submitted, or some-
times gave occasion to evil reports. (</) The practical wisdom tolerated by
the lower system was debased by the consciousness of its own imporfection.
Even marriage was looked upon as belonging to this lower condition. There
was some doubt Avhether it should be regarded as a necessary evil in general,
or as an inviolable sacrament, but second marriages wero condemned, and in
the West, after the fifth century, the marriage of a divorced person was pun-
ished as adultery, (/y) External forms, such as fasting, almsgiving, and
prayers, witliout reference to tlie internal spirit which produced them, wore
regarded as meritorious and expiatory. Tiio object of education was tlio
attainment of the most humble submission to authority, and the ideal of all
excellence was the mortifications and conflicts of the saints. Tlio means of
grace were often used as mere charms, and heathenish superstitions of every
c) Athanas. de synod. Arim. et Selcuc. c -W. (Th. I. p. 917.) Augiistin, do bopL c Donatlsl.
II, 8. (Gratian: c 8. D. X.) c. Mnximin. Arian. II, 14, 3.
rf) Cone. Chnlced. actio 1. {.V<in<ii Tli. VI. p. C7'.'.) Keopccting; Nicac.i, ConsUintine in So-
■srat I, 9. Isidor. Pelu«. L. IV. Ei). 09.
«) Ecagr. II. ecc IV, 53. ?<J Innocent I. Ep. 0, c. C. Comp. Cone. MiUtit. a. 4U>. c. 17.
J 43 ANciKNT ciiri:(ii iiistokt. pei:. ii. imtekial chukcii. a. u. 8i»-eoo
kind reinained in full force. We already find traces of the belief that men
could form n compact Avith the devil, from Avhicli no penitence conld obtain
deliverance but through the goodness of the holy Virgin, (c) But even in thiä
time of general helplessness the world was full of miracles. Christianity
was frequently a mere subject of controversy and of entertainments, and yet
l)eoplo took ])art in ecclesiastical affairs with an earnestness and activity
wliich ainounted to absurdity. ('0 Brotherly love was no longer the peculiar
badge of the Christian community, and an observing pagan remarks, that
oven wild beasts Avere not more furious against each otlier tlian were the
Christians of his day. (e) The Church had no remedy for this general cor-
ruption of social life, and for the luxury and extreme refinement which were
side by side with popular misery and universal servility. Indeed, it was
itself rapidly becoming swallowed up in the general abyss of the Roman
empire. Many were raised by it above the feeling of this relaxation of all
public relations, and made to participate in the liberty of the kingdom of the
Spirit. The severity of the ancient discipline was gradually made to yield
to new circumstances by numerous dispensations, but a multitude of minor
penances were introduced and regulated by a well-arranged penal code. In
the East the confession of secret sins was left to the option of each individ-
ual, and public opinion became inflexibly opposed to auricular confession, on
account of certain flagrant crimes known to have been connected with
It. (/) In the West, confession was more and more regarded as indispensa-
ble to forgiveness, but after Leo's time this might be made in the ear of a
prioet bound to secresy. (g)
§ 133. CeliliacT/ and Moral Condition of the Clergy.
Theiner, vol. 1. (§ 9. note 6.) CaroTe, Betracht d. Coel. part 1. Samnil. A. Coelibatsgesetze.
p art 2. Frkf. 1S32. C [/. Taylor, Ancient Christianity. Philad. 1S40. S.]
A larger number of synodal enactments were pnblished against the mar-
riage of priests after their ordination, but in the East, when even bishops had
been married before ordination, they were generally unmolested. "When a
new law on this subject was proposed at I^icaea, rapJmutius^ an aged con-
fessor and a rigid ascetic who had never touched a woman, so powerfully de-
fended the chastity and sanctity of the marriage state, that the liberty which
had always been customary in this matter was confirmed, ('t) and the Orien-
tal Church even anathematized those who rejected a married priest. Qi) The
right of a clergyman to live with a wife whom he had married before his
ordination, and who had been a free and spotless virgin before her marriage,
was also recognized and confirmed by the Trullan Synod, but the bishops
were required to separate themselves from their wives, (c) In the "VTest,
c) Aemil. Sommer, de Theophili cum diab. focdere. Ber. 1S44.
</) Oreff. yyss. Or. de Deitate Filii. (Th. I. p. 46Gs.) e) Ammian. Marcell. XXII, 5.
/) Socrat. n. ecc. V, 19.
g) Leon. Ep. 16S. c- 2. (0pp. p. 1430s.)— 2>rtWaf!/s, do sacrainentali 8. anricnlari Latlnor. confes
»ione. Gen. 16G1. 4. Boileau, Hist. conf. auric. Tar. 1CS4. Klee, d. Beichte. Frk£ 1S2S.
Q) Socrat. n. ecc. 1, 11. S<)zom. n. ecc. I, 23.
V) Socrat. II, 43. Syn. Gangr. a. SC2-3T0. c 4. (JTcins* Th. II. p. 1096.) comp. Can. apoet. 5.
c) Si/n, Ti-vU, CML 8. 6. 18.-12.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. § 1.3.3. CELIBACY. § 131. ORIENTAL MONAS. LIFE. 149
after tlio time of Siricius, Bi.^hop of Rome (385), the provincial sj-nods de-
clared that none hut suLdeacons sliould be allowed to have Avives, ('/) and
gradually the celibacy of the clergy wa.s universally demanded. Human
laws, however, were comparatively ineffectual when opposed to the very
nature of man. Although persons of aii elevated spirit among the clergy
maintained the same contempt of the world which had formerly prevailed,
and were rewarded and i)rompted to do so by the honor of their order, many
low-minded men were attracted by the wealth and honors of the Church,
and lived in hypocrisj", or in open devotion to worldly pleasure. These
looked upon the performance of outward worship as the sole business of the
priesthood, and changed their creed according to the imperial mandate. Sal-
v'lanvs wrote a satire against the covetousness of such priests, in which he
exhorted every one to purchase salvation in this easy way by a proper payment
for his sins, (e) But dark as was the picture of this corruption, [laintod by the
ecclesiastical teachers themselves, the very indignation which these express
against it, the ideal of the true priesthood which they held up, and the
acknowledgment which these received among their contemporaries, prove
that even exalted virtues were esteemed and found among the clergy. {/)
"When the barbarians overran the country, the priests were not only ready
to administer consolation and deliverance to their people in the performance
of their official duties, but to surrender their lives for their religion, (f/)
§ 134. Monastic Life in the East. Cont. from § Co.
PaUadii (d. about 420), Hist Lausiaca. Theodoreti, <pi\öbeos larop'ia ff u(7KrjTt«77 -iruXirda.
Saerat. IV, 23ss. Sozom. 1, 12-14. Ill, 14. VI, 2S-.04. Lives of the monastic fain(i>. ainl many let-
ters by Hieronyinns. Cacsiamts. (§ 12.) [S. P. Day, Monastic Institution?, their Origin, Process,
&c. 2 ed. Lond. 1846. 112.]
From the ethical sjstem which required a renunciation of the world, was
produced monasticism. The necessity of having some society induced tlie
hermits to assemble in cloisters (Kocvößiov, fxavBim, claustrum), and the bisliops
were favorable to an institution by means of which order and supervision
became practicable. Pacho)niu.<>, a disciple of Anthony, first establi.'jhed
monasteries for each sex on the island of Tabenna in the Nile (about 340),
and the same thing was subsequently done by Amun in the desert of Nitra,
by nUarion in the desert of Gaza, and by Basil the Great near New Caesa-
rea. Every convent was governed by rules imposed upon it by its founder,
but most of these required unconditional submission to tlie will of the supe-
rior (r;yoi'/i€i/or, dpx'-P-nvhinriii, (i,:(,i(lf). a complete surrender of all private
will and possessions, a mortilication of the sensual nature, and a life entirely
devoted to God and to divine things. Their time was wholly taken up with
pious exercises and ca.s'y manual employments. The tortures which they
inflicted on themselves when battling with the temptations of an excited
d) Sirieii, Ep. ad Iliinerluin c 7-9. (^Constant, p. C30s8.)
«) Adv. avaritiam 1. IV. (about 450.) Opi). cd. Buliii. Von. 172S.
/■) Gregor. A'de. ds iavrhu Ka\ T(pl iirLaKÖ-Kuv. Comp. UUnKui», Crcir. v. X;iz. )i. r>21s!<.
0) Socrdt. \1, G. Sozom. VIII, 4. Theodoret. V, 33. Vktor Vit et Vlit. Tnj'x. 0\'\>. 1CC4. 4.
p. 9. Xicejih. XIII, C.
150 ANCIKNI- CIlriK II IlISTOKV. IT.i:. II. IMPKIUAL flirr.CII. A. I). 312-800.
(ano3', freqiK'iith' cxcccdctl tlio rcf|nircment3 of tlieir rule, and POTricfimcs
Icriniiiiitcd in suicide or insanity. From tlie siijiprcssion of tlic natural, pro-
ooedcd unnatural passions. A return to the world was not impossible, but it
was threatened with ecclesiastical penances. After the time of Basil, the
opinion poncrally prevailed, that the marriage of a virgin espoused to God
was not oidy adulterous, but void. Some eminent teachers were opposed to
Ihis view, (") and there wore even some married monks. (I>) None but the
abbots Were usually ordained as priests, and in some instances these took
rank by the side of the bishops, their monasteries being looked upon as con-
gregations of laymen. But after a brief resistance on the part of the rigid
class, (r) the convents became the ordinary seminaries of the clergy. This
divine philosophy was so generally received, that cities became solitary and
deserts full of people. The burden of the declining state was not felt within
the cloister's walls, noble minds were attracted by the magnanimity of a bold
renunciation of the Avorld, and what was then regarded as the most exalted
state could not be found in the world. In the hands of the more violent
bishops, the monks became an easily excited host, which in their contests
with pagans and heretics often controlled the hearts and clubs of the popu-
lace, and feared neither tlie imperial despotism, nor the laws, nor human
nature itself.
§ 135. Hermits. Simeon Stylites.
Sozom. VI, 28-34. Rußni Vitae Patrum s. Hist eremitica. In the 2d vol. of the Yitae Patrttm,
ed. i?o»?c#?V7i«.<(, Antu. (1615.)162S. f. In the Protestant seloctiofl : Yitae P. repnrgatae p. G. Majo-
rem c. praef. LiMeri, A'it, 'iSU.— Theodoreti, Illst. rclisios. c. 23. Erar/r. U. ecc. 1, 13. Life of
Simeon, hy his pupil Antonius (Acta Sancton Jan. vol. I. p. 261ss.) anil his coDtemporary Coimas
{Aasemani Acta Mart P. II. p. 2CSss.)
l^Tot only might the nuns reside in the cloister, but they were sometimes
allowed even to remain in their father's house, or in the dwelling of a priest
(§ 04). The ordinary home of the monks was in the desert. The Anachorets
either entered into some fellowship with a neighboring monastery, or re-
mained solitary until some of them became half savages. In the lives of
those primitive fathers who were the idols of popular tradition, we meet
with exalted virtues and heroic self-tortures carried to such an extreme, that
human dignity and propriety were annihilated. We sometimes find a wis-
dom Avhich seems almost supernatural, and sometimes the pious simplicity of
an ecclesiastical mountebank like Paul the Simple.* Simeon, a Syrian, either
invented a new kind of life, or imitated that which prevailed among the
Indian penitents. TVTien a boy, hef forsook his flock, and more than once
was saved from a fanatical suicide in the convent. For thirty years, on a
pillar near Antioch (after 420), as a mediator between heaven and earth, he
l)rcached repentance to the astonished multitudes that gathere<l around him.
lie became an umpire and an apostle to the wild Arab tribes, and gave coun-
sel, and even dictated laws to an emperor, lie had imitators as late as the
a) Epiph, haer. 61, '. Aug^ist de bono viduit c 10. Comp. Cijpr. Ep. 62.
V) August, de haer. c 40. c) Cassian. de Instit cocnobb. XI, IT.
♦ General view of the accounts In TiUemont. T!i. VII. p. 144ss.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. § 13Ö. SIMEON STYLITES. § 136. BENEDICTIXES. 151
twelftli century, but wliile many endured his tortures, few attained tlie .«pirit
or the reputation of his life.
§ 136. Monastic'isin in the 7^es^ Benedictines.
Ilieron. niul OtHsian. (§ 134.) Dacherii et MahUlonii Acta Sanctor. Ord. S. Bcncd. (tii:
1100.) 1G6S-170I. 9 Th. f. Mahillonii Annalea Ord. 8. Bcne<l. (till 1157. Tar. 1TU3-39.) Luc.
1739-15. 6 Th. f. In the Praef. Saec I. p. 7 : Obsst do monachls In Occid. ante Eencdictnm.—
Gesch. d. Bencilictinerord. A. Spittle r' a \ot\cs. v. Gurlitt Ilanib. 1S23. 4. [Article in Edlnburgri
Eev. for Jan. 1S49, in Eclectic Magazine for April, 1S49.]
Monasticism became known in the "West through the followers of Athti
nasius. At first it was looked upon with astonishment, ridiculed or abhorred,
but in a short time it was extensively propagated through the influence of
Martin of Tours and Cassian in Gaul, of Ainbro?e and Jerome in Italy, and
of Augustine in Africa. j\larlimts, Bishop of Turonum (373-400), was the
saint of his people, was able to recognize Satan even in the form of tlie
Saviour, and according to his disciples, possessed power to suspend or confirm
the laws of the universe. He was carried to his grave by two thousand
monks. («) At first, those rules were adopted which had been devised in
the East, but it was soon found that the privations of the desert were not
suited to a Gallican stomach and winter, (h) JJenedicl of Xursia^ who had
dreamed away his youth in the grotto of Subiaco, and had been looked upon
as a saint by the mountain shepherds, established in the wilderness of
Monte Casslno (529) a society of monks, whose mild but well- arranged rules
and inviolable vows soon united most of the "Western monasteries into a per-
fectly organized community, and bound them to a useful course of life, (c)
Already, in Martin's establishment, the di-sciples had been employed in the
labor of co])ying books. ('/) So when Cassiodorus escaped from the storms
of his political life, and found refuge (538) in his convent of Vivarium, he
directed the attention of the monks to literary pusuits. (e) The Benedictines
preserved the monuments of antiquity for a more cultivated ago, made the
deserts fertile, and became the instructors of the people. The convents were
placed under the supervision of the bishops within whose diocese they were,
but these had no i)Ower to violate tlio constitution of the order. A few
monasteries attempted to escape the jurisdiction or the oppres.>;ioii of their
bishop, by putting themselves under the care of some distinguislied bishop
at a distance,
§ 137. Veneration for Saints.
In an ago when people quietly enjoyed all that they possessed, those cen-
turies in which painful struggles had been endured were looked upon as
heroic, and those heroes who had purchased victory with their blood were
invested with a growing splendor in the grateful recollections of subsequent
generations. The pious respect which all felt for their earthly remains, in
the course of time, and through the iiitluence of Egyptian customs and hea-
a) Sulpicil Sev. de vita B. Martini L. ot Ei>p. Grfg. Tur. do iiiiracc S. Mart
h) Sulpicii Set'. Dial. I, S. Cdxniiin. do in.stlt coon. I, 11.
c) Legends: Gregorii M. Dialog. 1. II. Kulo: IluUUn. Th. L p. lllss.
d) Sulp. Vita Mart, c. 10. e) Institt ad dlv. lect (§ 119. note g.)
152 ANCIKNT ClltllCII lIISTiiUV. VVAi. II. IMTKIÜAL CIIIT.CIT. A. I). 812-')0»).
tlionish Hiiperstitions, l)ecamo exapRcratcd into a veneration for their bones
injiny <>f wliioli were discovered by special miracles and revelations. Hr.
lucrative iinally became llie traffic in these relics, that various laws were
formed afjainst it. People took deli^dit in other and stranfre relics which had
been iu any way connected ■with the daily lives of former paints. Public
prayers for the martyrs were f^radnally chanjred into prayers to them as inter-
cessors with God, The same feeling which had induced their heathen ances-
tors to deify men, now led them to regard the saints as subordinate deities.
Some were honored only in those localities in which they had lived, or in
which their relics were preserved, but others in much larger circles. "Whole
orders and nations attached themselves to particular saints, and others were
made to preside over certain kinds of assistance. The heathen had some
occasion for ridiculing Christians on the ground that their religion had be-
come paganized. Agrippa's cheerful Pantheon, once dedicated to Jupiter
and all the gods, was now consecrated to the Mother of God and all the mar-
tyrs (G08). As soon as the Nestorian controversy had decided that the Vir-
gin had given birth to God, she was jdaced at the head of the saintly host.
Epiphanius, on the one hand, points out those as heretics C AvTihiKOfiapiaviral)
who believed that Mary had been the mother of several children after the
birth of our Saviour, and on the other calls a^ female sect (KoWvpiSiavoC)
which bestowed divine honors npon her by the offering of a cake, the priest-
esses of the Mother of God. (a) Though all were not agreed upon the sub-
ject, it was generally believed that her virginity was unimpaired even when
she brought forth offspring. Prayers were also addressed to anr/eh, espe-
cially as it seemed unsuitable that they should be regarded as inferior to the
saints. (Ji) Some persons who had been objects of devout admiration during
thßir lives, on account of their exalted or at least singular piety, were placed
by their contemporaries on an equality with the martyrs. In acknowledging
these as saints, the bishops only expressed the popular will. Such a venera-
tion, often amounting even to adoration, did indeed put imperfect mediators,
with their generally overwrought virtues, in the place of Christ, but it pre-
served in its freshness a poetic recollection of the illustrious examples of bet-
ter times. From the very nature of these recollections, they could never
attain their complete significance until they had been reproduced in popular
legends and stories. Thus St. Affiles with her lamb became the type of piou?
virginity, (c) just as Christopher had become the type of a dauntless man-
hood, Avhen he made diligent search among all the great men of the earth,
that he might serve only the greatest, and finally found what he desired in
the child Jesus. (J) Even the soil whick our Lord once trod became an
object of devotion on account of recollections of him. Beneath a temple of
Venus was discovered the grave of the risen Saviour, and over the spot Con-
stantine erected the Church of the Kesurrection. (e) His mother Helena
a) Epiph. Imcr. TS et n.— Munter c.e CoIIyrid. Cmaticis saec. IV. ^Miscell. Ilafii. ISIS. Th. I
Fasa 2.)
I) Amhros. de vidnis 9, S5. comp. JuKtin. Apol. I. c. 6.
c) Tillenumt. Tli. V. p. 344ss. d) Iteview of the Legends : Annalen d. Theol. lSo4. Xov.
<f) Euseb. Vita Con.*t III, '25-40.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. § 1:37. SAIKT5. § 135. PUB. AVOUSIIIP. FESTIVAL?. 153
bad Lerself baptized in the Jordan (32G), and it was near the close of thio
century that tlie lej^ends first delighted the hearts of men by revealing the
sacred cross, which has since been preserved unimpaired in spite of the
removal from it of innumerable pieces, (f) Annually, at Easter, pilgrims
assembled out of all countries around the sacred sepulchre.
§138. Fuhlic Worship.
The outward forms of religion became gradually more and more imposing.
From the ancient temples the incense and many ancient customs of heathenism
were transferred to the churches, (a) By the use of tapers and perpetual lamj)?,
the solemnity of nocturnal festivals was combined with the liglit of day. In
some places a piece of metal was struck by a hammer to call the people
together, but in the seventh century bcUs were used for tliat purpose. Soon
after, in face of continual opposition to all instrumental music, tlie organ
(o/j-yni/oi/), worthy of being the invention of a saint who had listened to the
minstrelsy of angels, was brought to Italy from Greece. (J) Church music in
alternate parts had been extended in every direction from Antioch, and had
been much improved, especially in tlie "West, after the time of Ambrosins. (<•)
In the Greek Cliurch the principal part of jtublic service consisted in the
sermon, though it was often only a rlietorical amusement rewarded by clap-
ping of hands. From looking upon the LonVs Suirper as a eucharist, men
gradually passed to regard it as an expiatorj' sacrifice, and we find in some
uncertain figures of speech, intimations of a change of the bread and wine
into the body and blood of Clirist. Lore-feasts long survived the renuncia-
tion of the ecclesiastical family life wliich had first given occasion for tliom,
and now took the form of repasts for the poor, prepared by tlio avIioIo
Church, but with only a few local exceptions they were regardeil, even in tlio
commencement of the fifth century, as an antiquated custom. As baptism
was generally administered to infiints, and in a public assembly, and as Chris-
tianity had now become universal, every thing like Christian mysteries had
been gradually laid aside, although some expressions (missa catechumenornm
et fidelium) derived from them still remained. A monkisli custom, in imita-
tion of the j)riests of Isis, who tried to as.sume the appearance of slaves by
shaving their heads, was so far adopted by the clergy of the fifth century in
the Eoman Church, that they merely made bare the crown of the head (ton-
sura Petri). Particular kinds of vestments were also adopted by the clergy for
their various orders and diJlorent sacred services. A wiiite Avoollen cloak, like
the holiday costume of the Greek bishops (tl)fxnff)i'>i)inv. ])aHiuin), was sent, after
the sixth century, by tlie pojjcs to tlie iudividiinl bisliops of the West as a
token of special iionor and of connection witli the apostolic see. In the sev-
/) According to (UfTerent nccounts: Sozom. II, !. (countcifelt letter of Cyril to Constantlus.)
At'ibros. Or. do oliitu Tlieodosil. Puitliiii Xolinii Ep. 81. (nl. 11.) comp. J. Dallaeus, Bdv. Latino
•iiin de ciiltus rol. dlijceto traditlonoiii. Gen. It'iOI. 4. p. 7ii4?.
o) Accordini: to MiiKsnril and MUlilMon : Blunt, Vestiges of Anc Manners and Customs discov
craWe in Mod. Italy and Sicily. Lond. IS.'.).
h) ChnjMufh'r, liist. Naclir. v. KOrficIn. Hint. 1755. J. Antony, Gescb. Darst. d. Entst. u. Ver
•ollk. d. Or-i'l. Münst. 1S:32. c) g 1;10. \v>\of.
154 AXOIKNT nifltCII HISTOKY. I'Ki:. H. IMPKIIIAL CIIUHCir. A. l>. 312 800.
cnth century, "Wostcni bishops carried -wit li tliein tlie ring and stufT. (d) Or.
Sunday^ Constantino ordered tliat all worldly einidoynicnts should cease, except
works of necessity in the field, and the nianuinission of slaves. The Roman
festival of the hirlh of Jesus, on the twenty-fifth of December, Avas adopted
also in the East in the time of Chrysostom. (f) Epiphany was then observed
as a celebration of Christ's baptism, and in the "West had a reference to the
Magi as the first fruits of the heathen world. The judaizing Pcmover having
been condemned at Kicaea, those who observed it in Asia Minor were
regarded as heretics (Tfo-a-a/jfrKatSe/caTirfu, Quartodecimani.) (./) The time
for the festival of Easter Avas announced at Alexandria, though sometimes
different days were observed in different provinces. The great Fast before
Easter was prescribed by the Church, and even the civil law required that
it should be regarded as a time for quiet reflection, though the number of
Jays included in it was not uniform. (;/) Some traces of a ])iou3 jireparation
for Christmas (adventus) appear in the seventh century. The fortieth day
of Pentecost was selected in the fourth century for the commemoration of
the Ascension of Christ (iopTr) tJJs avaXrj'^ecoi.) (/() In the other festivals was
exhibited the new spirit which had become prevalent in that age : Lady-
days, including the feast of the English Annunciation (^ tov (vuyye'Ki(Tnov,
annuntiationis, March 25th), and that of the churching of Avomen (purifica-
tionis, Feb. 2d) ; (/) a festival of All Martyrs, which occurs in the Greek
Church on the Sunday after Pentecost, and of xill Saints, which is observed
in the Roman Church on the 1st of N'ovember, the celebration of the First
Martyrs (Dec. 26th), and a festival for martyrs anä chtldren reterring to the
massacre of the children of Bethlehem (Dec. 28th). The heavenly birth-
days (deaths) of Peter and Paul (June 29th) were observed with peculiar
solemnity, especially in Rome. With similar pomp Avas observed there a fes-
tival in honor of St. Peter s chair (Feb. 22d), Avhich originally commemorated
the establishment of the Roman see, but being connected with the ancient
Roman feast for the dead (Feb. 19th), finally degenerated into a sacrificial
feast for the dead. The only festival yet observed in honor of the natural
birth of any saints, Avas that of John the Baptist, on the day of the year in
which the days began to shorten. (A) The yearly festival of the recovered
cross (Sept. 14th), called the Elevation of the Cross, was not suflficient to
inspire men Avith courage to defend the holy sepulchre. In contrast with
the heathenish festivities practised at the commencement of the secular year,
the Church at first set apart that tiuie for fasting; but in the seventh century,
Hew Ycar''s day Avas in some places connected Avith Christmas, and celebra-
ted as the Feast of the Circumcision. The Church usually commenced the
year with Easter, though in some instances at a later period it was dated
ff) J. dxi Tour, de orijrtne, antiquit et sancti'. vestium saccrdotalium. Par. 1CC-2. 4 Pertsch, lU
»rig., usu et auctorit. pallii. lUnist. 1754. 4. J. A. Scltmid, de annulo pastorali. Illmst 1705. 4
e) Planck; rariar. de orig. festi nat Chr. scntentt epicrisis. Gott. 1796. 4
/) Eiiseb. A'ita Const. Ill, IS. comp. 14. Socrat. I, 9. Coric. Antioch. can. 1. 7.
g) DaUaeu», de jp.iiinlis ct quadragcsima. Davcntr. 1654. 12.
/() /Torn. Alter d. II. F. Festes. {Woffnitz, lit. Joiirn. ISnC. vol. V. sect 3.)
i) Schmidt, proluss. Marianao c. priief. Mo-ihemii. Hlnist 1783. 4. Lamhertini, Ae J. C. Ma
Irisquo fcstis. Fatav. 1751. Uonn. 1766. C A) Augustini Horn. 287. comp. Jo. 3. Sft.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. § ISO. CHUECH AECHITECTUIIE & DECOr.ATION. 155
from Advent. Every church celebrated the day of its original consecration
and the days on which their j)atron saints died.
§ 139. Ecclesiastical Architecture and Works of Sacred Art.
Pomp. Sarnelli, antica BasilicograOa. Neap. 1CS6. 4. J. Fabricii, Or. de tcmplis vet Cliristt
Illnist. 1704. 4. Guttensohn e Knapp, Monuiri. dl rel. clirist ossla raccolta dcllo antithe cliicso dl
lloma dal qu.irto Sec. Eom. lS22ss. 3 vols. f. J'lutner u. HohUU, Iloms liasilikcn. (Bcsclir. d. Stadt
Itoin. vol. I. p. 41Tss.) (Bunsen) Die Basiliken d. christl. Eom. Müncli. 1S43. t.—JfurutoH, de tem-
plor. apud vet. cliristt ornatu. (Anecdota. Tli. I. p. ITSss.) J. G. Müller, bildl. Darst lin Sanctua-
riuin d. Kirchen v. 5. b. 14. Jalirli. Lintz. IjvÄ — Aiigimtl, ßeiträgo z. clir. KunstGesch. 1S41. vol. I.
IS4G. vol. 11. [If. G. Knight, Ecclcs. Arch, of It:i1y from Const to 1.0th cent 2 vols. Lond. 1S44.
Broxcn, Sacred Architecture, its rise, prog. Ac Lond. ISlC. 4. F. CIum, Church Arch, from the ear
liest ages to the present time. Lond. 1S50. 12.]
Immediately after the time of Con.-^tantine sprung up in all parts of tho
empire a desire as well as a necessity of building churches. They were gen-
erally erected over the graves of the martyrs, in the form and with the name
of the Basilica. This was an oblong parallelogram divided lengthwise by
double or quadruple rows of i)illars, and terminating in a semicircular liall
{ßr^^ia. Sanctuarium). Immediately upon these pillars rested a beam, which
iu wealthy churches was overlaid witli brass, or a second row of pillars with
arcades (S. Agnese), and above these a rather flat gable-roof. Before the
entrance was a quadrangular court (atrium, paradisus), surrounded with
colonnades, and with a fountain in the centre, {a) The division of the main
body of the church by a partition into an exterior and interior apartment
(f(i/j3r^| and i/ao's), was probably common only while tlie penitents were kept
apart from the congregation, and the catechumens were numerous. In some
churches, at a later period, the exterior hall became i^roperly a porch. In
tho sanctuary, separated from the other parts by lattice-work and curtains,
stood the main altar, behind which were tho seats for the priests, Avith tho
episcopal throne in the centre. Before tho altar was an elevated choir for
the singers, by tho side of which was a pulpit (dfißtop) or two. Smaller
churches, and iu general baptisteries, were in the Roman temple-form of tlie
liotunda., surrounded by pillars in tlie interior, and on the outside by a gable-
screen upon pillars. "When arcliitecturo had attained a more perfect Chris-
tian character, the foundation of the Basilica gradually assumed the form of
the cross (S. Paolo, 38C.) This was cither the Latin cross, when tho longest
arm formed the nave, or the Greek cross, when all the arms were equal, and
by connection with the rotunda, a cupola spanned the intersection in a licmi-
spherical vault, so as to be an image of tho heavens. Tho cliurch of St.
Sophia in Constantinople, as it was built by Justinian after tlio conllagration
(538), is tlie principal monument of this style, rillars and otiier ornaments
were frequently taken from tho heathen temples. The walls especially of
the sanctuary were adorned with figures in mosaic. These were for a short
time opi)osod, but they finally triumplicd, not so much on account of any
enthusiasm for tlie arts, as from the general tendency of men's minds in pub-
lic worship. Statues, however, were always excluded from tlio oriental
churches. Modern art still retained some of the skill which belonged tc
o) Eitneh. 11. ecc. X, 4.
156 ANCIICNT CIIUUCH IIISTOKV. TKlt. II. IMTKIIIAL CIIUIICH. A I). 312-WO.
antiquity. ]{iit u pious veneration at an early period produced an invariablt
tradition, tliat our Lord sliould bo represented as Salvatoi\ and liic ai)0stle8
■\vitli a serious and dij^'uified a.'ipcct, in ancient Koiiian costume. Tlio Motliei
■with lier child was painted after the Nestorian controversy. Crucifixes ap-
pear in the seventh century. Subjects for the arts were generally taken from
sacred history, but sometimes the lives and snfferings of the saints, and even
of living persons, were chosen. (5j In opposition to all representations of
the Father, it was alleged that he was visible only in the Son. ('■) The Trul-
Ian Council decided against the ancient representation of Christ as a lamb. {'!)
It was, however, a fundamental principle of all Christian art, that the visible
was to be only a type of the invisible. Pictures or images were to be a snb-
etitute for books to those who could not read. But before this, Augustine
had complained of some who adored the image itself, and women excused
their splendid garments by the plea that they were embroidered with scenes
from sacred history.
§ 140. Iconoclastic Controrcrsij.
I. Imperialia decreta de cultu Imaginum, coll. et ilhi,«tr. a .If. I/iiimini-feMio GoUlasto, Fref. 1608.
Jo. Damasceni h6yoi a.iTo\oyr\TiKo\ Trphi rovs SiaßäWovras ras aytas (Ikovu^. (0pp. Tb. I.
p. 305ss.) Xicephori Breviar. Hist, (till 7C9.) ed. Petavhis, Par. 1G16. Theophanes. (§ 92.)
II. Dallaeus, de imagiiiib. Lugd. 1642. Maimhourg, Hist, de I'heresio des Iconoclastes. Par.
16T9. and 16S3. 2 Th. 12. Spanhemii Hist, imaginuin restltuta. Lugd. 16S6. (0pp. Tb. II. I.) WalcJi,
Ketzergesch. vol. X. XI. F. L. Schlosser, Gescb. d. Bildersturm. Kaiser des ostrrmi. Keicbs. Frkf.
1S12.— J: J/aw, d. Bilderstreit, d. byz. Kaiser. Trier. 1S39.
A worship of certain persons was very intimately connected witli a wor-
ship of their images. Some of these had been painted, as people generally
believed, by apostolic hands, or had been miraculously sent down from
heaven, and were therefore supposed to be worthy of adoration (elKovoXciTpfUi).
But the spirit of primitive Christianity Avhich had always been so averse to
artificial representations, and the spiritual view of it which had recently
been revived by the reproaches of the votaries of Islam, soon took offence at
what seemed a new form of heathenism. Leo III., the Laurian, had all
images used for worship removed from the churches (T26), and becoming
irritated by opposition, he proceeded to destroy them (730). The pious sen-
sibilities of the people were violently wounded by this proceeding {(Ikovo-
KXaa-fjLos). But while some, during the conflict, became possessed of an idol-
atrous and absurd regard for images, others had their hatred to them so much
inflamed, that the persons represented by them became objects of contempt.
It is not difiicult, therefore, to perceive in this controversy a secret struggle
between the friends of progress and the advocates of a sensuous devotion,
between the Protestant and the Catholic principle. Political malcontents
took advantage of these dissensions, and a military despotism was arrayed
against the hierarchy. Constantinus Coproiymiis had a synod convened at
Constantinople (754), which claimed to be oecumenical, and in obedience to
the imperial requirement, rejected the use of images, {a) But the monks, in
V) Paulin. Xolan. Natal. Fe'.icis carm. 9 et 10. Sjtisd. Ep. 32.
c) Gi-üneüen, ü. biUll. Darst, d. Gotth. Stuttg. 1S2S. d) Can. S2.
a) The decrees maybe learned from the Acts of tlie Second Xicaean Council. [Laudon't Manna
uf Councils, p. 1S7.]
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. § 140. ICONOCLASTS. CHAP. V. OPPOSITION. 157
whose convent.s they were manufuctureil, i)hiced tliem-solves at the head o!
the popular i)arty, and after some encouragements from tlie Koman hiihop
raised an insurrection. A series of emperors, in fearful hostility to the feel-
ings of the people, continued the struggle against images. Two empresses
decided in favor of them : Irenc^ by whose direction the seventh oecumenical
synod at Nicaea (787) recognized the propriety of image-worship, (h) and
Theodora, who, after many vicissitudes in the struggle, proclaimed the vic-
tory of the image-worshippers (842), by ai)pointing an annual festival in
which the triumph of orthodoxy (!] KvpiuKfj Trjs o/jSoSo^taj) should be com-
memorated.
CHAP, v.— OPPONENTS OF THE ORDINARY ECCLESIASTICAL
SYSTEM.
§ 141. General View.
As Catholicism became more and more developed, individual protests
were heard against every departure of the Church from the .'^imijlicity of
apostolical Christianity. This protesting spirit was sliown sometimes by
teachers of liigh standing, when they boldly reproved crimes committed in
the Church, and advocated a spiritual Avor.shij) instead of one Avhich was
merely external, and sometimes by men in inferior stations, but with a more
decided and hostile opposition to the Church of their age. Among these we
should distinguish between those ])arties whicli were striving to exceed the
ordinary Church in strictness and purity, but which came down from earlier
times, and those which had recently spnmg up in opposition to the new ten-
dency of the ecclesiastical spirit.
§ 142. The Donatists.
I. OpUitus Mtlevitanus (about 8CS), de scliismnto Ronatistarum, also, Monntnenta vett. ad Do-
naJist. Hist, pcrtincntia, cd. L. E. Du Pin, Par. 1700s. Augustine's Controv. Writing. 0pp. Th. IX.
II. Valesim, de schism. Don.itist (followinfc Ids edit, of Euscb.) Hist. Donati.st ex. KorUianiit
Bchedis cxcerpta. {S'orisii Opp. cdd. Ballerini, Veron. 1729ss. f. Th. IV.) Wulch, Ketzergesch. vul.
IV. A. lioua; do August, adversario Donatift. Lugd. B. 1838.
The schism of the Donatists was produced by those Avho favored a rigid
and inexorable ecclesiastical discipline, in oj)position to the lenient and pru-
dent policy of the later Church, and those who longed for martyrdom. "When
Caecilianus, who as an archdeacon had been unfrioiully to the confessors, was
chosen Bishop of Carthage, and w.as ordained by a traditor (311), those who
were opposed to him set up Majorinvs as a rival bishop. The latter was
succeeded by Donaftis, called by his adherents the Great, who with his friend
Donatus of Casae-nigra gave name to his party. In their views of the
Church, and in the exdusiveness with which they administered baptism, this
sect only adhered to the primitive African traditioiiB. On their afiplieation
to Constantine, a commission was api)ointed at Rome (813), and a synod was
dssembled at Arelate (314), to investigate their cause. lu conformity with
I) C&nc. Nicaen. IL Acts in ifansi Th. XIL p. O.'l.-XIIL p. S20. [Summary of them In /..in-
ion, p. 486.1
(58 ANciKNT ntrncii iiisnuiY. vim. ir. imi'kkial ( ihixh. a. i>. 312-soo.
the decision of llieso boclio«', severe Iunvh were proclaimed by Ihc empcrur
n^'ainst tlicin. ]{ut tlic peasants and soine wandering tribes of Xumidia and
}»Iauritania (Aijonistici, Circnincelliones), who liad never really been subject
to tlio lioniau dominion, seized their clubs to avenge the conflagration of
their churches, and the blood of some of their priests. "With a wild love of
slaughter, they maintained during the fourth century a predatory war with
the Catholic Church and the Roman empire. Avgunline endeavored to con-
ciliate or to confute the milder portion of this party (411), but with little
success. Tlioy Avere finally overcome by the Roman laws and legions, but
not until individuals had struggled and suffered on till some time in the sev-
enth century, and had shown the prodigious power which even a mistaken
faith may exert over sincere, vigorous and gloomy dispositions.
§ 143, AuiUans. Jla.ssalian».
Audius broke off from the Church in Mesopotamia, because it paid no
attention to his formal reproofs, and he finally establislied monastic commu-
nities in Scythia (about 340), which observed the passover according to the
Jewish mode, and are said to have believed that God possesses a human
form, (ft) The Christian Massalinns {•{h^'O . Y-lxi^rai, in Armenia and Syria,
after 360) held, that to overcome the evil disposition of the natural heart, it
was necessary to pray internally without intermission ; that all other means
of grace were indiflerent, and that labor was sinful. They wandered about
and begged, refusing to hold any property of their own on earth. All traces
of them disappear in the seventh century, (b)
§ 144. Friscillianvs.
Sitlpic. Sev. IT. sacr. II, 46-31. Ill, llss. Oro^ii Coinmonltorluin ad. Aug. de errore Priscillian-
istar. (Aug. 0pp. Tli. \lll.)—Walch, Ketzerhist. vol. III. p. 373ss. & van Tries, de Priscillianistls.
Traj. 1745. 4 J. II. B. Lübkert, de haeresi Priscillianistar. Uann. 1S40.
Under Manichaean influence a Gnostic party more rigid than the Church
was formed under Priscillianus (379), the object of which was, by unusual
self-denials and efforts, to release the spirit from its natural life. At the
Synod of Caesar Augusta (380), Itacius., a bishop, procured their condemna-
tion, and obtained from the emperor Gratian a decree, according to which
they Avere no longer to be tolerated on earth. But having gained the favor
of the court, they began to think of persecuting their opponents, when Gra-
tian was hurled from Ids throne by his general Maximus. The usurper gave
his countenance to the party of Itacius, and Priscillian was summoned to
Treves, where he was put to death by the sword (385). This was the first
time in which the blood of a heretic was shed by the solemn forms of law.
The Church was struck with horror at the act. The Priscillianists, roused to
enthusiasm by the blood of their martyr, survived the persecution until some
time in the sixth century.
«) Epipli. haer. 70. Theodoret. haer. fabb. IV, '.(. II. ecc. IV, 9.
V) Epiph. haer. SO. Theoaoret. haer. fabb. IV, 11. II. ecc. IV, 10. Photii cod. 52.
CHAP V OPPOSITION. § 140. AERIUS. JOVINIANUS. § 14'3. PAULICIANS. 159
I 145. Protesting Ecclesiastical Teachen.
Aerius^ a presbyter in Sebasto, in opposition to Ijis former iVien-l and
bishop £i(stntliius, tangbt that there was no essential distinction between
bishops and presbyters; that fa.sts ordained by *he authority of the Cliurch
were Jewish compulsory forms, and that prayers and alms were of no avail
for the dead. This schism at Sebaste appears to have become extinct prin-
cipally because the monastic ethics of Eustathius were rejected at the Synod
of Gangra (between 3G2 and 370). {n) Jovinianus, a Roman ascetic, maintained
that there was no difference before God between fasting and a pious enjoy-
ment of food, nor between a state of celibacy and an honorable wedlock, and
that a diflerence in good works presents no reason for expecting difterent
degrees of reward. For these opinions he was expelled from the Church,
first by his bishop Siricius, and then on the report ofthat jjrelate, by Amlro-
sius of Milan, to whom he had applied for redress (about 388). (J) Vigilan-
tius, a native of Gaul and a presbyter in Barcelona, in an eloquent treatise
denounced the ecclesiastical superstition of honoring deceased persons as idol-
atry, vigils as occasions for licentiousness, and vows of chastity as tempta-
tions to unnatural lusts, and maintainM that it was far more Christian to
use in a wise and beneficent way the property which had been inherited,
than to cast it away as a burden. He was fixvored by his bishop and some
neighboring prelates, but Eieronymus defended again-^t him the customs of
the Church with all his accustomed asperity, (c)
§ 140. nistory of the Paidicians. Sect. T.
I. Petrus Siculus (ahovXi'd) ItrTopla irfpl t^j alpffffws Movix<»'"»' ruv ica. nauXiKtaväiy
\iyofj.(vuv, gr. et lat ed. Jiaderus, Ingolst 1C04. 4. GieKeler, Gott. 1S4C. 4. Pfajtiiti, nepl Tr,s
Mai'tX'^lwv a.va$\aaTrt<T(ooi, (Wolßi Anecdot gr. Ilnmb. 1722. Th. I. II. & Gnll>in'Ui Bibl. Tli.
XIII.) Jo. Damasc. AtaKoyoi Kara Mauixai<^v. (0pp. Th. I. p. 4'2Sss.) Jo. Ozriiensh, Arnie-
niorum Catholici, Or. c. Paulici.inos, after 71*. (0pp. oil. AiicJier, Vcn. 1S.^4. Comp, n'iiiifincfiminin
In (1. Tub. Qiiartalscbr. 1S35. P. 1. Koriimla roooptinnis Mnnich. ( Tollii Insiirnia itin. It:ilici. p. 14-l<.«.)
II. Frill. Schmiif, Ilist, Paulicianoruiii orieiitaliiim. llafn. 1S26. {EiigelhariH) Die Paiilic. (Wi-
ners n. Engelh. Journ. 1S27. vol. VII. Part 1. 2.) GUneler, ü. d. Paulic. (Stud. u. Krl!. 1S20. vol. II.
P.l.)
Constantinc^ from the neighborhood of Samosata, and connected with a
Gnostic congregation at Cihossa in Armenia, found in the jjcrusal of the Now
Testament a world unknown, and became animated with the hope (about (j(iO),
of bringing back a state of things like that which had prevailed in the Apos-
tolic Church, He assumed the name of Sylranus, and called those commu-
nities whicli acknowledged him as a Reformer, Paulino congregations. By
their opponents they were called Paulicians (at first according to I. Cor. 1, 12);
a) Kpli<h. Iiair. 75. Gangra: Mansi Tli. H. p. KlOSs.«. comp. Socrat. 11,4;?. [Art In K\u<)"s
Journal of Bibl. Lit. vol. IV.]
h) Siricii Ep. nd dlvorsos Episc, adv. Juvlii. {ConnUtnt. p. 6C3s».) Ambro*ii KeJcrlpt nd Sirlo.
{lb. p. 670ss.) Hieran. 1. II. ndv. Jovln. (392.) Atiguatin. : De liocr. c. S2. Dc bono conjugall. De
s. vlrginit
c) Ilieron. Ep. 37. ad Ripuarlum n. 4o|. and Llbcr wlv. Vigil, n. 406. (Th. IV.) Gfnniidii de \\t.
Illustr. c. PP.— ,/. G. Walih. dc VIg. linpr.tkoortliodoxo. .Ton. 17."W. (Potfii Syll. Cmtt theol. Th.
VII.) G. J>. /.intlner. dc Jovln. ct Vigil, imrlorls d(x:lr. antcsignanis. Lps. 1>10.
IGO ANC'IKNT C'UUIXH IIISTOKY. PKi:. II. (iKIlMANIC CIIUKCH. A. I). 31J-SO0.
but tlicy tlioinsolves acknowledged no nariio but that of Christians, and aj»
plied the titio of Ilonians to the Catholics. Thoy adhered to tlie Gnostic doo
trincs whic-h maintained that the history of the world exhibits only the «trug
^rlc between the good and the evil principle», that Judaism was the work of
an inferior sjjirit, that the Old Testament was no part of the holy Scriptures
(Jo. 10, 8), and that the conflict of the flesh with the spirit was in conse-
quence of their creation by two difierent creators. Their principal attention
however, was directed to a revival of apostolic and spiritual Cliristianity.
On every subject they appealed to the New Testament as a sacred book for
the people in the text used by the Church, but with the exclusion of the
Epistles of Peter. They rejected all the external forms then in use, as the
ecclesiastical system, fasts and monasticism, worship of saints and of Mar}-,
crosses and relicts, and regarded baptism and the Lord's supper as only
spiritual acts. Constantine was killed (about G8-4) by a traitor, but at the in-
stigation of an imperial officer. The community always had a chief like him,
and called after one of the companions of Paul, but neither he nor any of his
fellow-pilgrims (avveKdrjuoi) and scribes (voTclpioi) exercised, any hierarchical
powers. As they were joined by sc«ne Manichaean congregations and were
favored by the iconoclasts, the Paulicians spread over the extreme provinces
of Asia, in spite of bloody persecutions from without, and their own internal
divisions. Their principal city was Phanaroea in Ilelenopontus. Some of
them considered it right to adopt the doctrines of the Church with an alle-
gorical signification, and to submit to the external forms of the Catholic wor-
ship, on the ground that these might be beneficial to the body. The death
of Constantine was so heroic that the very judge who condemned him, after
some years, left the capital of that region to take his place. The reproach
of unnatural licentiousness which was cast upon them may have been occa-
sioned by their entire disregard of the Mosaic prohibitions with respect to
consanguinity. It is, however, possible that their opposition to the law near
the end of the eighth century, may have given occasion to a moral degene-
racy, of Avhich their overseer, Baancs (6 pvnapöi)^ may have been the most
prominent specimen.
DIVISION II. -THE GERMANIC CHURCH.
§ 147. Original Authorities.
I. Semlei; Vers, den Gebr. d. Quellen in d. Staats-u. KOesch. d. mittl. Zeiten zu erleichtern. Hal.
1761. Jtösler, de annalium medii aevi condit & de arte crit. in aiin. Tüb. ITSSs. 4 Daldmann,
Quellenkunde d. deutschen Gesch. Gott (1S30.) lS-33.— J/i?i6o/nü rer. Germ. Scriptores. Illrast 16SS>s.
8 Th. f. Leihnits, Scrr. rer. Brnnsvic lllustrationi inservientes. Ilan. ITOTss. 3 Th. f. Freheri rer.
Germ. Scrr. ed. Struve, Argent l'lTss. 8 Th. f. Ilarzheviü Concilia Germ, (tili 1747.) Col. 1759ss.
11 Th. C Ussermanni Monumenta res Alem.<innicas illustr. Typis S. Blasian. 1790. 2 vols. 4. Perts,
Mon. Germ, hlstorica. Han. lS26ss. S Th. f.— Du Cheme, Hist Francor. Scrr. P.sr. IWSss. 5 Th. f.
Bouquet- Dom £rin!, rer. Gallicar. et Franc. Scrr. Par. 173S-1S33. 19 Th. t—Jfiiratori, rer. ItaL
Scrr. Mediol. 1723ss. 21 Th. t.—Eccard, Corpus hist medii aevi. Lps. 1728. 2 Th. f. 1) Gregor. Tu-
ronens. Hist eccl. Francor. 1. X. tili 594, selected from & cont by Fredegar till 641. ed. liuinart.
Par. 1699. f. {Bouquet, Th. II. p. 75.) Beda VenerahUis, Ilist eccl. gentis Anglor. L V. tili 731.
Ed. Jo. Smith, Cantabr. 1722. f. Stevenson, Lond. 1S3S. [Bede's Eccles. Hist with the Sax. Chron.
DIV. II. GERMANIC CIIÜRCII. § 147. ORIGINAL AUTII0UITIE3. 161
transl. Into Engl, with notes, maps, &c. by J. A. Giles, Lend. 1845.] 2) Jomande», de rcb. Oetlel«
till 540. Ed. Fuhric. Hamb. 1706. f. {ifuratoH Th. I. P. L p. 187.) Mdor. IliDp. Illst Oothorum.
Vandaloruui, Suevorum till 62Ö. Ed. Hosier, Tub. ISM. 4. Isidor. Pacens. (about 754.) Clironicon.
(//«7!r/(7Ke/'/o/-e2, E.^pafla sagrada, Madr. 174:?8s. Tli. VIII. Du Chesne Th. I.) Pmihut Warne'
fiidl, Didconus, de gestis Longobard. I. YI. till 744. (Jfuratori Th. L P. I. p. SOr>.) 3) Annalcs rer.
Francicaruni : LaurUsenses 741-829, revised & cont. since 788 by Eiiihard. {PerU Th. I. p. 124.)
II. Rühg, Gesch. d. Xlittelalt Brl. ISIC. IlnlUim, [State of Europe daring tbo Middle Ages.
Lond. 1846. 3 vols. 8. New York, 1847. 8.] Luden, Gesch. d. MA. Jen. 182K 2 vols. Rehm, Gescli.
<1. MA. Marb. 1821-35. 3 vols. J^o, Gesch. d. MA. Hal. 1S80. 2 vols. iToelUr, Precis do I'llist du
moycn äge. Lonv. 1841. Gibbon & Schlosser in their lar^'cr works. — Wadismuth, europ. Sittcn-
gesch. Lps. 1831-33. 2 vols. Charpentier, Illst litteraire du moyen age. Par. 1S33.— 7?. v. liaiimer,
die Einwirlc d. Christenth. a. d. Althochdeutsche Sprache. Stuttg. 1845. F. W. Rettherg, KGesch.
Deutschlands. GOtt, 1S4C. vol. I. [P. KolUrausch Hist of Germ. transL by J. D. Ilaas. New York.
1847. 8. J. J. Maseon, Hist of the Ancient Germans, transl. by T.ediard, Lond. 1S33. 2 vols. 4. T.
Greenwood, First Book of the Ilist of the Germans: Barbaric Period. Lond. 1836. 4. S. A. Ihin-
futm, IL of Eur. during the Mid. Ages. Lond. 4 vols. 12. IK Jfemel, II. of Germ. transL by G. Hör-
rocks. Lond. 1S4S. S vols. 12. Gttizot, IL of Civilization. New York. 1840. 4 vols. 12.]
A picture of this age is especially to be found in some contemporary bio-
graphies (a) and letters (I) of persons prominent in the Church or State of
that day. A vivid representation of German alfairs, as they would appear to
a Roman, is given by Procopius. (c) The German historical writers were ex-
clusively clergymen, and confine their attention to their own respective na-
tions, with only occasional glances at the affairs of others in the vicinity.
Gregory of Tours (d. 595) and the Venerable Bede (d. 735) wrote ecclesia.sti-
cal histories. The former, with an honest simplicity and an excessive faith,
described a rude age as a warning to all who might bo tempted to treat the
Church with violence, (d) The latter collected together the original documents
and traditions relating to the history of the English Church, as they existed
among the clergy, and presented them in a learned style and in the spirit of
the Anglo-Saxon Church, for the instruction of subsequent ages. Jornandes
(Jordanis, about 550), a monk, possibly a bishop, but at an earlier period a
private secretary, an Ostrogoth but not an Arian, wrote a history of his na-
tion both in the East and in the West. Ilis was the first German voice heard
in the midst of the national migrations. His materials were principally de-
rived from Roman authorities, and his notices of ecclesiastical affairs are not
very abundant. Paul (d. 799), the son of IVarnefrid, a monk of Montecassino,
belonging to the literary circle around Charles the Great, collected and incor-
porated in his history of the Longobards, the lively traditions preserved among
the people. Ecclesiastical subjects always seemed interesting to him, but ho
has introduced them but sparingly into his narrative. In the Annals of the
convent of Loritch^ as well as in those of £</inhard^ the exploits of the Frank-
isb kings, and their relations to the Church, arc recorded in a simple and con-
cise style, but with respect to the principal facts in the animated language
of interested witnesses.
a) Generally in PerU Th. I. II. h) Especially Spp. Sonl/. Jb Codex CaroltnuB.
c) Do hello Vandalico. Do bello Gothlco. Ed. G. Dindorf, Bonn. 1833. 2 vol.'i.
d) Löhell, Gregor, v. Tours u. .s. Zeit Lpz. 1835. t'. O. Kries, de Gre«. Tur. VIU et Scriptis.
Trat. 1839.
11
162 AN'CIKNT CIIUKCII lIISTOIiV. rKIt. II. GERMANIC CMUnCH. A. D. 81!>-90D.
CHAP. I.— ESTAT5LISnMENT OF CIIRISTIAXJTY.
§ 148. Religion of the Gcriuans.
I. 1) T,tciti r.orm. c. 2. 9. 11. 27. 39. 40. «. 45. Annal. XIII, 57. Hist. IV, U. 2) Abrcnnntlati«.
flinboll it Inill<Miln.s8iiperstllioniini ot pncanlarnm, c. a. 743. (Kpp. /?on//(<c. cd. Würdtw. p. 12««.
/•«ffaTh. III. p. 19s,) Ciipitiilatio <lo partll). Sa.t. {Wulter, Corp.jiir. Germ. Th. 11. p. lOKs.)
II. Monf, Oescli. (1. Ileiilentli. im nördl. Europa. Lps. u. Darinst l&22s. vol. II. p. 1-822. Jac.
Orimm, Deutsche Mytliolo^'te. Oiitt (183.'5.) 1940. L. Uldnwl, d. Mythus v. Thor. Stuttg. 1S36. G.
Klemm, llandb. d. germ. Altorthumskunde. Drcsd. 1836. [/). Mallet, Northern Antiquities»
Lond. 1S4S. S.)
When the Germans first began to have intercourse with the Roman Em-
pire, either as allies or as enemies, they were trained, not for civilization,
but for military freedom. They were a bold, faithful, and chaste people, high-
spirited whether in life or death, living by agriculture or by the sword, and
addicted to no excesses but those of the table. Their women were admitted
to equal privileges with themselves, and indeed were supposed to possess a
peculiarly holy and prophetic character. Their history was preserved in oral
traditions and poems. Their religion, as described by Tacitus, was a respect-
ful aAve in the presence of a mysterious power, which ruled over all things
and was worshipped by all who spoke a common language, however variously
apprehended by different tribes. In the ancient songs, lliuiUo^ a deity which
sprung from the earth, and his son Mannus, the man, are extolled as the an-
cestors of the nation. The Semnones boasted that they were in possession
of the most ancient sanctuary. There a divinity who ruled over all was wor-
shipped in a forest so sacred that none could enter it but in fetters. The
deputies of all the tribes belonging to the same race assembled there to cele-
brate a festival for the whole confederacy. On such an occasion a human
being was offered up in sacrifice, as none but the most exalted being of earth
appeared to them worthy of the Deity. Captives taken in war were gene-
rally the victims, and in extreme circumstances a whole hostile army was de-
voted to death. On an island of the ocean was a grove sacred to Bertha
(Xerthus). At times her veiled chariot was drawn forth dispensing joy and
peace among the people. On her return the goddess and lier chariot were
plunged into a mysterious sea, and all the slaves who had attended her were
swallowed up in the waves. Other gods are mentioned by Tacitus, but with
Roman names. There was a god of wisdom, another of power, another of
war, and tAvo youthful brothers like Castor and Pollux, but natives of the
country, and served by a priest in a woman's apparel. Victory in battle was
the gift of the gods. These were supposed to have their home beyond the
great ocean from which their forms were sometimes seen to emerge and illu-
minate all around them by the beams which streamed from their heads. Per-
sons praying turned their eyes toward the heavens. The Germans thought
it inconsistent with the greatness of celestial beings to be confined by walls,
or to be represented by a human form. Groves and forests were their sacred
places, and they applied the name of God to that mystery which they could
reverently contemplate only in the inner spirit. Unlike the Gauls {a) in these
a) Citemi; de Kilo Gall. VI, 21.
CHAP. r. ESTABL. OF CUP.. § 14S. GEEMAXIC RELIGION. 162
respects, they had no priestly caste, nor splendid sacrificial rites, hut priests
presided over their sacred thinpr^ and in the religious assemhlies of the people,
and corporeal punishments could he inflicted on freemen only in the name of
the gods. The military weapons of a deceased person were buried with his
body in the grave. Such was the religion which the first Christian mission-
aries called the worship of the devil. The Irminsul was theb regarded
among the Saxons with especial veneration, because it was supposed to be the
pillar whicli sustained tlio universe. This was only a vestige of the imageless
worship of the one God, and was connected with recollections of Ilcrmann
the national hero. (J) The gods worshipped, though with different degrees
of honor among different tribes, were : Wuotan, the arbiter of worlds and of
battles, and the father of heroes and of kings ; Thunar, the god of war and
of thunder, to whom were dedicated the most ancient oaks ; Fro, Avho dis-
pensed peace and fertility ; Frcyja, the lovely consort of Wuotan, and Eoatra,
the goddess of Spring, (r) Later traditions give us slight notices of Fran
Holla in Lower Germany, and of Frau Bertha in Upper Germany, beautiful
goddesses of the earth who preside over the affairs of tlio household and of
husbandry. The gods were supposed to look down upon men through the
windows of heaven, and to direct human destiny. {iT) Though the old sanc-
tuaries under the canopy of the lofty forest were sometimes seen at the period
of whicli we are writing, sometimes too might be found tcm])les and images
of the gods. Offerings were also presented at fountains and rocks, and in
times of peculiar joy or necessity, human sacrifices were offered. In some in-
stances in which men could not determine what was right, the judgment was
submitted to God, and the method most preferred was the duel. So strong
was the hope of meeting friends in another world, that the Friesan king, Rad-
bot, scorned the Christian's heaven, from which his predecessors were ex-
cluded, (e)
§ 149. ReUgion of the Northern Germanic Nations.
I. The older Ethla collected hy Soenmnd Sinfusson (d. 1133.) iu Ireland: Edda &iemundar
?iinns Fnkld. Edihi rhytliinioa, Sacmundina dicta, cd. Tltorlaciiis, Finn Magnuscn, etc. Uafn.
17S7-1S28. 8 Til. 4. Miniature ed. e. rec. Hiifkii cur. Afielius, Holm. 1S18. Translations of most of
the songs (in Germ.) by I/agen, ErI. 1S12. Bresl. 1S14. Grimm, Brl. 1S15. Lcffi', Lps. Is29.<s. 3 vols,
riio proso Edda, was commenced by Snorre Slurleson (d. 1241), and was completed in tlio 14tli cent :
Snorra-Edda »samt Skiildu af na>.k: Stock. ISIS. Uebcrs. v. liith». Brl. 1S12. Muspilll, lirsg. v.
Schmetlei: (Buchner's Bcitri'igc, Mun. 1S.32. vol. I. P. 2.) Au.xillary sources: For the norlliem heroio
Sagos, SCO Midler, Sagnbibliotliek. Kjiib. 1S17. 8 Th. Uebers. d. 1. B. Ludimann, BrL 1SI6. Saxo
Graiiimaticus and Adam Bremensis.
II. After the invcstlgallons of *'«Ä/n. TfiorJaciiis ttr]i\ Finn Mitffnimfn, Gen. Te\\ews: GrundU
«■»■(/, Nordens Mytology. Kj b. (ISOS.) 1S32. S(uhr, Glaub. Wlss. u. DlcL dor alt. Skandinavier.
Kopenli. 1S25. Mone, vol. I. p. 210-479. Munter, KGcscli. v. Dänem. u. Norw. Lpr. 1W3. vol. I. p.
1-204. Dirvkiiik-I/tihiifetd, nord. Vorzeit. Kopenb. lv.'!>8. 2 P. (Petersen u. Thomsen) LeltC z.
nord. Allertlium.--kun<le lin^g. v. d. konigl. Gesellscli. f. nord Altertb. I'ebcr«. v. Paidtifn, Kopenli.
1837. [Mullet. (§ 147.) A'. F. Wiborg, DIo Mytbol. des Nonlcn» a. d. Dänisch, v. Anton v. SUtl,
V) L Pcrtz, Tb. I. p. 228. Th. II. p. 076—11. J. Grimm, Irinenstrasse n. IrmensTiule. Wien. 1S15.
Helgen, Irmin. Bresl. 1S17.
c) Beda, Do tempor. rat, c. 13.
d) Paul. Diac. I. 8. Grimm, Mytbol. Edit 1. p. 96ss,
e) Jonae vita 9. Wulframl c. 9. {Jfabillon, Acta SS. Benedict. Sacc, IIL P. 1.) Comp. JpptafU
Qist. Kom. IV, 1.3.
164 ANCIENT cm; KCl! llISToUy. I'KIt. 11. (JEHMANIC CIIUnCH. A. I). 312-800.
Berl. 1847. G. I'igoU, Manual of Hcarxl. Myth. Lond. 1839. 8. A. CrichUm, Scandinavia, Anc. «no
Mod. F,<Hnb. ISno. 2 vds. 12. W/ieaton't Illst of tlie Northmen. 2 ed. New York. 1S47. //. ChrihU
mat. Universal Myth. p. ZT'J-Slö. Lon<L 1838.]
Tlio Scandinavian i.s a special branch of the common German mythology,
hut its general cliaracler was more fanciful and gloomy, and it penetrated
deeper into the grotesque and mon.strou3 forms of nature. Neither the
jjurely historical view of it, according to which Odhinn wa.s a mortal king or
even an impostor, nor the purely symbolical, according to which the doctrine
of the Am is only a figurative representation of the origin, the redemption,
and the regeneration of the world, corresponds with the character of this
peojile. The fact that the wor.ship of Odhinn was brought to the North by
a nomadic tribe from the Caucasus, and that the original inhabitants with
their gods were overcome, is clearly indicated in the tradition that the Aser
themselves came from that region, and maintained a perpetual war with the
conquered race of giants and dwarfs. The world was created by Odhinn out
of the dead body of the giant Ymer whom he had slain, i. c, out of the
organic powers which had been brought into subjection. Creation therefore
commenced with a murder, and a bloody feud sprung up between the gods
who formed the world and the race of the giant who wished to revenge his
death. Odhinn is in nature the sun which gives life to all things, and in his-
tory he is royal wisdom ; Thor is the god of thunder, and the honest but
wild prince of war ; Freyr, with his lovely sister Freyja, represent the gene-
rative and conceptive powers of nature. Among men the latter represents
love, but was originally different from Frigg, the beautiful wife of Odhinn.
In the popular legends, however, all these gods are looked upon as personal
beings, and their divine life and adventures while warring with the giants and
magicians, is a picture of the military life of the peoi>le in their struggles
Avith the powers of nature, with heroes, and with enchanters. The charac-
ter of the goddesses is the only point which is strange, and indicates an
Asiatic origin ; for although in other respects they well represent the attrac-
tions of the German women, they do not generally exhibit a very high
regard for chastity. The gods presided over the fortunes of men ; Odhinn
was the bestower of victory, of fame, and of the power of song, and Freyja
is the giver of the pleasures and pains of love. The Nomas descry, weave,
and announce the destinies of heroes. The deceitful and the cowardly are
tormented in Nißhcim, and such as die without renown wander as ghosts in
the kingdom of Hela ; but the Yalhjrias hover over the field of battle, and
select their favorite heroes for the slaughter. Those who fall gloriously
ascend to the TalhaUa, where they continue to spend a life of heroic activ-
ity with the gods. Thus love, death, and a higher life were united in the
same moment, and hence, notwithstanding their joy in life, their delight in
a hero's death was always great. Sacrifices were offered to the gods, and in
circumstances of extremity a nation once offered up its own king. Ordi-
narily, however, the only offerings were such as were found on the tables of
their cheerful feasts. This national faith knew nothing of self-inflicted tor-
tures, but a gloomy sadness pervades the Edda, since pain and death are con-
nected with all life, and spare not even the gods. Indeed, the very gods are
aware of a prophecy which predicts their death. Locke, who represents the
CHAP. I. ESTAB. OF CUR. § IW. EDDA-EELIGION. § 150. AKIANISM. 1G3
all-devouring fire and the principle of evil in opposition to the new Avorld of
the gods, contrives to intrude himself among the Aser. Already, by hia
subtle artifices, Balder^ the noblest of all the gods, has fallen. By stratagem
and power the Aser are yet able to ward ofl:' their own destruction. But a
time is coming called the Twiliijltt of the gods, Avhen all the powers of the
abyss will break their bonds, and all the Aser and the heroes of the Val-
halla will contend against tliem. As in the Niebolungen Xoth, aU the gods,
the heroes, and the powers of the abyss will bo slain together. In the
mighty death-struggle, the world itself will become a confused mass, and be
consumed by fire. Then a new earth will bo produced, and be inhabited by
an innocent human pair nourished by the morning dew, by a few sons of the
fallen gods who will survive the ruin, and by Balder, wlio will then return
from the lower world. Tliey will spend their time in relating to each other
the conflicts of the former world. But for above all this strife and change
exists an unknown power which has been called, perhaps from some hint
taken from Christianity, the Universal Father (Alfadur).
§ 150. Arianism.
Near the close of the fourth century, the "Western provinces of the Ro-
man empire, partly through conquest and partly through the increasing influ-
ence of German generals and mercenaries, came into the possession of the
Germans. This people then had either become Christian, or were inclined
to be so. The Goths had received the gospel by means of prisoners taken in
war, and a Gothic metropolitan had a seat in tlie Synod of Nicaea. Among
the "West Gothic princes, Fritigern was fovorable to Christianity, but Athau-
ar'tch persecuted all who embraced it. "^'hen the Western Goths fled before
the Iluns, and sought the hospitality of the Roman empire (37G), their bap-
tism was the condition of their settlement on the further side of the Dan-
ube, (a) The form of Christianity which they then received from the em-
peror Valens was Arian, and to this they adhered with a German fidelity,
even when another creed was announced to tliem bj' imperial edicts. Their
bishop, TJlphilaft^ by natural disposition and by education well fitted to bo a
mediator, translated the Scriptures into their native language, (t>) and after
performing the duties of liis ollice for forty years, died at Constantinople
(388), deeply aflTected on account of the subversion of bis faith, (r) But in
consequence of the victories achieved by this nation, and the general recep-
tion of his German gospel, the otlier German concjuerors end)raced the
Arian faith. It was carried ])y the ^Vi:stcrn Goths into Spain, by tlio E<ist-
crn Goths into Italy, and by the Vandah into Africa. Tlio greater part of
the JJurffundians, after a brief period of partial sympathy with Catholicism,
«) J. Anclibach, Gesell, dor WcstgoUien. Frkf. 1S'2T.
V) U/pltihie i>arl'n\m Incdit spec. cd. A. Mojiix ct Cantilhrneuii, ^[o(l. 1?19. 4. Cont fVoin tlie
Epp. of Paul : 1S29. 18:M. 1S;35. 4. Uinias. V. ct N. Test verslonls potli. friipintn. c<l(l. C. de Gale.
leiite et J. Loelie, Altcnb. et Lp». I&3ö-t7. 2 Tli. 4. — Skclrelns Aivnjrci'ljöns Jöliannrn, lirsp. v.
Müssniann, Mmiicli. 1S35. 4. cninp. I.nebe^ Beitr. z. Te.xtberlctit. u. Erkl. (L Skeireins. Altcnb.
1839. [Art. in Kitto's Journal of Blbl. Lit vol. III.]
c)Socrat.lY.'ifi. Sozom.\\,^t. T/if odoret. iy,8S. Philostorg. U, Z. Jornawf. c.lis. O
Wuitz, Ü. Leben u. Lclire d. Ulf. Ilan. 1840.
16G ANCIENT cnuücii iii>Toi:y. i'ku. ii. okumamc ciicitcii. a. d. sn eoiy.
finally followed tlils cxnini)lc. Many, liowover, wlio jfrofessed to bo Arians,
Avero only Senilarians, or nltogctlier i^'norant of tlie ditlerenco between the
two. (</) Tbo Catholic Church to which the native Pwomans belonged re-
mained unmolested, for the German kings held that religion could not bt
enforced by authority, and that as God tolerated various forms of it, no par-
ticular form should bo forced upon .iM persons, (r) The Vandal kings in
Africa (after 431) were the only sovereigns who by a violent persecution
gave new martyrs and miracles to the Catholic Church, (/) and tliereby pre-
pared tlie way for their own overthrow, and for the victories of BelLsarius,
by whom the Koman empire was once more established there (533).
§ 151. Victory of CuthoUckm.
Gregor. Tur. II. Franc. II, 2'ss.—Michelei, IX. de France. Par. 1838. voL L
Clor is, of the Merovingian family, united the Franks under one monarchy,
and subdued the various tribes of Gaul and of the provinces on the confines of
Germany (481-511). His Catholic wife Clotilda, a Burgundian princess,
endeavored to tarn Lis mind from the gods whom his fathers had wor-
shipped. In the battle of Ziilpich (Tolbiacum, 496) against the AUemanni,
when lie saw his ranks give way, he raised his hands in supplication to the
God of the Christians. After his baptism on Christmas by St. liemigius, in
the Cathedral at Rheims, the victor was anointed as a Christian king, (a) and
saluted as another Constantine. lie obtained considerable reputation for his
military exploits, his sanguinary selfishness, and his zeal for the Cathohc
faith. As he was then the only orthodox king, he professed to feel bound in
conscience to obtain possession of the beautiful territories of the Arian
princes, and in his attempts to do so, he received much assistance from their
Catholic subjects. With a precipitate faith the Franks and AUemanni fol-
lowed the example of their victorious monarch. In consequence of the suc-
cess of the Franks, and the mental superiority of the native Catholic inhab-
itants, Arianism began to decline, and in the eighth century, when the
Longobard kingdom {V) was overthrown, its independence as a national reli-
gion was entirely lost.
§ 152. British and Anglo-Saxon Church.
I. 'n'llkins, Concilia Brit, et Hibem. Lond. 1"37. 4 vols. f. Beda Yen. H. ecc.
II. Usserii Britannicar. Eccl. antiquitt. (Dubl. 1639. 4.) Lond. 16ST. f. Lingard, Anti(}uitiM ol
the Anglo-Saxon Church. Newcastle. 1S06. 2 vols. Stäudlin, KGcsch. v. Grossbrit Gott. 1S19. 2
vols. J. Lanigan, Eccl. Hist, of Ireland. Dubl. ed. 2. 1829. 2 vols. Munter, die altbrit K. (Stud. u.
Krit 1833. P. Is.) K. Schroedl, d. 1. Jahrh. d. engl. K Pass. 1S40. [Still ingfleet, Orig. Britannicae.
with notes by Pautin, Oxon. 1842. 2 vols. 8. G. Smith, Eeligion of Anc Britain, historically con-
sidered. Lond. 2 ed. 8. IT. Soames, The Anglo-Saxon Church, its hist &c. Lond. 3 ed. S. Wm.
d) Theodoret. H. ecc. lY, 83, Procop. Hist Goth. c. 4.
e) Cassiodor. variar. 1. II. Ep. 27. 1. X. Ep. 26.
/) Victor, Episc. Vitcnsis (43T), Hist persecutionis Afric. {üuinarti Hist persocutiunis Van-
dillicae. Par. 1G94. Yen. 1732. 4.)—rapencordt, Gesch. d. Vamt Herrsch, in Afr. Brl. 18:37.
a) The popular account : I/inanar, Vita S. lleniigii c. 3.— f. G. r. Murr, d. h. Ampulle n
Rheims. Nünib. ISOl.
I) Koch- Stenil erg, P.eieb. d. Longobarden. Munch. 1SS9.
CHAP. I. EsTAB. OF CIIR. §102. BRITISH & A>-GLO-SAXON CnUECIlES. 167
{Tales, Oridn of the Prim. Church of the Brit Islca, Lond. S. F Thackeray, ResearcLes Into
the Eccl. and Polit State of Anc Brit Lond. lS4a 2 vols. 8. S. Turner, IL of the Anglo-Sasons.
6 ed. 8 vols. 8. Lond. 1S36. F. I'aJgrare, 11. of the Anghi-Saxons. Lond. 15-37. 12. Amer. and
For. Chr. Union, vol. IL (1S51.) p. 86js. 71&«. LitUlta Rcl. Ma^'. vol. IIL (1S29.) p. 315ss. C. An-
derson, Uist Sketches of the Ancient Irish. Edlnb. 1S2S. S.]
The Church iu Ireland was founded (after 430) by Patrick, a Britun, ^vllo
.abored there with the zeal of a sincere and recent convert, and with the
power of one who was believed not only by others but by himself to work
niiracles. {a) The convents he established were, until some time in the sev-
enth century, the centres of a fervent ecclesiastical activity for the island,
and Ireland was called the Isle of Saints. From it proceeded Columha {after
565), by whom the Fids in the Highlands of Scotland were brought over to
the Christian faith. Adopting some remnants of Druidical customs, he
established on the island of J/i/ (St. Jona) a saccrdotiü order, to which, in
various records after the ninth century the name of Cvhhcs (Kele-Dc) was
probably exclusively applied, (h) The bishops of the surrounding country
acknowledged this presbyter-abbot as their superior, (c) Britain is men-
tioned as a Christian country in the fourth century. But when the Anglo-
Saxons., who had been invited to enter it as allies (after 449), became its con-
querors, the British Church continued only in ^Vales and in the mountains
of Northumberland. The national hatred of the tribes was too intense to
allow the Saxons to receive the gospel from the Britons. Gregory the Great.,
who for a long time took a deep interest in this people, availed himself of
the marriage of EtJielbert, king of Kent, with a Prankish princess, to send a
solemn embassy of forty Benedictines to proclaim himself and Christ among
tlie Anglo-Saxons. The king was baptized, and Augustine^ the principal per-
son belonging to the embassy, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury
(597). From Kent, Roman Catholicism was propagated, in spite of many
vicissitudes during the succeeding century, among the other Saxon kingdoms,
more by covert concessions and gradual changes than by an ojien conflict
with heathenism. For Gregory had instructed those whom he had sent not
to destroy the temples of the gods, but to consecrate them to the true Deity ;
to allow the people to bring the oxen which they had been accustomed to
sacrifice at their heathen festivals, and on days devoted to the dedication of
a church, or to the conimemorntion of some saint, to slay them in honor of
the true God, and to hold joyful feasts for them under green arbors near the
churches. By retaining such customary pleasures, ho hoped graduall}' to
make these obstinate dispositions form a relish for the spiritual enjoyments
of Christianity. ('/) It soon became evident, however, from the ollbrts to
unite the Saxon and British churches, that the latter would acknowledge no
other subjection to the Koman bishop than that which was due to any other
Christian. (<) But they tolerated each other with greater or less degrees of
a) Patricii Confessio. (Opiisco. ed. Waraetm, Lond. 165S. and In W. Beiham, Irish AntiqusHan
Researches. DuM. lS26s. V. II. App. p. 49.) Popular accounts: Jocelini (12lh cent) Vila S. Palric
(Acta SS. Mart. vol. II. p. 540 ) [Amer. and For. Chr. Union, vol. L (1S50.) p. 4>9ss. 5:J5s«.]
h) John Smith, Lifo of St Col. Edinb. 179^.— i/. Jiiniifson, llUt Account of the Anc. Culdccs ol
*ona. Edinb. ISU. 4.—,/. G. J. liraun, de Ouldcl* Bonn. ls»o. 4. c) Beda, U. ecc. Ill, 4.
<0 Gregor. Ep. ad Mellitum. (Opp. v..l. II. p. 117Gs and R«la I, 30.)
t) WiU-ins, Cone. vol. I. p. 26. Jleda, Hist. ccc. II, 2.
IGS ANCIKNT C;lH;nCU HISTDliV. 'I'Ki:. II. GERMANIC CllUItCII. A. I). 312-SOO.
hostility until tlio final union of tlie two nations, when tlie Church of the,
most miiiierous i)COi)lc gained the victory.
§ 153. Irruption of Islam in the Went.
J. Anchhtu-h. Gosoh. «1. Omniaijaden in Spanien. Frkf. 1829.S. [Pascual iJe Gayanrjos, II. of th«
Mohammedan Ih'naslles in Spain, from tlio text of Al Makkari, LoncL ]i>40-13. 2 vols. i. J. C.
Murphy, II. of (he Moll. Empire in Spain, Lond. ISIC. 4.]
In consequence of a dispute about the succession to the throne, Spain was
opened to the Arabians, the conquerors of Africa. The kingdom of the West-
ern Goths was speedily overthrown hy Mtisa, the general of the Caliphate, and
Spain was subjected to the Arabian prophet (711). Through this country
AbJcrrhaman was preparing to pass for the conquest of the entire West,
that ho might unite it with his Eastern empire. He had already obtained
possession of France as far as the Loire, when the power of the Arabians on
the north of the Pyrenees was broken for ever, by Charles Martel, at tbe
battle of Poictiers (732). In Spain the Christians received toleration from
the Arabians (Mozarabes) as a distinct sect, and from their mountains in the
North commenced against the Arabian government a chivalrous contest fo'
their national independence and for Christianity.
§ 154. Germany. Boni/acius, 680-755.
I. Bonifacii: Epistolae, ed. Würdt'wein,'Siog. 17S9. f. Vita, scr. "Willibald about 760. {Pertz
Th. II. p. 331.)
II. Othlonus (about 1066), Vita S. Bon. (Acta SS. Jun. Th. I. p. 452.) Seraniis, Mojrnntiac.
ferum 1. V. Mog. 6!i4. 4. ed. Johan7ies, YicL 1722. f. Th. I. Siigittariu», Antiquitt gentilisnii et
christianisini Tliuringicl. Jen. 16S5. 4. Gudenii, Ds. de Bon. llelmst. 1720. 4. Lqffler, Bon. Gotha.
1812. Seiter.1, Bon. Mainz. 1945.
Bishoprics had been established during the fourth century in Germany,
along the Rhine and the Danube, as far as the Roman dominion extended,
bnt in the fifth, Christianity was partially driven back by the national mi-
grations. Under the influence of the Franks in the beginning of the eighth
century, it pressed forward as far as the Saale and the Elbe, but it was under
no ecclesiastical regulations, and was much corrupted by paganism. The
gospel was also carried by British monks as far as the Main and among the
Allemanni, but had no connection with Rome. Thus Columlan (d. 615),
who had been driven from the Vosges as far as the Apennines, established
some convents as seminaries of Christianity, and his disciple Gall (d. about
G50), who had been left at the lake of Constance, and had become a hermit
on the Steinach, made a lasting and beneficial impression on the minds of the
people, by destroying their idols, by casting out demons in a remarkable
manner, and by refusing to accept the bishopric of Constance, (a) But Win-
frcJ, an Anglo-Saxon monk, originally from Kirton in Devonshire, better
known by his Roman name of Bonifoce, Avas sent from Rome to undertake
the conversion of Germany (718), and finally became the apostle of the Ger-
a) I. Vita S. Columbani by his ,iupil Jona.% A'ita S. Galli by VTalafrid Straho in MaliUor.
Acta Ord. S. Bened. Saec. II. p. 1. 22S. Tbe oUior sources of the latter in Pertz, Th. I. p. \.—C. J
WH/tf/c, Gesch. d. Einfuhr, d. Christenth. ini südwostl. reulschl. Tub. 1nS7. G. C. Kvottenbeli, ii
Columbano. Lugd. 1nj9. F. G. RtMerff, Obss. ad vitam S. Galli spectantes. Marb. 1:J42. 4
CHAP. I. ESTAB. OF CUR. § 154. BONIFACE. § 155. SAXONS. 169
mans. This title, however, belongs to Lim not so much because he first pro-
claimed the gospel to the people, as because he effected the complete over-
throw of paganism, announced by the destruction of the sacred oak at Geis-
mar, (l) and because he was the founder of the German Church, He was
superstitious in his views, rigid in his habits, narrow-minded with respect to
external forms, and arrogant towards inferiors, but submissive to popes,
except when he thought they protected abuses, (r) In conformity with his
oath, (d) he made the German Church dependent upon the pope, but with-
out the authority of the Roman bishop and of the Frankisli monarch, he
•would have found the enforcement of his strict rules in opposition to the
general resistance almost impossible. In consequence of tlie jdenary powers
given him by the Roman see, he was looked upon (after 732) as the general
bishop of Germany, and by a decree of the German diet (747), the old epis-
copal city of Mentz was given him as a permanent sec. When too old to
perform the duties of ecclesiastical government, he requested that his disci-
ple Lullus might be appointed his successor, and resumed a task which had
been unsuccessful in his youth — the conversion of the Frieslanders. His
tent was pitched on the bank of the Borne, when he was suddenly attacked
by a band of heathen robbers. He allowed his followers to make no resist-
ance, and all were slain. His body, in compliance with his last will, was
buried in his favorite convent of Fulda.
§ 155. The Saxons.
Meinders, Tr. de statu rel. et reip. sub Carolo M. et Lud. P. in Sax. Lemso. 1711. 4. Ju.rt. Moefer,
Osnabr. Gesch. Brl. 1780. vol. I. Funk, ü. d. Unterwerfung d. Saclisen unter K. d. G. (Scblo?#cr"s
Arch. f. Ge.scb. u. Lit. 1S33. vol. W. p. 293ss.) G. Zimmermann, do niutata Saxonum vetemm rel.
Darmst. 1839. 4. P. L Osanam (§ 14S.)
The Saxons defended their national independence and the religion of their
ancestors (after 772) against the butcher Ci)arles, (//) until a series of battles
and violated treaties made them desiierate, and they finally resolved (804)
to unite with the Franks as one nation and pay tithes. The Westphalian
bishoprics were erected to serve as a kind of ecclesiastical fortresses. Laws
written in blood forbade all return to the customs of heathenism, (Ji) and it
was not until the Saxons had been completely subdued by the sword and the
cross, that Charles the Great saw his plans accomplished.
§ 156. Orei'tJtroic of Geiinan Paganism.
[IT. liüclert, Gesch. d. deutech. Bildung in d. Per. d. Ueberganjes Heldenth. in Chr. Bcrl. 1>ä4. l.'.]
As the Germans were in the habit of acknowledging gods besides their
own, they readily conceded to their guests that Christ might be divine. But
although the doctrine of a crucified God was not altogether strange to thcii*
I) Perk, Th. IL p. 843. c) WFirdtw. p. lOS.
d) Wiirdtw. p. 19s. [The oath Itself: OieteUr, lllst vol. II. p. 214. nt 3.]
a) GeUihde, Uncertain as an orig. doc. but often printed from the Goslar Arclilves, e. g. IIann("v.
Mag. P. 2f). p. 483.
h) Capitulatlo de parttb. Saxonine. a. 7b9. {Walter, Corpus Juris Germ. Th. II. ;>. '.Olss. with
eoniin. in Jfeinders, p. 23ss.)
170 ANCIKNT CllUnrit IIISTOUV. PKl:. II. OKRMAXIC CIlfKCII. A. D. 312-800.
iiiiiHb, Clirist, liis ii])()stl(.'s, and llic monks, seemed to tlicin a faint-hearto«^
kind of ])ooi)le, mitil tliu der;/}' acquired Tiiilitary lialjits and lofrends of clii-
valrous saints ^v(.■ro circulated among tlicm. Tlio bold assumption of gupe-
riority to tlio gods of tlicir country, and the exclusive reliance upon their own
l)0wcr, Avliicli the northern heroes especially expressed without liesitation or
reproof, was not directly favcrable to Christianity, but proved that a living
faith in the old religion was already mucli impaired. They liad no powerful
sacerdotal caste, and the o])position which Christianity encountered was not
l)roduced by a priestly nobility among any of Odhinn's worsliippcrs, but by
the various i)olitical circumstances in which it was introduced tu the several
tribes, (a) The religion of their ancestors had no support bat the public sen-
timent of a free people. For the whole intellectual fabric of the Roman em-
pire, and consequently for its church, they entertained the profoundest reve-
rence. They were convinced by tlie example of the Western Goths that
the Christians' God could bestow power and victory. Tlie twilight of the
gods which their mythology taught them to expect, seemed to tliem realized
by Christianity, but in a milder and more beautiful form. Christianity was
always foreign to the Greek and Roman national character, and could never
be received by those nations without destroying their peculiar spirit. The
disposition of the German nation on the other hand never found its proper
development except in connection Avith Christianity. Hence, wherever the
Germans were independent or victorious the gospel always had free scope.
But it was not without many touching lamec^ations that the ancient system
of paganism was renounced, (h)
CHAP. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
rianck. Gesell, d. kirchl. Gesellsehaftsverf. vol. II. Eichhorv, rtcutschc St.<mts-u. EecliUgesch. 5 eJ.
Gott. 1S43. vol. I. J. Grimm, deutsche EechtsaUherlhünier. Gott. 1S23. IlüUmann, Urspr. d. KVert
d. MA. Bonn. 1S31. — Ellendorf, d. Karolinger ii. d. Hierarchie ilirer Zelt. Essen 1S39.
§ 157. Original Records of the Canon Law.
By the principles of the German law, the Church and all ecclesiastics re-
tained the same privileges as they had enjoyed under the Roman empire, («)
and in consequence of the new relations in which these were possessed, a new
legal state was developed. The Spanish collection and the Dionysian Codex
were therefore continually appealed to as records of the Roman law. Any
new ecclesiastical usages and laws were either incorporated with the popular
code or published as decrees of synods or of the diet. (Ä)
a) On the other hand: Leo, Gesch. d. Ital. Staaten. limb. 1829. vol. I. p. 55ss.
h^ Grimm. Mythol. p. 4. UMand, Thor. p. 223.
a) Cone. Atirelian,!. a. 511. can. 1. (J/a;i«i Tb. VIII. p. S50s.) Lex Hipvarior. tit. 5S. c. 1.
{Waller Th. I. p. ISO.)
?') U'd/ZfT, Corpus juris Germ. antiquL Ber. lS2-lss. 3 Th. Perl:. Monum. Germ. Th. His. Le-
^nn Th. I. II. Comp. Eegesta Carolorum. All the. orig. docc, of the Carolingian kings in the E.xtracls
^7ö2-91S) bj- Boehmer, Erkf. \%U. 4.
CHAP. II. ECCLE5. LAW. § IM. CHUPXH & STATE. § 159. PKOPEnTT. 1 7 1
§ 158. Relation of the Church to the State.
liiinde, V. Urspr. d. Eeichsstandsch. d. BIsch. n. At-bte. GOtt 1774. 4. r. liotk, v. d. Kinflusse «
9eistlichk. unter d. Merowlngern. XQrnb. 1S.30. 4.
The bishops, who were equally respected by the conquering and the con-
quered nations, were generally employed as mediators when terms of peace
were to be settled. No sooner had the kings, who were originally merely the
leaders of their companions in arms, tasted the sweets of regal power as en-
joyed under the Eoman law, than they became an.xious to attach the bis^hops
to their interests. By conferring upon them otlices at court and certain feu-
dal estates, an ecclesiastical va.ssalage was created (</) which made it their
policy to restrain any conquering hordes, or to conciliate any conquered
tribes. The power of the kings over the Church, or of the bishops over the
state, may be inferred from the feudal laws gradually developed during the
conquest. The kings either directly appointed the bishops, or nominated
those whom they wished to be chosen by the clergy or the people ; (i) but
the bishops themselves, along with the other gi'eat vassals, either elected the
king or confirmed his hereditary successor, (c) The bLshops were required
to swear fealty to the king and to seek justice before the royal court, but they
could be judged only by their peers, {d) Whoever felt aggrieved by any pro-
ceedings in a S])iritual court could apply for redress, or at least for grace, from
the king as his lord paramount, (e) Bishops sat in the diet with all other
crown vassals, and it was on this ground that after the seventh century eccle-
siastical causes were so much mingled with civil affairs in the transactions of
that body. (/) Subsequently the power of legislation resided in the states and iu
the king. {(/) By such a system the Church seemed almost blended with the
state, but its power and its consequent independence was well represented by
that hierarchical aristocracy whoso authority the kings always found it best
to maintain, as a counterpoise to that of an hereditary and military nobility.
§ l0(). Property of the Church and the Clergy.
Many bishops and abbots received royal grants of land and of people. These
ecclesiastical possessions, like all other royal fiefs, had immunities and juris-
dictions of their own. They wore only bound to furnisli a certain quota of
men for a general war (the Heerbann), and the counts exercised jurisdiction
iu cases of life and death. The divine institution of tithes was more zealously
proclaimed than the gospel itself, and under Charles the Great, who paid
d) Fredegarii Chron. c 41. 78. SangalUnn. 1, 18. {PerU Th. 11. p. 78«i)
V) Cone. Aiirer. V. a. 540, can. 10. Coiic. ToUtan. XII. a 6S1. can. a AltboDgfa Cofic Pari*. V.
B. 615. can. 1. yet comp. M'lilter Tli. II. p. 13.
c) Coric. Tuletan. VIII. a. 65-3. can. 10. ^\'Uk■ins Cone. Brit vol. I. jk USa. Respecting Franco:
riawkyyoX. II. p. 24Ssh.
d) Greg. Tur. II. Franc. V, 19. 23. Com. AquUgr. & 789. c. 37. ( H'lttor Tb. XL p. S4.)
e) Cone. Purin. V. a. 615. can. 3. [iMtidon, Paris, p. 4C1.] with Clotalre'» enlarged confirmation-
{WMer Th. II. p. 14.) Cipit. Franco/, a. 794. c 4. ( WalUr Th. II. p. 116.)
/) Reaction in Spain: Cone. Tolet XVII. a. 694. c. 1. (ifonti Th. XII. p. 196.) Court« ia
Fr.ince: Ilincmar. do ord. palatil c. 29. comp. ManMi Th. XIV. p. 64.
J7) Cone. Arvernfnse i^.Ztii^.VtfietMo. (.lAin«/ Tli. VIII. p. 859.) Cuik;. ..-lure/. I. Ep. ad Clo-
dov. {Mansi Th. VIII. p. 850.)
172 ANCIENT CIIUncH HlhTOKV. TKIMI. GEKMANIC CliriiCII. A. I). S12-80O.
tithes of all liis possessions, it became the general law for the whole Frankiah
smpire. (/') It was, liowcver, much easier for the Church to acquire immense
wealth from the scrui)les of the people than to defend it against the universal
robbery and violence which then prevailed. Chilperic complained that the
wealth of the kings had fallen into the hands of the Church, (i) but Charleg
Mattel distributed the ecclesiastical wealth among his soldiers, and left to the
Church the consolation of -Ihinking that the deliverer of Christendom had
pone down to hell, (c) The clergy preserved their privilege of being judged
in civil causes only before the bishop's court; though In criminal cases, if the
ottence was proved, they might be arraigned in what was called a mixed
court. Between the counts and the bishops of each district (Gau) sprung up
mutual jealousies and encroachments, which the kings often found it easy to
increase. The rights of the metropolitans were on various occasions con-
firmed, but they could not be sustained in opposition to the political power
of individual bishops.
§ 160. Ecclesiastical Fower of tlie Pope.
The authority of the pope in countries beyond the Alps had its origin in
the necessity which the Catholics and Romans felt of a general centre of
union in their conflicts with the Arians and Barbarians. The legates of
Gregory the Great were therefore called upon to exercise supreme jurisdic-
tion in Spain. But when the "Western Goths went over to the Catholic
party that necessity was no longer felt, and the bishops, becoming conscious
of their political importance, freely opposed the papal claims. Witiza
(701-10), who was anxious to recover the royal prerogatives from the no-
bility and the Church, went so far as to forbid all appeals to the Roman
bishop, (rt) But the overthrow of his throne and the subversion of the
Gothic kingdom was generally regarded as a divine judgment on the impious
attempt. The Anglo-Saxon Church gradually prevailed upon the neighbor-
ing churches to place themselves under the guardianship of Rome, for the
people seemed to think it rather hazardous to prefer Columba to Peter, when
the latter held the keys of heaven. (5) The pope was regarded with the
highest veneration among the Franls, but his power was confined to remon-
strances and intercessions except when the kings found it for their interest to
make it appear greater, (c) But when Pipin grasped after the imperial
authority, he knew of no better way to silence the scruples of the Franks
respecting the oath which they had sworn to their legitimate king, than to
obtain a declaration from Pope Zacharias that whoever possessed the power
should have also the name of the king (750). (d) From that time all the
a) Capit. Franeof. a. T94. c 23. {WalUr Th. II. p. IIS.)
h) Gregor. Tur. 11. Fr.-»ne. YI, 46.
c) Bonif. Ep. 72. {Würdtw. p. 194.) Hincmar. Rem. ad Lndov. German. {WaUer, Th. III. p. J5.)
0) Schotii Hisp. illustrata. Frcf. 1603. C Tb. IL p. 62. Th. IV. p. 69.
1) Beda. II. ecc. Ill, 25.
c) Greg. Tur. II. Franc. Y, 21. cf. VII, 39.
d) Fredeg. Chron. appendix. (BouquHTY.. II. p. 460. comp. Th. Y. p. 9.) Annal. Lauriss. a<l
ft. 749. {Pertz Th. I. p. 136.)— ^7! G. LoelfU, de causis regni Francor. a Merovingis ad Carollngcx
translati. Bou. 1S44. 4.
CHAP. IL ECCLE3. LAW. § 160. CLEEGT. § 161. PAPAL POWER 173
Carolingians thought it best to exalt the dignity of those on whom the law-
fulness and sacredness of their own crown depended. The German Church
was from its very origin in a state of dependence upon Rome, and in its first
synod (743) all its bishops swore obedience to the pope, (f) Boniface endea-
vored to bring the GalUcan Church under the same regulation, but as its
bishops possessed not much zeal for the general Church and great political
power, his success was by no means complete. Great efibrts were made to
convince the metropolitans that the pallium was indispensable to the com-
pleteness of their power. But when Boniface complained that it was con-
ferred at Rome for money, Zacharias called it a calumny to say that the Ro-
man see would sell what had been bestowed upon it as a gift by the Holy
Ghost. (/)
§ 161. Secular Power of the Pope.
Codex Carolinus. {Cenni, Monn. dominatlonis Pontifidae. P.om. ITCOs. 2 Th. 4.)— IL Orni dell
origine del dominio o della soveraniti degli roin. Pont Eom. 1T54. iSutftdMiVr, surToriginede la puis-
Bance temporelle des Papea. Haye. 1765. J. R. Becker, ü. d. Zeitp. der Veründr. in der Oberb. ü. Bom.
Lüb. 17C9. Comp. J. v. Müller, Werke. 1833. Th. 25.
As late as the middle of the eighth century a governor was placed by the
emperor over the exarchate and the city of Rome. But in the latter the
actual power was in the hands of the pope as the head of an aristocratic mu-
nicipal government. The Longobards conquered the exarchate and threat-
ened an attack upon Rome. In vain was protection sought from Constanti-
nople, and Stephen II. in the name of St. Peter called upon the King of the
Franks, whom he had anointed, for aid. In two campaigns (754—5) Pipin
repelled the Longobards, and as tlie Roman Patricius he committed to the
pope the provinces which the exarch had governed, {a) alleging that tlie
Franks had shed their blood not for the Greeks but for St. Peter, and for the
good of their own souls. Charles the Great having by systematic measures de-
stroyed the kingdom of the Longobards (after 773), confirmed and enlarged
tlie donation which his father had made, and on Dec. 25, 800, laid the deed
which secured the whole on the tomb of the apostles. By this mejins the
king efl:ected his purpose, whicli was to gain a powerful ally in Italy, and the
pope became a ruler over a considerable territory and its inhabitants, lie
was however obhged to acknowledge a lord paramount witli indefinite
powers above himself, {h) and was so much harassed by the factious strifes
of the more powerful families, that he became continually dependent upon
the protection of the King of the Franks,
§ 162. Charlet the Great. 768-814.
L Annals, Capitularies (before $ 147) & Letters In the Codex Carollnus. Kinhard, Vita Karolt
(^Perti Th. II. p. 426. & Ilan. 1S30. Opp. c<L A. TetU^t, Par. l<40-3. 2 Th.) I>eben u. Wandt! Karls
d. O. V. Elnhard. Einl. Urscbr. Erlüot UrkundensaminL v. J. L. IdeUr. Ilamb. 1SS9. J/onacfiu*
BangalUmit, (Anecdotes) degestis Karoll {PerU Tb. II. p. 72&) Poeta« StueotiU AnnaL de g»ti»
e) Bonif. Ep. 73. {Wärdtw. p. 170.) /) Zach. ad Konlf. ( Würdtw. p. USs.)
a) Steph. ad. Pip. a. 7*1 (Cfefin» Th. I. p. 75. ) h) Einhard, Ann. a. 'id.
174 ANCIKNT CIiriMII IlISToUY. I'Ki:. H. (iKUMAMC CIHTllCn. A. I). 312-800.
Car. (Lpilmitil Scrr. rcr. Bninsv. Tli. I. i>. I'-'O.) Jf^lperlci (Angtlbertl) Carol. M. ct I,<-o I'ajA ej.
0/f«/, Tiir. 1st.'.
II. K. Dipi'old, I-Pljon K. Kiirl.'». Tfib. ISIO. Jiredov, K. K.irl. Altonft. ISH. Otpffigur, Cliarle-
inasnc. Par. 1842. 2 Th,— .^ O. n'tilch, Hist, canon Isatlonls Car. M. .Ion. Vt:>(\.—Püttfr, de liistaurut
Imp. Itom. OütL ITCCs. 10 P. 4. [G. P. li. Jamt», Life of C. Lond. IftU. A; New York. IMS.]
The grand object.«? to which Charles the Great devoted his life were, the
union of all tlie German nations under his sway, and the e.stablishment of
civilization among them. lie favored and governed the Cliurch hecaune it
was a school for the improvement of his people. lie was careful to main-
tain the same respect for the popes Avhich his father had sliown, and he even
increased their power, but kept them in a state of dependence upon himself.
For Ilndrian I. he entertained a strong personal attachment. Leo III (after
705) sought refuge in his court from the ill treatment inflicted by a Roman
faction, cleared himself by an oath from the crimes imputed to him, and was
reinstated by the power of the king. In gratitude for this kindness, and pro-
fessing to act under divine inspiration, the pope, on Christmas day 800, placed
the imperial crown of Rome upon the king's head, while the people ex-
claimed, " Health and victory to Carolas Augustus, crowned of God ! " By
this ceremony, no actual increase of power was directly acquired, but the
monarch became invested with an augmented dignity in the eyes of the peo-
ple, and his authority in the "West became sacred. It was only a thought,
but the world is governed more by thoughts than by swords. By this re-
newal of the empire in the "West the pope recognized a master, but all men
saw that this master was of his own creation.
CHAP. III.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 1G3. Eeligiom Spirit of the People.
The innocence of a rude and powerful nation was soon corrnpted by Ro-
man vices, the new pleasures soon became necessities of life, and to obtain
tliem the energies of the people were employed in violence. The lives of the
Merovingian princes Avere filled with murders, adulteries, and incests. But
just as these children of nature were suddenly made acquainted with a cor-
rupt civilization, Christianity was also introduced among them, and preserved
in the minds of the people a love for more exalted objects, but accelerated
the period in which the national advancement was interrupted. It pervaded
even the German language, not merely by the naturalization of Greek and
Latin ecclesiastical terms, but by giving a Christian signification to original
German expressions. («) The relation of the peo]ile to Christ was conceived
of by them as that of faithful vassals to a mighty leader (Gefclgsherrn). If
the mysterious spectacles, miracles, and legends of the Church did not always
reform the people, they at least produced some regrets for the past and some
anxiety for the future. But superstition soon supplied them with arts by
•which they could cunningly escape her own guardianship. The perjurer so-
rt) P. r. Paumer (§ 147) e?i>ccially In the 3 books, p. 273ss.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 1C8. COMMON LIFE. § 1G4. DISCIPLINE. 175
cured himself by relics against the vengeance of heaven, and the hired a&sas-
sin consoled himself with the reflection that whatever might occur in his
bloody course, ho would have means to purchase the masses ueedfid for his
salvation. The virtues on which tlie Church most insisted were liberality,
ho-spitality, fidelity in the payment of titlies and ofFering.«i, and an accurate
knowledge of the creed and tlie Lord's prayer. The liberty which the Ger-
mans had always exercised of divorcing themselves from their wives on tlio
repayment of dower was abolished, and marriage was regarded as indissolu-
ble, except by mutual consent for sacred purposes, or on account of adultery,
conspiracy against life, banishment, or bodily infirmity on the part of the
wife, (h) Tlie Churcli and the new government contended against those
remnants of heathenism whicli still adiiered to the faitli or practice of the
people, as : the exposure of cliildren, the burning of corpses, the old sanctu-
aries by fountains, in the lofty forest and in the stone circle, wooden repre-
sentations of bodily organs as votive ofterings, images of gods dried in ovens
or highly ornamented, the use of horseflesh, haunted places, watch-fires. Tain-
making, sacred lots, death-charms, love potioni^, tlie use of wooden images to
etftct the death of those they represent, magical predictions, an<l witchcraft
of all kinds, {c) The less objectionable portions of the ancient were gradu-
ally incorporated with the Christian faitli, legends of the gods were trans-
formed into legends of saints, recollections of the former deities were so
changed as to become a basis for a belief in magic, in leagues with the devil,
and in violent assaults from him. A pleasant recollection was also retained
for the silent people of the elves, and the wonderful gifts of the fiiirios. Or-
deals were at first tolerated by the Church, then opjioscd, and finally used for
its own purposes. A presentiment of the approach of the last day which
sometimes comes up before us in this period, was suggested merely by those
Romans who thought that the overthrow of the emiiire and the terrible na-
tional migrations were signals of that event, (d)
§ 164. Ecclesiastical JDiscipUne.
The discipline of the Church was much opposed by the Gorman peoi)lo on
the ground that it was inconsistent with their liberties. It was finally on-
forced in the eighth century, at least among the common people, by the Si/'
nodal courts^ Avhich were accommodated to the popular feelings of private
rights. In the course of each year the bishop or his arch-deacon held his
court in every important jdace withim his jurisdiction, in which honorable
men chosen from the congregation acted as a jury to decide upon the ca.>;o of
those who were accused. This infjuisitorial jiroces.«, which took cogiiizaiico
not only of ecclesiastical but of mnny civil oflenccs, was nn indispensable
addition to the easy i;rocceding< of former times, when every offence was
atoned for by a legal fine adapted to the simple manners of the people. The
penalties now inflicted were scourging, f;isting, prohibition of marriage, and
I) (\ipiti(r. n. 752. c. 5. 9. (W<ilUr Th. H. p. 38».) Greff. II. ad Bonit c 2. {Jfanti Th. XIL
p. 2J.V)
c) E«peclii!Iy Tmllculus sii])or8llti')niiin (§ 14S.)
d) Grerjorii M. 1. XI. Ep. 00. Greg. Tar. 11. Franc. I'rolojfus.
17G ANCIKNT (.•mUCII 11I.ST(H:V. I-KU. II. OKUMANIC church. a.D. 312-800.
an impriaonmont, which for tlio licavier offences was severe and sometimes
for life, (a) None hut j)rivato ofrcnces vohmtarily disclosed in the confes-
sional were allowed to bo atoned for according to the former custom hy a
fine. In such cases tlio inoiioy belonged to the poor, and tlie Church alway.s
suffered under tiie imputation that she allowed the rich to sin freely and yet
gave them the hope of heaven. (A) Confes-sion to a priest was looked upon
as beneficial but not indispensable to salvation, (c) Excommunication was
not common, and was therefore the more dreaded. Altliough the bi.shop3
had obtained a law Avhich connected civil death with excommunication, it
was understood that such a result would not take place without the consent
of the king. By this means the bishops were obliged to pay great respect to
the intercession of the king or of persons of distinction, (d)
§ 1G5. Morals of the Clergy, and Canonical Life.
As the bishops were generally selected from the royal retinue, and the
clergy were sometimes even slaves and servilely dependent upon their supe-
riors, bishoprics Avere often obtained by purchase or by flattery, (a) and the
clergy Avere in continual danger of becoming quite secularized or degraded in
ignorance. The laws against the marriage of clergymen Avere frequently re-
newed, but marriage was as common among them as adultery and lewdness.
What was called mere fondling was expressly declared to be innocent. {V)
For every act and degree of drunkenness a precise form of punishment was
carefully prescribed, (c) The laws forbade the servants of God to bear the
sword, but neither law nor shame could prevent what custom and feudal duty
required. Many a valiant bishop never knew peace till he slept on the battle
field. The authority of the Church was suflBcient to make a clergyman hon-
orable on account of the sacredness of his ofiice, but many a layman was
clever enough to take advantage of the solemn dulness ©f his bishop, {d) In
a series of synods (after 742) Boniface endeavored to rectify the unclerical
manners and the misgovernment which prevailed in the Frankish Church, by
demanding of the clergy a peculiar ecclesiastical character and monastic
habits, and that he might secure these he revived the old institution of pro-
vincial synods. Chrodegang of Metz gave to the clergy of his episcopal
church the conventual rule Avhich required a life in common (about 760). (f)
Augustine was held up as an example, and the founder of this kind of life,
a) Capit. a. 769. c. T. { Walter Th. IL p. 54s.) a. 813. c. 1. {Ibid. p. 261.) This arrangement was
of an older date. For inforn)atlon respecting the proceedings, see Sittenspiegel der Zeit, first in Jie-
gino, de disc. ecc. II, 2ss. {ITafshenu Th. II. p. 551s.)
I) Cone ClovesJiovian. a. 747. c. 268. (J/imst Th. XII. p. 403s.) Comp. Homiliade haeretlcis pec-
cata vendentibus. {Mahillon, Museum Italicum, Th. L P. II. p. 27.)
e) Capit. TJieodulfl Aurelianem. c 30. {Jfansi Th. XIII. p. 1001.) Comp. Cone. CahHonense fi.
813. can. m. {ifami Th. XIV. p. 100.)
d) Cone Paris, a. 615. c 3. {Walter Th. II. p. 14.)
a) Gregor. Tur. Yitae patrnm. c. 6. § 3. Ilist Franc IV, 35. A multitude of histories In the
Jfonachm Sitngallensiti.
I) Gregorii III. can. 6. (J/",iH.st Th. XII. p. 290.) c) Ihid. can. 8.
<f) E. G. the wag in S-ingall. I. 20. (Pertz Th. II. p. 739.)
e) Chrodeg. Reguia in Mansi Th. XIV. p. SlSss, Paidu« Diac. Gest Episc Metensimn. {PerU
Th. II. p. 267s.) Comp. Thomassini vet et nova ecc disc P. I. L III. c 2-9.
CHAP. IIL ECCLE3. LIFE. § 165. CANONICI. § 166. WORSHIP. 177
which was called canonical, because it was regulated by sacred laws. The
canonici lived, eat and slept in common, under the direct supervision of the
bishop. Their devotions commenced long before day, and were regulated by
a peculiar system of canonical hours. They were not prohibited tlie posses-
sion of private property, but their support was provided for by the bishop,
out of the ecclesiastical revenues. Under the favor of the Carolingian kings
this system was adopted in most of the German churches.
§ 166. Public Worship.
Ordo Romanns de dir. officiis (Sth cent) Amalarii, Chorcpisc, Metenris do div. officlls I. IV.
(919-27.) Rahani Mauri de elericorum instit. et cercmonlls cec. I. HI. (S19) Jc do Mcris ordlnib,
bacramentis div. et veslimentis sacerd. Collectively in: Do div. catli. Ecc olllciis varii vctt Patnim
lie Scrr. libri, ed. Hittorpitis. (CoL 15G8.) Par. 1610. f.
As the Church had been formed under the Roman empire, it retained
many Roman usages. Its services were in Latin, though preaching was al-
ways in the language of the people. The BritL>li Church protested against
the peculiarities introduced by the Roman clergy. They defended thej own
practice of shaving only the front part of the head, in opposition to the Ro-
man tonsure, by ai)pealing to the example of Paul (tonsura Pauli). Columba,
when contending with Gregory the Great, defended a mode of reckoning
Easter which was different from that used at Rome, (a) Charles the Great
introduced the Gregorian liturgy into the new churches formed in the em-
pire, and invited singers from Rome, to whom the sacred music of the Ger-
mans seemed like the bowlings of wild beasts. The organ, however, was
much improved in German}', (h) The solemn pomp of such a wor.ship was the
most impressive way of addressing the robust feelings of an uneducated people.
The propensity of the age for magical arts was gratified and strengthened by
the numerous miracles performed by dead and living saints, the various ac-
counts of which originated more frequently in the fancies of the people than
in the cunning policy of the priests. A new festival called the Ansinnptioii
of the Virgin Mary was introduced, and was celebrated on the fifteenth of
August, (c) An appearance of the archangel Michael was, after Gregory's
time, celebrated in Rome, but the decided preference shown for this festival
by tlie Germanic churches was owing to the chivalrous character usually as-
cribed to this celestial prince, {d) In France St. Martin was honored as a Saviour
and an Aesculapius, until the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite
were sent to Pipin, and revived tlie memory of a Dionysius who had been
mentioned a-s a bishop of Paris among the martyrs in the time of Dccius. As
this latter Dionysius was confounded with him who was contemporary with
Paul, St. Daiys became henceforth the war-cry of France. (») The Si)aniards
a) Gregor. M. 1. IX. Ep. 127. comp. Ä«/n, IT. tcoi III, 4.
V) Annul. Meten.i. ad. a. 757. Joan. VIII. Ep. a. 872. ad Annonem. (.}finti Th. XVII. p^ 245.)
c) Desire, doubt, and final confldcnce: Kpipfi, liner. 7S. 11. Gtltitii DecreU {Gratian: P. L D.
XV. c. 8. § 55.) Gregor, 'fur. do gloria Martyr. I. 4.
d) ITaeberlin, Sclocta de Mich. Ardiangelo. Illinst. 175^. 4.
e) Both saints are already confonndod In : Acta Dionysii (beginnlnjr of the 9lh cent Acta S9. in.
Jet. Th. IV. p. 792SS.) and Ililduini (abbot of St Denya about 824.) VIU ct paaslo Dlonys. (Arcopa-
pitica, ed. J/. GaUnxu, Col. 156;).)
12
178 ANciK.NT cinrncii iiistoiit. i'KU. ii. Germanic cnuucir a d. 312-900.
made a kniglitly saint of tlic elder JamcH^ who, after his hody liad hcen found
at Compostella (701-842), -was extolled as the apostle of Spain, and the patron
of its armies against the Saracens. The surest proof of the power and sanc-
tity of tlieso patron saints was victory. The Prankish empire heearae slightly
involved in the controversy respecting images. The clear judgment of CJiarlts
tlio Great soon decided against all image-worship, and a treatise, published
under his own name, (/) set forth in opposition to the decrees of the second
synod of Nicaea that God could be Avorshipped only in spirit. The same
view was expressed at the Synod of Frankfort (794) and of Paris (825) with
an open censure of AdrxarCs treatise in favor of image-worship. But as this
opposition did not extend to the destruction of the images, a hope was enter-
tained and expressed in these acts that a reconciliation might yet be effected
between the Greek and Roman churches, ig) The popes found it convenient
to treat this heresy among the Franks more mildly than the same sentiments
among the Greeks.
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL SCIENCE.
§ 1G7. Presertation of Literature.
Every thing in the primitive church had a primary reference to some type
in the Old Testament. The Gothic version of the Bible does not seem to have
found its way into other German tribes, but fragments of translations of dif-
ferent books of the Bible existed in several German languages, and even in
the Anglo-Saxon. Remnants of Roman literature were preserved among the
clergy as a kind of literary acquisition even to the age of Augustine, but the
classic authors were enjoyed only by stealth. In the stormy period of the
popular migrations, literary education was continued in Spain and in the
British islands. In the former country there was a literary rivalry between
the Catholics and the Western Goths, who had now become interested in the
study of Grecian learning. Among these Goths, Isidore, Archbishop of
Ilispalis (Seville, 595-63G), was particularly influential in behalf of the politi-
cal power of the Church, a moderate monastic life, and Christian kindness
toward the Jews, and was an eminent example of that ecclesiastical learning
which was not only mistress of all secular knowledge, but, by collecting the
works of ancient authors, secured the inheritance of antiquity, (a) The pre-
dominance of the Roman element renders it diflScult to trace the process
by which a transition was made to that which was more decidedly Germanic.
In the Islands a degree of learning was maintained in consequence of the
rivalry between the British and the Anglo-Saxon churches, and the intimate
/) LihH Carolini, a. 790. ed. Eli. Phili. 1549. Eeumann, Ilan. 1T31. (Goldast. Imper. Deer. p. CT.)
g) Cone. Franco/, can. 2. {Mansi Th. SlII. p. 909.) Cone Paris, ad Ludov. (lb. Th. XIV.
p. 415s.) [Lanilon, p. 252s. & 4Gls.]
a) Ecck'S. Literature, Liturgy, Explanations of laws and tre.itises. General history, history of Ger-
manic nations and etymological encyclopedia, 0pp. ed. J. du Brettl, Par. IfiOl. f. K Grial, Matrit, 1778.
2Th. t F. Arevitlu-^.TMvn. 1797ss. 7 Th. 4. Comp. BraitHonU Prsenotatio librorum S. Isidori io
Oiidiit, Comnilr. de Scrr. ecc. Th. I. p. 15St
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. § 167. BEDE. § ICS. ALCCIN. 179
connection Avhicli the latter kei)t uj) witli Rome. Theodore, a native of Tar-
811S, and Arclibisliop of Cantcrbun- (G08-90), dittused in England a knowledge
of tlie Greek language and literature. From this school proceeded the Vene-
rable Bede, a monk of Yarrow, who was honored as the representative of all
ÜIQ knowledge possessed in his time, and was a faithful teacher as well as
learner to the last moment of his life (735). (l)
§ 168. Scientific Education under the Caroling ians.
C. IT. van ITencerden, <le lis, qiiao a Car. M. turn nd propagr. rel. clir. tum ad emondandam ejus-
dem docendi rationcm acta sunt. L. B. lS-25. 4. F. Lorents, Alculns Leben, llal. 1S29. J. C. F. Baehr,
Gesell, d. nim. Litoraturiin karoling. Zeitalter. Carlsr. 1S40.
In the Frankish Cliurch some interest was created by Boniface in the lite-
rature of his native land, and he appears to have taken pains to improve the
jargon in which the Latin baptismal formula was littered by the ignorant Ba-
varian priests. But even he regarded the belief in the antipodes as a
heresy. («) Charles the Great conversed in Latin, understood the Greek, and
in the circle of his learned friends laid aside his crown ; but his hand Avas
more accustomed to the sword, and began to form written characters late in
life with extreme difficulty. Even the tales and heroic songs then current
among the people, but which being neglected by the Church were passing
into oblivion, he vainly attempted to preserve. Ilis own education had been
derived from Italy, and the few men of learning to whom he could intrust
his plan of popular education were either from the same country or from Eng-
land. Among these was Alcuin, (J) at an tarlier period a canon and a su-
perintendent of the convent-school of York and an abbot at Tours (d. S04-),
a pious, intelligent, and active man, but possessed of only ordinary natural
talents. He conducted a school in tlie palace itself (schola palatina), and by
its means established other schools of learning for the seven liberal arts (tri-
vium and qnadrivium) in the cathedrals and convents throughout the em-
pire, {c) Popular schools were also founded in his own diocese by Thcodulf^
Bishop of Orleans (d. 821). A collection of sermons selected from the writ-
ings of the fathers was formed under the direction of the emperor by Paul
the Deacon for an cxamide to the clergy rather than for ordinary reading, {d)
But all this literary improvement was not a direct growth of the popular life,
but a foreign importation. Hence even the writings of the first men of the
age seldom exhibit the fresh living spirit of the people. On the other hand
their prose and verse are written in an unnatund, clumsy style, indicating
that the whole was only a remnant of a decayed civilization, except where it
immediately rellected the purely practical lite and siruggles of society in let-
V) Comment.ary, Ilorallies, Letters, llistorfcs, Grammar, Astronomy. 0pp. Has. S Tli. f. Col. ICSS.
4Th. f. e<L Gilta, L<ind. 1543. 5 Tb. [HH cccl. Ill'^t & tlie Sax. Cbron. are Iransl. by GilfH. Lond.
1843. 12.] Ctitberti Vita Bcdae Ven. (prcflxcd to Oj^p.) If. GeItU, do Uedao V. vita ct scrlptis. Lugd.
B. 1S39.
a) Bonif. Ep. 02. ( Wünittc. p. 4.54s.)— Ep. 82. {IK p. 23*s.)
V) Commentary, Homilies dogm., moral iilill., .fc astronom. treatises, lives of tbc saints, po«mi, Jc
eep. 232 epistles. Opi>. ed. Frohenius, Ratl.^ib. 177Cs. 2 Tb. f.
c) Comp. Val. Schmkit, in notes to Petri Alfmui Discipl. clcrlcalls. Bcr. 1S2T. -L p. 109s6.
d) Uomiliarinm. Spir. 14S2. Bas. 1493. f. & often.
180 ANCIKNT nit.'RfH IIISTOnr. TKR. II. GEIiMANICCIICP.cn. A. D. 312-SW.
tors of buaincs.s and in law.s. Such foreign ungraceful forms in -vvhich th»
newly awftkenod spirit attempted to clothe itself, seemed like the tattere
garments of tlio European on the stately son of the forest.
§ 160. Adoptionuts.
I. Elipandi Ep. ad Fldelem. a. 785. Seati ciEOieril adv. Elip. L II. (Galland. Tli. XIII.) Al
cuinus: adv. Ellp. 1. I. Ep. ad Fellcem & adv. Fel. 1. VII. (principally In Frohen.)—
II. Fr. Walc\ Hist Adoptianor. Qoett. 1755. Frobenii Ds. de liaer. Ellp. et Felic. (0pp. AIcuIq
Th. I. p. 023.)
Flipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of Urgel, carried out
the Nestorian doctrine to its extreme results, and maintained that Christ was
the Son of God in his human nature, only by adoption, and consequently
that there could be no proper union of his divine and human attributes.
Though this Adoptionism was condemned at the Synod of Frankfort (794) it
exalted itself against the authority of the Church ; but at the Synod of Aix-
la-Chapelle (799) Felix, whose diocese was in the Spanish March, and there-
fore subject to Charles the Great, was persuaded by Alcuin to recant his
opinions. Although this retraction was insincere, or at least not adhered to,
and Elipandus, who lived under the protection of the Saracens, was especially
violent in his opposition, the controversy was too little consonant with the
spirit of the times to survive its original authors.
MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY.
THIRD PERIOD.
FROM CIIAELES TO INNOCENT III.
§ 170. General Vieto and Authoritita.
I. § 147 & § 149. 1) Citnisii Lectiones antiqnao (Ingolst. 1001.) Ed. Batnage, Antu. 1725. 4 v. t
D'Auhery, vetl. Scrr. Spicilegiuin. Par. (1653) Ed. de la Barre, 1723. 8 v. t. Baluzii Miscellanea.
(Par. 167S.) Ed. Mami Luc. 17C1. 4 Th. f. Mabillon, vett Analecta. Par. 1723. C Marlene et Durand :
Tlics. novus Anecdotor. Par. 1717. 5 v. £ & vett. Scrr. et Monum. Col. ampliss. Par. 1724ss. 9 v. f.
Pete, Thcs. Anecdotor. Aug. Vind. 1721. 6 v. f. — Itegcsta rcgum atquo Impp. Kom. Orig. Docc of the
Koniaa Emperors from 911 to 1813 in extracts, with Keforences, by Boehmer. Frkf. 1831. 4. Boehr
rner, showing tbo imperial laws from 900 to 1400. Frkf. 1S32. 4.-2) Annates Fuldensea by contem-
poraries 8-38-901. {Pertz Th. I. p. 3G1.) Bertiniani 835-8S2 by Prudentim of Troyes & Uincmar
of Eheims. {Pertz Th. I. p. 419.) Regino, Abbot of Pruem, d. 915, Clironlcon, documentary S70-90T.
cont. till 967. {Pertz Th. 1. p. 537.) Flodoard, canon at P.hcims, d. 9GG. Annalcs, 919-00. (Pertz Th.
V. p. 3G3.) Liudprand, I5p. of Cremona, d. 972, Antapodosis 1. VI. &. de rebus gcstis Otton M. {Perta
Th. V. p. 204.) Widuchind, monk of Corvey, d. about 1000, Annales do rcb. Saxonum gestis. (TTef-
lom. Til. I. p. G29. comp. Leihnit. Th. I. p. 208.) Thietmar, r>p. of Merseburg, d. lOIS. Clironlcon,
hist, of the Sax. Empp. (cd. J. A. Wagner, Nor. 1807. 4. I.appenherg in Pertz Th. V. p. 723.) ITer-
mannus Contractus, monk of Keichenan, d. 1054, Chron. from Christ, but osp. 1000-54, cont hy Ber-
tholdus of Ecichenau till 1080, extracts & continuation by B>rnoldu8 of S. Blaisa till 1100. {Pertz
Th. VII, 67. 204.) Lambertus Scha/nahurgensis, a monk of Uersfeld, do reb. gestis Germ. 1039-77.
Perts Th. VII. p. 134.) Marianus Seotua, a monk of Cologne, Fulda & Mentz, d. lOSG, Chronic, till
10S2, cont by Abbot Z)0f/6c/i!/iKS till 1200. {Pertz Th. VII. p. 4SI.) Sigebertua Gemblacensis, d.
1112, cont by Hieronyml Chronicon, 381-1111. {PerUTh. VIII. p. 208.) Otto Frixingeiia. d. 1153
Chron. reriim ab initio mundi ad ann. 1140 gestar. 1. VIII. cont by Otto de S. Blasio till 1209.
ruaermann Th. IF. p. 449.) Chronicon Umpergenne, till 1126 by a monk of Bamberg, cont by Bur-
chard & Conrad of Lichtenau, Abbots of Urspers, till 1229. (Argentor. 6;}7. 009. f.) Chronica regia
s. S. Pantaleonis by monks of the convent of S. P.antaleon at Cologne, 1000, 1100, & 1102. {Eccard
Th. L p. 683.) cont by Godefridus, a monk of the samo place till 1237. {Freher Th. I. p. 8.35.—
3) Adiimus Bremensls, after 1007 a canon of Bromen, Qesta Ilammenburgensls Ecc. Pontiflcum, till
1070. (Ed. Lappenbcrg in Pertz Th. IX. p. 207. I'cbors. m. Anm. v. Cirsten Miesegaes. Brm. 1S25.)
Odericus Vitalia, a monk of St Evroul, d. alter 1142. Ili.^t ecc. 1. XIII. till 1142.) [The Ecclei
Ilist of Enal, by Od. Vit hn.i been transl. and ptibl. by Bohn. Lond. 1854] Ihi Chesne, Scriptt.
Normanu. Par. 1019. f. p. 319. According to the more correct French text by Dubois, Par. 182088.
4 vols.) 4) Contlnuators of Thpophanes: Joannes Slojlitxa 811-1037 ^t lOSI. Jo«. C(?HMn« 813-67,
Leo Diaeonus till 97.'», .Simeon I.ogotheta till 907, /.<?o Grammnticue till 1013, Geo. Cedrenus till 1057.
[Mic?i. Atta! lota, from Iii50tol078] Jo. ZoniirasUW lllS, Xieetas Acominatiis till 1200, Geo. Aero-
pnlita till 1201. (Hist Byzant Scrr. Par. ItVlSss. 42 Th. f. Coqius Scrr. Hist Byzant Bonn. 1S28S».)—
11. p. § 147.
The plans Avliicli Charles the Gfoat liad begun to execute with so nnich
riolonce and hope Avere apparently quite abandoned by liis successors. But
182 MKItlAKVAL CllfiiCII 1II.-T0I:T. I'Ki:. III. A. I). 8'>0-12I0.
tho Churcli, though cxtcnmlly .sliakon, secretly nonrislicd its liiglier life and
imparted Roman civilization to Germanic energy and profundity. Accord-
ingly in tho tenth century when both the Inerarchy and ÜiG feudal monarchy
became strong, and wlion men no longer relied upon mere physical force, but
contended with a youthful and romantic enthusiasm for honor, love, and
faitii, tlio cliurch naturally became the supremo power of the age, because it
was llie educator of the people, and held in its hands all the treasures of spi-
ritual grace for earth and heaven. Whenever it entered the lists against mere
brute force it was of course defeated, but it always held the first place in the
hearts of the people. Under these circumstances tho power of the pope so
much increased that he was looked upon as the head of the Cliurch, and tho
representative of its spiritual power, in contrast with the imperial govern-
ment. Every pope who understood his position must have felt that he was
the protector of political freedom and the deliverer of all who Avere op-
pressed. The Germanic people became divided into different nations, and
indeed every estate, every city, and every corporation endeavored to become
independent. But the common connection of all nations and orders with the
papacy united them together as one great Christian family, in whose genera]
enterprises all distinctions were forgotten and national peculiarities were dis-
regarded. The prominent thing, therefore, in tho liistory of this period, is the
development of the papacy until its influence extends to every thing else, and
around it are grouped all the ecclesiastical relations of the Western world.
The north-eastern part of Europe was now generally converted to Christian-
ity. In the East, the great conflict with the West between the hosts of Islam
and those of the Cross was just enkindled, but the Oriental Church was only
passively involved in it, and the only reason we recollect her sluggish exist-
ence was her dependence upon more active agents. — Almost every generation
of this period is represented by its own chroniclers, who wrote a history of
the world from a position more or less of an ecclesiastical character. Many
of them commence with the creation of man, or at least with the birth of
Christ ; but the ages preceding their own were described by writers like them-
selves, and every chronicle and every section of it is an original authority
only Avhere it contains some earlier documents, or records some contempora-
neous event. Few of them were written by a single individual, but most of
them were the common property of a whole convent, on which several gene-
rations were employed as original authors or revisers. Those most worthy
of our notice are : Liudprand^ Avho gives a dark coloring even to dark pas-
sages of history, and although his bitterest expressions are no calumnies, he is
sometimes not very exact, and with reference to Italian aftairs he displays too
much passion, (a) The German history of Lamlert of Eersfeld is just such
a picture of society as might be expected from a pious monk who had
made a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, and looked out upon the world and
his nation from the small stained window of his cell. Sighert of Gemblours,
though a monk and enthusiastic for ecclesiastical sanctity, represents the em-
peror's cause against the pope, and indicates the approach of a time when
<j) Martini, Denkschr. d. Akad. z. München. 1S09. Hist. Classe. p. 3ss. i?. A. Koi'pl-e, de Tita et
ecrlptis Liudp. Ber. 1S42.
CHAT. I. PAI'ACV. § 172. DONATION OF CONSTANTIXE. 183
BUch conflicts of piety and patriotism were common, (h) Otho of Fremngen^
the nncle and the historian of the emperor Frederic, in the spirit of an eccle-
siastical prince, familiar with the world ia its highest stations, and mediating
between the sword and the crosier, wrote a history of the world and of his
times, as if it were a tragedy ending with the final judgment. Adam of
Bremen^ living at the centre of the great northern bishopric over which he
presided, with considerable historical skill relates the history of the Northern
Church at its establishment, according to original records, traditions, and per-
sonal recollections, (c) If in these contemporary writers the sentiments and
superstition of the age is clearly reflected, we have in the Byzantine histo-
rians a more elegant and learned picture of their own court, and some occa-
sional notices of the Western Barbarians, like faint vistas of auollier age.
CnAP. I.— GENERAL DEVELOPKEXT OF THE rAPACY.
1. Anastasiua (§ 130.) Martinua Polomis (0.127?,), Clironlcon. Col. 1G16. f.— II. C. Ilöflei; i.
deutschen Päpste. Kegensb. 1S39. 2d part.
§ 171. General View.
Until the time of Gregory.^ the papacy contended for dominion over the
Church, not so much because the popes themselves were ambitious to acquire
it, as because the necessities of the times and of those who understood them
compelled them to do so. The vicegerent of God on earth, in the midst of
the distractions which took place in Italy, often had not where lie could
securely lay his head ; and even Avhen tlie party which sustained him was
victorious, his oflSce as the successor of St. Peter was little more than a good
benefice. But after Gregory's time, the struggle for the freedom and ascend-
ency of the Church was in many respects changed. The power of the
Church was then establi.shed on the broad basis of a territorial possession,
and by that very process it had entered the territory and intruded upon the
province of the state. Hence tlie struggle between the imperial and the
papal power now became inevitable, and could not be brouglit to an issue
without a sacrifice. From its more perfect power over the higher nature of
man, the papacy was triumphant, but the Church gained nothing by the vic-
tory, the vital interests of the state were seriously injured, and accordingly
the conflict between the two was not terminated.
§ 172. Donation of Constitntine in (he Xinth Ccntunj.
Although the pope was the emperor's vassal, and chosen uiuk-r the impe-
rial dictation, {n) he was nevertheless honored by each emperor as a spiritual
V) S. Hirsch, de Sig. Qemb. vita et scrlptl». Ber. 1841.
c) .lac. Aammsen, de fontlbus Adam; Urem. Kilon. 1S34. 4. Lapptnlnrg In rortz Arclilv. vol
VI. P. 5s.
a) E. g. Vita Lud. Pii per Astronotnum c. 25«. (Pfrts Tli. II. p. 619s.) Lfo JV. Lotliario. (Oia-
tian : P. I. Dist X. c. 9.) Tlio ppiiriousness of tlio constitution in wlilcli Louis tlio Pious restore«
tlie riglit of sutTriifre to tlic Koinans (S17): /'. II'(//<7i, Ccnsura diplomalis, quod Lud. Pius PB.<cliall
toncossisse fcrtiir. Lps. 1749. (PuUii Syllo^e, Th. VI. p. 27J<.) Miirino Jfurini, nuovo came di'linu-
.tnticita do diplonii di I.ud. P., Ottonc I. c. Arrl^'o II. l;om. l!'22.
184 MKDIAKVAI, « llini 11 1II!^T<)1:V. I'KU. lU. A. I). SOft-121«.
fnther, from whoso liiind the crown was received. But during the reign of
the •wonk-iniiided Loiiif» the Pious, nnd the contentions of his Bons for the
throne, tlic pojicH griidually withdrew from under the autliority of the empe-
rors, and tlio bestowal of the crown appeared rather as an act of special
favor. Gre(jory IV., however (827-44), gave such offence by liis interfer-
ence in these disputes, that tlie Frankish bisliops threatened to depose
him. (Ä) As the recollection that tlie secular power of the pope was the gift
of the German princes became rather inconvenient, the story was started
that Constantine the Great had given Rome and Italy to Pope SyhcHter, and
that this was the reason that the imperial capital had been removed to Con-
stantinople. The political power of the pope had unquestionabjy been occa-
sioned by that removal, and by merely substituting a direct intention of the
emperor for what was the gradual result of circumstances, the story aa}uired
considerable plausibility, and finally was confirmed by the fortunate discov-
ery of what claimed to be the original deed of gift by Constantine. (c) All
this, however, did not prevent the emperor who appointed the pope and the
bishops, from prescribing laws for the Church, and governing it according to
his own views rather than theirs, whenever the empire was free from inter-
nal distractions. Even the relaxation of political power which took place
while the Carolingian princes contended with each other, was the occasion of
licentiousness rather than of liberty among the clergy, and exposed them to
the oppression of their secular masters.
§ 173. Pseudo-Isidore.
CovUnnt, de antiq. cann. Coll. (Epp. Pontif. Rom. p. LVI. § 10.) Ballerini (0pp. Leon. Th. III.
p. CCXVss.) Blasci Com. de Col. cann. Isid. Merc. Xeap. 17C0. 4. (Gallondii Syll. Mog. 1790. Th.
n. p. I.) J. A. Theiner, de P. Isid. cann. Col. Vrat 1S27. F. IT. Knust, de fontib. et consilio pseu-
doisidoriauae. Col. Goett 1S32. 4.
The collection bearing the name of Isidore came to light at intervals,
much mutilated, and besides some later portions with nearly one hundred
spurious decretals professing to have been put forth by diflerent popes from
the time of Clement I. (91) to that of Damasus I. (384). {a) In these enact-
ments is presented a legal condition, in which the clergy were entirely dis-
connected with the state, and by the dissolution of the metropolitan and
synodal courts, the supreme legislative, supervisory and judicial powers be-
came united in the pope. The moral influence and strict discipline of the
clergy were represented as dependent upon their complete separation from
the state. Many irrelevant and trivial matters are taken from the literature
of former times and mingled with the body of the work. It professes in its
preface, and from its singleness of aim it would seem really to be, the work
h) Pascliaslm ex vita Walae. {PerU Th. II. p. 56'2.)
c) Kdictiim Dom. Constantüii in Piertdo-hidore, and in the extracts of Gratian: Dist XCVI. c.
13. The first appeal to it is in Ilhicmar, Epp. Ill, 13. In the missives of Hadrian to Charles the
Great (Codex Carol. Ep. 49.) is the first germ. Munch, ü. d. Schenk. Const (Enlarged Hist Sehr.
Ludw. 1828. vol. II.)
a) An imperfect edition by Merlin: Tomus primus quatuor concilionim. etc. Tsidoro auctore.
Par. 1524. f. (Col. 1530. Par. 15:35.1 Contributions to a crit edit by Oi?Ni/«and A'och In: Noticee et
extraits des nianuscrits dc la bibl. nationale. Th. VI. p. 2JC. Th. VII. P. II. p. ITSss.
CHAP. L PAPACY. § 173. PSEUDO-ISIDORE. 185
of an individual who is called hidorus (Peccator, Mercator). Most of the
spurious decretals must have been in existence when Benedict Levita compiled
his book of laws (845), and though it may be doubtful whether they were
quoted in the Synod of Paris (829), they were certainly referred to in the
Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (836). Nicholas I., in the year 864, first used a
certain collection unknown to him only the year before, and it may be that
many things were afterwards added. It is difficult to form any definite
opinion respecting the author, as many things indicate that he was a Roman,
and still more that he was an eastern Frank. (]>) The skill with which it was
composed was not greater than was practicable and even necessary for that age.
Some opponents of the papacy since the fourteentli century have suspected
the deception, and Protestants have clearly proved it by pointing out refer-
ences to the Codex Dionysii, a constant use of the barbarous Latinity of the
ninth century, citations of laws of a later date, and numerous anachronisms, (c)
After a brief contest, the advocates of the papacy merely attempted to show
that such a deception was not criminal or of much consequence. {<T) And it
nrust he conceded that the spurious decretals contain very little which had not
been actually asserted by some pope at one time or another. But that which had
been only lately conceded or claimed under peculiarly favorable circum-
stances, and with many conditions and protests, w.is here announced under
the sacred authority of Christian antiquity as an undoubted, generally con-
ceded, and divine right. A forged document is indeed no very good founda-
tion on which to build a claim for universal dominion, but as Isidore only
expressed in a decisive manner wliat was the general object of effort during
that age, he gave a definite direction to the fluctuating views of right which
then prevailed, and filled even the minds of the popes and clergy with the
moral power of a faith in their own right to what wag claimed. Men are
much more inclined to judge of rights from facts than from theories, and
hence this fiction respecting former times certainly anticipated a future real-
ity, and gave considerable support to the pretensions of the pric-sthood. The
object of it was to promote the independence of the Churcli, which the
same author, or some contemporary whose sympathies were remarkably
similar to his, endeavored to sustain in an earlier plan, by increasing the dltti-
culties in the way of sustaining charges against bishops, and by allowing them
to be tried only in the provincial synods, (f) It was thought, however, tliat
this could be secured against the tlireatening and ovcrwlichning jwwer of the
emperor in no other way than by uniting the whole Church under one
I) Lfo IV. a. WO. nd Episcc. Brltan. (Onrtian: P. I. DIst. XX. c. 1.)
c) Centnr. MapfUburg. Tli. H. c. 7. Th. III. C 7. (Tiirrinnun, ndv. M«s>I. (Vnt i)ro cann. «pp. et
ipp. decretalibus Pontt app. Par. 1573. 4.) Pov. Blondel, Vf*-uilol>Ul. et Tiirr. vnpulantes. Gen.
.C28. 4
d) WalL'T, KRechL 8 cd. Bonn. 1S.39. p. l.V'is«. J/M/cr, aus n. über P. Wd. (Tub. Quartalschr.
829. II. 8. 1S32. II. 1. and mlgoell. writlnjr«. vol. I.) Only Marchftti bas un<lortakon sllll to question
Ibe spuriousness of tbo Decretals. (Sai-p'o «"fit- »opra la Moria dl Kleuri. Koin. \'>\.)
e) Cupitnhi. Angilnimni : Mnusi Tli. XII. p. Wi^^ Accordins; to s<«ino Codd. tlic!>e were a
collection of 7'V> laws respcctlns legal proeeeillngs aitaln^t bl.*li<>|H presented by Ansrllram, Up. of Mi tz
and Arch-cl]a|ilain to Cliarlc-s tbe (7 reat, to Popo Adrian, but, according to others pre.<cnted by Adrian to
Anjrllram. For its autlientlolty : V<iKiifn>i-hU1i^n, Bellrr. z. Gesch. d. falschen Dccret*L BrsL IS-U.
Against it: üettherff, KGosch. Dout.<clil. vol. I. p. 501. e4C.'a.
i86 MKDIAKVAL CIICIX'II IIISTOKV. I'KI:. III. A. V. 800-12IJ.
oartlily liend. It is hardly j/ossililo flint lie who tliUH attempted to deceive llio
■whole Church and the world had in view any direct personal advantage
which ho expected to derive from it,
§ I74r. The Female Pope Joanna.
In the dironicles composed near the commencement of the thirteenth
century, it is recorded that between Leo IV. (d. July 17, 855) who hoped to
free himself from the influence of Franco by another connection with the
Greek emi)ire, and Benedict III.^ a disguised female who hud been highly
educated at Athens, Avas elevated to the apostolic chair under the name of
John VIII. (Anglicus), and met with a tragical end while paying the penalty
of her sex. {a) It was on this account that John XX. (1276) assumed the
appellation of John XXL, and this Joanna Papissa retained her place on
the list of the successors of St.. Peter. But the silence of all antiquity with
respect to the matter, awakened doubts in the fifteenth century, and when
proofs were brought forward that Benedict apparently succeeded Leo imme-
diately in the papal chair, (b) with only a contest with an antipope named Anas-
tasius, (c) a Roman presbyter who bad before been excommunicated by Leo,
and when the unlucky affiiir was at least boldly denied by the popes of the elev-
enth century, (<T) even the Protestants abandoned the account, (e) It does not
wear the appearance of a calumnious story, or of a satirical allegory, but rather
of one of those popular tales in which the highest power of the age was
treated with innocent poetic raillery, and after a German style, a deep sor-
row was concealed under a playful semblance. It is, however, possible that
a Church which has often made realities out of .vhat never existed, may also
possess magic power enough to annihilate what has really taken place, when-
ever the knowledge of it may have seemed injurious to the still tottering
papacy. (/)
«) StepJianus de Borlone (1225 in Lyons) L. de TIL donis Sp. S. {BkisciH) dc Coll. cann. Isid.
c. 16. § 11. n. 2.) Martini Pol. Chronic, (comp. Muratori ad Anastas. p. 247.) Tlie passage relating
to the subject is interpolated out of Martinus in a few manuscripts of Anastasins. The mention of
the papal mother in the editio princeps of Sigehert Gemhlac. ad a, S55 i? -nanting in the MSS.
hitherto l;nown. {PerU Th. TIIL 340. 470.)
h) 1) Ilincmari Ep. 26. ad Xic T. a. S67. (0pp. ed. Sirmond. Th. II. p. 293.) according to which
his messenger received the news of the death of Leo while on his way to Rome, and when he arrived
at Eome his petition was granted by Benedict, 2) A diploma of the monastery of Corbey (Jlulil-
lon, de ro diplom. p. 436.); and 3) A Roman denarius (Kühlers Münzbelust. vol. XX. p. 805.) have
each the name of Benedict in connection with that of Lothaire. Tho Emperor Lothaire died Sept.
2S, 855.
c) Joffe, Eegesta p. 285s. Ilincmari Annal. (Pertz, vol. I. p. 477s.s.)
d) Leo IX. ad Michael. Constant Patriarch, a 1054. {Mansi Th. XIX. p. 649.) c. 23.
e) Blondel, Joanna Papissa. Amst 1657. G. G. Leihnitii flores sparsi in tumulum Papissco.
(Bibl. hist, Goett. 176S. Th. I. p. 297ss.) Gabler, kirchl. theoL Schriften, vol. I. Jf. 29.— Ti: Smtts, d.
Mührchen v. d. P. Joh. Cr,lln. IS'29.
/) SpanhemüT>s. de ,To. P. (0pp. Th. IL p. 577ss.) Luden, Gesch. d. teutschen Volkes. 1S31.
vol. VI. p. 512. K. C. Kiat, d. Päpstin Joh. from the Dutcli. (Nedcrl. Archicf Toor kerk. GeschieU
eiiis III, 1. V, 401.) revised by Z. Tross. (Illgen's Zoltschr. 1S44. part 2.)
CHAP. 1 PAPACY. § 175. KICIIOLAS I. HADRIA^MI. JOHN VIII. 1S7
§ 175. Nicholas I. 8Ö8-8G7, Hadrian II. 8GT-S72, and John Till. 872-882.
Manai Tb. XV. p. 144ss. E«>gino ad atn. S58ss. Hincmar de divortio Hlotbarii et Teutb«rjne.
(0pp. ed. Sirmond. Th. I. p. 557ss.)— J/iinst Th. XV. p. SOCss. Th. XVI. p. öTOss. Ilnic. lUm^
Opiisc. 55 capitulor. adv. lllncm. Laudunens. (Ojip. Th. II. p. 377ss.)
Nicholas /., a defender of the people, was gentle toward good men, but like an
avenging Elijah toward those who were evil, lie Ibiined but never quite accom-
plished the design of surrounding himself with a council of inteUigent bishops
out of all nations. But perceiving the favorable disposition of the age, he raised
the privileges of the apostolic see so that they became a j)rotection fur the whole
Church, and under the sanction of public opinion a weapon against all kinds
of violence. In opposition to a lascivious king and a large nuuiber of servile
bishops, he appeared as the avenger of oppressed innocence, and as a defender
of episcopal rights against an imperious and powerful archbishop. King
Lothaire II. was obliged to humble himself, since the hostile princes of his
own family stood ready to execute the papal threats, and tlie FrankLsh bish-
ops did not object to have the spurious decretals appUed for the first time
against Hincmar of Ii'heims, for they thought it better to obey a distant pope
than a threatening metropolitan at home. It was, however, still believed
even at Rome, that a papal decision might very easily be annulled by a
Prankish synod. ('/) But when, with no such advantage of political circum-
stances, Hadrian 11, after the death of Lothaire (8C0), defended the rights
of the lawful heir to the throne against Charles the Bald and Louis the Ger-
man, and endeavored to protect Hincmar of Laon, a deposed bishop who had
also been persecuted by the king, from the rage of his uncle, Ili/ici/air of
Iiheitns, the latter gave him to understand that in France a wide distinction
Avas made between spiritual and secular power ; that great disturbances of
public tranquillity had been created by the pope, and that the bishops of
former times had independent privileges. The pope therefore found it need-
ful to assuage the wounded feelings of the Frankish nation by some conces-
sions, and expressions of a holy love which he declared had always remained
constant in spite of some ejiistles that might have seemed severe because
Avritten under the pressure of great infirmity, or forged in his name. (//)
John VIII. bestowed (775) the imperial crown upon Charles the Bald in com-
pliance with what he declared to be a divine revelation to his predecessor
Nicholas, in spite of the superior hereditary claims of the Gennan kingdom,
and .sustained the cause of that prince by every spiritual menace in his power.
It Avas then solemnly announced that this bestowal of the imperiiU dignity
was in consequence of the intercessions of the apostles Peter and Paul,
through their vicegerent on earth. It corresponded witli the political view3
of the emperor to compel the French bishops to acknowledge Amcgism,
Archbishop of Sens, as the primate and papal vicar for Gaul and Germany ;
but under the counsel of Hincmar thoy i)ersisted in obeying the holy father
only as far as was consistent with the rights of all the metrojiolitans, and with
a) AnnstuK. ad Adiinoiii Vionn. (Mauni Th. XV. p. 4'>^.) — K. liosHteuscher, do Eothado Kplsa
Äuesslonensi. Mnrb. Is45. 2 r>ri:.
h) riincm. nd Iladr. (0pp. Th. II. p. 6>9.) IAhIi: ad Carol. Calv. (J/linsi Th. XV. p. S57.)
188 MlCniAKVAI. ( lirU' II llI^ToUY. riCU. IlL A. D. 800-121«.
the laws of tho Chureli. (c) IIo gavo Lis consent to tlio decrees of the Sy-
".0(1 of Rfircuna (877), in which tho papal approbation was declared indis-
pensable to tlie investiture of tlio metropolitans, the bishops were made inde-
pendent of all censures and claims on tho part of tho civil powers, and the
guardianship of widows and orplians was committed to their hands ; {d) but
the papal letters which interfered with the independence of the empire and
the jurisdiction of the bishops over their clergy, ho pronounced through
Ilincmar to be spurious, {e) The pope fell finally by the hand of an assassin. (/)
lie continued to the last inflexibly convinced of the imprescriptible rights of
his see, and of his position as a servant of God, contending against tlie pow-
ers and princes of the world (Eph. vi. 12). Sorely pressed by tho Saracens
in Lower Italy, and wearied by tlie municipal and German factions in Rome,
he defended himself with extreme difficulty, and sometimes not without
treachery.
§ 176. Formosits, 891-896, and Stephen VI. 897.
Aicanlii 1. II. de ordinationibus Formosi (Bibl. PP. Lucd. Tli. XVII. p. lss.)and Dial, super ccnM
et neg. Form. {MahiU. Anal. ed. 2. p. 2Sss.) Man»i Th. XVIII. p. 99ss. 221ss. Liudprand I, 8.
When Charles the Fat was deposed by the German people on account of
his incapacity (887), and when, soon after, the male line of the Emperor
Charles had become extinct in France, Germany and France became distinct
kingdoms. Both nations were rent into factions by the contentions of the
sons-in-law and the illegitimate children of the old royal family. Italy strug-
gled for its independence even with itself. The popes, it is true, were free
from foreign masters, but they were often obliged to make concessions in the
party contests of the Romans and of the Italian nobles. Guido, Duke of
Spoleto, and Berengar, Duke of Friuli, contended with each other for the
crown of Italy, and placed their favorites in the papal chair according as
they were severally successful. Formosus, after a life of great vicissitude,
was elevated to the apostolic throne, and though he was compelled to place
the imperial crown upon the head of Lambert, the son of Guido, he imme-
diately summoned the German Armilf to Rome to free Italy from the
tyranny of that prince. Arnulf was then crowned, and the Romans were
made to take the oath of allegiance to him, with the understanding that their
duties to the pope were in no respect to be affected by such an act. Ilis suc-
cessor, Stephen VI., went over again to the party of Guido, and having dis-
interred the body of Formosus, subjected it to the mockery of a judicial
trial. Enraged at these proceedings, the opposite party had him soon after
strangled in prison.
c) Cone. Pontigoneuse &. 876. JTincm. Tr. ad Eplscc de jure Metropol. (0pp. Th. IL p. 719.)
nincm. Annal. {Pertz Th. I. p. 499ss.)
d) Mansi Th. XVII. p. S37.
<>) Do Prcsbyteris duramatis ad Jo. P. {Ilincm. 0pp. Th. II. p. 7GSs.)
f) Annal. Ftddens. (T^rtsTh. I. p. 39a)
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 1". SERGIUS HI. >,'<OnN XL 189
§ 1Y7. Pornocracy. 904-902,
I. The principal authority is LIudprand, but when he writes of great outrag»^, ho must re ;om-
pared with other clironiclers, especially Flodoardi Chron. and his Fragm. de PoniilT. P.oni. (J/ii
billon. Acta SS. O. Ben. 8. III. P. II.) Jaße, EegcsU p. 8i)T-322.
II. Löscher, Hist des rüin. Ilurenregiments. Lpz. 1707. 4. (2. A. Hist der mittlem Zeiten als ein
Licht ans der Finsternlss. 1725. 4.)
"While Italy bled under the fends of the nobility, the Tn.scan party obtained
tlio victory at Rome, and made their tool, Scrgiiis III.^ pope (904-911). At
the head of this faction stood Alberic, Marqui.s of Tuscany, with his paramour
Theodora, a -widow of a noble family, and her daughter Maria (Nlarozia).
These last were exceedingly beautiful, crafty and bold Roman women, whose
love of power and of voluptuousness were so subservient to each other tliat
it was hard to tell which was the strongest passion. For half a century
their favorites, sons and grandsons, occupied the apostolic chair. Maria made
no secret of the parentage of her children, acknowledging that her husband
Alberic was the father of Alberic, and Pope Sergius of John. On the
death of Sergius, the Archbishop of Ravenna, John X. (914-28), by the crimi-
nal favor of Theodora, became the successor of St. Peter. By him the
strength of Italy was united against the Saracens, who for forty years had
maintained a settlement on the borders of the States of the Church. At the
head of a Greek and Roman imperial army, he destroyed their citadel (916)
on the Carigliano (Liris). After the death of Theodora, the pope, with tho
aid of his brother Peter, endeavored to make himself independent. Maria
had the Pope's brother killed before his eye:^, and then caused hira to be
smothered in the castle of St. Angelo (928). Ilcr son, John XL, ascended
the papal throne as though it were an inlieritaiice from his father. She now
married Hugh, Count of Prcrvence, who was regarded as the real king of
Italy. But her secular son Alleric, in a nocturnal insurrection of the Ro-
mans, expelled his stepfather, and as a senator (932-954) exercised supremo
power in Rome. Under his administration the popes possessed nothing but a
spiritual jurisdiction. Ilis son Octavian, after the death of Agapctus (956),
seized not only his father's power, but tho episcopal office, and was the first
among the popes who assumed an ecclesiastical name on attaining tho papal
throne. As John XII. (955-63), ho hoped to disconnect the excesses of his
secular life from his ecclesiastical name and office.
§ 178. The Pope« vnder the Othos.
During the reign of Henry I. Germany became conscious of its power.
Otho I. seized upon tho first favorable opportunity for renewing the German
dominion in Italy. (</) Since tliat time Germany and Italy have contrived to
exert a disastrous influence upon each other. Tlio German king was invited
by John XII. himself to dehver the motlicr of churches from the violence
of Berengar II., the new king of Italy, and Avhcn victorious, ho was crowned
by the pope at Rome (902), on his taking a solemn oath that ho would pre-
serve inviolate the person of the pope, and all property belonging to the
c) W. DOnnige«, Jahrbücher d. Deutschen Reichs unter Otto f. Berl. lS8f.
/90 MKDIAKVAL CIIUliCH lUSTOltV. I'ER. III. A. I>. S00-1J16.
Romnii Clmrcli, mid iiiitliTtiikc iiotliin^' in Rome without t lie advice of llie
pope. Tlio pope and all the notahles of the city, on the other hand, sworo
on the precious body of St. Peter that they would henceforth abandon the
cause of Borongar for ever, {h) But Italy could at that time neither dispense
with nor endure the Germans. John soon formed an alliance with Bercngar
to drive them from the country. Otho hastened back and had the pope
cited before a Synod at Rome (968), which convicted him of murder, blas-
phemy, and all kinds of lewdness, deposed him, and elected L(o VIII. In his
stead. The Romans then swore to the emperor that no pope should be cho-
sen or consecrated without his consent, (c) On the emperor's departure,
John returned and took a most cruel vengeance on his enemies, but he was
soon after found dead in an adulterous bed, slain as was generally believed
by the devil. The succeeding popes were nominated and with great difficulty
sustained by the emperor, against the hatred of the people and the deceitful
policy of the Tuscan party. After Otho's death (973), Crescenthts^ a grand-
son of Theodora, under the character of a Consul, armed the Roman peojjle
against the foreign tyranny. Whenever the emperors had an army in Italy,
the i)opes were entirely subservient to their will, but at other times they
were the creatures of the Roman consul and people. Otho III.^ intending
to transfer the imperial residence to Rome, caused his young nephew Bruno
to be proclaimed pope, under the name of Gregory Y. (990), {(I) subdued the
fortress of St. Angelo, and had' Crescentius beheaded, and a rival pope muti-
lated (998). Arnu{t\ Archbishop of Rheims, and a natural brother of the
Duke of Lorraine, had surrendered Rheims to this relative, and had after-
wards fallen into the hands of Hugh Cajyet^ his enraged king. lie refused to
acknowledge any one but the pope as his judge. But a national synod at
Rheims (991) compelled him to resign his oflBce, and placed Geviert in his
chair, {e) The pope issued sentence of excommunication against all who
acknowledged the validity of the acts of that synod. In vain did Gerbert
remind the people that it was not his own interest, but the welfare of the
general Church, which was to be sacrificed to the caprice of an individual ;
he was shunned as an excommunicated man by all the inhabitants of Rheims,
and finally (995) he accepted the invitation of the emperor to become the impe-
rial tutor. The new French kingdom sought reconciliation with the pope.
Arnulf was reinstated in his former oflice by another synod hold at Rheims
(996), and even Eobert, the king, submitted to a decision of a Roman synod
(908), by which he was separated trom his wife Bertha on account of a spiritual
relationship and a natural consanguinity in the fourth degree. (/) Soon after,
however, on the premature death of Gregory, Otho had his beloved teacher
elected to the vacant chair, and from personal regard, while proudly denying
h) Gratian: P. I. Dist LXIII. c. 33. Liudp. VI, 6.
c) Liudp. VI, 6-11. Pertz Th. IV. p. 29ss. The Ccmsf. Leonis VIII. as to its essential matter \i
trustworthy, but the form in Tvliich it lias been known since the 11th cent is not beyoml suspicion.
It may be found in PerU Th. IV. II. p. 167. as an extract in Gratian : V. I. Dist. LXIII. c 23.—
C. F. IltrteJ. (le Ottonis M. Ecclesiae prospioicn<li conatu. Magd. 1736. d) Jafft, p. 339&S.
e) Gerberfs account of the transactions in Mansi Th. XIX. p. 103ss.
/) Miinsi Th. XIX. p. 225. J7e!ffa!dii.'< F.oiiac. Vita Koberti c. 17. (Bouquet Th. X. p. 107.)
The view entertained in the next century may be found in Pet, Pamiuni 1. 11. Ep. 15.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. §17S. STLVESTEU II. §179. CLEMENT II. 191
the validity of all former grants, he presented to St. Peter eight counties be-
longing to the States of the Church as if they "were his own. (y) Syhester
II. (999-1003) was of a very humble origin, and in early life had been a
strenuous opponent of papal assumptions. His elevation and his knowledge
seemed so extraordinary, that the reverence of the Germans and the aversion
of the Romans produced a rcjiort that he had sold his soul to the devil as tho
price of the papacy. But in tlio midst of the highest youthful aspirations
the emperor suddenly died (1002), and the power of his favorite pope was
broken. (Ji)
§ 179. The Papacy until the Synod of Sutri.
I. Jf//e, Regesta p. 851-364. Glaher RaduJfm, a monk of Clugnl (about 1046), Hist snl teni-
poris. (Z)m Chesne Th. IV. p. 1.) BonUo, Bisliop of Sutri and Pinccnza, d. 10S!>. L. ad amtc. s. de
persecutione Ecc. (Ocfilii Scrr. rer. Boicar. Tli. II. p. 794.) In and aAor tlio fifth book tliere is a
history of the Popes from Benedict IX. to Greg. VII. DeHulerius ( Victor III.) du uiiraculis a S.
Bcnedicto aliisque Casincnsib. gestls Diall. (Bibl. PP. Lugd. Th. Xyill. p. S53.) Annales Lomont
from 1046. {Pertz Th. VII. p. 46S.)
II. EngelharcU, Obss. de syn. Sutricnsi. Erlang. ISM. 4. Th. MittUr, do schism. In Ecc P.oin. sub
pontlf. Ben. IX. Tur. \^la.—Stenzel, Gesch. Deutschl. nuter d. ftT.nk. Kaisern. Liiz. \^i'.
In Eonie the contest was still continued between a popular party and tho
Count of Tuj-culum, in whose fomily the jjapacy had become hereditary .-ifter tho
time of Benedict Till. (1012.) Benedict IX. reached tlic sacred chair (1033)
when he was yet a boy, disgraced it by crimes which are usually imi)ractica-
ble at such a youthful period of life, and finally was driven from it by tho
people. Sylvester III. was put in his place, but Benedict was soon after
brought back between the swords of his party. Convinced, however, that
it would be impossible to sustain himself against the popular contempt, the
tiara was sold to Gregory YI. TIic latter regarded the disgrace of acquiring
tlie papal crown in this manner as a necessary sacrifice for the deliverance
of the Church. Benedict, however, soon repented of this transaction, and
three popes shared the Cliurch between themselves. Henry III. now camo
to restore the imperial power in Italy, and assembled, in the very midst of
liis army, the Synod of Sutri (1040), by which the papal chair was pro-
nounced vacant. Gregory having dei>osed himself, Suidgor, Bisliop of Bam-
berg, a serious and pious Gennan belonging to tlie imperial retinue, was then
saluted as Pope in tlie Ciuircli of St. Peter, under the name of Clement II.
From the hands of tho newly elected pope the German king received tho
crown of the Roman Emperor, and was made the Fatricitis of tlio city,
and tho Romans swore once more that no pope should bo chosen contrary to
his will.
§ 180. The Popot "udcr Ilildcbrund, 1048-1073.
I. Boiiho, Dfxidfriu«, and Annnlfi Horn, afl referred to In the preceding section, /.fo Ottitn-
sis, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, 1101, Chron. nxmasttril Caslncns. (Munilori Tli. IV. p. IM.) Tlicso
were thorough admirers of Orcsory. Many notices may bo found In tho epistles of llio Cardinal
Bishop of Ostia, Diimiani, d. 1UT2, who eeeentlally agreed with Ulldebrand, but with all Ills con-
f) Ottonifi III. Diplom.^ (Baron, ad ann. 1191. No. 57.) comp. I.iudpr. Hist. Olton. c. 19.
/() Mituxi Th. XIX. p. 240.VS.— r. /'. Ihnk\ Oorbeit o. Sylv. II. n. s. .Jahrli. Vienna. ls'!7. WIV
man'.T Jiihrl.iifher d. Deutschen P.elchs unter Otto III. Berl. lS4i.). Jiiffi, Kegosta p. .345ss.
.92 MEDIAEVAL CHUUCH IIISTOI'.Y. I'KR. II[. A. I). 600-1210.
trncted viows •«■■■ah Indi'iuiirK'nlly opposed to what ho called the holy Hatari ami Ihe wliolo papi-cy.
AnnalfH AUnhfiinpn, ri"*l<.r.-il hy V>'. Gh'S<'hrccht. licrl. 1S41.
II. .A.//. Voiul, llll.I.hr. nlH. Ore?. VII. u. 8. Ziltaltcr. Wclm. (1915.) 1846. G. CaMander,t\.
Zeitalter HlliUhr. für u. giftn Hin. Darinst iSi2.—U öfter, deutsche Püi>8tc. 2 Abth.
Tlio popes of this period were dependent upon the eraperor, but they
Avero gcnernlly men selected for that station on account of their eccle.siaati-
cal character, and from the fact that as general bishops of tlie empire, hon-
orably and securely residing at Rome, they had attained a high degree of
ecclesiastical influence. The general voice of the people demanded of them the
deliverance of the Church from the simony and the licentiousness of the clergj'.
The bishoprics were regularly and sometimes at auction set up for sale, and the
bishops sought remuneration for the expense of their purchase from the sale of
the inferior offices. The "whole Church had become venal. What had been ob-
tained by worldly policy was administered and enjoyed in a worldly manner.
The power of Henry III. was so great in Italy, that Roman messengers were
sent to him demanding that he would bestow on them some one for a pope.
At the Diet of Worms, Bruno, Bishop of Toul, a cousin of the emperor, was
elected to that office, and under the name of Leo IX. (104S-54) proved him-
self a pious man, but somewhat dependent upon those who surrounded him.
A Roman monk, whom he was desirous of making one of his retinue, re-
fused all connection with him because he had obtained his station in the
Church not in accordance with ecclesiastical laws, but by worldly power. In
compliance with the counsel of this man, the pope went to Rome in the
character of a pilgrim, and was there regularly elected by the clergy and
people of the city. The monk who had such an influence over him was
IlildehranJ. He was born probably at Saona, the son of a mechanic, was
educated at Olugni, and had shared the exile of Gregory YI. in Germany.
Leo sought in the national councils of France and Germany to re-establish
discipline, and to remove all those priests who had purchased their offices
and would not perform penance for their sin. In a campaign against the
Normans who had conquered Apulia, his whole array was finally destroyed.
But when the imprisoned vicegerent of Christ beheld the conquerors at his
feet, he blessed their arms and confirmed their conquests. (</) When Leo
died, Hildebrand, then a subdeacon, was commissioned by the Roman people
to select a successor, and chose Gebhard, Bishop of Eichstadt, Victor 11.
(1055-57). (J) This man, on account of his wisdom and wealth as well as
for his consanguinity and friendship with the eraperor, was the most power-
ful bishop in the empire. The principal object aimed at in his election, was
to break up a party of which he had been the centre, but which had been
opposed to the papal power over the bishops, and to enlist his great personal
influence against those abuses which prevailed beyond the Alps. Against
these, Hildebrand, when Legate, had so efiectually contended, that the con-
trition of a perjured bishop before his piercing glance was regarded as a
miraculous influence upon the conscience, (c) The Emperor Henry, when
a) Wibfrtus, Bruno's Archdeacon at Toul, Vita Leon, (ifuratori Th. III. P. I. p. 27S.) Bruno,
Bishop of Sepii, about 1100, Vita Leon. (lb. P. U. p. 346.)
I) Vita and Epp. in Mann Th. XIX. p. 83a
c) According to Daiuiani Suron. ad ann. 1055. No. ISss.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § ISO. NICnOL.VS 11. ALEXANDEP. II. 193
dying, commended his son to the ])rotection of the pope, and Victor pro-
mised that the empire should be {riven to tlio royal child, Henry IV. But a
new power had recently been establi.-ihed in Italy, by the marriage of God-
frey of Lorraine with Beatrice, tlio widow of the Marquis of Tuscany. God-
frey's brother, Stephen /X., was actuated by the very spirit of the Reforma-
tion. His jjlan of establishing a national empire in Italy, by investing his
brother with the royal dignity, was defeated by his want of decision or his early
death (Aug. 2, 1058.) ('/) The Roman nobles, with a party of the clergy op-
posed to the Reformation, placed upon tlic tlirone the Bishop of Voletri, Bene-
Ict X. Ilildebrand, with the concurrence of the imperial court, then procured
the election of Gebhard, Archbishop of Florence, KichoUis II. (1058-61.) (c)
The duke Godfrey conducted him to Rome, and Benedict submitted. At a
Roman synod (1059), Nicholas committed almost exclusively to the college
of cardinals the power of choosing the pope, in order that the papal election
might not he disturbed by the factious interests of the nobles, or the storms
of popular elections. The right of King Henry and of his successors (which,
however, he would have obtained fcrnmidJly from the apostolic see) was
made the subject of special stipulation. (/) The Roman court perceived the
advantage of an alliance Avith the Normans in oppo.-ition to tlie Germans, and
it agreed with the piety and policy of Robert Guhcanl to have his conquests
in Lower Italy and his designs upon Sicily pronounced lawful and holy by
the pope, lie now became, accordingly, the vassal and protector of the Ro-
man Church. (17) By his assistance the otfended nobility, and especially the
faction of the Count of Tusculum, was overthrown. On the death of Nicholas,
Ilildebrand, in connection with the cardinals, made choice of Anselm, Bishop
of Lucca, Alexander II. (lOGl-73). The imperial court regarded the alliance
with ihe Normans with much uncasine^, and tlicrefore induced the Loiubardic
bishops to proclaim Cadolaus, Bishop of Parma, llonorius II., as pope, Avhoso
previous life gave sufficient assurance that the Church would be i)rotectcd against
simony and concubinage. But Godfrey drew his sword, and the Normans were
arrayed in defence of the pope chosen by Ilildebrand, and when Hanno,
Archbishop of Cologne, carried oft' the person of the German king, then in
his minority, that he might take ujjou hiin.sclf the regency, llonorius was
generally abandoned. The work of refurnialion, however, produced but
little result in the Church in consequence of the oi)positii)n of the bishops,
supported by the king. Henry IV. was desirous of a divorce from his noblo
but much-abused wife. The Cardinal Damiani, at a synod held at Mentz, so
frightened the bishops when they seemed disposed to favor the royal request,
that they dared not comply. "When the Sa.xons sent messengers to Rome as
to a divine court, to complain of Henry IV. for his intolerable opjiression of
his subjects, and for exposing to sale all ecelesiaslioal ollices to rai.so a reve«
nue for the support of .^«oldiors employeil against his people, Alexander sum-
moned the king to answer the charges at Rome. Henry's wrath at so strange
d) Leo Ostiena. II, looss.
<■) Vita and Epp. in 3f,nixi Tli. XIX. p. RfiT.
/) Stfttutuin tie tU'ctione Papae. J'fitz Tli. IV. 2. p. Kfi. .V faWflcd text In O'ratian: P. L
out. XXIII. c. X.—fC. CnniU de Nie. II. decret». Argent S'}7. 4.
g) Both feudal ontlis are to bo seen in Baron, ad ann. 1009. No. Tds.
13
194 MKDIAKVAL CIirKCII IIISTOItV. I'KK. III. A. I). SiO-1216.
a proceeding was sodii after allayed by tlie sudden news of Alexander's death.
It was then tliat Ilildebrand I'elt tliat tlic time liad come in whicli he niipjlit
enter upon tlio execution of the i)lan Cdt wiiicli he liad long been i)reparing,
and might assimie the dignity of an independent sovereign. Even at the
funeral of Alexander, tlie people exclaimed, " Ilildebrand is Pope, St. Peter
has elected him ! "
§ 181. Gregory VIT. Ajjril 22, 1073— ,Vay 25, 1085.
I. 1) Oregnrii Rcgistri s. Epp. 1. XT. Tlic Ifltli book is wantint,' in all the cdilt hitherto, as In
3r<msi Th. XX. p. CO.'-s. According to the invcstifrations of Giesebrecht on the basis of the Cod.
Vaticamis tlic Eegistrum is not the official record of Grcfrory'a writings, but the first Foven bcok« ».-.
a collection wiiich a contcinpor.iry formed from them corresponding to tbo fcven first years of his
public administration. The Stb book, whicli was not until a later period divided according to the
years of bis reign, contains all his other writings afterwards found, compiled withont a strict regard
to their chronological order. Thus, Jaße, Regesta p. 402-44-3. Acts of council it orig. docc. : Mami
Th. XX. p. 402ss. and in XTldarici Bahenberg. Code.x Epist collected about 1125. (Eccard. Th. 11.
p. 1.) 2; Panegyrists: Bonizo and others referred to at the head of § 1793. Ptiulus Bernrideiv-
tis, canon at Eatisbon, about 1130, de Vita Greg. (3fur(itori Tli. III. P. I. p. SIT.) Bninn, a Sason
clergyman, Hist, belli Saxon. 107.3-Sl. {Freher. Th. I. p. 171.) The biographies ot Panilnlphot Pisa,
and Nicolas o{ Aragon, for the sake of the original authorities preserved in them. (J/ura<o7-i Th.
III. P. I. p. 304.) 3; Opponents: Bentio, a Cardinal of the party of Clement III. the Antipope, de
vita ct gestis Hildebr. 1. II. Otbert, Bishop of Liege, de vita et obitu Henr. IV. (Both are in Gol-
dnstVs Apologia pro Henr. IV. Ilan. 1611. 4.) Concerning fragments of another adverse writer:
Perti Archiv, vol. V. p. 85. Among the Panegyrists the praise is unqualified, but although Paul of
Cernr. writes as an independent man, and Bruno passionately when in opposition to the emperor,
they express the sentiment of a whole nation. On the same side are also found some impartial
chroniclers, as Lambert, Marianus Scotus, Otto of Frcysingen, and, respecting the character of Greg-
ory, even Sigbert. On the other hand, Benno's work is nothing but a lampoon full of contradictions.
IL Gaoh, Apol. Greg. Tub. 1792. Voigt and Cassander referred to at the head of § ISO. A. de
YidailUin, Vie dc Gregolre VIL Par. 1S37, 2 Th. J. W. Boicden, Life of Gregory VIL Lond. 1S40.
1 Th. — SOW, Heinrich IV. Munich. 1S2.3. Terenet, de commutatione, quam subiit hiorarchia Bom.
anctore Greg. Traj. ad Kh. 1S32. [./ Stephens, Ilildebrand, or Greg. VII. (in Ed. Review, Jan. 1S45.
and Eclectic Mag. June, 1S45).]
That he might not be embarrassed with an antipope, Gregory YII. a.?keil
the consent of the king to his assumption of the tiara. Henry lY., deceived
by the humility and frankness exhibited in his letter, readily granted what
it would have been difficult to withhold. No doubt Gregory secretly desired the
possession of the papal crown, but the same feeling which even at a later period,
in the midst of a stormy activity, made him sometimes tired of the hostüity
of the world, and long for retirement, for he was a sickly man, now made
him shrink from the struggle in which he foresaw he must engage in opposition
to the clergy, the bishops, and even the king, if he would radically heal the
maladies of the Church. The marriages of the clergy, contracted with a
consciousness of guilt, and generally of a dissolute character, were the most
universal cause of their corruption. It was necessary, therefore, that mar-
riage should be freely conceded to them, or be rendered utterly impracti-
cable. At a synod held at Eome (1074), Gregory re-established the ancient
law of celibacy. The largest portion of the inferior clergy in Lombardy and
beyond the Alps were indignant at this. It was, however, only by renounc-
ing the delights and cares of domestic life that the clergy could secure tha
independence of the Church, and yet retain possession of her vast estates.
By exciting the common people against all married priests, the papal law pre-
vailed in spite of their desperate opposition. A second Roman synod (1075
CHAP. I. PAPACr. § ISl. GREGORY VII. 195
Dronounced the decisive sentence by wliicli all simony was condemned, and
tlie freedom of the Church was dechired, since every one was laid under ex-
communication who should give or receive an ecclesiastical office from the
hands of a layman. The king.s, in opposition to this, defended a long estab-
lished prerogative which was a powerful support to their thrones. In the
mind of Gregory the idea of a universal theocracy had become ascendant, in
which a vicar of God in times of brute violence (fanstrecht) micrht stand
between princes and their people, enforcing the law of divine right by his
spiritual power, and able either to humble the people or to depose i)rinces.
As the cause of the papacy was then believed to be identical with that of
general reformation, and all felt the necessity of a supreme moral power
when such lawless violence prevailed, and of a legitimate dominion of the
spiritual over the merely physical nature, of which the state was regarded
as the representative, the best portion of society were favorable to this ^^ew.
Many, however, saw tlie necessary result of intrusting such unlimited power
to the hand of aman.(f<) Gregory never lost an opportunity as a feudal
lord paramount, and as an umpire or lawgiver, to assert with greater or less
success his office of a divine vicar among the nations of Europe. His princi-
ples he openly and boldly avowed, (l>) however careful and reserved he
might be in expressing opinions of particular persons ; but in the accomjilish-
ment of his purposes he never hesitated, if necessary, to make use of the
most terrible measures. lie gathered around himself men of vigorous and
elevated minds, whom he raised often against their own wills from monastic
concealment to the highest dignities. Beatrice and her daughter Matilda,
Countess of Tuscany, always participated in his most secret counsels. The
suspicions which some attempted to throw upon his relations to the former
lady, were too convenient for the purposes of the thousands whose inclina-
tions he opposed, to acquire any high degree of probability when o])poscd to
the uniform character of the parties. ('•) More credible evidences show that
the relation was that of an earnest father to his spiritual daugliter, who did
homage to his lofty spirit, and Avas delighted when he intrusted to her his
cares, and allowed her to assist him with her wealth and power. Gregory
was indeed hated by the clergy and the principal men of Italy, but on
Christmas night in the year 1074, the people delivered him out of the hands
of the youth among the nobility, who had formed a conspiracy and threat-
ened his life. His opinion that Spain by an ancient legal title belonged to
St. Peter, and that Hungary had tbrmerly been given to St. Peter by one of
its kings, just as Saxony was said to have been given by the Emperor Charles,
remained only as an idea founded upon a legendary tradition to bo taken up
by any one who might afterwards have tbe power to act Ufion the sng-
«) Apoloda pro Hcnr. IV. 109.3, WTltten prolintOy l>y ^Vlllt^•nm, Bishop of NaHnibnrc, ami a Tnwt
de investitiira Kplscc. by tlie Mine. Itc.-idos other Apoloplsts In (inliliint Tfii-mlorici. Ep. ad
Gref;. n. lOSO. (MarUne Tliesiiir. nov. Ancnlot Th. I. p. 2U.es.) For Greptr. : R-rnold. ConntanU
Apologet pro decretis Oroc. (.Vnri«» Th. XX. p. 4(>4.) Letters and Patnphlols: r««*n«ann Th. IL
p. 1S.3. AnnehnuK, Rp. of Lucca, contra Guit>erliiiii Antii>apnni I. II. a. 10S4. (UibL PP. Liigd. Th.
XVIII. p. G02.) Otliers in GreUfr, Apol. pro Ontr. (< »pp Tt VI.)
h) Slill as a collection by another hand, cump. Dictattis (irfi;orii VII. (L. II. Ep. 55, Mannt Th.
XX. p ICSs.) c) Lambert Schafn. ad ami. 1076.
196 MKDIAKVAL rilUTKir HISTOUV. I'KR. IIT. A. I). V.0-1216.
gestlon. (i!) If he soiiietiines made con cessions when (,'rcat power and tal
ents wore jirrnycd against him, as when rhilip of France, and still more,
when William the Conqveror of England resisted his measures, it was be-
cause his extraordinary knowledge of political affairs cnahled liira to judge
how fur ho ini<,'ht venture, and made him sec the necessity of using worldly
means in worldly transactions. But even when yielding to necessity, he
openly avowed, tliat just as God had patience with the wickedness of man,
ho endured injustice only for the present in the hope of a future meliora-
tion, (e) The impetuous instability of the youthful Henry IV., who had been
invested with the purple even from his birth, had been educated without disci-
])lino, and lived ever afterwards without afloction, presented a fair mark for his
terrible and cool precision. In opposition to this jirince, Gregory went forward
reforming the Church and exalting the papacy, and finally lie beheld the
highest of all earthly powers humbled before it. When the tra<le in eccle-
siastical offices was persisted in at court, and those counsellors who had been
excommunicated on this account were reinstated ; when Henry's paramours
went about adorned with jewels taken from the sacred vessels, and the Sax-
ons endured the most horrible oppression, the pope demanded that the king
should ansAver for these things at Eome, and threatened him with excommu-
nication on his disobedience. At a synod held at Worms (Jan. 24, 1076),
the king had the pope deposed as a tyrant who had laid unhallowed hands
upon the Lord's anointed. Gregory replied by hurling against him an anath-
ema which absolved all Christians from their oath of allegiance to him. By
his violent proceedings Henry had already fallen out with the princes of his
court, so that they hated him more than they valued the independence of the
empire. They therefore resolved, at an assembly held at Trihur (Oct. 1076),
that if the ban of excommunication were not removed from Henry within a
year, he should forfeit his throne. With a broken spirit the monarch ob-
tained absolution (Jan. 28, 1077), after he had brought disgrace upon himself
and his kingdom at Canossa. Finally he seized those weapons which had
long been offered him by the nobles of Lombardy. Again tlie sentence of
excommunication and deposition was issued against him, a rival pope and a
rival king were set up, and Italy and Germany were filled with blood.
Gregory had predicted that in that year a false king should die, {/) and ac-
cordingly Rudolph of Swabia, whom he had himself made king, died (1080).
Henry besieged and took Rome (1084), but the pope in his castle of St.
Angelo would even then accept of nothing but the unconditional submis-
sion of the king, and was liberated by Robert Guiscard. But the Romanic
nations commended the king's cause, {g) and the Romans were tired of the
evils which the implacable spirit of the pope brought upon them. Gregory
withdrew himself from them with his Normans, and died at Salerno, with the feel-
ings of a martyr, though binding and loosing his fellow-men even in death, {h)
d) Reglstr. lY, 2S. 11, 13. VII [, 23. Desgl. Corsica V, 4.
e) E. g. the enfeoffment of Guiscard in Mansi Th. XX. p. 814
/) Siyh. Gemhl. ad ann. lOSO. Bonizo's attempt to justify tbis proceeding is therefore about as
absurd as Benno's accusation of witchcraft, g) Eegistr. VII, 8.
h) The falseliood which from fear of the power of the deceased pope was invented, may be found ii
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 1S2. VICTOR III. URBAN II. 197
§ 182. Gregory's Successors, 1085-1099.
Victor IIT. 10S5-S7. yfami Th. XX. p. 630ss. Leo Ostiens. see at the head of § ISO. Biogr. by
Pandulphus Pisan. and Bernard. Guidon, written during the 13tb cent. Jn .}fiiralori Th. III. P.
L p. SÜI.— Urban If. lOSS-99. Jfatisi Th. X.X. p. W2s9. Jiife, p. 44Sss. Pandulpfi. and Ber-
narJ. in Jfuratori ]. c. After and along with the sources: liuinart in Jfubillon ct liitin. 0pp.
posth. Par. 1721. 4. Among the chroniclers, especially Leo Ontlent, & Bernotd, monk of S. Bla-
Bio. Chron. 1055-1100. {PerU Th. VII. p. 335.)
Gregory's principles were deeply impressed upon the age in which ho
lived, and the clergy began to understand the advantages they acquired by
sacrificing their domestic enjoyments. Tho.se who had been selected by
Gregory as worthy to become his successors were one after another raised to
the apostolic chair. Desiderius, the Abbot of Montecassino, Victor III.,
resolutely refused to leave the retirement of his convent, and thereby seri-
ously impaired his influence, but he rigidly followed out the course on which
his illustrious friend had entered. On his premature death, Otho, who out
of disgust with the world had resigned his canonicatc at Rheims and betaken
himself to Chigni, where he had been noticed by Gregory and made Bishop
of Ostia, and afterwards as Legate had been the prisoner and the mortal
enemy of Uenry, became pope under the name of Urhun II. "When Gre-
gory was dead, the emperor, who had now attained maturity in the midst of
the storms through which he had passed, with hi.s pope Clement III. exer-
cised sovereignty over Upper and Central Italy. Renouncing her widowhood
that she might promote the interests of the KumLsh Church, JLttihhr, by her
apparent marriage with Welf, Duke of Bavaria, gave for a brief period a
military leader to the papal party. The conduct of the emperor was far
more eflfectual than were all the solicitations of the pope to drive his son
Conrad into acts of treason (1093). Urban, at the great Council of Cler-
mont (1095), excommunicated Philij) of France for his adulterous connec-
tion with the Countess Bertrade, and forbade all persons invested with
ecclesiastical oflSces taking an oath of allegiance to a lajnnan. In conse-
quence of the crusades, the pope not only obtained an enthusiastic army
for the execution of his plans, but his moral influeuco was so much in-
creased that he became the head of all the popular movements of the West-
ern world. Philip was compelled to give up his paramour, and Henry and
his pope lost all power in Italy. Urban, however, purcliascd nothing but the
precious friend.sliip of the Normans, and preserved nothing but the shadow
of his ecclesiastical claims in the appointment of Count lioger and his suc-
cessors to be the perpetual legates of the pope in Sicily (Monarch ia Siciliao).*
Slgb. GeinU. ann. 10S5. The tru(h may bo ?eon in Paul. B^rnrid. c lOSss. Rcpcctlne Gregory's
canonization and the opposition in.-ide to it by the courts: L"avocat du Diablo, uu nii-moircs »or la
vie et 8ur la legende du P. Greg. VII. 17W. 3 Th.
* Manul Th. XX. p. aW. Gaufredi Malaterra Hist Biciila IV, 29. (Xuratorl Th. V. p. 601.)
//, E. Du. Pin, Defence de la monarchic do Sicllo contre les ontreprises do lit Cour de Rome. Am.--*,
.716. 4.
198 MKDIAIIVAL CIIUl:i JI IllsToUV. I'KU. III. A. V. &00-121C.
§ 183. The Crusades. Conquest of Jerusalem.
I. Collections: J. Jlongari), Oestn Del per Francos. Ilanov. ICll. 2 Tli. C Schiller, hist .Mcniol»
ft.Dth. 1. vol. 1-3. J. Miuhainl, JilbliolhOque des Croisade.'i. Tar. 1S30. 4 Tli.
II. F. WiUon, Gesell. (1. Kreuzz. Lpz. 1807-32. 7 vols. 3Ilchaud, lllst des Crolsades. Par. 1S12.
cd. C. 1S40!«. 6 vols. [Mlofiaud'a II. of tbo Crusades, transl. by W'/n. liubnon, Lond. lS.j2. 3 vol». 12.]
If. «. Si/l/el, Oesc'h. d. ersten Krciizz. Duss. 1S41. [T. Keigldletj, Tbo Crusaders, Lond. ]SI>2. 12. C.
31UI, H. of tbo CriKsadcs. I'bilad. 1S45. G. P. Ji. James, Cbivalry and tlie Crusades. New York.
1827. Eclectic Mag. April, 154.").]
Tho attraction toward the Holy Land whicL Lad formerly- prevailed in
the Church had never been interrupted, but in consequence of tho ardent
and sensuous devotion which was ahnost universal in the eleventh century,
it then became especially powerful. German bishops with their soldiers
heroically defended themselves against a sudden attack of the Saracens which
took place on Easter, 1065. {n) Even before'this (999), Syhe-'iter JI.., in the
name of the desolate Holy City, had called upon the general Church for aid.
Gregory (1074) once entertained serious thoughts of becoming leader of a host
for the liberation of the Christian portion of the East, (i) When the Selju-
kian Turks had established their empire in Asia Minor, and had conquered
Syria (after 1073), the pilgrims and Christians in Palestine made bitter com-
plaints of their intolerable ill-treatment there. The hermit Pder of Amiens
made known the prayers of the oriental Christians, and announced an imme-
diate commission from Christ for their deliverance. Urlan II.., at a general
assembly of the Church at Clermont (1095), earnestly exhorted all to enter
upon this holy war under a leader who never wanted provisions, and od
whose side victory was certain, the reward was eternal, and death was mar-
tyrdom. All the people shouted, " God wills it ! " {r) A hundred tlionsand
men, chiefly Frenchmen, in the first moments of exhilaration took upon
themselves the sign of the Cross, by which Christians were to be known as
true disciples. Secular embarrassments and passions, romantic pleasures and
superstitious hopes, doubtless had much to do in this, and yet it must be con-
ceded that the spirit which animated these masses for two hundred years
was something superior to that of this world. But it was not for a holy
sepulchre alone that these expeditions were undertaken. They had also in
view the honor of the Christian name, the triumph of oppressed Christianity
in the East, and the dominion of Europe over Asia. An undisciplined host
which followed the hermit's ass, was reduced to half its original number in
passing through Bulgaria, and finally was utterly destroyed by the Turks.
"When the more disciplined army of the crusaders reached the plain of
Nicaea, they found a high pyramid formed of the bones of their predecessors.
At Edessa, which voluntarily surrendered to Baldwin, and at Xicaea and
Antioch, which were soon conquered, the pilgrim princes erected principali-
ties for themselves. After indescribable sufl:ering3, Jerusalem was stormed
on the fifteenth of July, 1099, and through blood and flames the army
marched singing holy songs to the Church of the Resurrection. Godfrey of
a) Lambert Scliaßi. ad. ann. 1065.
h) Si/lcestri Ep. ad. univ. Ecc (Bouquet Tb. X. p. 426s.) Gregor, ad Ilenr. E. (J/un« Th
XX. p. 150.)
c) Jfaiisi Th. XX. p. S21ss. Bongars Tb. I. p. S6. 31. SS2ss.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 134. PASCAL II. HENRY V. 199
Bouillon was proclaimed the first king of Jerusalem, although the piety of
his heroic spirit refused to -wear a royal crown where the Son of God had
worn a crown of thorns.
§ 184. Pascal II., 1099-1118.
Letters and public documents in Manisi Tli. XX. p. 977. dispcrseil in Uldarici Cod. opistolsria
Life by Pancfulphus and the Cardinal of Ai'agon, witli original diKunients, may be found In J/i/«
ratori Tli. III. P. L p. 851 and 360.— Ä Gervais, polit. Hist. Deutsclil. unter Hctn. V. and Lothar.
IL Lpz. 1S41. 2 Th.
Pascal, whom Gregory had taken from the mona.stery of Clugiii and
made a cardinal, possessed the fiery sjjirit without the firmness, and the zeal
for the hierarchy without the knowledge of its proper limits, which had hcen
displayed by his patron. Philip of France, who had again been excommu-
nicated on account of his illicit connection, received aKsolution on his taking
an oath that he would renounce Bertrade (1104). But when tliis oath was
violated the pope took no notice of the perjury. A violent contest sprung
np between Ansclm, Archbishop of Cantcrhurtj, in behalf of the pope, and
Henry I. of England, in which the latter contended for his crown and the
former for his Hfe. It was finally compromised (llOG) by the king's renun-
ciation of the right of investiture with respect to bishops, though he retained
the power of exacting from them the oath of allegiance, (a') Henry IV.
abdicated in favor of his son who had rebelled again.st him, but died (HOC)
ander a sentence of excommunication which reached even his lifeless
corpse. But Henry V. had no sooner become settled in his tlirone, than ho
laid claim to the ancient royal prerogative of investing bishops with the ring
and crosier, and to support his claim he crossed the Alps with a powerful
army (1110). In this extremity, the i)ope thought of purchasing the free-
dom of the Church by the sacrifice of its secular jjower, and accordingly he
proposed to restore to the king the imperial fiefs belonging to the bi.sliop.-^, on
condition that the episcopal elections might be free from the royal interfer-
ence. But the bishops and the princes were terrified at the idea of a con-
tract by which the power of the Church would "have been temporarily anni-
hilated, and that of the king would liavo been rendered overwhelming. (?/)
The execution of such a compact would have been practicable only by a
complete revolution. On the other hand, llonry had the pope imprisoned,
and compelled him by threats to jilaco tlio imperial crown upon his head,
solemnly to acknowledge the king's right of investiture, and to i)roniise
never to issue against him a .sentence of excommunication, (c) The pope, how-
ever, could not act as a private person in this matter, since ho stood as the
representative of a particular system of things. Pascal was therefore
obliged to listen to tlio mo.-^t bitter reproaches for his treasonable conduct
toward the Chureli, and at a synod held at the Lateran (1112), to retract all
that he had done. On his refusal to excommunicato the emperor, the sen-
a) LcKoi-s (if Ansclm, his Life by Ills confessor Eiidnifr, and hl.t Historla novoruin I. VI. »re li
AiiDelmi Opp Par. 1721. 2 Th. f. /'. U. /A^«»^ Ans. v. C. Lcipz. 1S4.3. Tli. I.
h) I'ertzT\\. IV. p. GSss. Curd. Aragon. Vlüi Piiscli. {3furatori p. '.m.)
c) Perts Th. IV. p. Tlss.
200 MKKIAKVAI, Clin:!!! III>'I()l:V. I-KK. in. a. I). %00-121«.
tenco was proiioimccd l>y lii.s le>;citc9. (d) "While Gregory was yot alive, Ma
filddy for till) good of lier sou), had bequeathed to him all her possesHions ir.
trust for the Itoinish Church, (e) At her death rill'j) new materials were
added to tlio controversy, since the emperor claimed her estates as an impe-
rial fief, and on the ground that he was properly her heir at law, while the
pope claimed them as the inheritance of St, Peter. Tlie people now began
to perceive that the papal ban was launched against the emperor for his de-
fence of the right-s of the empire. Henry V. took violent possession of the
forfeited fief, jmd drove the pope from Kome. The pontiiF, liowever, was
restored to the city by the Normaus, and died while making active prepara-
tions for war.
. L- § 185. Calixtm IT. 1119-24. Concordat of Wormx.
The cause of the emperor in Rome was sustained principally by the pow-
erful family of the Frangipani. G'ehisius JL, whom tlie cardinals elected,
was suddenly attacked by persons belonging to that family, cruelly abused,
and obliged to fly to the friendly territory of France, where, after a
brief victory, he died as early as 1119, (rt) By his advice, Guido, Arch-
bishop of Vienna, a prince of the house of Burgundy, was chosen to be his
successor under the name of Calixtus II, (h) At a synod held at Rheims
this pontiff renewed the sentence of excommunication ogainst the emperor,
whom he called a second Judas. The imperial party in Rome had made
choice of Burdinus, Archbishop of Braga, Gregory YIIL, who was over-
powered by the Normans, was cruelly mocked by the Roman populace, and
finally died in the papal dungeon, (<■) Adalbert, Archbishop of Mentz, for-
merly the imperial counsellor, and by whose advice all the violent and irregu-
lar proceedings against the pope had been conducted, was noAv seized by the
hierarchical spirit, and sought to renew the civil war in Germany, But the
people, tired of the evils which had been produced in the empire during a
period of fifty years' dissension among its rulers, were importunate in their
demands for peace. Finally a Concordat was agreed upon at an imperial
Diet at Worms (1122), on conditions similar to those previously acknow-
ledged in France and England, This was afterwards confirmed at the first
general council in the Lateran (1123), "The emperor surrenders to God,
to St, Peter and Paul, and to the Catholic Church, all right of investiture b\
ring and crosier. He grants that elections and ordinations in all churches
shall take place freely in accordance with ecclesiastical laws. The pope
agrees that the election of German prelates shall be performed in the presence
of the emperor, provided it is without violence or simony. In case any elec-
tion is disputed, the emperor shall render assistance to the legal party with
J) Baron, ad. am. 1111. Acts of Synod, Jfansi Tli. XXI. p. 49ss. Pluncl; Acta intor Ilenr.
V. et Pasch. II. Gott. 1TS5.
e) The conveyance of the allodial «state by will is certain, but the origin.al document (Jfiirohvt
Th. V. p. 8S4.) of 1102, by which a lejral gift was attempted to be conveyed intor vivos Is doubtful
Tiraboschi, Memorie Mixlenese. Th. I. p. 140ss. Leo, Italien vol. I. p. 4T7ss.
a) Pandulj'hi Pimiii Vita Oelas. {Murai. Th. III. P. I. p. SCTss.)
I) Joffe, p. 5-2'fs. Biofrraphies in Mur,4ori Th. III. P. I. p. 41Sss.
C) Baluzius, Vita Burdini. (Mlscell. Par. ICSO. 1. III. p. 4TIss.)
CIIAI". I. PArACT. § l^C. ARNOLD OF Br.ESCIA. 20\
tlie advice of the arclibishop and tlie bishops. The person electod is invest-
ed with the imperial fiefs by the roj al sceptre pledged for the execution of
every thing required by law. Whoever is consecrated shall also receive in
like manner his investitures from other parts of the empiro witliin six
months." (d) Although in this proceeding tljo pope had barely saved appear-
ances, and not the reality of his cause, and the strict hierarchical party com-
plained loudly of the concessions made, 80 overwhelming was the authority
of the papacy, that the influence Avhich the emjjeror had hitherto exercised
in the elections was gradually transferred to the pi'pe, in spite of the laws by
which their freedom was guaranteed.
§ 18C. Arnold of Brescia and Bernard of Clairtaux.
J . B. Koler, dc Am. Brixicnsi. Goett 1742. 4. K. Beck, Arnold v. Dr. (Baal. Wl*.'«. Zeltscli. I«i4.
n. 2.) JT. Franke, Arnold v. Br. u. s. Zeit. Zurich. 1S2.J. Kospicting Birimrd, a>e $ 2oT.
The Franconian imperial house became extinct on the deatli of Henry V.
(1125), and a king chosen by suflragcs had to purcha.'se his new sovereignty
from the states of the empire and from the pope. Lot ha ire II. having been
chosen, received the allodial estates of the Countess Matilda from the hands
of Innocent II. (1 130— i3), because she had been the pope's vassal. ('/) The elec-
tion of bishops was no longer restrained by the presence of the emperor, and
the decisive question now began to be agitated whether the investiture of
bishops should take place before or after their consecration. Qi) During the
struggles between the imperial and papal governments a new power had
sprung up, first in the episcopal cities of Lombardy, from the remnants of the
Koman municipal constitution. In this was presented an omen of a new period,
in which independent cities were to enjoy their liberties, and constitute a third
estate in opposition to the pretensions of the secular and s])iritual nobility. (-)
Arnold of Brescia embraced the extreme views connected with this tendency,
and regarded the condition of the apostolic Church as a law for all pe-
riods of the world. He was a pupil of Abelard, had been a clergyman in his
native cit}', was rigid and abstemious in his rules of conduct, and taught that
the clergy ought to possess no worldly property, and that such possessions
were the cause of all the abuses in tJie Church. The second Council of Lat-
eran (1139) imposed silence upon this most dangerous heretic, and by papal
influence he Avas driven from Italy, France, and Zurich, until in the city of
Home itself he attained su])reme jiowcr. For, falling in with his views, the
liomans (after 1143) confined the pope to the exercise of ecclesiastical gov-
ernment, and to the po.ssession of tithes and voluntary ollerings, appointed a
Senate, and wrote to the German king to come and re-establish the cnpital
of his dominions according to ancient imperial laws, within the walls of the
(1) Peru Til. IV. p. 75s. Munni Tli. XXr. p. 2S7^ Arti of tlio Ijitfran Syn<Kl. Jb. p. 281si—
J. G. Hoffmann, 1)8. nd Conoordiit. Hinr. ct Cftlixtl. VIL 17:)9. 4.
a) i[<inKi1\\. XXI. p. 392.
//) OlenKcldugei; Lrloutr. dor guUI. Bulle. Frkf. 1700. 4. Cartularies p- 13- Oosl.i Anlilep. Trovlr
\n Eccitnl Th. II. p. 2197. /i',nl>rici do g.'st. Kridi-r. I, in.
f) l.eo in liis triiili.vs ou Italy, suininarily in tliu Gcscli. d. M.V. vol. I. p. 54l?.>s. Ifälhniinn, dal
Stiidtcwtson des M.V. Bonn. 1S27. 2 vol». Jugci; ü. d. rol. Bewefti;. In d. M:li\v.ib. Stfulti'ii u. diTel
tuEanimc'iili. ni. d. idccn Arnolds, (h'laibei's Stud. d. üelstl. WürL vol. IV. II. 1.)
202 MKDIAKVAI. ClIfKCII IlISIi'KV. ri-K. III. A. I>. MM)-1216.
etoninl cit}-. ('/) LuriiiM //. (11-14) led an iiriiiy ni^aiDst tlie people, ami whiU
liis tro(>i)3 wore stonninp tlio cajiitul, he "was killed by a paving-stone (1145).
Etigenius 111. fled to tlio quiet convent of liid preceptor St. JJernard, by
whose counsel he was directed in the government of the Church, (c) Roger,
Kinp of the Normans, having brought him back to Italy, Bernard wrote for
his illiistrioiis pnj)il the "Contemplations on the Papacy," if) In this work
the author regards the papacy in its ideal glory, as an office appointed by
God for maintaining justice and concord among the people; he examines the
diflicult duties wliich such an ofBco involves in relation to human infirmity,
and predicts that its worldly arrogance will bring it to an unhappy end. No
efforts, however, could give peace to Rome, where struggles for ascendency
continually alternated with efforts at accommodation with the popular party.
An English mendicant boy who had been promoted from one ecclesiastical
station to another, until he had become Bishop of Albano, succeeded Euge-
nius under the name of Hadrian I V. (1154). Oj) lie prohibited all public wor-
ship in Rome, until the senate from jealousy abandoned Arnold of Brescia.
The latter soon after fell into the hands of the emperor Frederic, who sacri-
ficed him either from a professed regard to the pope, or from a real hatred
to republican liberty. He was finally hung at Rome (1155), his body was
burned, and his ashes were thrown into the Tiber. (/()
187. The Crusade of St. Bernard.
Palestine had now become a European colony, receiving continual acces-
sions of peojile from the migrations of discontented persons hoping to im-
prove their condition by the change. The relations and parties which existed
in Europe were therefore repeated there in an exaggerated form. Accord-
ingly we find there a feudal sovereignty, in which the king was the chief and
simply the first baron of the realm. He was also in perpetual conflict with
the hierarchy, whose chief was the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and who attempt-
ed to re-enact the part of the pope, so far as his relations to the king were
concerned. Between these two personages sprung up independent municipal
associations, and companies of spiritual knights. ('/) The Greek emperor was
always suspected and secretly hated, and the native Christians were regarded
as aliens and proper objects of oppression. The Mohammedans fought under
the conviction that it was for religion, honor and dominion. The Norman
kingdom of Edessa had been overthrown (1144), and it was evident that
deliverance could be expected only by now levies from the AVest. Bernard,
the great saint of that age, assumed the direction of this enterprise, promis-
ing, as the messenger of God, a certain victory. Eugcnius went so far as to
d) Marlene .•\inpl. Col. Tli. II. p. 89Ss. Otto /'/t«. de reb. gest Frid. I, 2S.
e) Jiije p. 61TSS.
/) De Considcratione 1. V. {Bernardi 0pp. Yen. Th. II.) C. F. ScJtneider, Ber. 1S51.
g) R. Habi/, Adrian IT. Lond. 1S49.
?t) Geroh, Provost of Reich erspcrg, de jnvestigationo Anticliristi. {Gretseri Col. Scir. adv. Wal
dens. Prolegg. e. 4.)
a) The laws enacted there are lost, but they inay be inferred from the co<ie which Ccnnt Jam
tTIhelin established in Cyprus : Assises et bons nsases dou royaunie de Jerusalem, etc. p. 7fiaiiinai
ie Thaumasi re. Par. 1C90.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 1S3. FREDERIC I. HADRIAN IV. 203
sacrifice the rights of creditors and feudal lords, that he might jironiote tlio
interests of this crusade, (i) Louis VII, of France took up tlie cross, tliat lie
might atone for his crime of hurning a church filled with human beings, and
Conrad of Germany was hurried into the same act against his inclinations
b}^ the power of Bernard's eloquence. Each of these princes led across the
Hellespont an army of 70,000 men (1147). Most of these perished in conse-
quence of the deceitful policy of the Greeks, and the opjiosition of the ele-
ments, .so tliat the princes returned with only tlie fragments of their
armies, {r) Bernard defended his veracity by ajipealing to tbe inscrutable
nature of the divine counsels, and by complaining of the crusaders them-
selves, whose crimes had rendered them unworthy of victory. The more
pious portion of his contemporaries were consoled with the reflection, that if
the undertaking had been injurious to their temporal interest, it had certainly
promoted the welfare of their souls. ((/)
§ 188. Frederic /., Barharossa, 1152-1190.
L Constltutioncs In PerU P. IV. p. S9-1S5. Olio Frixing. do gestis Friiicrici 1. II. till 1153, con
imwbiX hy liadevicua till IIGO. {Muratori Th. VI. p. C29.) Godo/reiH VHerlieJiniii Pantheon till
nS<3. (Pixtorius TIi. II. p. 8.) Ounttieri Ligurinus nonr the end of the 12th cent e<l. Dumge,
llcidelb. 1S12. The Italian Chronichirs and otliers In Muratori Th. VI. Tlie conteniporary popes,
and original documents in ifansi Th. XXIs. Joffe, p. CiS-Si^. Biographies in Muratori Tb.
III. p. Is. Jaffe, p. CDS-S54.
II. Kortüm,Yr. I. Aar. 1818. J. Voigt, Gosch. d. Lombnrden-Bandea n. 8. Kampfes, mit Fr.
Künigsb. 1818. F. v. liaumer, Gesch. d. llohensf. Lpz. (1828) 1841*. vol. II. Ring, Fr. 1. im.
Kampfe gegen Ales. III. Stuttg. 1S35. IT. Heuler, Gesch. Alex. III. u. d. Kirche seiner Zeit IJerl
1S45. vol. I. W. Zimmerman, die Ilohenst o. Kampf, d. Monarchie gegen Papst und republ. Fieih.
Stuttg. 1838. 2 vols.
The heroic race of the Ilohenstaufens almost succeeded in realizing the
idea of the empire. Frederic /., already renowned for his heroic exjiloits in
the East and in the "West, ascended the throne with a determination to re-
establish, in spite of all opposition, the ancient power of the emperor Charles
on both sides of the Alps. lie well knew, however, that the i)oi)o could bo
of immense service to him in tlie attainment of his univer.-;al dominion, (a)
lie therefore gave Hadrian assurances of his friendship when he entered upon
his Roman expedition (1155), and although some violations of pood faith
then took place, they were easily overlooked when both parties were incline<l
to peace. But the lioman peojilo received iron instead of gold. First, Ha-
drian's one-sided treaty with tlic King of the Two Sicilies, and tlieii an occa-
sional hint from him that the tni[)eror held tlio empire a.s a feudal tenure
from the pope, {h') raised the indignation of the German nation. Under theii
powerful leader this people had been awakened to a recollection of their
ancient independence. The emjieror indulged the hope of putting an end to
the subjection paid to a foreign bishop, and of forming a great national Ger-
man Church, under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Treves, to whom
V) Engen. Ep. nd Ludov. (iraniii Th. XXI. p. C2(i8.)
c) Otto Frig, de gest Frld. I, a%ss. Oito </« Dfogilo, de profecllone Lud. In Or. {Chißti, Bef
sardi illustre genus. Dlvlone. 1600. A.) li'iV. Tyr. XVI, ISss.
rf) Bern, de consider. II, 1. Otto Frising. I. r. I, f>0.
u) Joan. Sitrinher. ep. 59. h) iftinni Th. XX. p. 790.
204 MKDIAKVAL CUfKril HI?'n)KV. riCK. III. A. I). HiKJ-121«.
it was not altof^'C'tlicr without sipnificanco that our Lord bequeathed hissearn-
Ic^!H coat, and Peter liis «tatr. This i)lan, liowever, failed of accoinplisbinent
on account of tlic jealous}' which prevailed among the German princes, and the
contest with Italy, (r) The emperor went once more across the Alps (1158)
with a larger army than before, reduced Milan to submission, and at the Diet
of the lioncalian plains had his imperial rights explained out of the Roman
Code by the renowned doctors of civil law in Bologna. According to these,
Lis authority was that of an unlimited monarchy, such as was utterly for-
eign to the usages of the German people. But the power of science of which
tlie Italians were at that time proud, was by this decision added to that of
the imperial arms. (cT) The bishops as well as the towns were referred to
long forgotten feudal obligations, and when the hierarchy beheld its rights
violated, it began to grasp after its spiritual powers, when Hadrian died
(1159). The hierarchical party elected in his stead Alexander JJI., while a
few cardinals in the imperial interest chose Victor III. Alexander, whose
cause was triumphant on account of its connection with that of popular free-
dom. A few cities of Upper Italy bad sworn together (1164) that they
would rather suflfer destruction than any longer endure the oppressions
which the imperial deputies had arbitrarily inflicted upon them. This League
of Verona was soon after gradually extended till it became the great Lom-
iardic League^ at the head of which the pope appeared as the supreme dema-
gogue. A terrible war was now kindled, in which one party contended for
freedom and the other against rebels. Abandoned by the army of the
Guelphs, the emperor was defeated at Legnano (May 29, 1176), but even
when defeated and excommunicated he was still an object of terror. He
concluded a treaty of peace and friendship with Aloxander at Venice (Aug.
1, 1177), in which he renounced the rival pope, and entered into a truce of
fifteen years with the King of the Sicilies, and another of six years Avith the
Lombards. This last, after the death of Alexander (1181), was exchanged
for the peace of Constance (1183). {e) The basis of the treaty of peace with
the hierarchy was the Concordat of Worms, while that of the peace with
the cities was the condition of Italy before the second Eoman expedition.
The cities were, as republics, to be equal in rank with the great vassals of
the crown, and the estates of the Countess Matilda were to remain in the
possession of the emperor for fifteen years, when they were to be disposed
of by a decision of arbitrators. The emperor then took signal vengeance
npon the Goelphic family, and thereby established his supremacy in Germa-
ny. By the marriage of his son Henry with Constantia, the heiress of the
two Sicilies (1186), he also acquired for his house a prospect of possessing
the whole of Italy.
c) Comp. J. FU'ker, Eeinald y. Dassel, Reichskanzler u. Erzb. v. Köln. Köln. 1S50.
d) Savigny, Gesch. des rom. Rechts im Mittelalter. Heldelb. 1815s.S. vol. IV. p. lölss.
*) Coaventas Venetus ; Pertz Th. IV. p. ISlss. Pax Constantlae : Ib. p. 175ss.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. S 1S9. BECKKT. 205
§ 189. Thomas Beclcet.
I. T?iom. Beck. Epp. 1. VI. cd. Ch. I.tipu», Brux. 1RS2. 4. S 77iom. Cant. 0pp. (Patres Ecc
Angl. ed. Giles, O.von. Ii45s3 vols. I. -VIII. Blo^'rapliies by four of his followers: Johannes Saris.
6er. ■\VIIh. Ste[)haiii(le.s, Alanus and Herbert dc Uusham, by the command of Greg. IX, collected
In the Qtiadrilogus de vita S. Thomac, frequently i.ubli>hed, esjiecially in Lupus' edit.on of the Letters.
II. Hist de dumelo de Henri II. avec Becket. Amst, 170C. HatailU, vie politique ct civile de
Th. Beck. Par. 1842. Herbert de Boseham, Vita S. Thorn. (Patres Ecc, Angl. vol. VIIL) Brischar,
Th. Beck. (Tub. Qiirt. 1S52. II. 1.)— 77iiVr;-y, Hi^t do la conqutto de TAngl. par les Normands. Par.
Ib25. vol. II. p. 37GSS. [transl. into Engl, by Wm. Ilnzlitt, with an App. L<inil. 1S47. 2 vols. S.]
Reuter, Ale.xander IIL vol. I. p. 23Sss. [J. A. GiUs, Lifu and Li-ttcrs of Th. u Bocket, by contem-
porary historians. Lond. 1S4C. 2 vols. S. Eclectic Mag. June, 1S4C.]
During the reigna of William the Conqueror and his son, tlie English
clergy had been kept in the most rigorous subjection. But in the midst of
the party struggles which took place ander the feeble government of Ste-
phen (1135-54), they broke loose from the State and established tlieir free-
dom by connecting themselves intimately with the Roman court, as the only
tribunal of ultimate appeal in all legal matters in which they were concerned.
Ucnnj II. demanded that the rights of the crown over the clergy should bo
restored, and caused an edict to be passed at the Diet of Clarendon (11G4),
which declared, " The election of prelates shall take place in the royal chapel
with the consent of the king. In all civil matters, and in cases of dispute
with laymen, the clergy shall be amenable to the royal court. "Without the
consent of the king, no cause can be carried to any foreign jurisdiction, no
clergyman shall leave the kingdom, and no person belonging to the royal
council shall be excommunicated."* For the accomplishment of his plan
the king had appointed his Chancellor, Thoma« ßcciet, Archbishop of Can-
terbury (1162). But Becket was no sooner made the head of the Anglican
Church, than he became possessed of the spirit of his station. lie laid aside
all worldly pomp, and put on the simple habit of a monk. He publicly per-
formed penance for giving his a.<sent to the Constitutions of Clarendon, and
received from Alexander III. absolution from the oath ho had taken with
respect to them. He was now obliged to fly before the king's wrath, which
fell upon his innocent kindred, and sjiared not even the child in tlie cradle.
Sustained by the power of the pope, ho maintained his cause, while in France,
by spiritual weapons, until ho compelled his king to enter into a con)promiso
by which he was allowed to return to his diocese. Ho had no sooner done
this than ho issued sentence of cxconnnunication against all who adhered to
the Constitutions of Clarendon. A careless exi)ression used by the king was
seized up(m bj- his knight.s, and unfortunately carried into speedy execution,
and on the 2'Jth of December, 1170, the archbishop was slain at the very
foot of the altar. Alexander canonized this bold martyr for his ecclesiastical
independence, and the king was generally looked upon by the people as
guilty of the murder. As the opinions of the people were of great impor-
tance to Henry in his contests with his rebellious son, lie purehaseil absolution
from Kome by conceding to it the freedom of its Judicial i)roceedings. Ho
also became reconciled to his people by performing an humble penance at the
• 3fansi Th. XXI. p. 1187. 1194*8. [LandonU Manail of Councils, p. ]32f«. ChurUm» Enrlj
Engl. Church, chap. IS. )r«7*iH«, Cone. vol. 1. p. 4.36.]
206 MEDIAEVAL tlirnril IIISTOKV. PKR. IIL A. D. S<J0-1>16.
grave of liis doatlly enemy (1174). After this the papal legates exerciseu
complete control over the Church and the revenues of England.
§ 190. The Crusade against Salalieddin.
1) Tig^no. Decanus Ecc. Tatav. T)e5cr. expeditionis Asiat Friderlci. {Frelier Tli. I. p. 403.)
i4 n*/xr^", ClericI Au*trlaci, Hist do exped. FriO. cd. J. DobiovoX-y, Pras. ISiT. 2) Gulfiidi a»
Vino S-ilto Itincrarlnm RichardL (BonQtirs. Th. I. p. 1150. bat better, Oule, serr. Hist. AngL voL
II. p. 247.) Rigoi-di Gothi (royal physician) Ann. de rcb. a PhiL Aug. testis. (Du Che»ne Th. V.
p. 1.) [O. P. /?. Jame», Hist, of Richard Co«nr de Lion. Lend. 1S42. and Philad 1S45. 2 vols. 8. T.
Keii/htUi/, C. Jfills, and J. Jlichaud, as referred to in § 1S3. Chronicles of the Crusaders (in Bobn's
Ant. Db.) Lond. 1S4S.]
SaJaTieddin united under his sword Anterior Asia and Egypt. Jerusalem
submitted to him after a sanguinary battle (Oct. 3, 1187). Overwhelmed
with the news, Europe heard the caU of Gregory YIII. for a new crusade,
to prepare for which all who remained at home, even the Church, were
required to contribute Salaheddin's Tithe. Even Frederic I. did not consider
himself too old to resume the heroic life of his youth. He broke his way
through the Grecian empire and Asia Minor, and was finally drowned in the
Calycadnus, near Seleucia (1190). His son and the strength of his host fell
before the plague. The same summer, the kings of France and England,
through the mediation of the Church, came to an adjustment of their ditfer-
ences, and transported their armies by sea to Palestine. Richard the Lion-
hearted, on his way thither, recovered Cyprus from the hands of a Grecian
rebel, and invested his knights with the fiefe of nearly half the island.
Akron also soon fell before them. But in vain were prodigies of valor per-
formed, since every advantage was rendered useless by the mutual jealousies
of the ditterent sovereigns and nations. After a few months Philip Augus-
tus was taken sick, returned to France, and equipped himself against the pos-
sessions of the English king. Eichard, forsaken by all, and threatened at
home, concluded with his noble enemy a three years' truce, which secured
the coast as a Christian territory, and opened Jerusalem to the visits of the
pilgrims. On his return home the Lion-heart was imprisoned in Austria,
and sold to the emperor, from whom he was purchased by his own people.
The pope proved at least his good will by asserting the Christian law of na-
tions in behalf of a crusader."*
§191. Henry TI. Cdestine III. (1191-1198.)
Perlz Tb. IV. p. lS6ss. Jaffi p. %i^s.—Eaumer, Hohenst voL XL p. 523ss. 0. Alel, K Phil
lf>p d. Ilobenst. BrL 13S>. p. 13ss.
Henry TI. was on an expedition through Italy to take possession of the
Two Sicilies, which had fallen to him by inheritance (1189"). when he received
from the East the news of his father's death. He immediately purchased an
imperial coronation from the Romans, by abandoning the faithful city of
Tusculum. The Sicilians, dreading a foreign government, had elevated to
the throne Cotmt Tancred^ a natural son of their extinct royal family, whom
the pope hastened to invest as his vassal. But after Tancred's death (1194)
• Baron, ad ann. 1193 >"o. 25s. J/iiftA. Paria ad ann. 1193.
CHAP. L PAPACY. $ 191. CELE5TINE IIL § 192. INNOCENT IIL 207
the Two Sicilies submitted themselves to Henry. This prince possessed the
powerful talents for government, but not the chivalrous spirit of his father,
and utterly regardless of the means which he used, he now held Italy and
the pope under the most galling slavery. He now made preparations to ren-
der the crown of the German empire hereditary in his family, to engage in.
another crusade, and to conquer the Grecian empire. Pious prophecies
hailed him as the servant of the Lord to chastise the Church and to punish
the nations, (a) Celestine III.^ the aged pope who had placed the crown
upon his head, ^vithout venturing upon any decisive step, merely admonished
him that it would profit no one to gain the whole world to the injury of his
own soul, (b) The youthful emperor beheld a vast German empire extended
before him, when a superior power suddenly interposed, and he died at Mes-
sina (Sept. 28, 1197), leaving Frederic 11.^ a child of but three years of age,
in the midst of his enemies.
§ 192. Innocent III. Jan. 8, Wm.—July IG, 121Ö.
I. EpUtolar. Iiinoc. 1. XIX. (1. 2. in parts 5. 10-16. vols, in Epp. Inn. e<L Baluzius, Par. S9'b. f.
3. 5-9th vol. in Diploniata etc. ad res Franeicis spectantia edd. FeudrUrdt Briquignij et la PorU du
TVieii. Par. 1791. 2 Th.) liegUtrum Inn. III. super negotio Rom. Imp. {Baluz. TIi. I. p. 6?7.) J. F.
Boehmer. Eeiiesla Imp. new ed. Stuttg. 1S49. 4. p. 2J9ss. — Getsta Inn. IIL by a contemporary. {Bri-
quigny Tb. I.) Ruhardi de S. Germano Chronic, ad a. 1159-V243. {Jliiratori Tli. VIL p. 983.) The
unfavorable side in JIatthaeus Paris, Hist major. [Jfatt, Paris, Chronicle, iiC. Iransl. by Giles.
Lond. 184S. 12.]
IL F. Ilurter, Gesch. Innoc. III. u. seiner Zeitgenossen. Hamb. 1S34-42. 4 vols. (1S45*. 3 eO.)
[Al/he Jorry's Hist of Innocent III. (in French) is announced in Paris. 1S53. Bohringer, Church of
Christ and its witnesses, in a new vol. publ. in Lps. 1S54. Is a life of Innoc. III.]
Cardinal Lothaire., of the noble Roman house of Conti which possessed
landed estates in Anagni and Segni, educated in Rome, Paris, and Bologna,
and eminent not only as a theologian but as a jurist, was raised to the papal
chair in the full vigor of early manhood under the name of Innocent III.
The grand objects to which this richly endowed sacerdotal prince devoted his
thoughts were the fortification of the States of the Church, the deliverance
of Italy from the dominion of foreign princes, the separation of the Two
Sicilies from all connection with the German emjjire, the liberation of the
Oriental Church, the exercise of a guardianship over the confederacy of the
States, the extermination of heretics from the Church, and the promotion of
ecclesia-stical discipline. Immediately after his consecration he exacted an
oath of allegiance from the imperial prefect of the city, accustomed the no-
bility and people of Rome to obedience, although he found tliem often
deficient in this respect, took tlic Lombardic League under his I'rotoction, and
established a similar confederacy of cities in Tuscany, by the aid of wliich he
expelled the German governor whom Henry had made ruler of the territories
belonging to the Church. Even before his baptism Henry's son was acknowl-
edged as his father's successor in the empire. But Innocent was afraid to
see so many crowns united upon a single head, and the princes of tlie emjiiro
thought the crown of Chai-les was too great and heavy fur the head of a
child. Having renounced all the prerogatives of the Sicilian monarchy,
o) Inferpretatio praeclars Abbatia Joachim in Hieremlam. Yen. 1525. Comp. Abel, Pbilippi
p. 812. I) J.ifc, p. 900.
208 MKDIAKVAL CllUItCII IIISTOUY. PKI:. III. A. I). &00-1218.
Frederic 11. was iiivostcJ l>y Iniiocoiit witli the feudal Kovcreif,'nty of the
Sicilies. So liiglily was tlio power and uprif^htncss of the i)Oi)C esteemed
that Comtnntid on her dcath-bcd intrusted to him the f,'iiardianship of her
orphan child (Nov. 27, 1198). IIo governed the Two Sicilies with firmness
and cnerpy, so far at least as was possible under the difficulties of his situa-
tion, and in face of the opposition of the German and Sicilian nobles. Italy
was distracted by various factions, all of wliich, however, attached them-
selves to the one or the other of the two great parties, in favor of the Churcli
or of the empire, afterwards called Guclphs and GhihcUhies. Innocent pre-
pared the way for tlie reconciliation of these parties, without which the
freedom of Italy could never be secured, by taking Frederic II. the natural
head of the Ghibellines under his protection. Under liis guardianship that
prince received a liberal and brilliant education. But the deliverance of
Italy was an event as yet far distant and beyond the power of the papacy.
In Germany, when Philip of Suahia perceived that the croAvn could not bo
obtained for his nephew he resolved to acquire it for himself. The party of
the Guelphs, en the other hand, chose Otho IV., a son of Henry the Lion.
Both rival kings appealed to Innocent, who declared that it w^as the business
of the pope to decide in all cases of contested elections. With every appear-
ance of the utmost impartiality, and after a long and cautious delay, he decided
against the Hohenstaufen (1201), but when victory seemed to decide in favor of
that prince he hesitated not to negotiate with him. (a) Philip, however, waa
soon after assassinated (1208) by Otho of Wittelsbach, one of his offended vassals.
This base deed was detested by Innocent, Otho, and all Germany. Otho was
then crowned at Rome (1209) ; not, however, till he had given security for
the freedom of ecclesiastical elections, the toleration of appeals to Rome,
and the legality of all the claims which the Church had instituted for pro-
perty against the empire. (&) But when he afterwards adhered to the impe-
rial oath, in which he had sworn that he would demand the restoration of all
fiefs which had been taken from the empire, the whole political scheme of the
pope was endangered. Greatly dissatisfied. Innocent refused to acknowledge
him any farther. Still resolved in some way to accomplish his purposes he
made Frederic II. swear that when he should attain the imperial crown he
would freely confer Sicily upon his son. This oath he regarded as a sufficient
pretext for so using Frederic as to allay the threatening danger. Armed with
the pope's gold and benediction, the Hohenstaufen now flew across the Alps
to take possession of his father's empire (1212). Even with the blessing of the
Church Otho seemed forsaken by fortune, and every one hastened to con-
nect himself with the party of the youthful conqueror. In the very first
year of his reign Innocent proclaimed a crusade. Germany was prevented
by the civil war from enlisting in this service, and the kings of France and
England had fulfilled their vows by their achievements in the last crusade.
But FuJco of Neu illy who went forth preaching repentance, so stirred the
hearts of the French people that the nobility of France placed themselves at
0) WicKert. de Ottonls IV. et PhiL Suevi certaminibus Rtque Inn. labore in sedandam Ecgum coa.
tentionem. Reglom. 1835. 0. Abel, Philipp. See § 135.
1) Eegistrum Imp. Epi 7T. 186. 188. 1S9.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 192. INNOCENT III. PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 209
the head of the undertaking, and the Venetians were hired to transport and
sustain the army hy a naval force. The doge, Dandolo, took advantage of
the emharrassments experienced in the payment of the price agreed upon,
and in spite of the remonstrances and anathemas of tlie pope he employed
the army of the cro.«9 in estahlishing the power of St. Mark in Dalmatia.
The crusaders were then involved hy tlie arts of a fugitive prince in the wars
of the Greek imperial palace. In tlie course of these contests ComtnntinoiAe
was taken (April 12, 1204), a Latin empire was formed there, and Baldwin,
Count of Flanders, was proclaimed its first hut powerless emperor. Innocent
condemned the whole transaction and the horrors connected with it, but did
not scruple to derive advantage from it, and the Patriarch of Constantinople
was appointed hy him. (c) But the strong point thus gained, by which a
land passage was opened to Palestine, ingulfed all the resources of men and
treasure which had been prepared for the uiKlertaking. When men failed,
however, a vast host of children took the field. — By a dexterous use of the
passions, the devotion, the dissensions, the interest, or the despotism of the
kings of Europe, Innocent contrived to exercise supreme control over them.
Philip Augustus had repudiated liis wife Ingehurge, the sister of the Danish
king, Canute, and the French bishops had given their consent to his second
marriage. Innocent therefore deprived the whole kingdom of Franco of
every ecclesiastical privilege, with the exception of the baptism of children
and absolution for the dying. The heart of the king was deeply wounded by
this proceeding, those who were utterly repugnant to each other were required
to become united, and those who truly loved were to be torn asunder. But
terrified at the coinmotion which prevailed ainong his people he was com-
pelled to acknowledge the inviolability of his former marriage (1201). {d)
Peter II. of Arafjon regarded a coronation by the pope of so great impor-
tance that he came to receive the crown at St. Peter's altar, solemnly prom-
ising to be faithful, and to pay tribute to the Roman See (120-4). Sancho I. of
Portugal.^ after a stubborn denial of it, finally acknowledged the validity of
the document in which his father had made his kingdom tributary to St.
Peter. By the ])ope's mediation in Hungary the royal brothers were recon-
ciled, and the king's son was crowned by the states. A di.-:puted election to
the archbishopric of Canterbury Avas submitted to his decision and pro-
nounced iuvalid. This afforded him an opportunity of inducing the canons
who were sent to him to choose his learned friend. Cardinal Stiphm Lung-
ton, whom he immediately consecrated to that ottico (1207). lung John,
a despot without power or judgment, refused to acknowledge Langton,
and seized upon the revenues of the clergy. Innocent then laid all Eng-
land under an interdict, and excommunicated the king (1200). John sought
by violence to compel his clergy still to perform the services of religion,
c) Genffroi de ViUe-Ifardouin, Illst de la conqucste do ConstAnt 119^-1207. [transl. into Engl.
J>y T. Smith. Lond. 1829. 8] {C. dii Fre«ne, Hist de lemplro do Con.'t sons les Kinp. franfols. Veil-
1729. f.) Hist of the empire by XUvtas AcomitiatM. lllS-1200. ed. Fnhroti. Par. 1647. f.
d) I. nigordi de reb. Phil. Aug. {Du Cheme Th. V. p. 80.) Act« Cone Divion. et Vienn. {yfumi
Th. XXII. p. 708.) Siicsjioncns. {Ih. p. 738.)— II. J. Schutz. Pliil. A. u. Ingoborg. KioL ISlH. Cap«-
figu*. Hist do Phil. A. Brux. 1S30. Tli. IL p. 144. 191s«.
14
210 MKDIAKVAI, ClirilCII I1IS'I()I:V. r Kit. HI. A. ]). ^.i)i\-\2l(i.
and to nijihitnin tlio waveriii;; lidclity of hirf vassals. But when he had
bccouio utterly ruined in his own country, he was deposed hy Innocent,
and his kingdom was hcstowed upon Philip of France. Rejoiced at such an
ü[>portunity llio latter prepared an army and a fleet for takinj^ possession of
his new kingdom. John then humbled himself hefore the pope and con-
sented to receive England as a fief from the Holy See (1213). But the bish-
ops and barons, finding themselves subjected to a king Avhom they abhorred,
and a popo who punished a whole people for the sins of their ruler, called to
mind their ancient privileges, and extorted from John the celebrated Magna
Charta (June 15, 1215), which has over since been the fundamental law for
the legislative power of an aristocracy sustained by the people. When John
afterwards violated this engagement he was restrained by threats. Innocent
beheld a dependent kingdom wrested from his grasp by a people who were
becoming conscious of their poAver. In vain did he hurl his anathemas
against the estates and their charter ; the papal power, exalted as it then
was in its authority, had now found an antagonist before whom it was des-
tined to fall, (c) Just as he was on the threshold of great events and yet
conscious of his approaching end, (/) Innocent collected around hira the
representatives of Christendom at the FourtJi Synod of Lateran (1215), to
take measures for the reconquest of the Uoly Land, the extermination of
heretics, and the reformation of the Chtrrch. A general Truce of God was
consecrated, that the whole power of the European nations might be directed
to the East. The most terrible measures were determined upon with respect
to heretics. Seventy Canons were ratified by the Council, in which were
specified the articles of the Christian faith, and the most important rules of
law and discipline in a modern form, but in their ancient severity. The pope
is represented as the head of the great Christian family of nations. {(/) With
the powers thus conferred Innocent .was right in likening himself to the sun
and the various civil governments to the moon, receiving their light from him
as from a feudal lord. (A) He who had often described in the darkest colors
the miseries of the human race, (/) regarded the earth as worthy of his care
only that he might subject it to the law of God. Feeling that he had be-
come too much estranged from himself by the press of public duties, and the
want of time for heavenly contemplations, he longed to enjoy the privileges
of the pastoral office, and preached as often as possible. His discourses, as
well as his judicial decisions, which were long regarded as models for legal
documeats of that kind, were highly figurative and composed in the style of
the Old Testament. But even in his most fanciful and subtle allegories there
is always apparent a profound earnestness of spirit, with great gravity of ex-
pression. Witb his analytical mind he doubtless sometimes perverted the
cause of justice, according to circumstances, from its strict course of recti-
«) Zlatth. Par. ad. ann. 1205ss. Original documents in: lii/meri Foedera et Acta publ. inter
Beg. Angllac etal. Priuc. aucta et em. a Clarke et Holbrooke, Lond. lS16ss. vol L P. L
/) I/urUr, vol. IL p. 6i-i. g) AcUi in Mansi Tli. XS.II. p. 953-10S4. [Laiidoit, p. "iOSss.!
A) Innoc. 1. 1. Ep. 401. Geeta. e, 6-3.
i) De uiiseria liumanae conditionis s. de contomtii niundi. 0pp. (Sermons & ascetic writings, in-
tomplet« } Col. 1575. Yen. 15TS. 4.
CHAP. IL ECCLES. LAW. § 193. CAXON LAW, 2 1 1
lüde, and yet ho liad a right to boa.st that even his intercepted letters -would
be only an additional evidence of his perfect integrity, (^-j lie was certainly
covetous of wealth, and his legates, in whom he confided too much, (I) were
still more so; but no presents ever turned him from bis course. His style
of living was as simple as that of Cincinnatus, and his wealth was always
subservient to his purposes, and freely used in behalf of the crusades and
the poor. He was inflexible in his friendships, a father to widows and
orphans, and when acting as the Vicar of the Supreme Prince of Peace, he
was frequently a peacemaker between princes and their subjects. Misfor-
tune never subjected him to those severe trials in which great characters
are proved, but he availed himself of fortunate circumstances with all the skill
of an ancient Roman. By his exertions Rome became once more the head of
the civilized world ; although his greatest plans were unsuccessful, or contained
the germs of future failure. The legend, according to which the soul of this
great vicar of God was delivered with extreme difficulty Irom the claims of
hell, (m) merely shows that no mortal can possess unlimited power without
injury, or that even the highest are amenable to a master in heaven, and to
public opinion upon earth.
CHAP. IT.— SOCIAL COXSTITUTIO^ OF THE CHURCH.
§ 193, Gratian and his Prcdece^mn.
Balle rini <\c nntiq. canonnm Coll. (Leon. 0pp. Tti. IIL p. 2S9ss.) Sntignij, Gosch. (1. Rum.
Rechts im M.\. vol. IL p. 273ss. — Anton. AnguMni de emenrlatlone Grat L IL Tarrncon. 1587.
and often. J. II. Boehmei; A^ varia Deer. Grat, fortiina. (At the commencement of his edit, of tho
C.J. Can.) fSarti, do cLiris arcliigymnasii Koiioniens. I'rofessorib. Bon. 1TC9. f. Th. I. 1*. I. p. 24Tss.
Ilifgger, de Grat (0pp. Frib. 1773.) and do Grat Col., inothodo et mendis. (Oblect hist ct jiir. Ulm.
1776.) Savigny voL III. p. 475ss.
The Capitularies of Charles and Louis were collected in summaries and
separate piece?, and published by Aih^cfjiaus (827) in four books. The two
first relate to the afliairs of the Church. To these were added the collection
of Bcnedictus Lcrita (845), in whicii were embraced not only the Capitula-
ries, but the statutes derived from all tho judicial authorities of the time, {a)
The traditions of the ancient ecclesiastical laws and the work of Isidore
formed a basis from that time forward, to which the compilers only added
the more recent laws which had been generally received. The chronological
order was not required in a .systematic arrangement, and was also abandoned
for want of a knowledge of the original authorities. liiijiuo. the abbot of
Prucm (d, 915), gave directions from older authorities respecting the visita-
tion of u diocese, and quoted the legal passages on that subject. {!>) Burchardy
k) Boehmer, Rcgesta, p.-290.
I) I/tirlei; vol. II. p. 095, perfectly trustworthy In all which Is hostile to Innocent
»0 Tlwmas Cantimpnitfn«. Vita Liitgardls II, 7. (Rtiynald ad nnn. 1216. No. 11.) differently
embellished near the close of the lf)lh cent In the Conipil. chronologic». {PUtor. Th. I. [>. lüÜS.)
(I) Aiixeg. in rertz Th. III. p. 2.')Ö. Beiifil. I.fv. lb. Th. IV, 2. i>. 17.
h) L. II. de synodal, c.iiisis ct disciplinis eccL od. (Bitliiz. Par. 1071.) Wiisscrnc/Ufben, Lps. 1540
iintiqua cann. Col. qua usus est Rcgino Prainlcns. o cod. Vat ed. A. L. Richter, Bcr. 1S44.
212 MKDIAKVAI, (■Ilfi:<H iriSTOkV. I'KI:. III. A. I>. 500-121«.
Bihho[) of Worm« (d. 10:25), and Jro, IMsliop of Chartres (d. 1115), liavo col
lectod together the whole stock of genuine and spurious laws, though they
liavo arniiigod them in n very arbitrary manner, (c) But wlien the Roman
law began to receive much academical study, Gratian, of the convent of St.
Feli.K at Bologna, became desirous of enlisting a similar interest in behalf of
the canon law, and (about 1143) (d) wrote Ids Text Book and Manual, contain-
ing a system of ecclesiastical law on an historical basis. In this he incorpo-
rated all the laws then regarded as in force, deriving his materials principally
from the previous collections, which he sometimes compared with the origi-
nal authorities, and even condescended to borrow some of the most liberal
statutes from the decrees of the Greek synods. The arrangement of the
work was logical, but to some extent dependent upon the historical matter,
and each division Avas prefaced by legal principles generally derived from
history, and connected by intermediate clauses composed by Gratian himself.
It consisted principally of historical documents, especially laws and legal
opinions of all kinds taken from ecclesiastical and secular authorities, and
grouped together in a fragmentary manner, but copied with verbal correct-
ness. Gratian generally adopted the historical errors of his predecessors, and
seldom reconciles the older with the more recent enactments. Although
this work never received the papal sanction, it possessed so high a character
for science and academic convenience, that ever since, so far as its historical
elements are concerned, it has been received as a manual of canonical law
for the whole Western Church. It has also served as the basis on which,
with the exception of some errors which historical criticism has discovered,
ecclesiastical jurisprudence has been principally developed, (e)
§ 19-i. The Church and the State.
Mondtag, Gesch. d. deutschen staatsb. Freih. o. d. Rechte d. gemeineu Freien, d. Adels n. d.
Kirchen. Banib. u. Wurtzb. 1812. Ilüllmann, Gesch. d. Urspr. d. Stände in Deutscht. 2 cd. B«rL
1830. voL I. Sugenlieim, Staatslebon d. Clerus im Mittelalt. BerL 1639. vol. I.
The process commenced during the migration of the northern nations
was completed during the stormy period of the ninth and tenth centuries.
This was the process by which the German republics of free warriors and
landed proprietors became merged into a feudal system of complicated sov-
ereignty and dependence. The silent power of the Church also gave its
sanction to the rights of man while claiming those of the Christian. When
the Eoman empire had been revived in the German nation by the Othos, the
emperor was regarded as the political head of Christendom in the West, and
the holy Roman empire as a divine institution. The emperor was elected by
the German princes and bishops, but he was required to strengthen the
c) Burchardi Decretor. 1. XX. Par. 1549. and often.— 7ro, Pannormia, 1. VIII. ed. M(\-h. d«
Totmediano, Lov. 1557. Greater revisions by another hand, in IT vols. : Decretum in 0pp. ed.
yronto, Tar. 1647. 2 Th. t.—Auff. Theiner, ü. Ivo's vernieintl. Decret. Mentz. 1S32. The opposite
view In F. G. U. WuKserscIdeben, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. vorgratian. KEechtsquellen. Lpz. 1SS9.
(/) Concordia discordantluni canonum. 1. III. Even in IISO it is cited as: '-in Decrctis," and
later gener.illj- as the '• Decretum." Printed as the First Part of the Corpus J. canonici.
e) Guido Panci-oluf, de clavis leg. intcrpretib. Ill, 6. Lps. 1721. 4. Sarignt,; voL IIL p. 519s8.
CHAP. ir. ECCLES. LAW. §194. STATE & CUURCn. 213
power of the empire in Italy, and to obtain possession of the imperial crown
which the popes seldom conferred without requiring entangling oaths and a
oubtle confession of faith. (") But "while the imperial power was destroyed
in Italy, and every eflfbrt to secure it as an hereditary possession was frus-
trated, the great vassals became firmly' established as princes of the empire,
and their fiefs became hereditary. As long as the election, or at least
the investiture of the bisliops depended upon the emperor, they were
his natural allies in opposition to the secular princes. The result was,
that in all those towns in which episcopal sees existed, the imperial favor
to them was so great that tlie jurisdiction of the courts was superseded
by them, and episcopal immunities (corpora sancta) sprung up. Some of
the bishops were even invested with dukedoms. In other parts of Germany
the bishops were gradually deprived of their political influence, and some
even became dependent upon the higher crown vassals. Right struggled
every where with might, and the royal power with the great vassals.
The Church often found oi)portunity to mingle in these struggles, and some-
times it was compelled to do so, but not unfrequently the confusion was in
this way only increa.sed. In particular instances it was repeatedly overpow-
ered, or compelled to resort to begging, in which it sometimes persevered
with an Indian's obstinacy, (h) Finally, by collecting together all its strength
in the single phalanx of the papacy, it became so completely victorious that
it threatened to absorb all the })rerogative3 of the state. And yet the old
legal principle (§ 122), that God has divided all power on earth between the
em2>eror and the pope, was received according to its German construction,
consistently with the later doctrine, that the emperor carried the secular
sword as a feudal investiture from the pope. It was even conceded that
the civil power might be peculiar in its nature, and the world might be com-
mitted to the government of princes, ('•) and that the pope, by virtue of the
sacerdotal and royal prerogatives which he had received from Christ, should
only interfere when they exceeded their just powers. Against the scandals
of which the princes in those rude times were not unfrequently guilty, the
provincial bishops were generally unable to oppose any etlectual resistance.
Those, therefore, who acknowledged no law superior to themselves, the poi)e
summoned in the name of God to answer at his bar. The temporal inherit-
ance of St. Peter was regarded as indispensable to the personal independence
of the pope, but it involved him in all the Italian convulsions, and was only
a precarious pos.session in opposition to the claims of the emperor, the great
lords, and the municipalities. The Romans, them.selves straitened between
the pope and the emperor, never possessed any thing but a mere caricature
of freedom.
a) E. G. Pertz Tli. IV. p. ISS.
U) Comp. Rnumer, UoUenstawl vol. VI. p. IflT. witti Bohlen Inillon. vol. 1. p. 285.
c) The old view: f!nchiifnKpie(/fl,\o]. I. art I. The new: SchirdhftisyiUgtl, Elnloit (Frkt
.riGO. f.) P. II. no-.iip. Honor. Ill, in Hatimer vul. VI. p. «0. Grimm, BrlJnntes Bescheiden!). Giilt
.631. i<. LVII.
214 MKDIAF.VAL CHUKCn IIISTOUY. TKn. III. A. IJ. 600-121«.
§ 105. Ecclmastical Toicer of the Pnpary.
Tho general helief tliat tlie bishopric of tlio pojie was universal, fre-
quently gave a show of justice to tlie elJbrts that on every opportunity ■\vcro
made to extend his power. Since the time of Gregory, the episcopal power
was also regarded as springing wholly from the papal. It was, however,
thought that, like tho emperor in the civil department, tho pope should not
suspend the exercise of the subordinate ecclesiastical powers, hut rather pro-
tect each of them in their peculiar duties, and the pope was reminded by St.
Bernard that the papal was not the only power wliich had been Instituted
by the apostles. The bishops especially looked upon their pastoral office Iq
their own dioceses as absolutely inviolable, and tliey simply regarded abso-
lution as especially efficacious when obtained from Rome. («) In important
cases dispensations were with increasing eagerness sought for from Rome,
and in all judicial causes in the Church the Roman Curia was looked upon as
the court of ultimate appeal. The office of supreme judge, in which he was
responsible only to God, and the general reputation which he had obtained
of being the most perfect depositary of the pure faith, produced in some
instances a belief that the pope was infalllhle. (Luke 22, 32 was appealed
to.) This view, however, was never entertained without limitations, or ad-
vanced without opposition. The popes always acknowledged tlie articles of
faith and the established laws of the Church as tho guide and limit of their
powers. They were far from appealing to their own arbitrary authority, but
they looked to the law of God, or what was generally regarded as such, for
the sole rule of their conduct, (h) The FaUiura was considered indispensa-
ble to the performance of the archiepiscopal functions, and Gregory based
upon this a demand that all the archbishops should swear allegiance to him
from whom it was received. The same demand was gradually made of all
bishops whenever their elections were confirmed by the popes. At first this
confirmation was sought only when an election was disputed, but soon after
the time of Gregory it was considered essential to all elections, and supplied
occasions for innumerable interferences in the business of the dioceses. Gre-
gory himself still adhered to the freedom of the canonical choice, (c) !N"ew
dioceses Avere erected, and changes in the relations of the old were to bo
made only with the consent of the pope. When appointments were made
to other benefices, the pope interfered only in particular instances, and by
way of recommendation, although such recommendations were nearly equiva-
lent to commands. The bishops were generally, by their political position,
beyond all danger from the violence of the popes, who had a right to exer-
cise jurisdiction over them only in cases of manifest crime, and with the co-
operation of the Synods. But as a membership in the principal councils
depended frequently upon tho papal will, very few of them ever opposed or
thwarted what was known to be tho desire of the pope, and most of them
a) Cone Saletninstad. a. 1022. c. IS. (J/imsJ Tb. XIX. p. 395.) Greg. Til. L YI. Ep. 4. (75. Th
XX. p. 2«>0.) Comp. De Jfarca, de Sacerd. et Imp. IV, S, 2.
I) Grntian : V. I. DUt XL. c. 6. and P. II. Cans. XXXII. Quest. T. c. li Innoc, III. de consecT
Pont Serm. 8. Comp. Hase, Streitschr. H. 2. p. 90ss.
c) Greg. VU. 1. V. Ep. 11. 1. VI. Ep. 14.
•
CHAP. II. ECCLE3. LAW. § 19ö. TRIMACY. § 196. CAEDIN'ALS. 215
vrere assembled only to receive and perform it. The ascendency of the pope
above councils was claimed with great caution, and only in some occasional
instances. His authority was much increased by the j^ihjrimages to the eter-
nal city, for even in the midst of her ruins, tlie glory of the ancient and the
sacrcdness of the modern "world combined witli her wondei-ful attractions to
render it a place of concourse for tlie people and princes of the "West. The
first instance of the canonization of a person at a distance was that of
Ulrich, the holy Bishop of Augsburg (993), and was occasioned by peculiar
external circumstances. In the twelfth century-, this privilege, which in
itself maj' be regarded as trifling, but became important on account of the
idea from which it sprung, and to whose realization it contributed, (</) was
claimed as exclusively belonging to the frope. A jiapul Coronation is no-
where met with until after the time of Kicolas I., and on the first occasion
of the kind on which they were both present, the emperor led the animal on
which the pope was carried. The kissing of the pope's foot sprung from an
Italian custom. In the estimation of the i)eople it was not an idle display,
but very significant as the oficring of pious liumility to Ilim whom the pope
represented. By means of Legates^ the papal power became almost oumi-
present. The rapacity of these legates, the venality of the ecclesiastical
courts, and the illiberal Italian spirit of some of the popes, began to bo mat-
ters of public complaint and derision. But as a general thing, the affections
of the people were still firmly attached to the papacy, and the blessings
which it procured in the unity, freedom, and reformation of the Church
were generally acknowledged.
§ 196. The OirJinah.
Ti'iomasHini vet. et nov. Ecc. disc. P. I. 1. II. c. 113.S.S. .BiicJrfciM de orijr. cardinalitiae dign.
Jena, lööi 12. Murutori, de Cardin, institiiti.-ne. (Antiqq. Ital. med. aevL voL IV. p. 1Ö2.)
In the primitive Church the cardinals were the ordinary spiritual officers
of tlie Church (incardinatij. Even after the tenth century they were the
canons of a cathedral. But in the Romish sense of the term during the
eleventh century, the cardinals were tlie Jiighest spiritual officers (i. e., the
deacons and presbyt<;rs) of the Church in Kume, and seven suburbican bishops
whose sees were then for the most part much reduced in size. (") These car-
dinals, in opposition not only to the Roman people and the emperor, but gradu-
ally even to the other clergy, maintained tliat it was their solo prerogative to elect
the i)ope (§ 180). Alexander III. ordained (llY'J) that no one could be a legally
elected i)ope who had not received tlio .votes of two thirds of the legally
a.ssembled cardinals, (b) The canlinals were generally selected by the pope
from among tlie Italians, and constituted Ids ecclesiastical and civil council.
Though they possessed no power to control any person of eminent talents in
£/) Mami vol. XIX. p. ICOss. MabiUoii, Acta 5S. Ord. Ben. Sacc V. rracf. N. 99.— Deer. Greg.
1 IlL tit. 45. c i.—Lambertiiii, de Bcrvor. Dil canoniznllonu L IV. {IktieJicti .VIV. Opp. Koni,
1747. vol. I. -IV. 4.) Heiliiumn, Consecratln Sanctorum ad ÖTfüSfiitrcir vctoruni Koni. efBcta
Hal. 1754. 4.
a) Bunsen, Hlppol. p. l.'>2s.
' b) CoBc Later. III. c. 1. {ifausi vol. .XXII. p 217.) [/,</n(/o;i, p. 292.]
21G MICDIAKVAL Ciniirll IIISTOKV. I'KU. III. A. I). S<K>-1'JH
the papnl clniir, flicir iriflucnco was generally Bufficlcnt to insure a certain
nniformity of action in opposition to those sudden olianpcs wiiicii individuaL»
would liavc introduced. In consequence of tlieir rank above tlie archbishops,
the pojie Avas surrounded witli a courtly sjdendor, and an oi)portunity waa
allbrded hy wldch he could reward great services, and place men of eminent
talents under obligations to himself.
§ 197. Tlie Bishojis^ and the Bivhopa' Chapters.
So hiph did the pope stand in the estimation of the people, that the
bishops lost nothing in dignity by their subordination to him. On the other
hand, it was by his assistance that they Avere generally able to preserve their
independence in opposition to the princes of the various countries in which
they lived. There were a few great bishoprics whose Chorlishops had from
the most ancient times acted as the bishops' vicars in all spiritual affairs
with an authority which was uncertain and often usurped by the princes,
but never dangerous to the bishopric, (a) The right of the bishop to ap-
point all ecclesiastical officers in his diocese, was limited by the rl'jht of
patronage., which even a layman could lawfully acquire by founding a
church or a prebend. (5) The ai'chlishopjs, besides the power of presiding
in the synods of their own dioceses, merely possessed that of confirm-
ing and ordaining the bishops, in ■svhich, however, they were obliged to have
the concurrence of the popes or their legates. They generally possessed
very extensive dioceses, and on account of their rank they acquire<l special
political privileges. At the coronation of Otho I. the three lihenish arch-
bishoi« for the first time took precedence of all the officers of the empire.
Some of the other archbishops acquired a kind of primacy over a whole
kingdom, as Adalbert of Bremen (d. 1072), a man of a brilliant mind, but
consistent only in his vanity, and ready to sacrifice the whole Church to the
promotion of the interests of his see, in Avhich he hoped to become a patriarch
of the North, (c) In such instances, however, the popes always hastened to
form another archbishopric in the same country to guard against the
establishment of a national patriarchate. In many dioceses, when their
bishojis w'ere to be appointed, the nobility and people of the archbishopric con-
tended with the king and neighboring bishops for the right of choice, and nol
unfrequently those who were appointed by the latter were most terribly re-
pulsed, {d) After a gradual attainment of their exclusive rights in this matter,
the canons obtained by their prerogative and their prospect of the election, a
position more and more independent of the bishop, and secured to them by
treaties. The canonical life was generally abandoned during the tenth centm-y,
but some zealous popes and bishops insisted upon its re-establishment. In the
midst of much contention two classes of canons were then formed (canonici
saeculares and reguläres), and even monks became possessors of some chap-
ters. The canons were not all clergymen, but they were required by the
fl) Balue. Capitul. vol. I. p. 327s. SSOs. Against Gfrürer: W. B. WencX; d. fVank. Eeicli. nach deac
Tertr. t. Vonliin. Lpz. \<!)\. Append. 3.
h) IT. L. JJj'pert. L. V. Tatronat. Giess. 1S29. J. Kaiin. KPatronat Lps. 1345. rol. I.
f) Adam. Brem. 1. III. comp. Jujfc p. 571. </) E. g. Lambert. Scha/ji. ad. ann. 1066.
CHAP. IL KCCI.KS L.VW. § 197. CHAPTERS. § 198. JURISDICTION. 217
synodal regulations to have at least a subdeacon's charge. Any vacancies
which occurred in the Chapter were supplied generally by a vote of its own
members, from whose number its various officers were chosen. A dean or
prior, sometimes both, presided over the whole. After the clo.'^e of the
eighth century, it gradually bccanio common to divide the large dioceses into
archdeaconries, and these again into rural cliapters. The archdcaconn were the
regular and sometimes even then tlic troublesome deputies of the bishops, but
they were not regarded as indispensable to a complete chapter. When the ca-
nons were absent for a long period, they now began to hire vicars to officiate in
their places, and to mark the hours by singing. The liviugs connected with
the cathedrals were then sutTicicnt to become objects of cupidity to the no-
bility, whose still increasing importance enabled them to take possession of
most of the benetices. Against the coteries fonned by a petty aristocracy,
wealthy proprietors, patronizing relatives, and provincial prejudices, the
popes endeavored to maintain the liberal principles of Christianity, which
asserted the derivation of all men from the same original ancestry, pro-
nounced the poor blessed, acknowledged no kindred but the children of God,
and recognized no birthright in the kingdom of God but that which is ac-
quired in regeneration, {e) The domestic chaplains employed by the nubility
easiily made themselves independent of the bisliops by a servile dependence
Dpon their employers, {f)
§ 198. Ecclesiaatical Jurisdiction.
Grfg. Deer. II. de jiidiciis. Biener, Beitrage 2. Gescli. des Inquisitionsproc. Lpz. IS'27. St
Turd; de jurisdietlonis civ. iicr med. aevum cum eccl. conjunctae orig. et progressu. Monast 1832
1. The clergy could be tried only before the episcopal tribunal. Tiie
civil authorities were utterly unable to enforce their penal code in opposition
to the indulgence or partiality of this court, except in those instances in
which the wounded honor of the Church itself required the surrender of
the culprit. The highest ecclesiastical penalty was a hopeless banishment to
a convent, and sometunes a walling in of the culprit. 2. The ecclesiastical
court also claimed jurisdiction over all matters more or less intimately con-
nected with the Church, or with religion in general, such as marriages,
wills, oaths, usury, and all legal causes relating to the crusades. In conse-
quence of this confusion of moral and kgal subjects, this court invaded very
considerably the sanctuary of the family. Ecclesiastical laws were formed
against nearly all public offences, and when might every where prevailed
against right, were powerful enough to extort respect from tho.se who would
have despiscMl every human autiiority. The cause of humanity and of
national rights formed also a powerful advocate in the CJiurch by means of
these penal courts. 3. A few individuals only arrogated to themselves the
right to interfere in every munici])al cau.se when requested by one of the
«) Innoc. III. L VI. Kp. 121. IX. 130. Moro nainoroiis examples can be Tuiiml in the next
.vricKl, 0. g. Greg. Deer. III. tlL 5. c. 37. comp. Stu/ert, Go.<cli. il. deiitscb. Adel.-- In d. Uumc.iplteln,
790. IfurUr^ Innoc. vol. III. p. 2-SC.
/) AgvlarJ, de prlvlleg. et jure sncerdotuiti. p. 12S.
218 MKDIAKVAI- CIITM:t'l[ IflSTOKV. I'Ki:. IH. A. D. S00-121C.
party, or wlion tlio oflenco clinrf,'C(l wnn of n moral nnture Mcnunciatio cvan
pt'liea).* The nnoiont rnstoni of llio synodal courts was f,'ra<lu;illy restrained
bv tlio iiitnxlnrfioii of tlie Roman law.
§ 199. Property of the Chirch
The i)roi)erly of tlio Church was continually augmented by donations, by
bequests, by profitable investments and loans for jiawns esi)ecially to cru-
saders, by royal fiefs, by free proprietors giving to the Church feudal lordship
over their possessions to secure them against oppression, and by the increased
value of property. On the other hand, it was diminished by the prodigality
of individual prelates, wbicb could not be checked till, after a dear-bought
experience, laws were carefully formed against all pawning or alienation of
Church property ; by the claims and ojipressions of Church wardens, by
transference of fiefs to those who could protect them and become their liege
lords, by expenses for the support of legates and princes, and by the claims
of feudal lords upon the property of deceased prelates, and upon the reve-
nues of vacant Church oflSces (jus spolii et rcgaliae). This spoliation of the
Church was zealous^ly resisted by the popes. Otho IV. in Germany was in-
duced to surrender his claims, but other sovereigns renounced them only
in particular instances. Even the fatronarje (advocatia) of ecclesiastical
foundations which had been originally intended for legal and military pro-
tection, and which had sometimes originated with the act of endowment, or
had been conferred upon a powerful neighbor, was frequently perverted, so
as to be an instrument of oppression and robbery, (a) The principal por-
tion of the Church property consisted of real estate and tithes. The legal
titles by which the former was held were of various kinds, but the
latter were claimed by a natural law propounded by God himself, al-
though they were resisted in many ways when fully carried out, and
were in collision with various local customs. The revenues even of the
pope, in accordance with peculiar ancient usages, were paid in articles
of natural produce, varying in different places. (U) Surplice fees (jura
stolae) belonged chiefly to the lower clergy, but were only voluntary
offerings of the people. Salaries from the state were indignantly rejected
by the Church as dangerous to its independence and dignity, (c) The clergy
claimed exemption from all taxes on persons or property, with the exception
of the feudal aids and voluntary contributions in cases of extraordinary state
necessity. A regular assessment was generally unknown in the feudal
monarchies, but as late as the twelfth century the Church was often com-
pelled to contribute for special objects, and in the free cities it had to bear
its share in all general taxes. Alexander III. proclaimed the great funda-
mental principle of the Church, which was, that the clergy might contribute
of their own free will when they perceived the utihty and necessity of an
• Greg. Deer. II. tit 1. c 13. comp. Räumer vol. VI. p. 198s.
a) P. GaUade, dc advocatis ecc. Ileidlb. 176S. {A. Schmidt, Thes. jur. ecc. vol. T.) Muratori
deadvv. ecc. (Aniiqq. ItaL vol. V.) IP. T. Kraut, die Vormundscli. GOtt 15-35. vol. I.
b) Cencii Cumenirii L. censuuin Rom. Ecc. a 1102. Comp. Tfurter. Innoc vol. UI. p. 12183,
c) Diomedea Cronica di Cypro, according to Kaamer vol. VL p. 147.
CHAP. III. ECCLE3. LIFE. § 200. POPULAR SPIRIT. TRUCE OF OOD. 219
assessment. (<l) Tiie protection -vvliich the bishops received from the popes
against tlie demantls of tlieir respective kings, gave occasion to the legal
maxim, that the Church could never be taxed without the papal sanction, (e)
The natural right of the clergy to inherit property was finally legalized in
spite of the opposition of the laity. Every Church was regarded as the pro-
per lioir of all ecclesiastics who died intestate in connection with it. There
were different opinions respecting the riglit of such persons to bequeath their
possessions, but it was generally conceded that they might freely dispose of
all which had not been acquired from ecclesiastical revenues. At an early
period the attempt was frequently made to bequeath the property of tlie
Church to children, (/) by which it would soon have been either impover-
ished, or subjected to a sacerdotal caste. This was afterwards frustrated by
the law which required the celibacy of the clergy. In consequence of the
munificent donations which it bestowed upon the poor, the people were gene-
rally pleased to see the Church in tlie possession of the greatest wealth.
CHAP. III.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 200. The Edigious Spirit of the People.
This was a period in which violence, power, and artifice were enlisted in
the service of a rude sensuality. But a profound religious spirit ardently
engaged in the pursuit of everlasting life, was no less prevalent among tho
people. These tendencies were sometimes in conflict with each other, and
sometimes they were reconciled by the most remarkable compromises. The
hierarchy, addressing itself to tho religious spirit, but in a manner conformed
to the age, endeavored to establish the ascendency of tho law and of an ele-
vated morality. A period in whicli brute force (Faiist-recht) was tho only
law, was interrupted by one in wliitli tho Truce of God was sustained by
ecclesiastical threatenings and miracles, {a) "Women and children, defence-
less persons, and every thing constructed or planted for jtnrposes of i)eace,
were in times of war under the jjrotection of the Church, {h) It ottered an
asylum to all who wore persecuted, without inquiring whether they were
pursued by lawless violence or justice. Violent persons were terrified by
frightful roi)rcsentations of a i)resent God, and by narratives of divine judg-
ments ; and when those who ])ossessed great power became penitent, they
were compelled to undergo the most severe and cflective penances. Tho
tenth century is remarkable for liaving been the most degraded of all theso
periods for its reckless struggles and general rapacity. A vague i)resontiment
of death, a remnant uf tho pagan notion of tho Twilight of tljo gods, (c) passed
d) Cone. Later. III. c. 19. (Mansi Tli. XXII. p. 229.)
e) Cone. LaUr. IV. c. 40. (.VanH Tli. XXII. p. 108(1.)
/) E. g. Bened. VIII. about 1014 In Cone. Tidnensl. (J/i/»#/ Th. XIX. p. 348.)
a) Trcuga Dei, first proclaiinod In 1041 In .Vqnitanta. GUiher lladulph. V. 1. {Botiqufl Th. i
p. 69.) M>in.n TIl XIX. p. 593. ?.) Jiiße, p. 032.
c) Oomp. Jlitspilli, edit by Schnieller, Munich. 1$32.
220 MEDIAEVAL CllUnCII IIISTOIIV. VIM. III. A. U. S<^»(>-121«.
through tlic youtlit'iil imtioriM, and fixed xipon the close of the first millenninn)
of the Cliristian era as tlio period for tlie end of tlio -world, (d) liut new
life was awakened by the conflict witli the Saracens in Spain, as well as
by their heroic example. The struggle between the pai)acy and the mon-
archies of (liat period contributed also to the same result. The pleasures
of the world were principally enjoyed by the nobility and clergy. An
independent estate of burghers, if it did not always contend for public
freedom and justice, certainly strove to obtain special liberties and preroga-
tives for themselves. In accordance with both the tendencies above men-
tioned, the female sex was regarded with extravagant admiration, or as frail
and dangerous. The peculiar spirit of the age was fully developed in the
crusades. In them was displayed the absolute ascendency of the imagination
and the feelings. Human life became so corrupted that it degenerated into
a coarse sensual existence, or an ideal struggle for something beyond human
attainment. All the peculiarities of the European nations Avere amalgamated
with each other, or combined with the fanciful speculations of the East. The
contracted horizon to which the people had been accustomed became much
enlarged, and it was not without serious injury to themselves that many
walked beneath the lofty palm-trees. (< ) This sensuous piety required and
put confidence in all kinds of miracles. The sepulchres of the East were
opened, and the sacred antiquity of the Church became realized once more
in the present, by means of peculiar relics, whose genuineness the understand-
ing would no more think of proving than it would venture to suspect the
miracles by which they were certified to the faithful. Many vessels and
emblems, gradually or accidentally invested with a sacred character, received
at that time a place in the primitive ecclesiastical usage by means of the
legends, or became connected with the old German ]>opular traditions, (j")
Superstition was especially congenial with the spirit of the age, and the hiei'-
archy made it subservient to their purposes, increasing or diminishing it
.•ujcording as their interests prompted them. As instances of the latter, may
be mentioned their opposition to the ordeals or judgments of God, especially
by duels, (y) While God was brought down to the level of humanity, men
were invested with the attributes of God. Ancient saints were once more
discovered, and the present age felt competent even to create new saints.
Tlie ardent feelings of the people prompted them to pray even to a dog, as a
martyr and a patron saint, because he had lost his life in behalf of his master"^
child, (h) The Mother of God, however, was above all other saints the
object of chivalrous gallantry. But notwithstanding the profound veneration
d) Ahbo Ahhas Floriac. Apologet {Galland. Bibl. PP. Th. XIV. p. 141.) In a variety of ways
in deeds of gift tlicn ru.ide. Comp. Lücke, Einl. in d. Offenb. Job. Bonn. 1S32. i). 514s.
e) Comp. Placidua Mtit7i, Disq. in big.iniiam Comit de Gkichen. Erf. ITSS. TMlow, Beschr. d.
Grebes u. d. Gebeine d. Gr. v. GI. u. seiner beiden Weiber. Goth. u. Erf. 1S36.
/) Comp. G. Gerberon, Hist de la robe sans couture du inonast. d'ArgenteuiL Par. 16T7
/ Jlürr, Gesch. d. b. P.oeks. Treves. 1S44. J. Gihiemeister u. II. v. Sybel, d. h. Rock z>i Trier u.
a. 20 andern b. ungenähten EOeke. Dusseld. (1S4-1.) 3. ed. 1S4Ö.— Der ungenUlite graue P.ock
Christi. Altdeutsclies Gedieht, edit by F. II. v. (I. Iligen, Berlin. I'i^.
g) Cone. ValenUnum III. a. SÖ5. c 11. 12. (.I/jhai Th. XV. p. 9.) Innoc. III. 1. XL Ep 4ö. !
XIV. Ep. 138.
A) SUpK de B>rbone, in Echard, Scrr. Praed. vol. L p. 193.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 201. CLEEGT. DUXSTAN. 221
in which the Church was lield, the exuberant spirit of the age sometimes ex-
ceeded the limits of its own due reverence. Accordingly the devil, in spito
of all his dismal enchantments and temptations, generally appears in popular
traditions as a very poor and simple being. The wanton spirit of the trou-
badours sometimes ventured to treat with familiarity the sacred person of
the holy Virgin and even of God the Father. The priests themselves in an
innocent way sometimes made parodies of the holy mysteries and offices of
the Church at their festivals of fools and asses, (i)
§ 201. Manners of the Clergy.
According to the feudal law of Germany the bishops were bound to ap-
pear personally with their quota of men in the army of their liege lord. On
the other hand they were carefully reminded by the popes that they should
devote themselves to the work of preaching, and to the care of souls, and
that the Church should abstain with horror from the shedding of blood in all
its forms. («) We are therefore not surprised to find such a character a.s that
of Christian, Bishop of Alcntz, the heroic, learned, and rapacious general of
the emperor Frederic, who slew his enemies with a club, (b) But even those
bishops who were more spiritual in their dispositions were sometimes com-
pelled to become leaders of armies, and as soon as they had administered the
Holy Sacrament to their warriors they were called upon also to prepare them
for the battle, (o) "What was called simony was in some instances only the cus-
tomary tribute given to the i)riiices and to the popes soon after the time of
Gregory. Even the better portion ai tlie clergy could not entirely abstain
from this, but as it was proscribed by the Church it was ensnaring to the
conscience. In England, Dunstan (d. about 990), an abbot and a triple
bishop, versed in all the knowledge prevalent in his day, so powerful that he
held even the devil in his tongs, and though personally devoted to his own
visions in worldly matters, so politic that he entirely controlled three succes-
sive kings, and broke the heart of another who presumed to resist him,
attempted to reform the voluptuous lives of the priesthood by putting his
monks in the place of those clergymen who would not give up their wives, {d)
Ilis efforts, however, were attended by no very lasting results. JJainiani,
who with llildebrand was a severe censor of the manners of his age and even
of the papacy, and who desired nothing from the world but a monastio cell in
Avhich he could scourge himself, presents in his writings >ucli a naked and Tivid
picture of the exce.sses of the clergy, that Alexander II. prohibited tlie peru-
sal of them on the ground of their injurious influence upon the morals of the
i) Tlie hierarchy were at first zealous against these «port«, but gradually they relaxed In their
opposition, and at a later period attempted to Imiirovo them. Da Fretnt, Qloss. ad Scrr. med. et
Int Lat V. CiTVula. Calendae. Tiliot, Mciiiolres pour eorvir i^ I'hlstolre de la fete des fou.x.
Laus. 1751.
a) Damiani 1. IV. Ep. 9. Cone. Tnron. a. 10C<1. c. 7.
I) Albert. StuJeiis. p. 291b. (Schilterl Sorr. .\rcent. lTii2.)
c) S. Ulrici Vita in MahiUon Acta S.S. Sacc. IV. (.. 440.
rf) yrUkin», Cone. Angl. vol. I. p. 257sa. G. M.ilmfubir. Ocst.i Keg. Angl. I. IL Vita S. Dunst,
p. SrHfortk ct Oaborn : Acta SS. Mnj. vol. IV. p. 344. Afiibillon, Ann. Ord. 3. BeneJ. vol. III. ji
«:!4ss.
222 Mi:i)iAi;vAr, i iituc ii iiistouv. v\:n. iii. a. n. 800-1216.
readers, (c) Marriago was not dcclarod unlawful to tlio clergy in England
and Spain unlil tlic twoltlli century, and in tlic Northern kinf,'doni.s till some
time in llio tliirtcontii. Sonic even died because they could not endure this
teiiuralion froni their wives and cliildren. But ultliough Gregory succeeded
in abolishing marriage, he could not jircvent licentiousness among the clergy.
Before bis time this had prevailed publicly, but in a loss offensive form,
■whereas after his enactments it was practised in secret, and frequently in the
most unnatural manner, so that many regarded the remedy as worse than the
evil. The clergy partook also of the faults peculiar to the times, and were
Bomctimes involved in the most shameless acts of violence, (f) But such in-
dividual instances of irregularity among the bishops, or of criminality among
the clergy, which were generally put down in the Church after tlie influence
of Ilildebrand had been put fortli, should not be regarded as specimens of the
general character ofthat period. ((/) The declamations which are sometimes
found in the writings of that day, respecting clerical de[iravity, in many
cases j)roceeded from monastic prejudices or secular antipathies. (/>) The
clergy must also have participated in the virtues of that period, for without
these their increasing influence among the people would appear incomprehen-
sible. This consciousness of control over the age in which they lived, and
the true conception which they possessed of what a clergyman should be,
contributed much to elevate even the inferior multitude of priests al)ove their
ordinary position and made them share in the common spirit of their order.
§ 202. Church Dlsci2)Unc. Comp. § G6. 132.
Eu«. Amort de origine, progressu ac frnctu Indulgentiar. Aug. Vlnd. 1735. f.
By the great body of the people, the act of binding and loosing on the
part of the priest was regarded as equivalent to an admission to heaven, or an
exclusion from it. Even death, which sunders all otlier ties, was supposed to
bring men more perfectly under this influence. Conscientious clergymen were
often distressed in. the exercise of a power which extended even beyond the
grave, and eminent theologians arrayed themselves in opposition to this
error, (ft) The synodal courts, when they had become corrupt, imposed fines
upon otfenders, or consented that the ecclesiastical penance should be dis-
charged by the payment of alms, of which the Church was to be the dispen-
ser. Penitential books were formed in which a choice of penances was pro-
posed, and a kind of price current was kept for all kinds of crime, (b) The
popes were generally supposed to possess a peculiar power of absolving from
the guilt of the more heinous crimes, and they made use of this public con-
fidence very extensively when they sold complete absolution^ professing to
devote the proceeds to the relief of the crusaders. Particular sanctuaries
t) Llbcr Gomorrliianus. Epp. II, 6. 0pp. den. ed. Gaetani, Par. 1743. Life of Dam. by his pnpli
Jo. ironaclntsin 0pp. and Acta SS. Febr. vol. III. p. 40C.— Tita S. Dam. scr. J. Laderchio, Eom.
171)2. 3 vols. 4.
/) E. g. Lamhe-rt. Scha/n. ad a. 106."?. g) E. g. ITnrier, Innoc vol. III. p. 327s5.
7i) Witli respect to the former, see Damian, and with regard to the latter, the songs of tli« Troa
Dsdours and Minnesin^era.
u) Petnis Lomh. Sentt, L. IV. Dlst IS. I) liegino, de disc. ceo. II, 43^ss.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 202. DISCIPLINE. § 203. "WO HS II I P. 223
also "were invested with the privilege of bestowing absolution on condition
of a certain period of penance, to all who should visit them, either on sonio
festival or at any time, (c) A period of penance which might ordinarily ex-
ceed the limits of human life might be accomplished in a brief space of time
by means of the two kinds of absolution. Persons who were in a high
degree the victims of remorse were required to build a church, to go upon a
crusade, or to enter a convent. In all cases when services were performed,
or money was paid to obtain such a pardon for sin, a cordial repentance and
an amendment of life was made a prerequisite in the applicant. Intelligent
teachers, however, perceived that the Church was placing itself in a position
of extreme peril. (</) According to an oi)inion which had now become es-
tablished, but was still opposed in some quarters, a mortal sin could be for-
given only in the confessional. The Church required that at least once in
each year every person should confess all the sins of which he was conscious, (e)
By this means the priests became possessed of aU the hearts and secrets of
the people. The interdict which had been on several occasions attempted in
former times, but had been always regarded as an arbitrary exercise of an
nnchristian power, became during the eleventh century a legitimate measure
in opposition to those who violated solemn treaties. It soon after became a
terrible weapon in the hands of the popes by which a nation was conii)elled
to atone for the crimes of its rulers, or was armed against those in authority
over it. "When the Church possessed a powerful induence over the life of
every one, no people patiently endured a protracted discontinuance of eccle-
siastical services, and frequently they did not hesitate to comjiel their clergy
to open their churclics for public worship. Innocent also obtained a promise
that every one whom he should excommunicate should be subjected in üke
manner to the ban of the emjiire, but such an engagement it was found im-
Ijossible always to fulfil.
§ 203. Puhlic Worship.
Walafrid Sirnlo, died S49, de exordiis ct incroni. rer. ecc fco, died 1115, Miorologus de ecc. ob-
servatt (Both fmind in Jlittorp. oee § IOC.) </. Brltth, about 11S2, div. offieior. brevls e.Tplic cd.
Corn. Laurimann. Anlu. 1553. (r. Duruuti, died 1206, Rationale div. offieior. 1. VIIL Mog. 1497. f.
aud often.
The Wessohrunnen prayer, a monument of the ancient language and i)iety
of Germany, contains an exalted poetical representation of tlie aiitemundano
existence of God, and an humble supplication for sjiiritual ble.-sings. {a)
But the sensuous disposition of the people was necessarily jiredominant.
In consequence of the sensuous tendency then so prevalent, public wor-
ship appeared to be little else than a worship of the saints. I'reaching was
hardly an essential part of the service on jjublic festivals although several
synods and popes endeavored to introduce into cliurches only those who were
able to instruct tlie people, and the i»opularity of those preachers who dis-
coursed in an atlecting style, jiroved tliat tlio multitude were susceptible of
t) Comp. Cone. Luterun. IV. a C2. (Man»it\\. XXII. p. loe«».".)
d) AoiUndi Etiiica c. 16. 85. (/Vni Anecd. Th. III. P. L p. 66&U.
«) Cone. Lnitnin. IV. c, 21. (Miinxi Tli. XXII. p. litOTs-s.)
o) According' In uie e.xtiacts by W;ickerneö>il '.Hrl. IVJT.) in liMbertj, vol. IL p. big.
224 MKDIAKVAL CIHTHCII HISTOIiY. PEi:. III. A. I). 800-1216.
bciiotit from tho Word f>f God. (/') Tlie use of the Roman Liturgy -wag re-
qnircd in nil tho chnrclics ns the vi.siblo bond of general unity. The Gothic
Liturgy, although it was protected by an affectionate people, and liad even
passed tho ordeal of fire, was gradually snppres.sed in Spain after the eleventh
century, (r) Tiie Sabbath Avas especially devoted to the service of the Vir-
irin ^lary, in whose honor a particular service Avas composed principally by
Dainian (Officium S. Virginis) to be performed in the convents. "When
Pimchasixs Jiadlert^ a monk and (844-851) an abbot at Corvey (d. abont
865), maintained that the virginity of Mary was unimpaired even by the
birth of the Son of God, the learned divines of his day shrunk from the
position as containing a Docctic sentiment. {(T) That every thing might be
removed which could throw the slightest suspicion upon the virgin purity of
the Queen of heaven, the doctrine was finally set forth according to which
slie also Avas conceived in a miraculous manner, and some canons of Lyons
(about 1140) solemnized this faith by instituting the festival of the Immacu-
late Conception. St. Bernard, however, and all learned theologians of that
period were opposed to this innovation, {e) In popular traditions many
pleasant things Avhich had been told of the goddess Freyja were transferred
to Mary. (/) A festival of All Souls (Nov. 2) for the deliverance of those
who were confined in purgatory was also established by the monks of Clugny
(1010), Avho obtained a hint from the popular tradition asserting that the
gate of purgatory was in one of the volcanoes of the Lipari islands, (fj) Some
time after the ninth century the practice extended from Rome to the provinces,
of'observing St. Gregory''s day, as a festival for schoolboys, derived from the
old Minervan festival. (A) Among the sacred usages of the Church the Sa
craments gradually became remarkably prominent, and the representation of
them as the signs and actual communications of divine grace, as Avell as their
number seven, so divided as to sanctify all the important relations of human
life, were especially defended and established by Peter Lomlard and
Gratian. (J) The haptism of infants could be postponed without giving of-
fence. (IS) That abuses might be avoided, those children who had not been
confirmed were (12th century) kept back from participation in the Lord's
Supper, and Avhen many other attempts had been made to render the Avasting
of the least particle of the divine blood impossible, the laity were entirely
debarred from participation in the sacred cup. The doctrine of the presence
of the entire Christ in the bread Avas defended, and the poAverful influence of
I) Cone. Mogunt. a. S4T. c. 2. {Jfanei Th. XIX. p. 903.) Cotio. Latera/i. IV. c lOs. (/&. Th.
XXII. p. 99Ss.) Jacohi a Vitriaco Hist occld. c 63S.
c) lioderico Tulet. de reb. Hisp. "VI, 26.
d) Bittramni K dc eo, quod Chr. es virgine natus est (_D'Ackery, Spicileg. Th. L p. 52.) Tr.
Walch, H. controv. S. IX. de partu Virginia. Goet 175S. 4.
e) Ant. Gravois, de ortu et progressu cultos ac festi immaculati conceptus Dei Genetricis. Luc
1762. 4.
/) Grimm, Deutsche Mythol. pp. 192, 417, 694. XX.
0) Jotmldi Vita S. Odilon. c. 14. {Mahillon, Acta SS. S. VI. P. I. p. 615.) Sigeh. Gemhl. ad a. 99%
h) A. Wtlei; Origo festi Gr. Illmst 1714. 4. Mirui, de Gr. iL et festo Gr. P. II. Ulmst 176S. 4.
Mücke, T. Urspr. d. Gr. Festes. Guben. 1793.
t) Pei. Lotnb. Sent IV. Dist 1^2.
k) Petri de Vineis, 1. IIL Ep. 21. Böttiger Ilelnr. d. LGwe. Aum. G3,
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. J 203. MAKEIAGE. § 204. MONASTIC LIFE. 225
the priesthood maintained this custom of witliholding the cup against all sub-
sequent opposition, (l) The solitary mass of the priest was at first decidedly
reprehended, (m) In the tenth century adultery continued to be regarded by
the popes as a sufficient gi-ound for divorce, but the ecclesiastical view of the
marriage rite was completely carried out when it was soon after declared ab-
solutely inviolable, and Innocent III. insisted upon the reunion of husband
and wife, even after a double adultery had been proved. Human frailty,
however, was supplied with abundant opportunities for sundering this bond
by means of the ])rohibition of all marriages between relatives, even of tha
seventh degree, since such a consanguinity wa3 very generally proved when
it was desirable. Innocent limited the degrees of relationship within which
marriage was invalid, to four, and in fact regarded even these limits as pro-
scribed only by human and natural laws, (n)
§ 204. Monastic Life.
The convents were regarded in the ninth century as the hereditary fiefs
of the secular lords, under whose control they were more perfectly wasted
and misgoverned, than by the irruptions of the Normans. («) But the ex-
alted contempt of the world displayed in the monastic life corresponded with
the spirit of the times. Some who from their youth had never become
attached to the enjoyments of the world, felt the need of such a pious seclu-
sion and fellow.ship. Others felt the same necessity after the agitation of a
sudden conversion, or that they might make an atonement in this way for the
sins of an irregular life. Simultaneously, therefore, with the newly awakened
energies of the people, and the general movement of multitudes in favor of
corporations, a series of successful efibrts Avero put forth to attain the proper
objects of the convent by a renewal and completion of the Benedictine rule.
The abbots, sustained by papal privileges and royal fiefs, Avere favorable to
the party of the bishops and princes. The popular element of the Church,
however, was especially maintained in the convents, and it was through these
that Gregory was enabled to obtain his victory. Monasticism, though fre-
quently arrayed in opposition to particular individuals among the clergy, was
closely allied to the general body ; and on account of its exemption from epis-
copal supervision it was generally in the immediate service of the pope.
After the tenth century it was regarded as a peculiarly spiritual order (ordo
of the religiosi), which, however, made use of lay brethren (conversi), to
attend to their secular affairs. In this way the larger Benedictine convents
carried on within themselves all the mechanical arts, at any time needed in
them, especially those connected with masonry. The seclusion necessary for
the convent was sometimes obtained even in the cities, but the spot best
I) J. 6. de Lith, de adoratlono panls consecr. ct Intcrdictlono cnllcis. Snob. 1778. Spittler, Gesch.
des Kelchs Im Abendtn. Lemgo. ITaO.
m) Conc. MogMnt. a. SM. c. 4-3.
n) Leo VIT. Ep. ad Ebcrliard. (Aventinl Annal. Bojor. IV, 28.) Comp, G. W. Böhmer, ü. d. Elie-
pesetzc im Zeitalt. Carls, d. Or. u. seiner näch.st Nachfolger. GötL \S26.—Innoc. I/f. 1. I. Ep. 143,
IX. Ep. 75. XI. Ep. 101. Coiic. Laif ran. IV. c. 50-52.
a) Episcopor. Ep. ad Ludov. a. S58. c. 8. {Walter ^\i. IIL p. 80.) Conc Troslejan. a 909. c 8
iManii Th. XVIII. p. 270s.)
15
226 MKDIAKVAL CIIUUCII HISTOIIY. I'EU. III. A. IJ. S«0-1216.
adapted for iL wiis generally found in some beautiful wilderness. It then fre-
quently bccatno the central i)üint for all the business of the surrounding
rof,'ion. iSoniutinies convents were erected upon soil wliich bad been stained
with blood, or some sentimental legends were connected with their gloomy
walls. (A) The uniform of the cloister which was at first nearly the same
with the ordinary dress of the people, was gradually changed, until it became
the peculiar habit of the order. The enlargement or diminution of the ßro-
pcrty of convents was produced by the same causes as those which affected
Church property in general, but inheritance from the monks was the ordi-
nary, and the cultivation of the desert soil was the noblest method by which
wealth was acquired. In consequence of the rigidity of their rules and the
sanctity of their founders, many of these orders rapidly increased in numbers,
and became soon involved in the inconsistency of having devoted themselves
to poverty, and yet being in the enjoyment of immense wealtli. Monks and
nuns sometimes resided iinder the same roof (monasterium duplex.) The
secret sins or the public offences of individuals and of whole convents, are
only occasionally mentioned, and then only because they Avere brought before
the ecclesiastical courts. In the establishment of monasteries the Church
allowed the various dispositions of individuals to be gratified, and only pro-
vided by their legislation that these diversities should ail be confined within
the limits required by the general objects of the order. And when the
monastic life had assumed a great variety of individual forms, and appeared
to have taken every possible shape, Innocent III. prohibited the formation
of any new orders, (c)
§ 205. The Congregation of Clugny.
Bihliotheca Cluniacensis, in qua SS. Patrum Abbatum Vitae, miracula, scripta rec. Paris. 1C14. f.
rUe Ordo Clioi, was accurately described in the lltli cent, by Bernctrd who belonged to it. (Vetus
discipL monast. ed. Herrgott, Par. 1726. 4. p. 133.) The Antiquiores Conmett. Clun. 1. III. by Ul-
rich, one of the order 1070, has preserved a good representation of affairs at Hirsau. {D'Achery, Spi-
cil. vol I. p. ^\.)—Bernonis Vita. {Muhillon, Acta SS. S. V. p. 66.) Odonis Vita by his pupil Jo-
hannes, {lb. p. 150.) Odilonis Vita hy his pupil Jotsitldus, (lb. S. VI. p. 597.)— 5. Wilhelmi Constt.
Hiersaugiens. (Herrgott, p. 375.)
The rule of Benedict had been re-established by Berno, one of the family
of the Burgundian Counts, in two of the monasteries under his control.
Being invited by William^ Duke of Aquitania, to foi-m a convent after the
same model, he founded that of Clugny (Cluniacum, 910), and placed it
under the immediate supervision of the pope. His successor, Odo (927-41),
who had been a monk in his habits even before taking the monastic vow, was
well acquainted with the true method of governing the minds of men. A
rule of discipline was formed under him, which, by severe, uninterrupted,
mechanical employments of a religious nature, so completely destroyed all
individuality of feeling, that the ecclesiastical and monastic spirit became
exclusively active in the hearts of the members. Under Odilo (994r-10-18),
who has been called the Archangel of the monks, and during the administra-
V) E. g. the priory of the deux amoureiir at Rouen, see Ilelyot, vol. II. p. 471.
<•) Cone. Lateran IV. c. 13. (.Vnn-sri Th. XXIL p. 1002s.)
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFK. § 205. CLUGNT. § 206. GEAMMONT. 227
tion of a series of abbots, whose inflexible good sense never allowed them to
act inconsistently with their monastic sanctity, most of the convents in
France, carried away with the universal admiration, or compelled by their
princes or protectors, became subject to the rule and government of the con-
gregation of Clugny. This gave rise to a Congregation of Benedictines,
which in the middle of the twelfth century embraced about 2000 convents,
principally in France. At the head of these was placed the Abbot of Clugny,
always chosen by the monks of his own convent, from whose ranks also he
almost invariably selected the priors of all the convents belonging to the
congregation. The legislative and supervisory powers were vested in a
General Chapter which assembled annually at Clugny. The very heart of
the French nation was in the hands of the monks of Clugny, until about the
commencement of the 12th century, when the order withdrew from public
affairs and lived upon its own resources. An instance of a reformation in the
midst of extreme disorder was exhibited in Germany, when the congregation
of Hirsau was established there (1089) by the Abbot William after the model
of that of Clugny.
§ 206. Minor Orders of the Uth Century.
1. In the wilderness of the Apennine mountains were established two or-
ders of monks, originally composed of hermits, but gradually connected with
convents. The first of these was called the Order of Camaldoli^ and was
founded (about 1018) by the pious zeal of Romuald.^ one of the fomily of tho
Duke of Ravenna. The second was called the Order of Vallombrosa, and
originated (about 1038) in the rigid austerity of John, Guallert, a Florentine.
The members of these orders vowed that the}'^ would abstain even from or-
dinai'y intellectual enjoyments, and from all conversation with their fellow-
men. At a later period, however, they endeavored to reconcile this con-
tempt of the world, and self-mortitication, with the enjoyment of the vast
possessions acquired by the orders, (a) 2. Stephen of Tigerno was unwilling to
be regarded either as a monk or a hermit, and acknowledged no rule but that
of the gospel. With tho sanction of Gregory (1073) he founded an order
.subsequently called by the name of Grnmmont. Tliis determined to rolin-
quisli its own beloved convent rather than to defend a just claim by a legal
process, and even sincerely declined the honor of the miracles imputed to its
illustrious founder, because it tlioiight such a reputation would be prejudicial
to humility. After a rapid growtii. however, it was powerfully agitated by
disputes between its monks and th(>>e lay brethren, who, according to tho
Rule, had tlie charge of its secular atfairs. The re.-;ult was that in the 12th
century it entirely lost its independence, (i) 3. Bruno of Cologne., the rector
of the cathedral school and a Chancellor at Rheims, disgusted with the dis-
n) liomualdi Vita, scr. Daminni. (mihUl. Acta SS. S. VI. P. I. p. 247.) Rule In ffulsten. Th.
II. p. 192. Archang. r/<istivi!!, Roiminlillrm s. Camnliliilcnsls O. Hist Par. 1C81. Vl.—Gualhertt
Vita (MahUL Acta SS. S. VI. V. II. p. 273.) liiillarlnin Vulliiiiil)r.>«aDiim, s. bullae Pontiflcuni, qui
euudeni Ord. privilegiis dccorarunt, a Ful(/entio Xanlin Flor. 1729.
h) Vita Ä Stephani by Ger/iard, the 7tli prior of riraminont. (}f'trUnf, atnplisji Col. Th. VI. i^
1050. JfabiUon, Ann. Ord. S. Ben. Th. V. p. 65.) Hist. proli.\ior Prior, üraiidlmont. {Jfitrtene. iU
V. 125.)
228 MEDiAKVAL ciiUKcii iiiöToiir. pnii. III. A. 1). m-ma.
grarefnl life of liis iircliMshoi), renounced the world. Tlicro is a raelanclioly
tide wliich nssipiiH anotlier cause fur tliis act, but it was not known until tbo
close of the tliirteentli century, (c) lie erected huts for himself and a few
companions (104S) in the wild mountain gorge of Chartreuse near Grenoble.
He was induced by his former pupil, Urlan 11.^ to visit Rome (1090), but he
soon became weary of a secular life in that city, and after refusing the bish-
opric of Reggio, ho founded a new Carthusian monastery in Calabria, in
wliicli he ended his days (1101). The order was not organized into a society
until 1141 in the mother convent. For a long time the Carthusians perse-
vered in the practice of an abstinence so strict that they rejected all gifts
except necessary food and skins for parchments. The wealth they received
at a later period was expended in the embellishment of churches, id)
4. "WTien France "was visited by a disorder called St. Anthony's fire, the order
of the Ilospitallers of St. Anthony was founded for the relief of the sick by
Gaston^ a wealthy nobleman of Dauphine, from gratitude for the recovery
of his son (1095). At first it consisted entirely of lay brethren, but after-
wards it was composed of canons under the Rule of Augustine, (f) 5. Robert
of Arh'issel, at an early period a divine, then a superintendent of a diocese, and
subsequently a preacher of repentance and of the crusades, was the founder
of the Benedictine Congregation of Fontevraud, for penitents, especially of
the female sex who had once fallen from virtue. For this class of persons
he seems to have felt a pecidiar interest, and therefore fell under the re-
proaches of his contemporaries. In compliment to the Queen of Heaven the
supreme direction of the society was intrusted to female hands. (/)
§ 207. The Cistercians and St. Bernard.
1) Bfelfttio qualitcr inccpit Ordo Cisterciensis. (Auherti Miraei Chron. Cist Ord. Colon. 1G41. p.
Sss.) Ifenriquez, Eegula, Constitt et Privil. Ord. Cist, Ant. 1G.30. t.—Munrique, Ann. Cist Lugd.
lt>42. 4 Th. f. Pierre le Xain, Hist de TOrdre de Clteaux. Par. 1696ss. 9 Tb. 2) Bernardi 0pp.
(Letters, Discourses, Poems, ascetic writings.) ed. Mahillon, Par. 1G67. 1690. 6 Th. f. 1719. 2 Th. £
Yen. 1726. 2 Th. £ Par. 1S89. 2 Th. Med. 1851s. 3 vols. 4. H\s life by contemporaries: GuUelmm,
Abbot of S. Thierry, Gaufredun and Alatius de Instdis, Monks of Clairvaux. {MnbiUon Th. I. and
\\.)—Xeander, d. h. Bernh. u. s. Zoitalt Bcrl. (1S1.3.) 1348. [Tr. into Engl, by WrencJt, Lond! 1S45.
12mo.] J. Ellendorf, Bernh. u. d. Hier. 1833. 2 vols. liaihlonne, nist d. S. Bern. Par. 1S43. 2 Th.
Robert, who had been dedicated to the Virgin by his mother before his
birth, became dissatisfied while yet an abbot with the comfortable life of the
wealthy monks, and founded a convent at Citeaux, under regulations requir-
ing the most extreme poverty (1098). In the order which sprung from this,
the most rigid abstemiousness was demanded, all splendor in churches was
condemned, and its members promised absolutely to submit to the bishop of
the diocese, as well as to abstain from all the ordinary employments of life,
not excepting even the charge of souls. The internal alfairs of the society
were directed only by the law of love ; (a) the position of the Abbot of
c) Launoii de vera causa secessus S. Brnnonis In eremnm. Par. 1646. (0pp. Th. II. P. II. p. S-24.)
d) Mdhill. Ann. Th. V. p. 202ss. and Acta SS. S. VI. P. II. Prae£ p. STsi Legends respecting th«
lie* of Bruno may bo seen in Acta SS. Oct Th. III. p. 491ss.
e) Acta SS. Jan. Th. II. p 160.— A'r;)/), de fratrib. S. Ant Lps. 1737. 4.
/) Mahillon, Ann. Th. V. p. 81 «ss. Acta SS. Febr. Th. IIL p. 593s8.
a) Cliarta Charitatis. (^itanriqueTXx. I. p. 109ss.)
CHAP. ILL ECCLES. LIFE. § 207. CIST£ECIA>'S. BECNARD. 229
Citeaux and the government by annual General Chapterg, were all modelled
after the Constitution of Clugny, although the abbots of the four oldest
affiliated convents gradually attained equality with the Abbot of Citeaux
(1119). The black dr.o.ss of the Benedictines wa^ exchanged for a white
cowl. By the extreme veneration which the Cistercians acquired among
their contemporaries, who regarded them as perfect representatives of apos-
tolic simplicity, and by tlie splendor of St. Bernard's name, this new order
was able to vie successfully with the congregation of Clugny. The latter
was indeed considerably shaken by the excesses of its abbot, Fontim
(1109-25), who carried the staff of the shepherd and of tlie pilgrim in the
same hand which bore the sword of the highway robber. It was, however,
enabled to close this controversy honorably to itself under tlie direction of
Peter the Vencrulle (1122-50). {h) Uernard was born at Fontaine, of a fami-
ly distinguished for monastic piety. Even during the struggles of his early
youth he showed that he was by natural temperament inclined to a monastic
life. Accordingly in the year 1113 he became a monk at Citeaux, and in
1115 the Abbot of Clairvaux, a convent founded by persons belonging to
that community. By his entire disengagement from the world, he seemed
utterly independent of the rules, and was actually superior to all those
laws by which men are usually governed. lie wa.s certainly highly endowed
by nature, and in popular estimation as well as in his own opinion he pos-
sessed the power of working miracles. Educated beneath the foliage of a
mighty forest, his thoughts were continuall}' directed toward heaven. In
spite of the general insipidity of the age, he was distinguished by an elo-
quence which was irresistible even by tho.^e who could not fully comprehend
his discourse. He was rather jealous of human learning, and so zealous in
behalf of the Church that he engaged in a sanguinary persecution. He was
enthusiastic in his efforts to promote the power of the priesthood, and yet
candid and severe Avith respect to their irregularities. In almost every part
of Europe he beheld those whose minds he had formed by his instructions
seated upon episcopal thrones, he himself acted as an umpire in nearly all
the quarrels which took place between ditferent princes and nations, and by
the diffusion of his highly theocratic spirit among the priesthood, he became
the most influential man of his age. By his influence his order became so
powerful, that soon after his death (1153) it endeavored to excel its rivals of
Clugny, not so much in humility and contempt of the world as in indepen-
dence and wealth.
§ 208. jPraemonst rants and Cai'melites.
ITennannl Monochi do niirne. s. Moriao Iniidcs III. 2m. {Guiherii, 0pp. cd. d'Acherij, p. 544.)
Acta S?. June. Th. I. \\. ^04^?. Chrij». ran iler ifterre. Vita i?. Norb. Aiitu. ICöö. I/tigo, Vie de S.
Norb. Lmoiiib. 1704 4. Eibl. Onl. Praonionst. per Jo. le Puigt, Par. l&VJ. f.
Joan. DiocdK, cornpcndlaria dcscriptio, etc. {Leon. AWitii Symnilcta. Von. 17.3-3. f. p. 17.) Jo-
toll de Vitriaco Illst. Ilieroo. c. 52. (ISongars Tb. I. p. 1075.) Kiilc In UoMen. Th. III. p. ISsa,
Daniel a Virg. Maria, Ppecuhiin Carrnclitnnum. Antu. lOSo. 4 Th. f.
Xorhert Avas originally a canon at Cologne, and as the chaplain to Henry
I) Bentardi, Apol. ad Guif. (.Ifahillon Th. IV. p. 88.) Petri Ven. »d Bern. I. Ep. 29. IV. Ep.
17. Vr. Ep. 4. (r.ibl. PP. >[:ix. Th. XXII.) Pi.ilogns Inter Clunlac nion. et Ci.-t de divcrsis utriusqu«
Ord. obstrvv. (Jfarteite, Thcs. Th. V. p. 1500.)
230 MKDr.VKVAL UHURCII HISTORY. TKi:. III. A. D. SOO-121«.
V. lived 111 tlic oiijoyiiicnt of wealth, with the hn{,'hto.st prospects of prrmo
tion in (ho priosthootl. By an event Avhich -wa.^ supposed to hear a .strong
reseinblaiiccto the ronver.'^ion of Pjiu], ho wa.s induced to throw all these aside,
and enter upon the huinhlo cni[iloyTnent of a preacher of repentance. After
some ineffectual attempts to reform other canons, he founded an order of mo-
nastic canons in the unhealthy vale of Premontre (1120). When he appeared
])reaching repentance at the Diet of Speyer, he was elected as if by a divine
inspiration to the vacant archbishopric of Magdeburg, and entered that city
in the garb of a beggar. A powerful storm of opposition was raised against
him on account of his strenuous efforts to induce his wealthy retinue there
to practise the same abstemiousness which ho shoAved. The peoi)le, how-
ever, before whose fury he was once obliged to save his life by flight, main-
tained possession of his body as though it were the sacred palladium of their
city, in opposition to the demands of the monks of Premontri-. Before his
death (1134) Norbert witnessed the rapid increase of his order in the estab-
lishment of numerous chapters and convents for monks and nuns. — BeriJioM,
a crusader from Calabria, who with a few companions had resided for a time
in a cave of Mount Carmel, was the founder of the order of the Carmelites,
though his claims to that honor have been denied by his followers. On ac-
count of the hallowed recollections connected with the mountain where they
resided, and the similarity of the habits of their order with those of Elias,
they have always maintained that it was founded by that ancient prophet,
and continued until modern times by a series of successive prophets, (a)
"When, by the conquests of the Saracens, the Carmelites lost possession of
their original seat, they allege that the holy Virgin gave her scapular to
Simon Stocl-, the general of the order, that it might become thenceforth the
habit of all its members, with the assurance that Avhoever should die in this
dress would never suffer in everlasting fire, (h) New possessions were ac-
quired by these Brethren of our Lady of Mount Carmel in every country of
Europe.
§ 209. The Trinitarians.
Bonaventura Büro, Annales Ord. S. Trin. Kom. 1CS4. Rule in Höhten. Th. III. p. 3s&
The vague and visionary efforts of two hermits, Jo?in de JIatha, pre-
viously a Parisian divine, and Feli.v de Vahis, appear to have been finally
directed to a definite object by Innocent III., and an Order of the Holy
Trinity was established for the redemption of Christian slaves (1198). The
first-fruits of its efforts were exhibited in the yeq^ 1200, when a multitude
of Christians purchased from slavery in Morocco returned to their homes.
The order of the 'Trinitarians (de redemptione captivorum, Mathurins, frires
aux lines) spread itself rapidly in all parts of Southern Europe. Female
convents were also instituted, and through many vicissitudes the primary
object of the order has not been altogether abandoned even to a very recent
a) Papehroch (Acta SS. April. Th. I. p. 774ss. and in some controversial writings) has given tb«
Vrne history In opposition to the jroli.x volumes of the Carmelites. [J/o«Aeim Hist Cent XII. Part
II. § 21. McLaln's transl.]
V) Launoii Dss. dc Sim. Stochii \1so. Par. 1655. (Opp. Th. XL P. II.)
CHAP. III. KCCLEä. LIFE. § 210. lU'MILIATES. § 211. RELIG. KXIOIITS. 231
period. The residence of its General (minister generalis), and the place
where its general chapter, composed of all the superiors of its convents, con-
vened, was at Cerfroy, wlicre the two orifrinal hermits were once visited by
a white deer with the mark of a cross between its horns.
§ 210. The Ilumiliateg.
Tirahoschi, Vetera Iluniiliiitorum monnmenta. Mciliol. ITßCss. 3Th. 4.
Many felt that the reli;.,'iou3 should be brou;,'ht into more intimate connec-
tions with the secular life than the general Church at that time was able to
afford. The community of the Humiliates was therefore instituted in the
eleventh century, composed, at first, of an association of pious Milanese who
had been exiled from their native city. Gradually it became extended over
all parts of Lombardy, and embraced principally mechanics, especially weav-
ers of woollen fabrics, connected together by the bond of a commou employ-
ment, and a love of pious exercises. All their property was held in common.
At a later period even monks and priests united with them, and took part in
the labors, the business, and the trade of the Society. Their community Avas
tolerated by the hierarchy on the ground of its being a point of connection
between the convent and the world. Innocent III. endeavored to give it a
definite position by imposing upon it the rule of Benedict, and it was sup-
plied with a grand master in 1246. Finally it became secularized, and was
abolished by Pius V. (1571).
§ 211. Establishment of the Orders of Knighthood.
I. Wil. Tijr. I, 10. XVIir, 4ss. Jac. de Vilriaco c. C4. Ptol. reUroniun, Statuta Ord hosp. ?.
Jo. Rom. 15Sa f. Hallten. Th. II. p. -MJss.— 11. ( Vei-tot.') Hist, des Chevaliers liospitalicrs de 9. Jean.
Par. 1726. 4 Th. 4. IVGl. 7 Th. {Xiethamtner) Gesch. d. Maltheserord. nach Vcrtot, Jen. 1792. 2 vols.
PitoU, dell'ori'.'ine ed instituto del ord. di S. Giovanni. Bom. 17S1. 4 FalkenHein, Gesch. d. Joh.
Ord. Dre«d. 1S33. 2 vols.
I. Wil. Tijr. xn, 7. Jac. de Vitr. c. C5. JSernardi Tract de nova militia s. adhort.itio ad milites
tempH. (0pp. Th. IV. p. 9S.) IloUUn. Tli. II. p. 429s.s. Munter, Statntcnbiich. Brl. 1794. 1 vol.—
IT. P. du Pu>j, Hist d« Teinpliers. Par. 1050. Brux. 1751. 4 Ucbers. Frankf. 1605. 4. D'Extivnl.
Hist crit et apol. des Chev. du Temple. Par. 17S9. 2 Th. 4. An Epitome: Die Ritter des Temp, zu
Jems. Lpz. 1790. 2 vols. Wdcke, Oesch. d. Temp. Ord. Lpz. 1820s. 2 vols. Falkenst^in, Oescli. d.
Temp. Ord. Dresd. 1S33. 2 vols. [O. O. Addison, Hist of the Knights Templars, Ac. L.md. 1S4;1 2
ed 8. 8 ed. ISM. 8.]
I. Statuten des dent Ord. edited by K ITennig, Kiiniarsb. 1S06. Petri de Dmhurg (about 1320),
Chronic. Prussiac s. Tlist. Ord. Teut ed. ITtirtknor/i. .len. 1079. 4. Codex diplomatlciis Ord. Tent.
Urkundenbucli z. Gesch. d. deut 0. cd. by .1 G. Ifenne. Mentz. 1S4,\— II. Dnellii, Hist. Onl. Eqult.
Teut Vind. 1T27. f. Juh. Voigt, Gesch. Preuss. b. z. Untergänge d. Herrsch, d. deutsch. Ordens.
Künigsb. 1627SS. 4 vols.
The various orders of knighthood which sjjning up during the tcntli cen-
tury, were the legitimate result of the feudal system and the military occupa-
tions of the youth. "When regarded as an aff'air of pa.st times, this sy.«tem is
extolled as the iiloal toward wliicli noble minds were induced to a.-'pire, but
in its bitter reality it was the a.scendency of a groat corporation, whoso
power was restrained by Cliristian customs, and embellished by the princi-
ples of love and honor. Duels and tournaments were always zealously
opposed by popes and synods, but the system of knighthood itself was sanc-
tioned by tlie Church because it enlisted men in the service of God, and for
2S'Z Mi;i)i\i;\ .\r, ciirncii iii.sroitv. veil hi. \. v. i.;<)-i2io.
the (iefoncc «»f all wlio were opprcswd. The two most powerfii. tendenciei
of tho ftge were united during the lioly wars in forming a spiritual kniglit-
hood which combined the three monastic vows with the solemn promise
never to desist from a conflict with unbelievers. 1. Some citizens of Amalfi,
while trading with Palestine, had (1048) founded a hospital for the reception
of pilgrims to Jcrnp;dcm. The fraternity which had tlie management of this
hospital, after tho conquest of Jerusalem by the Christians, took the monas-
tic vow under the name of the Brethren of the Hospital, dedicated to St.
John the Baptist, in Jerusalem. Enymond du Puy, the second principal of
the order, to their former duty of hospitality and attendance upon the sick,
added that of knighthood in opposition to infidels (about 1118), and this soon
became the principal object of the order. 2. Nine knights, with Jlurio dc
Payens as their ma-ster (inagister militiae), took from the hand of the Patri-
arch of Jerusalem the knightly monastic vow (1118), and from their location
in the royal palace, by the side of the former Temple of Jerusalem, they
assumed the name of Temiüars (pauperes commilitones Christi templique
Salomonis). 3. During the siege of Aine (1190), some citizens of Bremen
and, Lübeck founded a hospital which was favored by the German princes,
and under Henry of Walpot became the Order of the German Knights of the
Virgin Mary. Each of these orders embraced three estates, viz., Knights,
Priests, and Serving Brethren. In this latter class were included not only
all who were engaged in manual labor, but squires. The whole was arranged
in accordance with an aristocratic constitution, under the government of a
Grand Master, Commanders, and Chapters of Knights. They formed the
standing army of the Church in the East, but as a general society of noble-
men they acquired vast possessions in every part of Europe. The Templars
especially soon became independent by their o"mi power, and the privileges
granted to them by the pope. So highly was their spirit of devotion to tho
order cultivated, that they became a military society of noblemen, combining
their hereditary powers with the privileges of the clergy. It was not long,
therefore, before they found themselves in a hostile position to both bishops
and kings. Wherever the Churcb in any way stood in need of worldly
weapons, especially in Spain while contending with the Moors, and in Germa-
ny in connection with the Cistercians, similar orders of knights were estab
lished of a purely national character.
CHAP. IT.— STATE OF SCIENCE IN THE CnURCII.
§ 212. Scientific Education of the Xinth Century.
Lnunotl D?. de scholis celebr. a Car. M. et post eiindem instauratis. Par. 1672. TIatnb. 171". Hist
littiJraire de la France par des rel. Benedictins. Par. 173-3s& Th. IV. V. Cramer, Bossnet Th. V. vol.
IL Il^fiU. \(m. zust im sftdwest Deutschl. 9. 10. und 11. Jahrhh. (Tub. Quartalschr. 1S-3S. P. 2.)
Bahr, Gescb. d. riiin. Lit im Carol Zeita. Carlsr. 1S40.
The diffusion of education :ommenced by Charles the Great was con-
tinued under the Carolingians by the schools established in the cathedrals
and convents. The most efficient agent in it, so far as related to Germany,
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. § 212. R. MAUPXS. CLAUDIUS. EUIGENA. 233
was Rabaniis Manrus, the pupil of Alcuin, and the friend of the Emperor
Louis when that monarch was in distress. lie had travelled in Palestine, and
in 822 was called to preside over the convent of Fulda. Compelled to fly
from that place in 842, he soon after (847) became Archbishop of Mentz, and
died in 856. With great humility he devoted himself to the lowly task of
collecting the various e.xplanations of the Scriptures found in the writings
of the fathers, and gave a minute description of the universe, (x) The hibors
of scientific men were i)rincipally directed to the consideration of the exter-
nal forms of the Church. In this kind of literature, as well as in his course
of life, Agolard, Archbishop of Lyons (died 8-il), may be regarded as tlie
representative of the moderate opposition raised in the French Church
against praying to images, and all kinds of superstition, (h) Claudius,
BLshop of Turin (d. about 840), a great admirer of Augustine, presents us
with a specimen of the stormy battle then waged against the worship of
images, popes, and saints. ('•) Jlincmar, Archbishop of Rheims (died 882),
shows the position of an ecclesiastical statesman standing between kings,
popes, and bishops, sometimes in tlie character of a friend, and sometimes in
that of an opponent, frequently with great earnestness, but always with dex-
terity and dignity in times of extreme peril, defending the riglits of the
national Church and of his archbishopric. ('?) JIa)/mo, Bishop of Ilalber-
stadt (died 853), brouglit to the recollection of his contemporaries the views
of the primitive Church by means of a much-used epitome of tlie Latin
translation of Eusebius. {e) Jonas, the successor of Theodolf in the bishopric
of Orleans, in opposition to Claudius defended the customs of the Church of
that period, so far, at least, as they proceeded from a pious disposition. The
advice he gave to laymen Avas superior to the prejudices of the Church, and
frequently attained the enlarged ])liilanthropy required by the gosple. (/)
John Scotits (or) Erigena (d. about 880), who resided at tlie court of Charles
the Bald, though he was originally educated in the British school, under the
influence of the writings of Origen and the Areopagite, stood so isolated
from his contemporaries, and so far su[)erior to his times, that his doctrines
were not sufficiently understood to be condemned by the Church until the
thirteenth century, (y) To his profound conceptions of the divine immen-
fl) 0pp. ed. Colneneriiis, Col. 1C2T. C Tli. f. ^Hgne. (Patroloj. Par. 1S52. vol». CVIL-XIM—
F. 11. C. Schwarz, de Plmb. M. primo Gc-rm. praocopt.ire. Ileidclb. 1811. 4. Tub. Quartalsclir. 1S.3S.
P. :3s. F. Kitnittmann, IIral)!in. Moiitz. 1S41.
I) 0pp. cd. BitUiz. Par. 1GG6. 2 TIi. {Gull'tixf. Th. XIII. p. 405.) /fundfslutffen, do Agob. vita
ft script!^. Gloss. 1832. P. I.
c) Frasin.nts in Flacii Catal. test, vorlt. p. 936. Ilibl. PP. Max. Th. XIV. p. 197. Mahillon.
tett Anal. p. 90. nurlfllacli, Claud. Inedltopp. spcclmlntu Ilafn. 1S24. C. SchmUl, Claud. (Zcltscbr.
hist. Tb. 1843. 11. 2.)
J) 0pp. cd. Sirmonil, Par. lf.4.1. 2 Tb. f. F!«<fnarJ, Hlsf. eco. Pern. Ill, IS- 29. Illst lit de la
France. Tli. V. p. .%44-s. Oi-ss, MiTkwünlU'k. a. Leben u. Setirr. Hincm. Oött. ]8(iC.
e) Do clirisL ronini inoiiiorla s. Hist. ece. brcvlarlnni, e<l. ßn.rhorn. Lnsd. 1630. Jfiidfr
nelnist 1671.
/) Decultu imadniim 1. III. a. 840. (Ribl. PP. Lnsd. Tb. XIV. p. 167. Pe Institut, laicall I. Ill
a. 82S. (D'Acliert/, ?piill. ed. 2. Tb. I. p. 258.) De Institut resla. (/&. p. 324.)
g) De divi>ione naturae 1. V. ed. GnU, Oxoo. 1681. t. S<filütfr, Monast. 18r?8.— /•. //)ort, ,T. Scot
c. V. Urspr. c. cbr. Pliil. Kopcnb. 182.3. FronnuifUr, Lebre des J. Sc v. Bösen. (Tub. Zeit-sohr.
1S30. P. 1. 8.) Stuudemnaier, J. Sc, u. d. Wissonsch. sr. Zeit Frkf. 1S34. vol. I. Ifoik, ,T. Sc. (Ronn
234 MKIHAKVAL CIirKCII mSTOUV. riCR. III. A. I). SOO-1216.
nily, tlio world was one vast TliODjihany in different forms of development,
tlio Incarnation was simply the reconciliation of the finite with the infinite,
the sacred Scriptures were the necessary terms in whicli tlie truth must he
cxprcssen, m adai)tation to human infirmity, and relijL^ion and pliilosophy
■were the twofold form in wliich the same essential sjjirit was manifested. A
Gorman poetic composition, (/<) in which the evangelical history was repre-
sented with all the peculiarities of the Germanic popular life, was a dawn
without a day, since all literature continued to be written in Latin, and sci-
ence, even wlien laymen took part in it, was wholly of an ecclesiastical char-
acter (clergic). During the stormy period which followed tlie subversion of
the house of Charles the Great, the more eminent lights of literary culture
were either wholly extinguished, or were concealed behind the walls of con-
vents, where their beams were only occasionally visible. That portion of
Anglo-Saxon Christian literature which Alfred the Great (871-901) saved by
his sword, and animated with the antique traditions of ecclesiastical learning,
was apparently lost at his death. (/)
§ 213. First Eucharistie Controversy.
While attempting to present the mysterious import of the Liturgy, Pm-
cliasius Radiert advanced the doctrine that the substance of the consecrated
bread and wine in the Eucharist was changed into the very body of Christ
which was born of the virgin. This was declared to be an act of creation
by almighty power, though invisible to any but an eye of faith, {a) This
sentiment was opposed by the learned writers of that age, especially by
Jxabaiuis Mannis, by Eatramnus^ a monk of Corbie, who maintained the
indefinite view prevalent in the primitive Church, according to which there
was simply a commnnion of the earthly with the heavenly, and by Erigena.
to whom, the sacrament of the Lord's Supper could present nothing but a
sign of an omnipresent God. {]>) The doctrine of Paschasius must have been
Avell adapted to the popular understanding, from which, indeed, it may have
taken its rise, since even before this the consecrated bread had been changed
under the hands of Gregory the Great into a bleeding finger, (f)
Zeitschr. f. Phil. u. Th. 1S35. H. 16.) li. MMer, 3. Sc. Maiuz. IS-U. A. Torstrick, Pbil. Erigenae
ex ip.<ius principiis tlelincata, Gott. 1S44. P. I.
h) Comp. {Ifase's) Leben Jesu. p. 3S.
i) Asserii Hist do reb. Alfr. ed. Wise, Oxoa. 1723. F. L. v. Stolherg, Leb. Alfr. Münst 1S15.
[Rob. Poicell, Life of A. tlie Great. Lond. 1034. 12. Reinhold Pauli, King Alfred, &c. Transl. Lend.
1SÖ2. Lifo, of A, bj- Spelman, Lond. 1S40. F. Steinet^, The Mod. Mon. &c. in a Life of Alfred tlio
Gr., from the German of A. V. I/oUer, &c Lond. 1S49.] Wei^% Gesch. Alfr. Scliaffh. 1S52.
a) De corpore et sang. Domini s. de sacramentis, S-31. the later edition, S44. dedicated to Charles
the Bald, is in Marlene, Col. ampl. Tb. IX. p. 367. Ep. ad Frudegardum in Bibl. PP. Lugd. Th
XIV. p. 754SS.
h) liahani Ep. ad Ileribald. (ifahillon, vett Analeet. ed. 2. p. 17.) Jiatramni de corp. et sang.
Dom. L. ad Carol. Col. 582. ed. J. Boileau, Par. (16S6.) 1T12. 12. Often attributed to Erigena.— ia(tj(
0. d. verloren gelialtne Schrift des Joli. Sc. v. d. Euchar. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S2S. vol. I. H. 4.)
c) Pauli Diac. Vita Grog. M. c. 23. Joan. Diac. II, 41. Pasctu Pad. c 14.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. § 214 GOTTSCHALK. § 215. nßOSNVITlIA. 235
§ 214. Gottschalk. Cont. from § 212.
G. Maugitin, vett. auctorum qui a IX. de praed. scripserunt, opp. ct fragm. Par. IG&O. 2 Th. 4.
Mansi Th. XIV. XV. — J. Csseriu/>, Gottesclmlcl et praodestinatianae controv. HisL (DiiM. IfrJl. 4.)
ll.in. 166'.:. Against Gottschalk : L. Cellot, IIlsL Gotteso. praedestinatiani. Par. 1655. f. [Biblical Re-
pertory, vol. XII. No. II. p. 225SS. tTeander, Hist of Cbr. Eel. Transl. by Torrey, vol. 111. p. 472ss.]
The authority of Augustine had continued unimpaired till the middle
ages, though his peculiar doctrines were generally misunderstood, and almost
universally rejected. Gottsclialk was a monk, of a noMe Saxon family, who
even in his childhood had been devoted to a monastic lifo. At a synod which
met at Mentz (829), ho obtained a release from his mona.stic vow, but by the
influence of his abbot, Bahanus^ this decision was subsequently reversed.
His excited sph-it now sought tranquillity in the perusal of the writings of
Augustine, in a removal to the convent of Orbais, and in a pilgrimage to
Rome. In the most decided forms of expression he announced his doctrine
of a double predestination, founded upon the absolute foreknowledge of God,
according to which some were elected to life, and others were consigned to
destruction. Personal bitterness was combined with the aversion felt in the
Galilean Church towards Augustinism, and Gottschalk was condemned,
through the influence of Eabanus, at the second Synod of Mentz (848), and
delivered into the hands of his metropolitan, Ilincinar of Rheiins. {a) The
cause of Gottschalk, or rather of Augustine, was sustained by all the learning
of Ratramnus^ and the hierarchical authority of Bcmiffiun, Archbishop of
Lyons. On the other hand, Hincmar defended the Frankish doctrine that
man was indeed free and yet needed divine grace, and Erigena contended for
the perfect unity of the divine decrees, {h) The controversy remained unde-
cided, but Gottschalk, woi-n down by hierarchical violence, and absorbed in
private reveries by which his life was beguiled away, died excommunicated
but unsubdued in prison (868).
§ 215. Literary Interest during the Tenth Century^ under the Othos.
So strong were the recollections of classic antiquity awakened in the
court of the imperial house of Saxony by its connection with Constantinople,
that it began to indulge the dream of restoring the Roman empire to its
original form. The decisions pronounced by the various emi)erors with re-
gard to the popes, gave them an opportunity to .speak freely respecting the
abuses then practised in the Church. The Arabians had ever since tiie eighth
century monopolized the natural sciences as the appropriate product of their
own civilization, together with every thing in Greek literature which related
to them. The school they had established at Cordova (after 980) excited the
attention of the neighboring Christian countries. («) As an evidence of the
classic education which existed in the imperial court, Hroawitha (Helena v
a) De praedest. contra Gott'ch. Ejip. III. cd. Sirmonü, Par. IWT. (The Letters of Kabanus are
»Iso in Miiuijuin Th. I. P. I. p. Ss.«.) Two imprinted letters of Hub. respecting Gotisch. (Tub
Qiiartalsflir. 1^:30. II. 3.) Flodourd, II. ccc. P.em. Ill, 2S. Manxi Th. XIV. p. 919.
0) Rtitramni de pried. 1. II. {.}fiiU{fuiH Th. I. P. I. p. 27.) Jlemigii X^ de trib. epp. (/?'. TIi.
II. P. I. p. Gl.) Ifincnutr, do prae<l. Dei et lib. arb. (1st sect lost Oj.p. vol. I.) De tribus epp. I*
Opp. vol. I. Miitiff. Th. 11. P. II. p. 67.) Erigena, de praed. Dei. (Muuguiu Th. I. P. I. p. Ittl.)
a) Middledorpf, de institutis literariis in lllsp. quae Arabes auctores babuerunt OoetL ISIO. 'L
23G MEDIAKVAL CIIUKCII HISToIlV. VFAl. III. A. I). S0(i-121C.
Rossow, (lied abont f'b4j, a nnn of GanderHlieim, may be mentioned. She
recounted the exploits of Otho the Great in rbymc and in hexameter verse,
and expressed tlie great princi[)le3 of Christianity in the style of Terence. (J)
On the other hand, Notker Laheo^ superintendent of the school in the con-
vent of St. Gall (died 1022), availed himself of his knowledge of the ancient
languages to give translations from them into the High German. ('•) Jiatfierius,
Bisliop of Verona and Liege (d. 074), though sometimes a wanderer and even
a prisoner in consequence of the political commotions of Italy and his own
ardent temperament, in bitter and pointed language held up before his cleri-
cal brethren a picture of their own corruptions, and the duties required of
them by the ancient laws of the Church. ((7) The Arabic influence was
rejtresented by Gerhert. (e) In subsequent times he has been looked upon as
a magician, and perhaps the spirit of his age rendered it necessary that astro-
nomy sliould partake in some degree of the character of astrology. But the
importance which the school of Eheims attained under his management, and
the estimation in which he was held both in France and Germany, proves
that he was not as isolated and unappreciated in his own day as the Italian
accounts imply. It is, however, certain that the clergy in general were by
no means in advance of the age in which they lived, and it required no great
skill on the part of any one to subject a bishop who should exhibit his know
ledge of Latin in the sacred desk, to the most awkward imputations. (/)
§ 216. Academical Studies in the EleventJi and Twelfth Centuries.
No sooner was there sufficient order secured in the state and in the
Church to afford opportunity for a tranquil elevation and communion of
spirit among men, than the exuberance of life which had long been concealed
broke forth in the cultivation of science. An appropriate instrument for the
intellectual energy then awakened was found in the recently discovered Latin
translation of the dialectic writings of Aristotle, (a) There were still pre-
served some remnants of a Eoman empire and laws, and the condition of the
Lombard cities rendered the development of these a matter of considerable
importance. Accordingly, about the close of the eleventh century, the Ro-
man law was reduced by Irncrius to a new scientific form, and applied to
new relations as a European Christian law. (&) For the cultivation of these
Liws several universities were established. That of Bologna was at first
merely a school for the study of Law, while that of Paris was for the study
of Dialectics and Theology. In the former, the highest powers of the corpo-
ration (universitas) were vested in the pupils, but in the latter they were in
the hands of the Doctors. They owe their establishment not to the favor of
6) Carmina Ottonis I. Comediae sacrae VI. (0pp. ed. Schurefleiseh, Tit 1707. 4.)
c) Catalogue In Jl. v. Raumer, p. 3Sss.
d) De Conteintu canonum. Apologia eui ipsins. De discordia inter ipsum et clerieos. Medit.i-
tioncs cordis s. praeloq. (0pp. ed. Balleriui, Veron. \'6b.)—En{/eUuirdt, ü. Eatber. (KGeschichtl
Abbb. Erl. 1S32. N. 5.) Keatider, Leben d. Kather. (Deutsche Zeitsch. f chr. W. 1S51. N. 36.)
e) Comp. § ITS. note g. Kespecting Gerberfs works, see ITock, GerberU p. löGss.
/) Vita Meiincerci c. SI. {Leibn. Scrr. »-er. Brunsv. p. 555.) Comp. Saxo Gramm. - XI. o4
Wphan. p. 209.
a) Jourdain. Eeehcrcbcs critiq. svir rjgc et I'origine des traductions lat d'Aristote. Par. 1S19.
h) Sacignt/, Gesch. d. rüa. EecUts in Mit. Alt 3 i; 4 vols.
CHAP. IV. ECCLEÖ. SCIEXCE. § 216. UNIVERSITIES. § 217. BERENGAR. 237
popes or prince.s, but to the necessities of the times, as thousands of students
•were drawn together by the reputation of some distinguished teacher. Acts
of incorporation were not .sought for from the pope until a hitor period, when
the younger universities endeavored by such means to rival those wliich de-
pended upon their own reputation. Tlie advantages springing from these
seats of science, which controlled the opinions of the succeeding generation,
were so apparent that the popes were anxious by special favors to secure
their attachment to tlicmsclves, and render tliem institutions in which Chris-
tian studies generally (stndium generale) might be pursued. ('•) By the influence
of these universities science became generally dilfused, at least among the
higher classes, but in spite of the freedom of its development, it still con-
tinued subservient to partial corporate interests, enveloped in barbarous
Latin, and almost exclusively of an ecclesiastical character.
§ 217. 'The Second Eucharistie Controversy.
I. Manni Th. XIX. p. 757ss. Adelmani Ep. de verit Corp. et sang. Dom. ed. C. A. Schmidt,
Brunsv. 1770. Lan/ranci L. de euchar. sacr. c. Bcr. (1063-70.) Bas. 1528. and oAen. (Opp. cd.
D'Aehery, Par. 164S. f. p. 230.) Bereng. L. de s. coena c. Lanfr. before 1073. (The edit of the
W'olfenbiittel MS3. made known by Lesaing, and half finished by Släudlin and Uetmen in 6 P;;.
Qoctt. 1S20-29. 4.) Edd. A. F. and F. Th. Viscfter, Ber. 1834. Acta Cone, Rom. sub Greg. VII.
a Bereng. conscript.i. {Jfansi Th. XIX. p. 761.) JSernaldita Const, (an opponent of Beren^ar) do
Ber. damnatione multiplici. lOSS. (^Mutth. Rielerer, Raceolta Fcrrareso di opp. scientifai. Vcn. 178D.
Th. XXI.)
II. Mitlillon de niultiplic. Ber. damnatione. (Analcet Th. II.) Leasing, Ber. Turon. o. Ankünd.
c. wichtigen Werks dess. Brunschw. 1770.4. (Schriften, vol. VIII. p. 314ss. Stäiidlin, anniinti:i,iar
editio libri Ber. simul omnino de scriptis ejus. Goctt 1814. 4. Jbid. Bcr. Tt#. {Slüuill. u.
TzscMrn. Archiv. 1814. vol. IL St. 1.) [// Sudendorf, Ber. Tur. o. c. Samml. ihn betrett Briefe.
llamb. 1550.]
Dcrcnrjnr (after 1031), the superintendent of the cathedral school of
Tours, and (after 1040) archdeacon at Angers, maintained, in o])positi()n to
the new doctrine advanced by Paschasius, that there wa^ a change in the
sacramental elements only in a figurative sense. He contended that not tho
earthly elements themselves, but their influences were changed by their con-
nection with Christ in heaven, who was to be received not by tho mouth
but by the heart. These views he expressed in a letter to his learned friend
Lnnfra7ic, at that time Scholasticus (superintendent of a cathe<lral school)
in tho convent of Bee, but afterwards (1070) Archbi.shop of Canterbury.
The latter carrie<l out the doctrine of Paschasius, by saying that tho actual
body of Christ in heaven remained entirely unaffected by tho change in the
elements on earth. This letter of Berengar being denounced before tho cccle-
siastical authorities, (a) his doctrine was condemned at synods held at Jiotne
and VercelU (1050). Learned friends advocated his cause, but jiublic opinion
was against him. His doctrine admitted of a variety of interpretations, and
left the subject in the vague state in whicli it had been held in p.ist times;
while that of his opponents presented a ckarly defined idea, and threw great
c) Bulaei, Hist Univ. Paris. 1665-73. 6 Th. f. Cierier, IT. de lUniv. do Paris, Par. 1761. 7 Th.
12. Dubarle, II. de I'Univ. Par. 1S29. Th. l.—Suvigtuj, Gesch. d. röm. Keclits im MA. vol. Ill
p. 136S9.
a) Mansi Tli. XI.X. p. 768.
238 MKDIAl.VAI- CIll'KCM IIISTO):Y. I'l.n. III. A. J>. S00-121ß.
Iionoi- upon tlie forms of worsliip, ])y making the sacrifice of tl»c mass a glo-
rious Tin.'opliaiiy. //i/'/ihniiid was at tiiat time legate, and not only person-
ally tile frioii'l of I5ereiigar, but in sentiment tolerant toward his opinions.
But at the Synod of 7 ours (1054), this prelate was prudent enough to save
his reputation for orthodoxy by the simple scriptural confession that the
bread and wine in the Lord's Supper were the body and blood of Christ.
Berengar, however, was without sufficient influence at Rome (1059) to de-
fend liis oi)inions against the rude violence of his enemies, and finally he con-
sented to subscribe a confession in which a grossly carnal participation in the
flesh and blood of Christ was asserted. But no sooner were his feet beyond
the Alps than he recalled this confession, with bitter execrations against what
he called Satan's seat at Rome. The controversy was continued with equal
literary skill on both sides, in a learned correspondence between him and
Laufranc, the keenest dialectician of the age. The whole spirit of the times,
however, was arrayed against Berengar, because he contended for a spiritual
and against a sensuous conception of Christianity. At a Synod licld at Ji'o)i>e
(107S), Gregor^/ made one more effort to secure indulgence for the conscience
of his friend by presenting a formula of a general nature, but even he was
obliged to give way before the zealots who surrounded him, and (1079) to
demand a more decided declaration. Although even this was subsequently
recanted by Berengar, he was protected by the influence of Gregory, and
lived in retirement on the island of St. Come, where he died (1088)
amidst the blessings of the Church. Ilis memory was for a long time hon-
ored in Tpurs, but the doctrine that there was a change in the nature of the
sacramental elements, although the outward phenomena, in order to try the
faith of believers, remained the same, bad now obtained the victory. Traii-
mlstantiation by the hand of the priest was made an article of faith at the
great Council of Lateran. Qj)
§ 218. Scliolmtickm. First Permi.
L. Danaem, Prolegg. in Scntt Lomb. (0pp. theol. Gen. 15S3 f. p. 1093.) Trihlechotiux, de
doctorib. schol. (1G6Ö) ed. neumann, Jen. 1719. Cramer, Bossuet, vol. V.-VII. EbersUin, natürl.
Tlieol. der Schol. Lpz. 1S03. Hitter, ü. Begr. u. Verlauf, d. ehr. Phil. (Stud. u. Krit lS-3.3. H.' 2. p.
286s?.) Histories of Philosophy, especiallj bf Degerando, Hegel, Ititter, [G. H. Lewes, Dagald
Stewart, V. Cousin, and C. S. Henry.]
In the Berengarian controversy Scholasticism had commenced its develop-
ment. This was a kiiid of knighthood in Theology, a natural result of the
free power of thought in connection with the absolute ascendency of the
doctrines of the Church. Academical studies were pursued without restraint,
Aristotle's Logic was universally admired, and the whole movement of the
age was vigorous, though partially turned aside from what experience shows
to be the sober reality of life. All these circumstances had given occasion
for its existence, and its whole power was now to be exerted in proving that
the doctrines which had been previously adopted by the Church were abso-
hitely true in the view of an intelligent mind, and in defending their neces-
sity. After a brief struggle it was completely triumphant over the Theology
6) Cone. Later. IV. c. 1. (.Jfanst Th. XXII. p. 931.) [Landon, p. 2988s.]
CHAP. IV. ECCLE3. SCIENCE. § 21S. ANSELM. V. LOMBARD. 239
which had no other hasis than that of authority, and during its first period it
"was whollj' employed in giving subtlety to the thoughts of the common mind by
Aristotelian formulas. In the very commencement of its course we find Aiisehn
of Aosta, the pupil of Lanfranc, and the successor ofthat prelate, not only in the
monastic school, but also (after 1093) in the archiepiscopal office (died 1109).
Though always humble, he exhibited extraordinary powers of mind not only
as a theologian, but as a dignitary of the Church. The knowledge he sought
was that with Avhich faith supplied him, though he endeavored to complete
the ecclesiastical system of truth on the basis of Augustine's Tlieology, by
his doctrine of Satisfaction for sin, and to found a rational system by his
proof of the divine existence. According to him, a recognition of the divine
existence is necessarily involved in a complete self-consciousness, and immor-
tality and salvation were the direct result of the love of God. This religion,
•which had been wholly lost by sin, could be restored in no other Avay than
by the expiatory death of the incarnate God. («) At the close of this period
appeared Peter Lombard^ an academical teacher, and (after 1159) Bishop of
Paris (d. 11G4). In his SentenccK^ the whole doctrine of the Church is de-
rived from the writings of the thtliers, but it is compiled and arranged in
such a way as to constitute a scientific whole. This work became the man-
ual in universal use during the century in which it was published, and gave
its character to that which followed. This distinction was due not so much
to its acuteness or its profundity, as to the ecclesiastical position of its author,
its happy adjustment of opposite view.«, and its plainness to the popular
mind, {h) In the speculative views whicli constituted the basis of its s^-stem
of truth, Avas apparent a principle wliicli had been much discussed in the old
Greek philosophy under the name of Nominalism and Realism. The former'
regarded all general ideas (universalia) as nothing but abstractions of the
human understanding, and derived from the objects presented to its observa-
tion (post rem) ; while the latter viewed them as having their origin entirely
in the mind itself (ante rem), or according to a turn of expression at one
time prevalent, and introduced for the sake of com))romi.se, as that which is
essential in every thing actual (in re), (r) Tiiese opi)Osite views had a theo-
Iogic;d significance in the controversy which sprung up between Anselm and
RosceUmi»^ a canon of Compeigne. The latter was a nominalist, and was
consequently accused of Tritheism at the Synod of Soissons (1092), where he
was compelled to retract his assertions on this subject. ('/) Nominalism, after
this, wore a suspicious aspect in the view of the Church generally.
a) Monnlofflimi, Proslopliini, Ciir Dens liomo? (Erl. 18-14.) Dc conccptii vlrsln.'ili ct orfg. pc c-
cato. Opp. (eii. Ot-rbgroti, I'ar. 1075.) odd. Jieii^dicll. Pur. 1721 Th. f— Act« SS. Apr. Th. II. p.
SCCss. (.Vö/iler) Ansflmus. (Tub. Quartalstlir. lS-.'7. H. 4. II.) BiUroVi, do Aus. I'roslo-lo. et Mono!.
Lps. 18.32. 6ee § 184. note a.
h) Sentontinriiin 1. IV. Yen. 1477. rcc. ./. Alenume, Lovan. 1540. f. and oflcn.
c) J. Siilitherii riill. Xoinlnnlliiiii vindloata. I'lir. lOftl. Jiiiiiing(irtgn-Crii»iiin,<ie veto Schol.
Realium et Nominalt'.m dlscr. dccrolUque ijisuruin tlieoL (Opuscc. 1S36. p. 55ss. KcmudulUng of tho
ProsT. of 1S2I.)
(?) Jo'fiDiix Jfon. Ep. An?. (Balm. Mi?cell. I. IV. p. 478.) Anstlmi 1. II. Ep. 85. 41. and (1094)
L. de fide Trin. et de incjirn. vtrM c. bla^plioiiilas KuzcliuL
2-10 MKUiAKYAL ciirnrn iiif^ronv. i'i:i;. iii. a. ix 800-1216.
§ 219, Jli/sticism. First Period.
II. Schmiit, <1. >ry»tlc <1. Mitt. Alt In s. Entstühungsper. Jen. 1824. Alb. Liehner, Hugo v. 9
Victor, u. d. thiol. KlohtunKcn sr. Ztlt. Lpz. 1S32. J. Carres, die chrisll. Mystik. Kctrensb. lS.3C9-i
3 vols. A. llrlferirh, (1. clir. Mj^tik in Hirer Entw. u. ihrer Dcnkin. voL I. Entwlcklungsgesch.
Ootli. 1842. [A. Koiiek, Gtsch. d. clir. Mystik. Lps. 185-3.]
The tendency of tho age in the direction of the feelings and of the imagi-
nation was shown in a mysticism of a lively and vigorous character. This
was an cftbrt of the human mind, by means of its affections, to connect
itself immediately with the Deity. It was not unfriendly to the Church, hut
it was earnest against the moral abuses found there. Bernard discovered
tho higliest life which man can attain in a perpetual lovo of God, which,
while it is vigorous in action and in self-denials, poetic in its utterances, and
tho source of all spiritual knowledge of God, is nevertheless conscious that
it is itself inexpressible. («) liichard of St. Victor (d. 1173), by means of
biblical allegories, made known the secrets of the human heart struggling for
words, for he describes the process of contemplation as one in whose highest
flights the soul in ecstatic rapture is perfectly blessed with intuitions of the
divine glory. {]>) The fanciful nature of this spirit appears in the revelations
of JIiMe(/ard, Abbess of the convent of Rupert, near Bingen (d. 1178).
Under the sanction of St. Bernard, they were acknowledged to be actual
divine revelations, because the figures and allegories in which they were
clothed were agreeable to the taste of her contemporaries. But although they
revealed nothing supernatural, they contained many profound views of the
mysteries of history. (<■) In the convent of St. Victor near Paris, ever since
its founder (1109), William of Chamjyeanx^ had been obliged to give way
before the more brilliant reputation of his pupil Abelard, a reconcihation had
been sought between Mysticism and Scholasticism, on the ground that the
latter was represented by inspired men, and the former professed to be a
series of spiritual elevations, (d) The profoundly spiritual mind of Hugo of
St. Victor (died 11-il), naturally inchned to discover the points of agreement
between" difterent systems, regarded Scholasticism as an excellent preparation
for Mysticism, since it intelligently established the doctrines of the latter,
and in its perfection must lead the soul up to the enjoyment of ecstatic emo-
tions. He therefore regarded each of these tendencies of the mind as the
complement and correlative of the other, (e) The union of these distinct ele-
a) Especially, De contemtu mundi, do consideratione, de diligendo Deo, Tr. ad Ilugonem de S.
Tlct. comp. § 207.
i) Especially, Dc statn inter hominis, de praepar. animi ad contempl. s. Benjamin minor, de gra-
tia contempt, s. Bcnj. major. 0pp. Kothom. 1650. f. — Liehner, Eich, a S. Vict: de contempl. doctrina.
Gott 1S37. P. I. Engelhardt, Eich. v. S. Victor u. Euysbroek. Erl. ISSS.
c) Scitias, (Revclationes S. Virgg. Hildeg. et Elis. Col. 162S. f.) Liber divinorum opp. simplicis
hominis, comp. Marisi ad Fabric. Bibl. med. et in£ Lat Th. III. ed. Patav. p. 263ss.— (^. Meiners,
de S. Hild. vita. (Comm. Soc Gott Tb. XII. Class, hist et ph.) J. K. Dahl, d. h. Ilild. Mainz. 1S32.
Gorres, vol. I. p. 2>5ss. II. p. 210s.
d) Schlo-iser, Abh. zu Vincent v. Beanvais' Ilandb. Frkf. 1S19. vol. II.
e) Especially, de sacramentis chr. fidei 1. II. Opp. Rothom. 164?. 3 Th. f. According to the prooft
■dducod by Liebner. (Stud. u. Krit 1S31. part 2. p. 254ss.) the Tractatus thcol. ascribed to Hildebert
(Ilildeb. Opp. ed. Beaugendre, Tar. 1703. f.) contains notblug except the first four books of Hugos
Summa Scntontt
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. § 219. JOUN OF SALI3. § 220. ADELABD. 241
ments of tlie age after all never became a promiüent resnlt, for even Hugo's
fcuccessor, Richard, declared decidedly in favor of Mysticism, and Walter of
St. Victor (1180), who had studied under Richard, assailed the most celebra-
ted leaders of the French Scholastic party as sophists and heretics. (/) He
defended Mysticism without really being a Mystic, but JoJin of SaUabur)/, a
faithful companion of Eecket, and who became, after the assassination of that
prelate, a bishop of Chartres (d. 118-2), stood, like one conversant with Ro-
mans and Greeks, in an entirely dilierent position. It is true that he justi-
fied philosophy on account of its general utility for moral purposes, but
honestly exposing his pride of an empty knowledge to the ridicule of his
contemporaries, he predicted, as a warning to others, that Scholasticism, in
the course of its scientific investigations, would lose the truth, (y)
§ 220. Abclard, 1079-1142.
I. Letters of Abelard and lleloise, especially Ep. I. in tlie Ruits De historia calaniitatum snarum,
witli notes by l>it. Chesne. Introductio ad Tlieol. L III. incomplete. {Abatl. et Ihl. Opp. ed. Am-
hoise. Par. 161G. 4.) Theol. chr. 1. V. {^lartene Thos. Anecd. Th. V. p. 11&6.) Etliica s. L. scito te
Ipsum. (Pezii, Anecd. v. III. P. II. p. G27.)— Dial, inter I'bilos., Judaeum ct Christian, cd. Illiein-
wald, Ber. 1S31. Sic et non. Dialectica. (and dialectic.il fragments in: Ouvrages inodils cTAMard
publi6s par Victor Cousin, Par. 1S3C. 4.) Sic et Non. Priinum integrum edd. K L. Jf>nike et O. S.
' Lindenkohl, JIarb. 1S51. From bis school: Ahael. Epitome Theol. chr. ed. Jiheinwald, Ber. 1S35.
[Abailardi et IIcl. Epp. Oxon. 1728. 8. Lettres d'Ab. et Hol. traduita sur les nianuscrita de la bib-
lioth. royal p. E. Oddoul, precedes d'un Essai hist p. M. et Mmo Giiizot, Par. 1S39. 2 vols.]
II. Gertaiie, vie de P. Ab. et Hol. Par. (1720) 172^^. 2 Th. Hist lit de la Fr. Th. XH. p. 86. 629ss.
J. Berington, Hist of the Lives of Ab. and llel. from Ki'O-llM, with the Letters from the ColL of
Amboise. Birming. 17SS. 4. Schlosser, Ab. u. Dulcin, Leben e. Schwärmers u. e. Pldl. Goth. 1S07.
J. IT. F. Freridin, de Ab. doct dogm. et inor. Jen. 1727. Counin, Introduction to his edition.
«/! D. n. Goldhorn, de summis princlpiis Theol. Ab. Lps. 18-36. E. A. Letcald, de Opp. Ab. quaö
Cousin ed. Heidelb. 1S39. 4. Franck, Beitr. zu Würdig. Ab. (Tub. Zeitsclir. 1S40. H. 4.) M. Ca-
riere, Ab. u. Hel. Giess. 1S14 J. L. Jacohi, Ab. u. H.d. Brl. liSi). F. Braun, do Ab. Ethica. Marb.
1852. [0. W. Wight, The Romance of Ab. and Hel. New York. 1*53. 12. Btthringer, Church ot
Christ and its Witnesses, in last vol. 1S54.]
In its opposition to Scliolasticism, ^tlysticism found its most distinguished
antagonist in Abelard. Ilis reputation in the schools was more brilliant, his
spirit more liberal, liis familiarity with the ancient Roman writers more inti-
mate, and his independence of the ecclesiastical fathers greater, than that of
any of his associates of the scholastic party. He regarded the principle, that
nothing is to be believed which is not understood, as the primary ma.xim of
that school. This doctrine of the supremacy of reason, when taken in con-
nection with that of the absolute authority of the Church in matters of faith,
which was equally sustained by Abelard, jiroduced an obvious incongruity in
his fundamental principles. Even in his youth ho took delight in vanquish-
ing the most renowned teachers of that period by his dialectic .'^kill. Ho
taught (after 1115) on Mount St. Genevieve, and became the most celebrated
/) Contra nova» haoreses, qnas Soplilstno Abaclsrdus, Lonibardns Petrus PIcfav. ct Qllber-
tus Porrctan. libris sentt. puarum acunnt Generally c.illed: Contra <pi«liiiir labyrlntlios Gulliao
Extracts in Bidaei H. Univ. Paris. Th. II. p. 2;l0. 402. 502. 029ss. A. I'Uinck, ü. d. Sehr. d. Walth
V. S. V. (Stud. u. Krlt 1S44. H. 1.)
g) Policraticus S. de nngls curialium et vcstlgÜM phllosophor. I. VIII. Lugcl. Ifi.'JD. Mctaloglcu%
I. IV. Jb. ICIO. Epp. 8U3. (Bibl. PP. max. vol. XXIII. p. 'Hi.)— If. Keuttr, Job. v. Saliab. Ber-
lin. 1342.
16
242 MICDIAKVAI. cmi'.CH IIIrtTOItY. TKU. III. A. I>. i,(tO~V2\r,.
instructor in i)liil()S()|)liy jldiI tlicology tlion in Paris. It W!i.s there that he
lonnd the Ijij^iiest rapture and llio deepest grief in his love of Ileloise. Her
lufty spirit Bcorncd to become the wife of Abelard, for slie thought such a
connection incompatible with his attainment of those ecclesiastical dignities
whic'li she rcfiardcd as his proper right. Even this hope her relatives
attenijjted to baflle by an act of most shameful atrocity (1110). Abelard
then took refuge from the world in the convent of St. Denys, where in an
earnest penitential spirit he was gradually enabled to praise God for the
chastisements which he had endured. Ileloise was induced solely by her
attachment to him to take the veil. Compelled to return to his station as an
instructor by the solicitations of the academical youth, he was opposed by
the coinLiued jealousy of the Scholastics and the hatred of the Mystics. At
a synod held at SoiMons (1121), at which a legate presided, his "Introduc-
tion to Theology" Avas condemned to be burnt as an infidel representation
of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and he himself was sentenced unheard to
be confined in a very retired convent. But such severe ill-treatment only
increased the sympathy of the people with him, and he was soon after per-
mitted by the legate to return to St. Denys. When, however, he was per-
secuted by the monks on account of his discovery that Dionysius of Paris
was not the Areopagite, he betook himself to a wilderness near Xogent. Im-
mense multitudes followed him to this retreat that they miglit listen to his
instructions, and in a forest they constructed a multitude of huts, and a temple
which he dedicated to the Spirit, the Comforter. When threatened with new
persecutions, he committed this Paraclete to the care of Heloise as its abbess,
and consented to become the abbot of the convent of St. Gildas at Euits, in
Brittany, to which he had been elected (1126). Here for ten years he strug-
gled unsuccessfully to establish monastic discipline, when he gave up the
attempt and retm-ned to give lectures once more as a professor in Paris.
There he was opposed by a crowd of enemies under the direction of St. Ber-
nard. A catalogue of alleged heresies Avas extracted from his writings, many
of which were contrary to the ordinary mode of instruction in the Church,
or would admit of inferences inconsistent with the orthodox creed. The real
controversy related to the subject of Scholasticism itself, which was accused
of desecrating divine mysteries by its daring attempts at analysis. («) The
spirit of Abelard was now broken, and when his writings were condemned
at a synod held at Sens (114:0), he appealed to the pope, by whom he was
doomed on Bernard's representation to a perpetual confinement in a con-
vent. Qi) An asylum was finally secured for him by Fetcr of Clugny, and
when he died the body of her friend was committed to the hands of He-
loise (r) a.s an oftering richly adorned by God himself in behalf of mental
freedom, not only in the literary but in the social world. It is difficult to
tell whether he was most beloved or hated by the age in which he lived.
<i) £<!inardi Ep. 1S8. ad Cardinales. ISO. ad Innoc Tr. de crrorib. Ab. ad lanoc. (Opp. Th. IV.
J). U4.) Also «iih the Index XIX. capitul. in the works of Abelard.
b) Document:* of Synoil, sent to the iK)pe bj LWiiara, Ep. 870. Abelard s Apdnsy in Opposition
to Bernard in his Ep. 20. (Opp. p. S3ÜSS.) Satires re.'ipcctins the Synod and SL Bernard by Beren^
garim Sc/iolusticun, Apologet pro magistro e, Bernard. {Ahaelardi Opp. p. 302ss.)
c) P<tri Yen. Ep. ad Hol. lUloUsae aiX relruni. (^Ahad. Opp. p. 837fs.)
CHAP. IV ECCLES. SCIENCE. § 221. SAC. SCRIPT. § 222. XIEBELÜNGEN. 24a
§ 221. The Sacred Scriptures.
Many v.-orks upon the Scriptures were written by persons belonging to the
circles of tlie Mystics and the Scholastics, but although they exhibited a high
degree of mental acutencss and sprightliuess, they displayed an entire want
of a proper conception of the peculiarities of ancient times, Tiiough these
peculiarities were not unknown to the authors, tliey nevertheless received a
deep coloring from the outward relations of the modern world, and yet were
represented as a tradition from the past. An abundant literature was also
formed around the sacred writings. In her Pleasure Garden, JAnad, the
Abbess of Landsperg (about 1175), has contrived to weave into the scrip-
tural history a general summary of all secular knowledge. (<<) All kinds
of literature are full of allusions to something in the Bible. But although
the Jews were induced by their Arabic learning to investigate the lie-
brew text, the Scriptures were interpreted b}* ecclesiastical Avriters with-
out any important aid from a knowledge of other languages. The vari-
ous manuscripts of the Vulgate ditlered widely from each other. Tlio glosses
of Walafrid Stralo (849) and Anselm of Lao n (d. 1117), were generally used,
although they Avere nothing but verbal definitions and paraphrases derived
from the ecclesiastical fathers, (h) In the more extended commentaries, four
different senses were presupposed in every scriptural passage ; the historical
meaning was regarded only as the vestibule to the sanctuary, and wliatever
life appeared was expended in the play of allegorical interjjretations. IiU-
2)crt^ Abbot of Deutz (d. 1135), endeavored to re-establish all theology upon
the basis of the Holy Scriptures, as the great Book through which God has
intelligently presented the way of salvation to all nations, (c) "When the
Slaves endeavored to retain the use of their own national language in their
religious worship, they were opposed by Gregory VIT. (1080), who was the
first that ventured to censure the use of the Scriptures in the vernacular
tongue, and justified this opposition by a roferonce to the mysteries of tlie
primitive Clmrch. ('/)
§ 222. Commencement of a National Literature in the 2'icelj'th Century.
A faint reflection of the ancient national glory long remained, almost en-
tirel\' unaffected by the influence of Cln-istianity, in the hearts of tlie [leople,
and was exhibited in tlie German epic jioetry. This finally received a per-
manent written form during tlic tliirteenth century, in the comjiosition called
The Niehclungen. («) The popular fable of the Court of the Beasts was a
pleasant representation of human society among a jieoplo conversant with
the simple life of tlio forest. As this story had already been to some extent
similarly applied by some of his predecessors, it was formed by a monk of
Clugny about the middle of the twelfth century into the fable of JicinarduSy
a) Ilortus delicinruin, a mnniiscript with niiiiliiturcs in the Lib. at Strasbiirsr. Engelhardt, Her»
rad V. L. u. llir II. delie. Stutt;:. 1S18.
V) Wuld/rUH Glnssa orilinnria in r.iWI.i, (Oiip. Pur. l'<52. 2 vol?. In tlio Patrol, cd. JAiV»«", vol
CXIII.) Anselmi Glo.'ssa InterHnoari». Ha«. \f^'i. f. and often.
c> Riiiierti TuUienxi», 0pp. Mofr. 1031. 2 Tli. f. d) Grrg. 1. VII. Ep. 11.
<() [Tlio Kail of tlio Mebclungors, hv. trans-l. by ir. K. LetiHom, Lond. 1S50.]
844 MF.niAKVAL CIIL'KCU lIIsTOUY. PKR. III. A. !>. W»-mG.
which contained an ironical sntiro upon the gluttony of the monks, and th<
avarice of the popes, (i) Independent of the clergy, and yet in the midst
of the enthusiasm of the first Crusades, sprung up the joyous art of the
Trouhadoiim. With passionate zeal it entered into ail the discussions of the
age, and though its inspirations Avere sometimes employed in singing the ex-
j.loits of the Oiurch, it was at other times equally fearless in opposing the
had practices of the hierarchy, and was always independent of ecclesiastical
control, (c) The Suahianmijinesingcrs, the nightingales of the middle ages,
near the close of the first half of the twelfth century began to sing of earthly
love, joy, and sorrow. The ordinary feelings with which men regarded the
Blessed Virgin were transferred by these minstrels to the whole female sex. Ul)
Walter of the Vogelweide penetrated far into the mysterious emotions of genu-
ine Christianity, and yet confessed with childlike candor that he found in his
heart nothing like love toward his enemies. On the other hand, with the
spirit of a real German, he set himself in opposition to all priestly dissimula-
tion and the unrighteous ban which the pope had imposed upon his country.
A vivid picture of the Crusades is presented in the legends and songs relat-
ing to the expedition of Charles the Great into Spain. In these poems that
monarch, who is called pre-eminently the servant of God, with his twelve
l^aladins, are described as exposing their bodies to the most imminent perils
for the benefit of their souls. Instead of the treasures of the Niebel-
ungenlied with its heathenish spirit, we now have the story of the San
Graal. The knightly epic, however, when it became fully developed, was
not much pervaded by the ecclesiastical spirit. The meditative Wolfram
of Esclienlach^ in his poem of the Parzival, enters indeed into the proper
ideas of the Church, distinguishes between the ideal and the actual, and
describes the expiations and the external holiness which are necessary
to the enjoyment of a higher life, but what he describes is not an eccle-
siastical expiation, and the guardians of his sanctuary are not priests, bat
holy knights and a divinely consecrated king. The luminous Godfrey of
Strasburg in his Tristan described the sumptuous life of the court, in which,
totally regardless of the decisions of the Church, the eternal rights of the
heart were treated as inviolable, even when opposed to what was then called
the sacrament of marriage, {e) As early as the time of the Othos, laymen
generally scorned the cultivation of every kind of science, and towards the
close of the twelfth century the clergy entirely renounced the study of all
literature in the language of the people. The general result of all the influ-
ence of this age was, that the clergy entirely lost the monopoly they had pre-
viously possessed in the mental cultivation of the people. (/*) Hence, at the
same time with the ecclesiastical sciences, a species of poetry was formed,
dictated solely by those feelings which exist in every human bosom. It was
not, however, a poetry altogether popular in its character, for it was highly
h) Gertimis, Gesch. d. poet Nation. Literatur, voi. I. p. 102s8.
c) The particulars in MUM, Raynouard u. unserm Dietz.
d) C. £arth<;l, Oppos. gegen die Hierarchie. Walther v. d. V. (Zelt5ch. f. hist. Tb. 1S45. H. Z.)
t) The particulars in Görres, Lachmann, Grimtn, Gervinus, and Hagen.
/) Comp. //. Leo, v. d. sieben Vrumicheiten. (.Hal.) 1S39.
CUAP. V. EXTEXS. OF THE CnGPXII. § 223. DENM.^^K. SWEDEN. 245
artificial, and adapted only to the chivalrous tastes of the knights. The
most brilliant exhibitions of its power were presented at the court of the
Hohenstaufens,
CHAP, v.— EXTENSION OF TIIE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
Adam. Brem. (§ ITO.) EJiisd. de situ Daniae et reliqnarum, quae trans Daniam sunt, rcjionam
natura, morib. et reL cd. Fabric. Hamb. 170C. f.
§ 223. The Uohj Ansgar. 801-865.
I. A letter of Ansgar and the Life of St. Willehad. {PerU Tli. IL p. 8T3.) Si\A Ani>karii by
his follower üimleit. (Ed. DaJdmanr. in Pertz Th. IL p. 6S-3.) Life of S. Willehad and S. Ansgar,
uebers. m. Anm. v. Cumten Misegaes, Brin. 1S2C. S. Anskarii Piginenta. Written with the assist-
ance of Lappenl/urg, llanib. 1S44.
II. E. C. Kruse, S. Ansgar. Alton. 1S23. F. A. Krxtmmacher, S. Anspar, alte u. neue Zeit
Bretn. 1828. //. Reuterdahl, Ans^. o. d. Anfangspunkt d. Clir. in Schwed. from the Swedish by
Mayerhoff, Brl. 1S.37. F. C. JCraJfi, Narr, do Ansg. aquilonarium gentium Ajwst. Hamb. 1840. 4.
G. IT. Klippel, Lebensbeschr. d. Erzb. Ansg. Brem. lS-1.5. [Diplom.ifarlum Xorvcgicuui, ed. by
<?. Lange and C. R. Unger, to be in 10 vols., but only the 1st part in 1S49, and the 2d in ISWJ, are
ret pubL Christiania. 4to.]
The Danish prince Uarcdd Laving obtained the throne of his ancestors
by the assi.^tancc of Louis the Pious, after a long contest with his competi-
tors, became a willing instrument by which tlie policy of the Prankish
monarch might be carried out in his own country. lie was baptized in the
cit}' of Mentz (820), and bis followei*s were delighted with the splendid gifts
conferred on them by the spon-sors. On his return to Jutland, he "vvas accom-
panied by Ansgai\ a monk of Corvey, who bad been induced by his religious
feelings and a vision of Christ, to consecrate himself to the work of convert-
ing the heathen. The archbishopric of ILnnlnirg was founded for him by
Louis the Pious with tlie papal consent (831), for the propagation of Chris-
tianity in the Northern countries. As this city was soon after pillaged by
pirates, from wboso ravages nothing was saved by Ansgar but some relics,
his archbishopric was attached by the German king and the pope to the
bishopric of Bremen (849). Having been appointed the papal legate and the
imperial ambassador for the northern nations, An.sgar resided in tiiis latter
city, and possessed an influence among those people which prepared the way
for his subsequent eftbrts in Jutland and Sleswic. lie was not, indeed, very
seriously opi)Osed in his labors, except by the inditference of the peojjle.
This he endeavored to overcome by obtaining possession of heathen children,
and by ransoming those persons who had been carried into captivity, and
training them to be future missionaries. On his first mission to Sweden
(829), he found some perms of Christianity already existing there, and by
the favor of the court he was permitted to plant some further seeds of the
gospel among the peojjle. These, however, were soon after entirely de-
stroyed in a popular insurrection. His second visit to that country (855) was
more successful, since tlie proclamation of the new faith was then tolerated
by the people and their gods, on account of the protection afforded by tlie
God of the Christians to those who went to sea. He was often discovered
246 MKDIAKVAL CIIUUCII lIISTOItY. I'KR. III. A. I). ^00-1216.
by Iiciml)crt in tears, because he was not regarded by Iiis Lord worthy ol
the iiKirtyrdoin whicli he supposed had been promised him.
§ 224:, German Xaiions of the Xurtli.
The foundation which had been laid by Ansgar in DenmarTc was protected
and enlarged by the influence of the Saxon emperors, although it was viewed
with great dislike by many as the religion of their national enemies. The
cause of Christianity, however, gained new strength by the continuance of
their connection with the Normans. Tliis people, ever since the commence-
ment of the tenth century, had obtained jtossessions by conquest in England
and France, and had adopted the faith as well as the higher civilization of
the conquered nations. The triumph of the new religion was finally secured
through the conquest of England by the Danish kings. Canute the Great
secured the imion of Denmark with England, and the reconciliation of the
two nations by the establishment of the Church among the Danes; and
while he was on his pilgrimage to Eomc (1027), in accordance with his pre-
vious stipulations, it was connected with the Roman Church, (a) By means
of persons sent forth from Bremen, Christianity continued to extend itself
in Siceclen., and though at first its progress was slow, it was without opposi-
tion, and connected with many harmless heathen customs. Alms and fasts
were vowed to the Lord Christ by a city in time of distress, though it was
still in a state of heathenism. The drinking horns of heathen chiefs were
not unfrequently emptied to the health of Christ and of the archangel
Michael. The series of Christian kings commenced with Olaf Schoossl-onig
(1008), but the temple of Odin at Upsala was not destroyed, until, after a
sanguinary contest, it was levelled with the ground by King Inge (1075). (b)
The gospel was conveyed to Xorwaij in the ninth century by some seafaring
youth, but the white Christ was generally regarded by the people as the god
of a foreign nation. Harald Ilarfagar, in a public assembly, took an oath
that he would never again present an ottering to deities whose sway extended
merely to his own country, but only to one who was Lord of the whole
earth, and by whose help he hoped to extend his authority over all Norway.
And yet when his son Hacon the Good (936-950), who had been educated
and baptized in England, thereupon proposed that all the people should be
baptized, not only was the proposal rejected, but the prince was compelled to
feign that a cross which he had formed upon Odin's cup was intended for the
sign of Thor's hammer. At his funeral the Skald proclaimed that he had been
admitted to the Valhalla, because he had mildly forborne to destroy the sacred
things belonging to the ancient gods. The cause of Christianity, however,
had now become identified with that of the supreme monarchs of the coun-
a) Saao Grammaticus, (died about 1204.) Hist Danlcae 1. STI. ed. Stephanius, Sor. 1644. 2
Th. f. Xlotz, Lps. 1T71. A.—Pantoppidan, Annal. Ecc. Dan. diplomatici. Ilanv. 1741ss. Th. I.
Munter, KGesch. v. Dänem. u. Norw. Lpz. lS-23. vol. I. F. C. Dahlmann, Gesch. t. Dfinneni.
Ilamb. 1S40. vol. I. p. 28.-^.
I) Claudii Oernfijulm, Hist Siieonum Gothorumque ecc 1. IT. Stockh. 16S9. 4. Statnta syno«
dalia vet Ecc. Sucvogothicae, ed. lieuterdaM, Lond. 1S41. i.—Geijer, Gcsch. Schwed. A. d. schwed
llandfclir. v. Leßer, Hanib. 1S."3. vol. 1. \_F. C. Geijer, H. of the Swede& Transl. from the Swediäl^
l.y J. II. Tunter, Lond. 1S47. S.]
CHAP. V. EXTEN3. OF THE CHURCH. § '224. XOUWAY. ICELAND. 24?
trj, and the former kings of the particular tribes were as tenacious of their
ancient gods, as they were of the private rights sanctioned by those deities.
The wild and intriguing influence of Olaf Trygvesen (995-1000) was ex-
pended in accomplishing the triurapli of the Church, to effect which he was
supplied with priests from England and Bremen. 01"/ tl)e Thicl,\ wlio be-
came king of Norway in the year 1019, in an expedition he made at the head
of his array throughout his kingdom, arranged the affairs of the Church on
a permanent basis. Dissatisfied, liowever, with his policy, the heathen por-
tion of the nation delivered up his kingdom into the hands of Canute the
Great. In defence of the cause of the cross, Olaf appealed to the religious
enthusiasm of his subjects, and finally perished in a disastrous battle (1033).
But even in the succeeding year, wlien hatred began to be awakened in the
bosoms of the Nonnans against the dominion of foreigners, a strong feeling
of attachment for Olaf was revived, and his body being taken from its grave,
was found free from decay. From that time, under the name of >yt. Ol(ij\
he has been invoked as the patron saint of Norway, and after a single cen-
tury he was honored by all tlie Northern nations. (<■) In Icclawl^ Christian-
ity having been proclaimed by several transient messengers, Olaf Trygvesen
at last found a permanent lodgment, and after a severe conflict it Avas for the
sake of peace accepted at a general assembly of the people (1000), though
with the condition that men might worsliip tlie ancient gods in private, and
that children might be publicly exposed without molestation. (</) About this
time, also, a flourishing bishoprio was erected by some emigrants from Iceland
on the eastern shore of O'rceiilaml, whose tithes were paid at Rome in tlie
teeth of walruses, (e) In all these Northern countries the moral and social
sjjirit of Christianity had to contend with the custom of private revenge for
blood shed by enemies, the right of a freeman to commit suicide, the expo-
sure of children, and the eating of the flesh of horses and of vultures.
When the images of the gods were destroyed by bold and powerful men with
no divine judgments following the action, the people generally acknowledged
tliat Christ was tlie superior Deity. Tlie ancient world of tlie gods was not,
however, entirely renounced, but only thrown back into a mysterious abyss,
and converted into a gloomy kingdom of magic, peopled by trolds, nixies,
and elves. There waa indeed a legend current among the more indulgent
I)ortion of the people, which held out a hope that even the spirits of nature
would in some future period be redeemed from their state of banishment. (/)
c) I. Siiorro Sluiieson, (diod 12-11.) irtlmskrinirla, cd. iSchoeniiig, H-ifn. ITTT.is. Ö Th. f. [Tr.insl.
Into Engl, by Ä Laing, 3 vols. Lond. 1S44.] II. Jlt'iiiUr, KOcscli. v. U. ii. Norw. vol. I. p. 4.3]s.s
[.1. Crichton, Scandinavia. Anc. nnd Mod. Ac. Kdlnb. 1S:>9. 2 vol». S. Jf. h'ne<itoti, llihL of the
Northmen, fee. Nfw ed. New York. 1SI7. 2 vol.>>.]
(I) I. Metxlingiihok (by priest Are tlio WIv, dlccl lUS.) c. T.<p. robcr?. In Diddiiinnn's Forsch.
Alton. 1822. vol. I. p. •4T2.<3. llungurrak-u s. lll.st, prinioruiii V!^kallloltcn^lllIIl in U\. Kpiscc. (13tb
cent.) Hafn. 177S. KriHtiil-Sugn 8. Hist. rol. clir. in I-l. introd. (Utli cent) Hafn. 17T4.— II. Finnl
Julutnnei, Hist. cce. \A. Hafn. 1772ss. 4 Th. 4. .Stuudlhi, fi. kirchl. Gcscli. u. Grcpor. v. l>\. (KHist.
Arch. vol. H. i)t. 1.) Miiiiter, \q\. I. p. .'»IOsü, [An Hist and Dcscrlp. Account of Iceland, Green-
land, and the Faroe Islands, &c. (Kd. Cab. Lib.) Kdlnb. and New York. Is40.]
e) y^f/i/^t Groenl. antiqna. Hafn. 17iiC. J/«H^cr, vol. I. p. &55.ss. Comp. Anliqultates A«fri
lanae b. Sern scptentr. rcruin ante Cuhiinlji.innr. Hul'n. tS37. 4.
/) Orimm, Mytliol. p. 279.
248 MKDIAKVAI, CiniU H IIISTOKV. TEK. III. A. I). 8(K)-1216.
Ono result at least of the conversion of these Northern nations, was that
those countries of Europe whiih bordered on the sea were no longer exposed
to the ravages of pirates, (y) The ecclesiastical supervision of them whicli
liad previously been vested in the see of Breuieu was now (1104) transferred
to the areIihlsho])ric of Lund.
§ 225. The Slavic Kations.
The Slavic nations acknowledged the existence of a Sujjreme Being, whom
they regarded as the original Creator of all things, but they also paid divine
honors to a race of gods which they believed to have sprung from him.
Those were divided into two classes, called the white and the black deities.
Although the latter represented the destructive powers of nature, they were
not viewed as absolutely evil, since they allowed the germ of life to remain
even in the things which they decomposed. These divinities were repre-
sented by uncouth symbolical forms, and in the several tribes there were
found sacred cities and a hierarchy, («) Some conversions effected among
the Slaves by Charles the Great were as transitory as his conquests. The
conversion and spiritual superintendence of the people who resided near the
Danube were intrusted to their neighbors, the Archbishops of Salzburg and
Lorch, whose rights were subsequently, possessed by the Bishop of Passau.
The Slavic nations, however, were too much opposed to any connection with
Germany, and too little acquainted with the German or Latin languages, to be
influenced by a Christianity coming to them from that quarter. The Holy
Scriptures, the preaching of the gospel, and the services of rehgion, were
introduced to the Moravians in the Slavonian language by two Greek monks
(8G3), Cyrillus (Constantine) and Methodius, who became connected with
Rome, but did not relinquish their peculiar Greek forms of worship. Metho-
dius was consecrated at Rome Archbishop of Moravia, and the Slavish forms
of worship received the papal sanction (880), on the ground that God under-
stood all languages and should be worshipped by all nations. His efforts,
however, to erect a distinct national Church met Avith continual o]>position
on the part of the Gei-man bishops, and finally (908) the Moravian kingdom
was divided by the swords of the Hungarians and Bohemians. The Slavish
ritual was kept up under these new rulers in only a few churches, principally
in Illyria. (h) Towards the close of the ninth century, Borziwoi, Duke of
Bohemia, was induced by the flattering promises of Methodius to receive bap-
tism. His last days were spent with his sainted wife Ludmilla in retirement
from the world. Wenceslaus (928-938), his grandson, urged forward the
0) Adam Brem. Dc situ Dan. c. QQ.
a) Fi-encel. de diis Sorabor. et al. Slavor. {IToffmanv, Scrr. rer. Lnsat. Th. II.) Mone, Gcscli.
A. Ileldenth. Im nördl. Eur. vol. I. p. lllss. GieseUr, ü. d. Verbreitnng cliri.<tl. dual. Lcbrberr
unter d. Slaven. (Stud. n. Krit 18.37. II. 2. p. 857ss.) Ilanusch, d. "SViss. d. s!ar. Mythus. Lenib
1S42. P. J. Schofnrik, slaw. Alterlhümer, edit by Wutlke, Lpz. 1S4.3. 2 vols.
h) I. Vita Constantini, by a contemporary writer. (AcLi SS. Mart Th. II. p. 19.) rreslnj-
teri Diocleatis (ahowiW&X), Rc^ium Slavor. c. Sss. (Schlozer's Nestor, vol. III. p. 15-3ss.) J/(t)i6i
Th. XVIII. p. 13'2?s.— II. Assennirii Kalondaria Ecc nniv. Kom. 1756. 4. Th. III. Pihirs ct Jfora-
tceb, Moraviae lli-^t eccl. et pol. IJrunni. 1Tn">s.-. S Th.— ,/. Pohroic-l:!/ : Cyrill. n. Meth. der Slave»
Apostel. Prag. 1S-23. Mähr. Leirende v. Cyr. u. Motli. Prag. ISiC— GlasolUlca, L\»ber den Urspr. d.
T.'ni. Slav. Liturgie. 2 ed. Prog. 1S32.
CUAP. V. EXTEXS. OF THE CUUKCII. § 225. •« ENDS. POLES. 24S
progress of Christianity more by lii.s influence as a monk than as a temporal
prince. Dissensions were produced among the people by the hostility some
felt against the Christian faith, and finally entered even tlie ducal palace.
According to popular tradition, Ludniilla was put to death by her own
daughter-in-law, and "Wenceslaus by his brother. Christianity, however,
having passed through severe persecutions, obtained a sanguinary triumph
under Bolealaus the Mild (after 9C7), and with the establishment of the arch-
bishopric of Prague (973), a permanent ecclesiastical constitution was adopted.
As the only condition on which that see could be procured from the pope,
the Roman ritual was also then introduced, {r) The Weuch, who resided in
the country between the Saale and the Oder, and were divided into many
tribes under as many princes, being assailed by the Germans, defended them-
selves with extreme difficulty. Otho I. was anxious to render the dominion
he had acquired over them by the sword more secure by tlie bajitism of the
people, and hence the bishoprics which he established among them were
intended to be quite as much the citadels of his OAvn power as the castles of
the Church. Hence, by the same act in which the Wends under Jlistetcoi
threw off from their necks (983) the yoke of the German civil power, Chris-
tianity was also cast away. Gotti<cIiuU\ his grandson, succeeded in uniting
the several "Wendic tribes into a single kingdom (1047), and was successfully
endeavoring to establish a national Christian Church, when he was assassina-
ted in the midst of his efibrts (1060). The people then consecrated anew
the altars of their ancestors with the blood of Christian priests, and every
trace of Christianity among them was obliterated. Pomerania having been
conquered by Boleshnis III.^ Duke of Poland, Otho^ Bishop of Flitmlurg^ was
invited by him to baptize the inhabitants. This work was finally efiected by
that prelate (1124, 1128), ('/) and other tribes were likewise overcome and
converted by the Saxon princes, especially by Jleiu-;/ tho Lion (1142-62).
The desolated country became settled by various German colonies, until
finally only a few miserable remnants of tlie ancient peojilo preserved the
Wendic language and customs, and the whole country became German and
Christian, (r) The last refuge which the gods and the liberty of the Wends
had found in liugen^ wa.s burned by Ahmlon (Axel), Bishop of Roc^kilde,
the statesman and the hero of the seas (11G8). (/') The gospel was carried
into Poland by certain persons who took refuge there on the overthrow of
the Moravian kingdom, and on the marriage of Mucislam, Duke of Poland,
c) Cosmas. rrag. (iliodllS.'x) Clirnn. Bolicnior. (Scriptt rcr. Bolifin. Prag. 1744. Tli. 1.) Vila S.
Lu<1iii1IIbc. (Dohiier, Ablinii.ll. d. Röbiii. C.^cli. <1. Wis.«. 17*6. p. AXln».) Vila S. Lmlm. ct S. Wen-
cesliii auct. ChrMitnno <fe fkabi Mon. (Act« SS. Sopt Th. V. p. 3.'>4. Tli. YII. p. ^2.V) /'. PaUtcky.
Gesch. V. Böhm. Prag. 1S80 v«!. L Torr.irahlt, Adalb. v. Prag. (Zollsch. f. hist. Th. ISii 11. 2.)
d) Do vita b. ()tt<in. 1. III. (Cuniiii Ix'ctt, c<I. Rimitgf, Th. III. P. II.)— (Ä") Otto v. Banib.
Stettin. 1792. Bunch, Mciiuirh» (»Ihon. Pniiicnini Apostoll. Jen. 1^24.
e) I. After Wittlcliiiul, Tliii^triiar, .Ailatii iif Brenicn (% 170). ami S.ixo Ciramm.. cnn»\ilt ITelmolil,
(p.istor at Bosow near I.iiliccliVChriui. Slavoriiin (till 117(i), cJ. lianyert, Lub. 1G.')9. 1702. 4. (LUhnit.
Bcrr. Briinsu. Tli. II.)— II. Kitnngiiniit'r, Bokohrunpsccscli. il. Pominern. Grelfsw. Ib24. I'. W.
Biirthold, Gesell, v. Poiiiniern. u. Kügen. Ilaiiib. 1S39. voL I. L. OUndrecht, wend. Gesch. v.
T90-11S2. Berl. 1S43. 3 vols.
/) Munter, vol. II. Abth. I. p. 820. Ablli. II. p. 7'jts.'>. Extrup, AWlon. from tho Danish by
Xohniki: (Zoltsclir. f. hist. Th. 1S32. vol. II. pt. i.)
250 MKDIAKVAL ciit:i:<n msToiiv. i'i:i;. iii. a. d. soo 1218.
with n Bolieriiiiui ])ririco.Hs, Christianity became the religion of tlie state (96G)
By liis second inarrinfro witli the daughter of tlie Margrave Dietrich, and by
its dependence ni)on the German enii)irc, Poland was drawn into connections
with the lioinan Cliurch. Sncli connections being cheriphed with specia,'
care, tiie Polish cliurchcs were induced to pay tribute to St. Peter, the Slavic
ritual which liad previously been iiscd in tlieni was gradually abandoned, and
in tlie subsequent political commotions of the nation the papal power was
sometimes very great. ((/) Long after this period the people were accustomed
to celebrate the droAvning of their ancient gods with lamentations and par-
tial sorrow. (//)
§ 226. 7'he Hungarians.
Sclticandtner, Scrr. icr. Ilnng. Vind. 1746. f. Tli. I. Fejer, Codex diploinaticus Hung. eccl. et
civ. Budne. 1S29. Tb. \.—J. v. Mailath, Gescli. dor Magyaren. Wien. 1S23. vol. I. [Godkin, Iliit
of ir. Lond. 1S54.]
A few Hungarian princes, while on a visit to Constantinople, consented
to be baptized, and their country was filled with Christian slaves captured
during the inroads of their people in Germany. By these means Christianity
had obtained a foothold in the country, until more peaceable relations with
Germany were established by the victories of the Saxon emperors. The em-
peror then requested the bishops PiUgrln of Passau and Adalhert of Prague
to undertake the conversion of the Hungarians. Duke Gcysa (972-997),
being sufficiently wealthy and powerful, was in the habit not only of build-
ing Christian churches, but of offering sacrifices to the gods. («) Ilis son
Stephen (997-1038) brought Hungary into the political community of civil-
ized nations, gave to the Church a permanent form of government in subjec-
tion to Rome, and with the consent of the emperor and the sanction of the
pope, assumed the royal crown. (Jb) Surrounded as he was by Christians and
Germans, the new king ventured in various ways to curtail the ancient privi-
leges of the people. In the political commotions which occurred during the
ten years immediately following his death, the most violent efforts were put
forth to re-establish idolatry, and were repelled with equal violence.
§ 227. The Finns, Livonia ns, and Esthonians.
Eric the Saint, King of Sweden, effected the conquest of the Finn*
(1157), and subjected them to the authority of his own croAvn and of the
Church. For a long time, however, their magicians were much more hon-
ored than their clergy, (a) But an intercourse had already been commenced
with Livonia by the German maritime cities. Ifeinhard, a canon of Bremen,
(7) I. After Thietmar consult Martini Galli (about 1180), Cliron. Toi. ed. Bandtkie, Varsov
1S24. Vincent de Kadluhek (d. 1226), de gestis Pol. (Dhigo^, Hist Pol. Lps. ITll. C Th. I.)-
IL Ch. G. V. Friene, KGesch. d. K. Pohl. Brsl. 17S6. vol. I. Ropell, Gesch. Pol. Hamb. 1540. vol
I. Append. 4. 7i) Grimm, deutsche Mythol. p. 446s.
a) Thietmar I \ III. (Leibtiit. p. 420.)
h) Charivitiim, (13th cent) Vita S. Stephani. {Schirnndtneri Scrr. rer. Ilun?. Vind. 1740. f. p.
<14.) Respcctins the story of the Crown adorned with Greek characters, and the s-ilutation as P.es
ApostoIicHS and Lesrate, see -1. F. Kolhir, de origsr. et usu perpctuo potestatis legisl. circa sacra app
Eognm Hung. Vind. 1764. IToränyi, de s. corona, Ilung. Pcsth. 1790.
a) Oenthjalm \. c. IV, 4. Mone, vol. I. p. 4-3ss.
CHAP. VI, PROT. PAP.TIES. § 223. CATIIAP.ISTS. 25 1
made some attempts to convert its inhabitants (after 118G), for we find that
he assisted them to build fortresses against their enemies, and was consecra-
ted to the bishopric of Yxkiill. Proceeding from that point, the bi-sliops
ODtained their respective dioceses by military conquests, in the course of
Avhich they were often in danger of losing their lives, and tliey confirmed
the results of their preacliing by leading the Germans in miniature crusades
against the people. The bishopric of JiU'ja was founded by Albert., the second
in succession after Meinhard, and the ecclesiastical subjugation of the country
was finally completed by the weapons of an order of knights instituted by
him (1202), called the Brethren of the Sirord. "With the aid of this order
and of the Danes, the Eathonians were also subdued and converted to the
faith (after 1211). The ascendency of this order and of the bishops was
afterwards undisputed, (i)
CHAP. VI.— PARTIES PROTESTING AGAINST THE CliUKClI.
C. du Plessis d'Arffentre, Col. judlciorum dc novis error, ab initio XII. S. usqno ad ann. 1C32.
Par. 1728. 3 Th. f. Füemlen, K. n. Ketzerliist, d. mittlem Zeit. Fr. ii. Lf.z. ITTOss. 8 vols. Flathe,
Gesell, der Vorläufer d. Eef. Lpz. lS35s. 2 vols. U. Ilahn, Gesch. d. Ketzer, im MA. Stuttg.
1S4Ö-60. 3 vols.
§ 228. The Catharhts.
A feeling of dissatisfaction now began to manifest itself on tlie jiart of
many persons on account of the extravagant worldly spirit of the i)riest-
hood, and the religious spirit of the people began to j)ut forth a strong pro-
test against the Church itself. Persons of this tendency were at first burned
(1022) at Orleans, ('*) and were found in various parts of Germany (Z^; and
England, but the great body of them inhabited Lombardy and Provence, (c)
In these latter countries the Troubadours had contributed much to the spirit
of independence with which the hierarchy wxis spoken of in that country,
while in Italy the Church was principally regarded as a political power. The
emperor had no interest in destroying the enemies of the papacy, and the
popes were obliged frequently to regard the friendship of the Lombards as
of more importance than the extermination of heretics. Even the contest to
which Gregory excited the liiity against the married priests, either produced
I) Uenrivi LetU (about 122G), Orlpp. Livoniao sacrae ct civ. a. Chron. c. notb J. D. Gruheri, Fr.
■iX Lps. 1740. t— Parrot, Entwickl. d. Spr.icho, Abstamni. Gesch. Mythol. d. Liwen, Letten, Eesten
Stuttg. 1&2S. 2 vols. If. A. G. f/rf Pott, dt> Glii.Iifirls .s. fratrib. niilitlne Cllri^ti. Krl. ISOö. Kurd v.
Scklöier, Livl. u. d. Anfiinse deut-solicn Lebens im bnltisclien Xoril. ISrI. \^>.
a) Ademar, a monk of Anjfoulemo about 1209, Cliron. (Botujittt Tli. X. p. IMss.) Costa Syn.
Aurelian. {Munsi Th. XIX. p. 376ss.) Glahtr JiaJii//. Ill, 8.
b) 1140 on tlio Lower Khine : Kcervini, Pmcpos. Stcinreld. Ep. nd Hornard. {Argfutrf Th. I. p.
33ss.) 1163. Eckherti Scrinm. XIII. adv. Catliarorum crrorcs. Col. 530. (Bibl. PP. iiia.\. Th. XXIII.
p. COO.)
c) The documents are In Illst generale do Lan^nedoc par on Benedlctin dc S. Manr. Par. 173".
Tol, III. Polemical writ^ rs near the end of the 12th cent. : Ehrardi FUtndrensis L. anllliaorcsls.
(Bibl. PP. ni.ix. Th. XXIV. p. ISiS.) Krmfngardi Opso. c h.iorollcos. qui dlcunt onmia vl>il.illa
non esse a Poo facta, sed a dlabolo. {Th. p. 1002 ) AUtni de Insulin I. IV. c haoroticos .<ul foinp.
(The two first vols. In Aluiii 0pp. ed. C. de Vmch. Antn. 16,'>4. f. The two last in C. de Viach
BlbL Scrr. Cist Col. 1C50. \.)—C. Schmidt, Hist, et doctrine des Cathares ou Albigcols. Par. 1S49. 2 vols.
252 MKDIAKVAL CIUIKCU HISTOUV. I'iAi. III. A. I). Si)0-12ie.
or al)sorl)C(l olenients liostilo to every tiling connected with tlic ecclesiasticiii
authorities (I'atcrini). (//) The name of CatfuirinlSy by which this sect was
usually (lcsi^;:iiate(l, shows what were their ordinary pretensions. A similar
opposition prepared the way for the influence exercised by the Paulicians
who had hoeti transferred into the western countries of Europe (lience called
ruhlicani, IJugri). The accounts wo have respecting them are almost exclu-
sively from their enemies, or from apostates from tliem, and are consequently
full of errors and calumnies. (<;) All agree, however, in describing them as
universally and absolutely opposed to the Catholic Church and all its pomp,
in consequence of what they professed to be an immediate communication of
the Holy Ghost, exalting them above alL conscious necessity of ecclesiastical
or civil laws. Their opposition to every thing of a sensuous nature made
them practically renounce all carnal pleasures, and led them theoretically to
ascribe the whole visible universe to an evil cause and to deny the real hu-
manity of our Redeemer. This dualistic tendency, however, may have gone
no further than the popular notion of a devil and his subordinate spirits, and
in a portion of the Catharistic Church it appears to have been modified in
various ways, to have been full of moral seriousness and religious sincerity,
and yet to have laid great stress upon fastings, genuflexions, and Latin forms
of prayer. (/) Scriptural preaching and the gospels were held in much
esteem, but various opinions prevailed among them respecting the prophets.
The baptism of the Spirit (consolamentum) was substituted for baptism by
water, and was administered by the imposition of the hands of all persons
present who had themselves received it. In this ordinance only perfect
Christians (bos homes, boni homines) received their consecration, for the
duties which it imposed were so rigid that most persons remained catechu-
mens (credentes, of two different degrees), and did not receive the consola-
mentum, which they regarded as necessary to salvation, until their dying
hour. The dualistic view, however, could consistently forbid nothing but
marriage and the eating of flesh. In the midst of a people thus professing
to be filled with the Spirit, and whose pope was the Holy Ghost himself, none
of the existing officers of the Church could exercise any of their hierarchi-
cal prerogatives. The prohibitions contained in the Sermon on the Mount
were accepted in their most literal and painful sense, and those who went to
a dualistic extreme resolved the ordinary doctrines of the Church, and even all
historical Christianity, into mere allegories illustrative of the Christian's inner
life. On the other hand, the Pasagii of Lombardy maintained the absolute
authority of the Old Testament in opposition to the Mauicheans who rejected
d) Sigebert. Gemblac. ad ann. 1074.
e) Jionaeorsi, one of tho?e teachers who returned to the Cath. Church, about 1190, Vit-i haereti-
cor. s. nianifosLitio haeresis Catharor. (D'Achenj, Spicil. Th. I. p. 203. Supplements in Biiliisii
Mlscell. ed. Jtatisi Th. II. p. 5S1.) J. 3foneta, Dominican, about 1240. adv. Cath. et Waldenses, ed.
HivcJtini, Rom. 1743. f. Jiaineriiis &iec?ioni, once a chief of the sect, but afterward.^ a Dominican
and Inquisitor, 1250. Snmma de Calharis et Lconistis. (Marine, Thes. nov. Anecd. Th. V. p. 1750. and
Aro^utre Th. I. p. 4S. (The edit, by GreUer is no fürther the .actual work of Rainerius, but a latei
collection made by some German. Gieseler, de Rainerii Sacch. Summa. Gott 15-34. 4.) [C. ScJimidt
Ilist. et doct de la .s?cte des Cathares, etc. Tar. 1S49. 2 vols. Stud. u. Krit, 1S50. H. 4.]
/) Thus accordinii to an orig. doc. : Ein Kathari?ches Ritu.ile, ed. by £". KuniU, Jtn. 1S52
CIIAr. VI. PKOT. PARTIES. $ 223. PASAGIL § 229. PETEE OF BRL'YS. 253
it, and tlio Ebionite and Arian doctrines concerning Christ in oi)position to
the views of the Docetae. (y) The name of this sect, as well as the time in
which it sprung up, suggests that this revival of Jewish Christianity may have
Deen occasioned by the conquest of Jerusalem. (/<) The ecclesiastical rulers
were at first very lenient toward these various sects, but they were soon com-
pelled to resort to the severest punishments. Even then they could not pre-
vent multitudes from embracing these doctrines in secret, and barely suc-
ceeded in escaping from a general and public defeat. Some who urged that,
according to the teaching of Christ and the example of St. Martin, such un-
fortunate persons ought to receive instruction rather than hanging, could
gain no attention. (I)
§ 229. Peter of Bruys and Henry. Tiinchchn and Eon.
In the course of the opposition which sprung up against the Church in
the twelfth century, a few individuals became prominent either as advocates
or leaders of sects. Peter de Bruys, who had been deposed from the priest-
hood, but preached (after 1104) in the south of France, was one of these.
He declaimed against the baptism of infants, the mass, and celibacy, burned
the cross which had been the instrument of our Lord's passion, and called
upon his hearers to destroy the churches, since God was as willing to hear
prayer offered to him in an inn or a stable as from before an altar. Many
disturbances of a violent nature were created by him, but he was finally
burned by a mob at St. Gilles (1124). (a) Henry, a monk who had with-
drawn from his order, and was sometimes thought to be a pupil of Peter de
Bruys, labored in the same region of country (lllt>-48), and was at first
highly honored even by the clergy, lie was a strenuous preacher of repent-
ance, and though not opposed to ecclesiastical authority, held up the corrup-
tions of the clergy to the derision of the people. He was finally overcome
by his powerful opponent, and ended his days in prison, {h) Tanchclm (about
1115), who resided on the sea-coast of the Netherlands, preached zealously
against ecclesiastical organization.s, collected around himself an armed train of
followers, claimed to be God equal to Christ on account of the Holy Ghost which
he professed to have received, held public celebrations in honor of his espou-
sal to the Virgin Mary, and was finally slain (about 1124) by a priest, (r)
Eon (Eudo de Stella) proclaimed that he had been sent into the world to bo
the judge of the living and the dead. He made his appearance sometimes in
one and sometimes in another place in dilferent parts of France, attended by
(/) Bonacorsi in D^Acheri/, p. 211s8. G. BergomtrutU c Cath. ot Paso^os a a. 1230. (ifuraton
Antlqq. Ital. Med. aevl. vul. V. p. 152ss.) {C. U. l/ahn, Oesch. d. KoUer im MA. bes. im 11. 12. u
13. Julirli. Stultpr. 1850. 3 vol».]
!i) Comp. I.ÖMcher, Kef. Acta. vol. I. p. 857. On tiio otlier hand: Baumg. Crxuiut, Comp, d.
DQescli. p. 302.
t) Ilermanni Contr. Cbron. ad. ann. 1052. Gesta Eplscc. L«odIens. c. 50. G0& {JJarUne, ampliss.
Col. Th. IV.)
a) Petri Vener. Ep. adv. Petrobrassiano« hacr. (BibL PP. max. Tli. XXIL p. 10238a.
1) Acta Episc. Ccnonianenslum c. 85s. (Hahillon ye\X. Analccta. Tli. Ill) Bernardi Vita scr.
OaufriJ. Ill, 6.
c) Ep. Trajcctensis Ec^. ad Frid. Arclilep. Colon, (.irgentre Tli. I. p. Uss.) AbaelarJi Intr. ad
fheol. (0pp. p. 1006.) Vita Xorberti, § 3Ö. (AcU SS. Jun. Tli. I. p. S«.)
254 MKDIAKVAL OIllK'.'lI lIlSToItV. riCK. III. A. I). S00-V2Iß.
ft Ixilil ivtiiiiu-, iiiid liviii-j ill so sumptuous a style on the -wealth of the
i-hurchori iiiul iii(.n:i.sterio;4, that tlio people generally believed him to be a ma-
gician, lie was at last taken by siiri)rise, arraigned before a Synod at
Kiu'iiiis (114S), and witliout despairing of the success of his cause, died in
tlie prison of .St. Denys. ('/)
§ 230. The Waldenses.
I. >[oiiiorlii!s of the AVald. ^fannscripts in Geneva and Dublin, generally afTected by later I'rot«»-
tant Influences (comp. Plecklioff, modified by Herzog), especially with respect to times before Hii!«:
Cantica, described by Ilei-zog, p. 72ss. and la nubia Leyczon in Itaynouartl, Clioix des poeslM
orig. des Troul)ad. Par. 1S18. vol. II. p. 73ss. According to tlic Geneva and Dublin text in Jlersog,
p. 41 Ks. Katli. Verdicts and Protocols of the Inquisition in Argentre, (Col. jud. vol. I. p. 71ss.)
and I'll, a I.imhoreh, Hist. Inquisit. in tlic conclusnon mentioned as L. sententt. Inqiil«. Tolosanae.
C'alliarislic accounts and polem. writings: IScrnarihix, Abbas Fontis calidi (d. before 1200) adv. Val-
densium scctam. (Bibl. PP. max. vol. XXIV. p. 15S5.) Alanus de Jnsulix (d. 1202), c. Ilaeretic
L II. (Opj). 0(1. A'. V. Viscli, Antu. 1054.) Walther Mapes in Ilahn, vol. II. fi. 2."ns. Stfjihanm de
liorhone (about 1250), de Septem donis Sp. S. VII, 81. {Argentre vol. I. p. &5ss.) Jlaiiieriux. Jfo-
neia (§ 228. n. e.)
II. GMes, llist ccc. des ögl. reform^'es en quelques vallöes de Piemont. Gen. 1C44. J. Leger,
Hist gen. des ^-gl. cvang. des vallees de Picm. ou Vaudoises. Leid. 10C9. 2 vols. f. Uebers. v. Schiai-
niU, Lpz. 1750. 2 vols. 4. {J. Brez) IlisL des Vaud. Laus. 179C. 2 vols. Lpz. ITOS. A. Jlnnaelier,
Ilist. dV'gl. Vaudoise. Gen. 1S47. 2 vols. A. Miiaton, Tlsrael des Aljies, prem. Ilist. complete des
Vaud. Par. 1S51. 4 vols. — IIali.n (see before § 22S.) vol. II. comp. Preface to vol. III. p. X. K Ben-
der, Gesch. d. AV. Ulm. 1S50.— J. W. Dieckhoff, d. W. im MAltor. Gott. Ii51. Herzog, d. ronian.
W. ihre vorref. Zust.inde n. Lehren, ihre Pef. im 16. Jhli. u. d. Rückwirk. drs. llal. 1S53. \_Pey-
rrtn, Ilist. Defence of the Wald. Lond. 6vo. E. Uenderson, Origin, &c. of the Vaudois. W. &
Gill'/, The Albigenses in Littell's Eel. Mag. vol. I. p. 6. A. MonaHtier, Hist of the Vaudois
Church from its Origin. New York. 1S49. 12mo. Roht. Baird, Waldenses, Aibig. and Vaud. Phllad.
1S4S. Svo. C. U. Iluhii, Gesch. d. Ketzer im Mittelalter, bes. im 11. 12. und 13. Jahrb. Stnttg. 1547. C.
C. Ifahn, in Stud. u. Krit. 1851. IL 4 p. SG2. Herzog, d. Waldenser, vor n. nach d. Ref. Lps. 1S5.3. 12.]
The dissatisfaction and ferments which prevailed during the twelfth cen-
tury, gave occasion during the last half of it to the appearanc>e of the "Wal-
dcnses. As they were generally conversant with the Scriptures, they main-
tained in opposition to unworthy priests, that all who truly imitated Christ
ia his life of poverty, had a right freely to preach the gospel. As the natu-
ral result of their demand that Christians should hve in complete poverty
and virginity, a distinction was formed soon after the excitement of their
origin had subsided, between the Perfect, who forsook all and went forth
two by two in their sandals preaching repentance, and the mere Believers,
who forsook the pleasures of the world, but who continued in the enjoyments
of conjugal and social life. Witnesses whose testimony is beyond suspicion,
though they belonged to the Catholic Church, inform us that their name and
origin is to be traced to (Peter) Waldus^ an opulent citizen of Lyons, who
was transported by his own ideal of evangelical iterfection, had the gospels
and many sentiments of the ecclesiastical fathers which harmonized with
them translated into the Romanic vernacular language, gave all his posses-
sions to the poor, and from a desire to attain a state like that found in the
apostolic Church, went forth (about IIGO) as a preacher of repentance. Tlie
tradition more recently entertained among the "Waldenses themselves, accord-
ing to which their origin is to be traced to primitive and even to apostolic
rf) Wilhelm Xeuhrigens de reb. Angl. L 19. {Argentri Th. L p. 8688.) Otto Fris. de gest Fria
I, Ma, Albenci Chron. ad ann. 114S. ".149.
CnAP. VI. PEOT. PARTIES. § 230. WALDENSES. § 231. ALBIGEXSE3. 255
Hmes, is trno only so fiir as the same spirit has always been sustained among
them by the sacred Scriptures, and has always protested again,st the corrup-
tions of the Church. It is also probable that in some of their Alpine val-
leys a spirit has been maintained ever since the time of Claudius of Turin,
which harmonized with and Avas best defined by the preaching of the Wal-
den.^es. These Poor People of Lyom (Leonistae, Ilumiliati, Sabatati) had no
idea of breaking away from the Church, and when their archbishop com-
manded them to be silent, they turned with the utmost confidence to Alex-
ander III. (1179), who treated them with scorn. Their doctrine that laymen
might teach the people necessarily brought them into collision with the
clergy, and they Avere soon (1184) excommunicated by Lucius III. But obey-
ing God rather than men, they established congregations in France, Italy,
and Germany, and had their principal residences in Provence and in the
lofty valleys of Piedmont. Altliougli they diflfered from the Catholic Church
not so much in their doctrines as in their manner of life, which was strictly
conformed to the letter of Christ's sermon on the mount, they were con-
strained to deny that the Church of the pope was the Church of Christ, even
Avhen they allowed that many had been saved who had never forsaken it.
Their moral convictions were strongly against the doctrine of a purgatory,
with all its auxiliary additions; they required a confession of all sins, but
expected forgiveness from God alone, and they honored the saints as models
of piety, but not as intercessors before God. Wherever their congregations
were properly organized, their Masters or Barbs, chosen from among the Per-
fect, preached, heard confessions, and in cases of necessity administered tlio
sacraments*. Innocent III. at one time indulged the hope that he could bring
their evangelical poverty under the control of monastic vows (pauperes catho-
lici), but the fortunes of this sect soon became involved with those of the
Catharists, and it was said that even if the faces of these heretics were dif-
ferent, tlieir tails were all twisted together. They frequently lived concealed
in the midst of the Catholic Churcli, recognizing each other by s^ecret signs,
anil wherever they were thoy always formed a light amidst surrounding dark-
ness, were active in promoting evangelical virtues and familiarity with the
Scriptures, and always stood ready to aid with tlic power of a Scriptural
Christianity every higlier development of man's moral nature.
§ 231. The Alhi'jcnsian W.u:
I. Petri .Vniiachi (ilo Vaiix Ci-rnay') lllsf. Alblpcnsliim. GnU. <le Poilin Liiiiroidi {CUa\t\mn to
naymninl VH.) ?ii[)er Hist nesotH Fnincor. a.lv. AIM?. (Both foiiniJ in Bniuiiift-Bi-hil Tli. XIX.)
Hist, (le ia cnii-ade contre los hiT^tlqiios Allii^'ciiiü. (Vrltc en vers provonraiix. pnlil. par ^^. C Fiiit-
••iV/, Par. 1*37. 4. Hist, de la guerre dos \\h\z. (Tou'other with otiicr dociiiiicnts in llio Hist, do Lnn-
pnoJ. Til. III. Preuvcs.'» J. du TUM, Ili^t. lieKI c. Alb. iiilti comp, ox ISibl. Vat, od. .1. Drts-
»el, 1S45.
II. Si'timonile <U Sixinomfi, los crolsnilo» oonlro les Alblj. Par. 1S2S. [tran.sl. Into End. Lond.
1S26. 8vo.] J. J. Biii-nm et A. B. D,irrtii/,»i. Hist, dcs crols e. Ics Alb. Par. Iä^l3. C. Schmidt^
(§ 22S, note c.)
The Catharists and Waldenscs having become in some parts of Provence
more powerful than the Church itself, their examjdo was exceedinglv danger-
ous. Complete authority was therefore bestowed by Innore/it III. for the
suppression of these heretics. His legates travelled about barefoot in the
256 MKDIAICVAL ClIUIiCH IlISTOUY. I'KU. III. A. D. 800-121G.
manner of t}io npostles, soraotimes preaching and disputinj:, and sometimes
txctfing np judicial jirocccdinf^s and popular acts of violence. Peter of Cna-
ttlnan^ one of flicso Icfratos, in order to accomplish his object, seized upon
those powers Avhich belonf,'ed exclusively to the civil magistrate, and thus
became embroiled in a quarrel with Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse, one
of the most powerful princes of the country. The result was that the legate
was assassinated, and the guilt of the deed was imputed to the Count him-
self. Innocent then proclaimed a crusade against him and all other heretics,
under the conduct of Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux, as legate, and of Simon de
Montfort. Raymond endeavored to escape the danger by humbling himself
and taking the cross against bis own people. The arms of the crusaders were
now turned against Raymond iJcj^rcr, Viscount of Beziers and Albi, and
hence the heretics, and especially the Catharists, against whom this crusade
was principally directed, were generally called Albigcnses. (a) Beziers was
taken by storm, and the legate boasted, that as a messenger of divine wrath,
he had utterly destroyed the city, (b) Montfort now turned the fury of his
excited followers again&t the territories of the Count of Toulouse, and when
he had conquered them be was recognized at the Synods of Montpellier and
the Lateran (1215) as the lawful lord of all that he had thus acquired, (c)
Innocent perceived the impolicy of this proceeding, but lest he should lose
the great object at which he was aiming, he did not venture to rend the prey
from the possession of the tigers whom he had let loose, (^d)
CHAP. VII.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
§ 232. Extension of the Church.
The Bulgarians, originally of Turkish extraction, but after their settle-
ment in Moesia very extensively blended with the Slaves, were for a long
time the most formidable of all the neighbors Avith whom the Greek empire
was obliged to contend. For a considerable period they scornfully rejected
a system of faith proposed to them by their enemies. Christianity, however,
was gradually introduced among them at various epochs (845-865) ; once when
the daughter of their prince returned from captivity among the Greeks, then
when in time of famine they made supplication to the God of Christians and
were delivered, and finally, under the influence of Methodius, who is reported
to have exerted his talents among them not only as an apostle but as a paint-
er, {a) That portion of the Bulgarians who resided on the Volga were con-
verted to Mohammedanism, and the kindred tribe of the Chazars, who re-
sided in the Chersonese, was divided between Mohammedanism, Judaism, and
Christianity, {h) The Mainots, who inhabited the rocky caverns of the Tay-
a) P. Jas, de Valdensium secta ab Albigens. bene flistlnguenda. L. B. 1S84. 4.
b) Caesar I/einUrbac. V, 21. Innoc. 1. XII. Ep. lOS.
c) Mansi Th. XXII. p. 1069.
d) ffiirter, Innoc. vol. II. p. eSTs!».
o) Constontini Porpht/r. Contlnuator IV, 13ss. Xicetas iJarid, Ignat {Jlaiisi Th. XVL p.
MS.) Comp. § 225.
b) Frähn, Ibn-Fosslan's und andrer Araber Berichte ü. d. Küssen ült Zelt Petcrsb. 1S23. 4 Pr^
CHAP. VII. ORIENT. CHUKCII. § 232. RUSSIANS. § 223. ROMAN EMPIRE. 257
getus, continued to resist tlie elTorts of the Church until the latter half of
ihe ninth century, when tliey also yielded sulycction to it. About the same
time the Slaves, who at different periods had broken into the territory of
ancient Greece, became Christians, and were connected with the Greek
Church, (c) The Riissians became acquainted with Christianity on the bat-
tle-field. Traditionary accounts tell us of the extraordinary success of some
efforts to convert tlieni during the ninth century, but no traces of the results
appear in subsequent ages. Photius proclaimed that they were enthusiastic
in their desires for the gospel, but tlio event proved that his announcement
was premature. Ohja, their excellent dowager princess, procured baptism
for herself in Constantinople (955), but even to the close of her life she could
enjoy the services of a Christian priest onl}' in secret. Her grandson Vladi-
mir, after a careful investigation of the ditlerent forms of religion then preva-
lent, received baptism from the Greeks (988). The people beheld with tears
the abuse which was heaped upon their ancient gods, and submitted them-
selves silently to baptism in the river Dnieper. A motropolitanate under the
jurisdiction of the Greek Patriarch was established in liiew, then the capital
of the empire. A convent (Petschera) established in a cave near Kiew, be-
came, after the middle of the eleventh century, the seminary from which the
whole country was supplied not only with bishops and saints, Avhose bodies
never decayed, but with a Eussian literature. ('/)
§ 233. The Roman Empire and the Church.
The Koman Empire in the East, continually pressed more and more by
the power of the Turks, the Normans, and the Crusaders, maintained its
courage by the proud recollections of its former greatness, and its existence
merely in consequence of the fortunate position of its capital. The mechan-
ism which prevailed in the secular and spiritual administrations then united
in the head of the imperial government, generally continued unaffected by
the revolutions which so frequently took place in the palace. The spirit of
the Church sympathized with the universal torpidity, and orthodoxy took
the place which belonged to morality and religion. The patriarchs of Con-
stantinople perpetrated and endured all those acts of violence Avhich the
highest civil officers are accustomed to infiict and receive where feeble despot-
isms prevail. A party of the clergy was kept under restraint by another
party in the army. The enthusiasm of the crusaders met with no response
hero except ridicule and suspicion. The number and power of these sacred
warriors was such that Constantinople finally became a mere colony of the
face. J. V. Klaproth, Besclir. d. russ. Prov. zw. d. kasp. u. Schwarz Mcoro. Berl. 1814. p, 119ss.
262S8.
c) Le Quien, Orlens chr. Th. II. p. lOSsa. Fallmerayer, Oesch. d. llalblns. Morea wahrend des
Mlttolalt. Stuttg. u. Tub. 1S30. vol. I. p. liSss. 21G. 22T.'«. The stateim-nts and spirit of this work
should be corrected by a perusal of Zinkeisen, Oesch. Qrlcchenl. Lpz. 1S32. vol. I. p. TOlsa. 7GTs^
650SS.
d) Nestor (died about 1113), Annals (till llin. Petcr^b. ITOTss. 5 Th. 4.) m. Uebcrs. u. Anm. (tlU
Vladimir) by ScMuzer, Oott lS02s9. 5 vols. — JC(iram«in, Oesch. d. russ. Reichs. Uebcrs. by Ifauenr
Schild, P>ig. 1S20SS. vol. I. II. Strahl, Oesch. d. russ. KIrcho. Hal. 1S30. vol. I.
17
258 MKDIAKVAI. CIICIUII IIISTOnV. I'Ki:. III. A. I). SOO-l.MC.
Wofitoru uatloriH, und wliat remained of tlie Grecian Empire, Avilli all or
which its liopes could rest, was transferred to Trebizond.
§ 234. J'hotius.
Photii Epp. cii. AfoiUacHliiie, Lond. 1051. f. Ori^rinal docnments In JfanH Tli. XV'. XVI. Vita
B. corlniiipn S. Ignatil, Xty Nicettis David, (ilaiui Tli. XVI. p. 2ft9.) An'intaifii IJibl. Pracf. ad
tunc. VIII. ciec. [Munsi Tli. XVI. p. Iss.) Ejusd. Vita Nicholal I. ViU Iladriani II.— jE". B. Suialve,
(!,■ dls.slill() Kit. clir. in Rr. et lat Photll auct maturato. L. B. 18.30. {O. Finlay, II. of the Byzan-
tine Empire. Lond. IS.")». 8.]
The real ruler of the emperor and the empire wa.s Barda.i^ the uncle of
Michael III. The Patriarch Jr/nathts, a eunuch of the detlironed imperial
family, zealously protested against the arbitrary conduct of Bardas and the
immoralities of the emperor, in Avhose drinking revels the sacred rites of the
Church were caricatured. To get rid of him, Photius, through the influence
of the court, was elevated to the patriarchal oflBce (858). This man had
passed through the highest ofBcos of the state, and was posses,sed of much
diversified learning. By his promotion to that ofl[ice a schism Avas created in
the Church, which the court attempted to heal by means of the Roman
bishop. Legates were sent to Constantinople by Kicholas /., but they were
soon won over to the party of Bardas, and gave sentence against Ignatius
(861). Nicholas, however, annulled their decisions, and rejected Photius as
an intruding lajinan (863). This disagreement became still more serious
when the Bulgarians were drawn into ecclesiastical connection with the
Church of Rome, {n) A circular Avas then sent forth by Photius, severely
censuring as heresies all those usages in which the Roman differed from the
Greek Church. Among the heresies enumerated were the observation of
fasts on Saturday, the curtailment of the great fasts, the contempt of con-
firmation when performed by the hand of a presbyter, and tlie prohibition
of the lawful marriage of priests. To these charges was added the bitter
reproach that the Roman Church had sinned against the Holy Ghost by cor-
rupting the Apostles' Creed, (i) For, the doctrine of the procession of the
Holy Ghost (§ 105) from the Son as well as from the Father, though it had
been maintained as truth by Leo III., had been disapproved as an addition to
the Creed, ('■) and yet had finally found admission into the Latin version of
that symbol. At a synod convened by Photius in Constantinople (867), the
pope Avas excommunicated and deposed. During the same year, hoAvever,
Basil became sole ruler in the empire by the murder of Michael, with whom
he had before been associated in authority, and for this bloody crime the
imperial murderer was debarred by Photius from the communion jf the
Church. With calm, lofty dignity, the Patriarch stood before his judges,
and was condemned in the Synod of Constantinople (869), which claimed to
be oecumenical. {J) By the same assembly Ignatius Avas restored to the pa-
triarchal oilice, and sought to regain his former friendship Avith Rome, but
<i) Comp. Gf rarer, CaroUngcr. vol. I. p. 409. 449ss.
I) Ep. 2. Montacut, p. 47ss.
c) M,i»si Th. XIA'. p. iTss. Anast Vit.<i Leon. III. {^MunitoH Th. III. P. L p. 208.)
d) Munxi Th. XVL p. l>2.ss. 371ss.
CHAP. Vir. oi:iE>'T. cuurxiL § 2.54. photius. § 235. scnis.\L 259
the dispute respecting the Bulgarians, whom one in his position could not
honorabl\' surrender, soon produced a renewed occasion for strife. On the
death of Ignatius (878), the emperor became reconciled to Photius, and John
VIII.^ hoping to effect a favorable compromise of his difficulties, recognized
the claims of the restored patriarch. At the Synod of Comstantinojjle (879),
which is regarded by the Greek Church as the eighth oecumenical council,
and was attended by Roman deputies, all decrees which had been issued
against Photius were annulled, (c) The pope, however, soon found that he
had been deceived in his expectations, and pronounced sentence of excom-
munication against the patriarch and his synod. Photius was also hated by
the heir- apparent to the throne, who had no sooner assumed the imperial
crown under the name of Leo the "Wise (880), than he was sent to a convent,
where he found his grave (about 891).
§ 235. The Dicision of the Church.
Leo AllatiiiK, do Ecc. occ et or. perpetua consens. Col. IC-IS. 4. Maimhourg, Hist, du sclilsme
des Grecs. Par. 1GT7. 4. and others. C, A. v. ReiclUin-ileldegg, d. Ursachen d. Trennung. (Theol.
AbUh. Greiz. liiO.)
The previous relations of the Oriental to the rJomau Church were never
again re-established in a definite form. The Circular which had been issued
by Photius has ever since continued a perpetual monument, in which the
actual differences between the two churches are exhibited in their most ob-
noxious form. The political separation of Italy from the Grecian Empire
necessarily involved also its ecclesiastical. The more the power of the pope
increased in the West, tlie more decidedly Avas it needful to repel his claims
in the East. A full declaration of the schism was delayed by nothing but
the hope which the emperor entertained, that he might obtain some assist-
ance against the Infidels from the warlike nations of the West. But in an
epistle of the Patriarch J/«V7iaeZ Cerularius (1053), the usual reproaches which
had been heaped upon the Romish Church were increased by another, which
accused it of the Jewish heresy of using unleavened bread in the Eucha-
rist, {(t) A violent epistolarj' controversy ensued. Roman legates in Con-
stantinople demanded satisfaction for the offence, and the patriarch sought
support against the policy of the emperor in the passions of the people. On the
16th July, 105-t, the Roman legates deposited on the great altar of the Church
of St. Sophia the sentence of excommunication which ha<l been issued against
the patriarch, and shook off the dust from their feet. (A) A (ireek Synod
hurled back a sentence of cxcomnmnication against the Roman Church, and
the other Catholic patriarchs became coimected with Constantinople, (c)
Both Churches, the Eastern and the AVestern, each in like manner claiming
to be Catholic to the exclusion of the other, became henceforth permanently
separated. In conseqtience of the crusades, this division of the Church be-
e) M'Uifti Th. XVII. p. .'?73s'<.
a) To lie found only in n Latin transl. in Huron hi» nd snn. ]0.')3. N. 22.
h) Bicvis coiiiineinoratio eoruMi, quae cissorunt Afwcrlsiarli S. I!uni. Sedls In regta urbc, by Car-
dlnal lliiniljert, in Burnn. ad ann. loSl. N. 19.
e) Mich. Cerularu Ep. II. ad I'clruni Pair. Antiocli. (CoMeril Ecc, gr. Monuiii. Tli. IL p.
185sa. 1Ü2SS.)
2CC MKDIAKVAL CIirKCII HISTORY. I'F.i:. IH. A. I). ^••i-Ul«.
camo prndiially ripened iiiti) u national hatred. While they Avere in j»ro;?res9
several cttbrts were made by those engaged in them to unite with the other
ecclesiastical parties of the East, without success on account of national dif-
ferences. The M(iro7titex, at that time a warlike tribe, wore tlio only class
which lionostly and sincerely submitted themselves to the jurisdiction of the
I,atin patriarch of Antioch {1182). (fT) The Armenians endeavored to pre-
sent the appearance of a reconciliation whenever they wislied for assistance
from the West, but only a few individual congregations under the control
of the "Western governments maintained any connection with the Komish
Church, and were permitted to retain their own sacred language and the
usages of their ancestors.
§ 236. State of Science.
The science of this period corresponded with the rigid lifelessness which
characterized all departments of society. But the study of the classical
writers and the ecclesiastical fathers, which had never been entirely discon-
tinued, served to transmit from generation to generation the inheritance of
such an education as they were capable of imparting. "When Bardas com-
menced his administration, it began to be perceived that the proud spirit of
the nation could not long maintain itself by the side of the vigorous cultiva-
tion of the Mohammedans and the Western nations, without keeping up a
superiority to them in learning. He therefore became the patron of science,
and Constantinople was for a considerable time the seat of an eminent lite-
rary activity. Histories of the world, the empire, and the Church were
written by authors of various conditions in life and with diflerent degrees of
merit, but all of them pervaded by the spirit peculiar to a resident of Con-
stantinople. The kind of studies pursued was to some extent philological
and rhetorical, or connected with natural sciences, without any predominance
of an ecclesiastical element. JPhotius, who was even in scientific matters a
model for his Church, has in his Bihliotheca (a) preserved for subsequent
ages brief extracts and notices of many Christian and heathen writers, who
would otherwise have been unknown. His JS^omocanon, by the common con-
sent of the Greek Church, has been adopted as its authoritative code of eccle-
siastical law. The first part embraced the canons of those synods which
were then regarded as authoritative, together with some canonicid epistles.
These canons and epistles had been collected together some time in the sev-
enth century, and merely received some additions in number from the hands-
of Photius. The second part contains the civil laws relating to the Church,
systematically arranged and abridged in fourteen sections, Avith figures refer-
ring to the corresponding canons of the first part. (I) Simeon Metaphrastes
d) IfUh. Tyr. XXII, S. Kunstmann, die Maron. u. ihr Verb. z. lat. K. (Tub. Qaartalschr.
S45. II. 1.)
a) Mvpi6ßtß\ov s. Bibl. cd. Im. Bekker, Ber. lS24s. 2 Tb. 4.
6) Tbe first Part, togetbcr with the Scholiao of Zanams (about ll'2ö), and BaUamon (1170). Bett-
rrgii 'S.vvohtKov s. Pandectae canonum, 0.x. 1672. 2 Th. £ The Second Part is in JustelH BibL Th.
II. p. 7S5. and the te.xt of the c.inons which was written out at some time in the 10th cent in A.
Majo Spicil. Roman. Kom. 1S12. Th. TIL Comp. Biener, z. Eovis. d. Just. Codex Berl. 1883», |x
54&J. Bickell in d. Jen. L. Z. IS-14. JJ. 2S2.
CHAP. VII. OKIEXT. CnURCII. § 236. LITERATURE. § 23T. TAULICIAXS. 261
(lOth cent.) lias recorded in a lively manner the old legends of the ancient
saints, (c) Oecumcnius, Bishop of Tricca (about 990), (*/) T/ieopIiylact, Arch-
bishop of the Bulgarians (11U7), (<) and Euthymius Zifjalcnus, a monk of
Constantinople (d. about 1118), (/) formed collections for the interpretation of
the Scriptures out of tlie writings of the fathers, which are valuable because
they are the only medium through which we have received a large part of
the treasure from which they were drawn. The Creed of tlie Church had
become firmly established on the basis of ecclesiastical tradition, and was
now decked off with a few cautious Aristotelian fonmilns. It had also been
somewhat tinctured with the peculiarities of Platonism tli rough the influence
of the Areopagite and the fathers of the fourth century. It was obliged to
maintain a perpetual conflict with the philosophy and heretical opinions of
past times. A peculiar spirit is very perceptible in the controversial writ-
ings of Nicholas, Bishop of Methane (died after IIGC), (g) and in the Treasure
of Orthodoxy (//) which Nicetas Choniates found consolation in composing in
the midst of the misfortunes of his native land. But the si)ccial character of
the age is most distinctly seen in the FanopUa, collected from the writings
of the fathers by Euthymius Zigahenus by order of the theological emperor
Alexius Oomnenus, for the refutation and condemnation of all lieretics. (i)
Among the Oriental parties, the Jacobites were distinguished for having pre-
served a lively current of the old Syriac learning through several successive
generations.
§ 237. Paulicians. Section 2. Continued from § 1-tG.
ConsUintini Porphyr. B.isilius Macedo. c. 8Tss. Anna Comnena, Alexias. Par. Ifi.")!. f. I.
XIV. p. 450ss.— J/(eÄ. Pselli. rrepl ivepyfiai SainSvaiv Siä\. c<1. /rusennuiUer,K\l 16SS. 12. An-
tui Conut. Alex. XV. p. 43Gss. Eathymii Zijgndeni Xarratio de Bogoin. sen Panopliao tit. 23. gr.
recogn. Ziai Interpret add. Gieseler, Goctt. 1SS2. 4. (Also in Wolf.)
Sergius (after 800), under the name of Tychicus, induced the Paulicians
to return to the simplicity of morals which ])revailed in the ancient Church.
After his death (835) no single individual was elected to preside over
them, but they were governed by a council of their teachers. The most
intolerable oppressions were patiently endui-ed by them, and it was not till
the Empress Theodora had commenced a process by which they were to
c) Xevor printcsl .ns a separate work, some 122 biographies in the histories of the saints of the
Grcclc and IJoinan Clmrches, and the Codices, seldom by tliemsclves. Leo Allalitis, de varus Si-
meonib. et Siineonnm scriptis. Par. 1ÖC4. 4.
il) Comni. in Acta App. Epp. Paulinas et cath. ed. F. Jforellun, P.ir. IWl. 2 Th. f.
e) Conim. in XII. Propli. niin. IV. Evv. Actn App. i:pp. Paul. (0pp. ed. J. F. R Jf. d« linleis,
Vcn. 1755s. 4 Th. f )
/) Conun. in Psalm. {Theofhyl. 0pp.) in IV. Evv. cd. C. F. Matthaei, Lps. 1792. 3 Th. f.
<j) 'AraTTTiifu T^s ä{o\oyiKr\s aroixfiilcatws Up6K\ou n\oTü)i'i»cori, ed. I'ofmW, FrcriS25.
Ä) Qr](ravph^ opboSu^las 1. XXVII., only the five first books in the fransl. by Pet. JforeUtis,
Par. 1509. (Bibl. PP. max. Th. XXV.)
j) riui'OTrXia Soyfiariyh rr\v op^o5. iriVrfos, Terjrov. 1711. f (The e.\travat:antTiL 24. against
Islam in S'./lUurgi Saracenic«, ed. Ii,urer. lleiilelb. 1695.) Lat cd. Zino, Ven. 1555. f. (Hibl. PP.
Lugd. Th. XIX. Tit. 12 and 13 against the Human Church is suppressed.) Comp. Anna« Coiiin. Sup.
plenionta llistdriani eoc. Graec. p. XI. et XII. fpcctanli:i, ed. 7'. /-. /'. 7i(A'. Tub. l^i.— Lllmanii,
Nie. V. Methone, Eulh. Zig. and Nie. Chon. o. d. dogm. Entwiokl. d. Griecli. K. im 12 Jahrh. (Stud.
a. Krit 1S83. P. 8.)
^G2 MKDIAKVAI, CIUKCII llI.STOirY. ViAi. III. A. I). W)-V2\i;.
1)0 Utterly oxtorminatcd by a f,'oneral massacre, that they flew to arms. An
imperial general wlioso name was C'arlcas (844), actuated by a desire of re-
venj^'O for flio wroii^jjs which his father had sustained from the government,
hooatiio Ihcir leader, formed an alliance with the Arabians, and strongly forti-
liod Ttji/iricn, a mountain-hold on the eastern confines of the empire. He
and his successor ChrysochercK^ with all the cruelty which fanaticism inspires,
made excursions from this fortress, and laid waste the provinces of Asia Mi-
nor. Although the Emperor Badl finally succeeded in destroying Tephrica
(871), many Paulicians maintained their existence as a people in the moun-
tainous regions, and kept the extreme portions of the empire in continual
agitation. That he might break up their connections with the Saracens, John
Zimisces formed a treaty with them (970), in accordance with which tliey
were for the most part removed to Thrace, where a colony of them had been
formed even in the eighth century. Here they acknowledged a certain kind
of allegiance to the empire, bot in the independent possession of PJiilippo-
polis they served with great bravery as border sentinels. Alexius Comne-
nus having been abandoned by a large band of them in the Norman war,
effected their subjugation by stratagem and violence (after 1085). During his
residence in his winter quarters in Thrace (1115) he sought the honor of their
conversion, and in fact many of them yielded to the arts of the imperial
apostle. But the Paulicians, under the name of Biichites^ with Manichean
doctrines and fanatical forms of prayer, and under Elders who were regarded
as apostles of Thrace, had before this become numerous among the Bulga-
rians, (n) The afSnities of these people for the Slavonic Dualism gave them
acceptance in that nation among which they were commonly called Boffo-
miles. According to their system of faith, the original Source of all Being
had two sons, called Satanael and Logos. In his attempts to attain equality
with the Father the former became evil in his nature, seduced the angela
from their allegiance, and formed the visible universe. Through the divino
powers which he still retained he created man, and by Eve he became the
lather of Cain. All ecclesiastical organizations were established under the
influence of Satanael, and had their principal seat formerly at Jerusalem, but
then at the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. The holy Virgin con-
ceivea in consequence of an influence through the ear, and Christ in the
body of an angel succeeded in overcoming his elder brother. The Bogomilea
acknowledged the authority of the Psalms and of sixteen prophets in the
Old Testament, and received many apocryphal books, (V) but they gave an
allegorical interpretation to the sacred history, and to the usages of tho
Chm'ch. In the garb of mouasticism they concealed themselves even in Con-
stantinople until Alexius extorted a confession from them, and burned Basl-
lius their leader at the stake (1118). (<*) Small communities of Bogomiles
were found among the Bulgarians through the whole period of the middle
ages, and Paulicians have continued to exist under many changes in and
around Philippopolis and in the valleys of the Ilaemus until the present day.
a) Schniher, d. Ench. Im 11. Jahrh. {Stirm's Stud. d. Geistl. Würt. vol II. H. 1.)
?') Llbor S. .Toftnnis. (Thilo Cod. apocr. Th. I. p. 8*4.) Visio Isa. (§ S9, note d.)
c) J. C. WoU\ Hist. Bogoni. Vit 1712. 4. L. Oeder, Prodr. H. Bog. erit. Goctt 1743. 4. EngeU
hardt, d. Bos. (KGosch. Ablib. Er!. 1S32. N. 2.)
dc/lr
/6/ //
FOURTH PERIOD.
FROM INNOCENT III. TO LUTIIEE.
§ 238. General View and Historical Writers.
I) § 170. Fontes rerum Germ. GeschiclitsquellenDeutschl. (14. & 13. Jbli.) ed. by J. F. Boehmtr^
Btuttg. 1S43-5. 2 vols, Albertus Stadensis, Benedictine Abbot, Franciscan, died after 12C0, Chron.
till 1256. cd. lieinecc. IwST. Vit. ICOS. 4. (Svhilteri Scrr. rer. germ. vol. II. p. 123.) ContinuaUon
1264-1324, ed. A. f/cjer, Ilafn. 1720. Vincentius JSellovacensis, Dominic, in Royemont, died about
1204, Speculum bistoriale, till 1250. Argent. 1473. 4 vols. f. Aug. 1474. 8 volst f. {Schlosser, Vine. v.
Beauvais ü. Erzicb. m. 3 Abb. Frkf. 1S19. 2 vols.) Matthens Paris, Benedict in S. Albans,
Hist, nnajor till 1259. (1000-1205. from the Chron. of Jioger de M'endocer, Lond. 1S4«.) contin. by
W. nishanger, m 1273, cd. irufo, Lond. 1044. 1GS4. [publ. by the Camden Soc. edited by /A/Wi-
ueU. Lond, 1S40.] f. & often. Joannes de Winterthur, FrancifC., Chron. 1215— 134S. (Thesanr. Hist
Ilelv. Tig. 1735. f.) Albertus Argentinensis, Chron. 1273-137S. (Ursiis vol. IL p. 95.) The Stra-'borg
Chronicle by Closener (died 13U4.) closes at 1362. ed. by a Lit. Assoc in Stuttgard. 1S43. Jac. Twinger
ot KÖ7iiffxhofeii,a priest of Stra.sburg, died 1420. Elsafs. Chron. till 13S6, cd. by &-/((7/^r. Strasb.
1098. 4. (Kunisc/i, Kimigsfi. & his Chron. In W. MüUer's Ascaiiia. Ihid. 1S20. P. IL St robe I äo
F. Closneri Chron. germ. Arg. 1S29.) Gobelintis Persona, Dean of Bielefeld, died 1420, Cosmodro-
mium, independently 1340-141S. {Meibom, vol. I. p. 68.) Antoninus, Dominic. Arcbbish. of Flor-
ence, Summa bistorialis till 1459. Nor. 14S4. 3 vols. E & often. (0pp. Flor. 1741ss, vol. I.) Werner
liolfink; Carthusian in Cologne, d. 1500, Fasc, temfiorum till 1476. CoL 1474. f. & often. Cont by
Jo. Linturius till 1514. {Pisior. Struve vol IL p. 347.)— 2) Albertinus Jfussatus, of Fadua, d. 1830,
Hist Augusta Ilenr. VIL De gestis Italor. jtost mortem Ilenr. till 1317, Ludov. Bavarus, Fragment
{.Vurat. vol. X.) Giov. Villani, of Florence, Storie Fiortntino till 1343, cont by JIatleo &
FUippp rilUmi till 1304. {iluraf. vol. XIIIs.) Mil. 1729. f. & often. Jean Froissart, of Valen-
c^enne^ d. 1441, Clinm. dc Franco, d'Angl. etc 1.320-1400. Far. 1503. 1504. 4 vols. f. revue p. äj«-
vage, Lyon. 1559ss. 4 vols. f. In the Coll. des Cbronlques par Buchon, Par. 1S24. 10-25 vols, of the
13th cent {Praetorius ü. Froiss. In Schlosscr's Arch, t Gesch. 1S33. vol. V.) [Chronicles
of Engl. France, Spain, &c., transl. new ed. Lond. 1S45. 2 vols. 8.] P/iil. de Commines, d. 1509, Chron.
ot Histoire 14C4-9S. Par. 1523. f & often, rev. p. /.. du Fresnoij, Lond. 1747. 4 vols. 4. Fr. Guicci-
ardini, d. 1540. Storia d'ltalia, 149;M532. Yen. 1567. 4 & often. [Hist of Italy fi-om 1498-1632,
.raiisl. by A. P. Goddard, 2 ed. 1775, L(>nd. 9 vols. S. Froi.ssart, Commines &, Gulcciiirdini havo
been transl. into I'.n.L'. & publi.<liod t.igotlicr. New York »t Lond. 1S4S.] The portions of Guic sup-
pressed by public authority are in Heidegger, \IU\. Papatns, ed. 2. Amst 1C9S. GoldaM ^[onarchln
vol. III. p. 17.SS. — 8) CucciuH Sabellicus, IILstorioiir. of Yenice, d. 1500, Enncades s. rhaivs(x1ia Histo*
riarum till 1504, Yen. 149Sss. 2 vols. f. St, often. (0pp. Bas. 1560. 4 vols, f )— 4) ItoUmaeus de Fiado-
tiibus, Lncensis. Douiin. Bish. of Torcello, <L 1327, Hist ccc till 1312. (Jfurat vol. XL p. 741.)
Trithemius, A. 1516. Annales Iliraaugienxes <^30-1614. S. Galll 1690. 2 vols, f— 5) Astronomical
Hist of the Empire by Georg. Acropolita, 1201-61. ed. Leo Allatius, Par. 1651. f. Gtorg. Pachtj-
ineres 125S-130S. cd. Poi-tinuH, Bom. lOOl.ss. 2 vols. f. Im. Dikker, Bonn. 1S35. Xivfph. Gregoras,
1204-1359. ed. Poirinus, Par. 1702. 2 vols. f. Jmn. Cunlarucenos 132iV<f4. ed. Pontunus, Par. 1645.
3 vols. f. Joan. Ducas 1.341-1462, cd. Butlinldu.i, Par. 1019 f. C/ialcond </las 129S-1462, ed. Fa-
brot, Par. lG5i\ f. Georg. Phrames 1401-77, Ijit td. Pontanus, Ingoldst 1604. 4.
For a considcralile time the liiorarcliy ajiparently preserved its position at
the zenith of its po-\ver. But in coiiscqiitnce of those abuses to Avhich uu-
iimited autliurity nhvays leads >v]icn intrusted to human hands, public favor,
on -vvliith it entirely rested, soon became alienated from it. The claims which
2G4 MKIHAKVAI, ( llli:i II IllSTOUV. TKU. IV. A. IJ. 12IC-1.V,7.
it 8ct uj» were ns exorbitant ns ever, and even more so, ]>\\t as they were
generally rei)elle(l, tiny were i)ro(liictive only of injury to itself. The power
of the Papacy and of the empire were so conducted as mutually to destroy
ono another. The kings always found support against the encroacliinents of
the popes in the .«onso of justice and in the strong love of independence which
existed in the hearts of their people. Under the uniform improvement in the
dispositions and habits of the people, Avhicli the Church had fostered in every
European country, peculiar nationalities noAV began to be prominently devel-
oped. An intellectual education was extended among the people without the
aid of the Church, by means of which the popular mind became more ma-
ture, and lost its peculiar ecclesiastical character. In these circumstances
the hierarchy attempted to maintain its ascendency by intrigues and direct
force, and while it was struggling for its own existence it could no longer
aflbrd protection against political despotism. A reformation extending not
only to the members but to the very bead of the Church Avas generally re-
garded as indispensable, and was in various quarters actually attempted.
Catholicism itself appeared to have become for many nations an antiquated
system, and not adapted to tlie existing condition of things. And yet, as it
may often be remarked in history, that great spiritual principles sometimes
produce their sublimest forms just as they are about to be subverted, so
Catholicism accomplished its noblest achievements during this period. The
papacy was stiU the most prominent of all actors in history, although its
sphere was frequently limited to the circle of French and Italian politics.
The life of a few princes sometimes becomes the leading object in the picture
of events, and new powers are raised up for the deliverance of the Church,
General history was stiU written in the same ecclesiastical style in which it
had formerly been composed. Vincent of Beauvah, in his Eucyclopaidia of
all the knowledge and movements of his times, has given us a clear and true pic-
ture of his age. Matthcio Paris, in his English history, containing also many
sagacious observations respecting all the countries of Western Europe, has
not hesitated to disclose, with some bitterness, the crimes of the ecclesiasti-
cal rulers, for this rigid monk was animated by a supreme love to the Church
itself. Albert of Strasburg, a candid and faithful writer, presents lively
views of individual characters. The Alsatian Chronicle presents a history of
the people whose name it bears in their own language. Antoninus of Florence
composed a general history, in which the future saint has displayed the most
undoubting faith and much modest criticism. Several statesmen have also
given us histories, in which are presented the views of men in secular life.
Among these were: Alhertinus Mussatus, who wrote a history of his own
times and of neighboring countries, in a manner somewhat harsh but accu-
rate ; Villani, who, with his brother and nephew, composed a history of
Florence, with which also is connected many notices of the Middle Ages
generally, in a style of old Koman simplicity; Froissart, in whose Chronicles
the wars and royal courts of Western Europe are described with an extreme
relish for the glories of the declining orders of knighthood; and Coinmines,
in whose work we have the memorials of an age in which he sat at the helm
of affairs, and kncAv all the secrets of its historv. The extreme character of
CHAP. L PAPACY. § 239. FKEDERIC IL GKEGOKY IX. 265
this class of writers may be best seen in Guicciardini, in whose hiötorv of
Italy we have a true and lively i)icture of events, in which he was too inti-
mately concerned always to be impartial. Finally, we have the brilliancy of
classic learning displayed in the General History written by Sahellicus. In
immediate connection with the subject of Chm"ch History, Ftolemaeus of
Lucca compiled a work which is of considerable critical value, on account of
the great number of authorities which he has carefully quoted, with respect
to the times immediately preceding his own. In a Chronicle of the old
Benedictine Abbey of Trittcn7ieim, is also interwoven the history of the
general Church, esj)ecially so far as relates to Germany, with much learning,
but with an extreme bias for orthodoxy. The Byzantine historians, in the
lofty style of writing peculiar to their ancient authors, have described the
solemnities, the afflictions, and the commotions of the Eastern Roman Em-
pire, in which they generally bore so important a part. But in the opinions
which they express respecting western alhiirs, allowance must be made for
the asperity of feeling produced by the dominion of the Latins and the abor-
tive attempts frequently made at reconciliation.
CHAP. I.— EELATIOy OF THE PAPACY TO GENERAL AFFAIRS.
Mart. Poloniis. (at the head of § 171.) Bernard lU) Guido, Dominic. Bishop of Lodcve, d. 1881.
& Amalricus Augerii, Augiistinian, ahout 13C5, both until John XXII. (Murat. vol. IIL P. I, II.)
riatina {Barthol. &icchi), Abbreviator, d. 14S1, Yitao Pontificum Itoin. Yen. 1479. f. Later editt.
altered; the Dutch oilitt, without the name of the place of jmb. are correct according to the ed. prin-
ceps. 14G0. 1C45. & 1CG4. 13. 7/ieodoricu,i de Nietn, abbreviator, d. about 1417, named as the author
of Yitae Pontiff. Rom. 12SS-141S. additis Imporatt gestis. (Eccard vol. I. p. 14G1.) Leon. Areiinus.
papal Secret,iry, d. 1444. rerum suo temp, in Ital. gcftar. Commtr. 1.37S-1440. (Jtfurntori vol. XIX. p.
9u9.) Yitae Paparnm Avenionensiuin, ed. Steph. Baliaius, Par. 1693. 2 vols. 4. to be corrected by
reference to: Hist, des souverains Pontifes dans Avignon, Avign. 1777. 4. Lives of particular Popes
in Jfiirat. vol. III. P. I, II. Orig: Docc. in liaynald. J. Voigt, Stimmen a. Itom. fi. d. papetL Ilof
im 15. Jahrh. {liuumer's hi-'t Taschenb. 1S32. N. 'i.)—Boe}tmer, Rcge?ta Imperii. 1195-1204. Lately
revised. Stuttg. 1S49. 4 Regesta Imp. 1240-1313. Lately revised. Stuttg. 1*44. 4.
§ 239. Frederic II. (119^X»<:c. 13, 1250.
I. Petri de Vinein, (d. 1249.) Epp. 1. YI. cd. Iitelin. Basil. 1740. 2 vols. Boeltmrr, Reg. Imp. p.
C6ss. Pertz vol. lY. p. 223ss Extracts from the Rcgestis Honor. III. et Greg. IX. in Bui/nold Sc
Raumer. liiicardi de S. Germano Cliron. 11S9-1243. (ifurat. vol. YII. p. 963.) Conlln. by 2>'ic,
dejanuilla till 125S. (//;. vol. YIII. p. 4';9.>
II. (Funk) Oe.'^chiohte Fricdr. II. Züll. 1792. Raumer, vols. III-IY. p. 211. Ti: Zimmermann, die
Ilohenst. o. Kampf d. Monarclilc gegen Papst u. republ. Frelh. Stuttg. 1S;33. 2 vols.— C IF'fler, K.
Friedr. IL Munich 1S44.
The most enlarged mental endowments and the highest cnrthh- powers
were possessed l)y Frederic II, for the acconipli.-ihmcnt of the destiny of the
house of Ilohenstaufen. By means of the Saracen population of Sicily, a
part of whom he had induced to settle in Ajmlia, ho always had an army
ready with which to terrify the states of the Church. Hence tlio mild dis-
position of Ilonorixis III. (after 1216) was satisfied when tlie inheritance
bequeathed by the Counters Matilda was secured t ) him, and ho made no
resistance when tlie emperor's oldest son, already heir appai'ent to the throne
2GG MKDIAKVAL CIIIIICII IIISTOKY. I'KU. IV. A. D. 1210-1017.
of Sicily, was elected to bo tlio next successor in tlic empire, and when at,
the privileges of the Sicilian monarchy wero re-established. On his corona-
tion nt Aix-la-Clini)clle, Frederic had taken the vow'ot the cros.s, and had
.■^uhseciuently renewed it at Eoine. By his marriapo with lolante, tlie heiress
of the kin},'doin of Jerusalem, tlio oblijjfation to perform this vow seemed to
have l)ec()me more imperious. Bat the emperor, occupied with the caro of
establishing his power in Italy, always i)leadcd for a longer delay. The last
period fixed ujjon expired just as Ilonorius died (March 18, 1227), and was
eucceeded by Gregory IX. This pope was a nephew of Innocent III., and
like that prince possessed much skill in law, and an inflexible resolution. In
his obstinate old age he was even less restrained by a regard to the conse-
quences of what he regarded as right, {n) On the 15th August, 1227, the em-
peror set sail from Brundusium, but in three days returned, on account of a
pretended or at least a very convenient sickness. Gregory then issued against
him a sentence of excommunication, and was consequently driven from Rome
by the emperor's adherents. Frederic now appealed to the Christian world
with severe accusations against the pope, and without troubling himself to
obtain a release from a papal ban which ho regarded as unjust and invalid,
he again embarked for Palestine, August, 1228. But the anathema preceded
him, and induced his natural allies in the East to arm themselves against
him. At the same time a great host of ecclesiastical emissaries fell upon his
Italian inheritance. In this extremity, from the personal favor of his oppo-
nent. Camel, Sultan of Egypt, a truce of ten years was obtained, during
which it was agreed that he should retain possession of the kingdom of Jeru-
salem. He entered the holy city in triumph (March 17, 1229), placed upon
his head the crown of Jerusalem, hastened back to Italy, and drove the papal
soldiers before him. Many disapproved of the violent measures of the pope
against a crusader, and after vainly using his utmost efforts in every place, to
stir up enemies against the greatest hero of that century, Gregory obtained
from his policy or piety an honorable peace at St. Germano (Aug. 28, 1230).
The pope was obliged to submit to the overwhelming power of the emperor,
and to accept of the code of laws edited by Peter of Yinea (1231), by which
tlie law of the two Sicilies was firmly established, and though heretics were
Burrendered to the hands of the Church, the secular power of the Church was
made strictly subordinate to the State, (h) But when Frederic again prose-
cuted the struggle his family were always obliged to maintain with the Lom-
bards, the pope once more formed an alliance with the friends of popular
freedom, and in a sentence of excommunication pronounced against him
on Palm Sunday, 1289, released all his subjects from their oath of alle-
giance, and surrendered his body to the devil for the salvation of his
soul. Each party now sought by written manifestoes to gain over to its side
the favorable judgment of the people, and the two great heads of Christen-
dom confronted each other with charges of heresy. In their controversial
writings the specifications against each other are clothed sometimes in the
a) Tita Greg, by persons near Lim. {MuraL vol. III. p. 575.)
b) Constitutiones Ecguni Sicili.ie. Neap. 1TS6. f. Raumer, vol. Ill p- 316ss.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 239. INNOCENT IV. § 240. CONKAD IV. 267
most common language of ordinary life, and at otlier times witli the poetic
imagery of the apocalypse. Frederic interpreted the favor which the pope
showed toward the Lombards as an evidence of his partiality for the Cathar-
ists living in their midst. Gregory accused the emperor of being the author
of the j)rofanc remark respecting the three impostors who had deceived the
M'orld, and justified the imputation by a reference to the impartial justice
with which he had treated the Saracens, the relish with which he had en-
tered into oriental pleasures, and several insolent expressions with regard to
the miracles of the Church, (c) Frederic, who certainly had more faith in
astrology than in priests, not only proved his orthodoxy but conquered the
territories of the Church until he sat down under the very walls of Rome.
The pope called a general council of the Church. The emperor gave orders
that the fleet which conveyed the bishops to Rome should bo captured.
Gregory died unavenged (Aug. 21, 1241), and after many tedious dissen-
sions among the cardinals, Innocent IV. (Fiesco of Lavagna) was chosen in
his stead (June 24, 1243). The new pope had been the friend of the empe-
ror, but after various ineffectual eflfbrts to conclude a peace he became a mor-
tal enemy. By the aid of his countrymen the Genoese, he escajjcd from
Italy, and at the general council of Lyons (1245), {d) he once more hurled
forth all the curses of the Church against the emperor, as a heretic and a
sacrilegious robber. The contest was waged not only with spiritual but with
carnal weapons, for the pope endeavored to secure assistance by exciting
insurrections in Germany and in Sicily. Frederic died without yielding to
the papal claims, (e) but among the people many believed that his body would
see no corruption, and at the proper time that ho would return and over-
throw the exorbitant power of the priesthood.
§ 240. Ocerthroic of the'IIoitse of IloJienstanfcn.
I. Boehmer, Reg. p. 255ss. JamsUla, conL by an unknown lianJ till 12C5. {Jfurat. vol. VIIL p.
5S0.) and by the Guelph Saba Malaspina, rer. Sicul. 1. VI. 1250-76. {lb. p. 78!.)
II. \V. Jäger, Gesch. Coiirads II. Nureüib. HsT. Pßster, Gesch. v. Schwaben. Ilcilb. 1808. vol
II. Baumer, vol. IV. p. 52Sss.
Innocent IV. now proclaimed that the sacrilegious house of Iluhenstaufca
had for ever forfeited all title to .sovereignty, and ho hastened to take posses-
sion of Sicily as a vacant tief of the Church. But Conrad IV. abandoned
Germany to its own dissensions and conquered his Italian patrimony. Italy,
however, was fatal to him, and at his early death (1254) ho loft nothing for
his son Conradiu but the remnant of his paternal iulicritanco in Suabia. The
German crown was purchased by foreigners from the imperial princes, whc
were controlled by pai)al influence. The Two Sicilies were seized upon b>
Manfred^ a natural son of Frederic, and in them ho established a popular
government, against which Innocent preached a crusade in vain. The popes,
c) The reiiinrk was first mnile by Simon de Tournay, 1201, ifc llio treatise do tribiis impostoribus
(ed. pr. 559. 8.) belongs to tho IGtli cent. Bvxenkntn:, d. Zweifel am glauben. Kritik d. l?crT. <le trih.
impost. Hal. u. L. 1830. Do iiiipostura rel. breve coinpond. s. L. de trib. impost edit, with lit, Inlj-iul.
by Genthe. Lps. 1S33.
d) Vila Inn. by his Confessor. Nie. do Ciirbio. (.Viirat. vol. III. p. ^02.) Boehmer, Iteg. p. 312äe.
«) His Will Muratori Th. IX. p. 661s. Boehmer, p. 810.
2G8 MKDIAKVAL CllLi:( II IIISTOKV. I'KK. IV. A. D. 121C-l.'ilT.
perceiving timt Hair j)()wer was insufficient to keep possession (if the two
Sicilies, sold tlicir title, first to Enj^'liind and tlien to France. linally Charla
of Anjou, by tlio aid of Clement IV. (12C5-G8), became king of tlie Two
Sicilies after the death of Man/red in the battle of Benevento (12CGj. But
Cotvradin folt called upon by the spirits of liis ancestors to leave the cir'cle
of his youthful associates in Suabia, and attempt the conquest of his patri-
nioniid i)osscssions beyond the Alps. lie no sooner made his appearance there
than he was hailed as a deliverer by all disaffected persons. But being de-
feated at the battle of Tagliacozzo, he was taken prisoner while flying from
his pursuers, and having passed through the miserable farce of a legal trial,
the last of the Ilohenstaufens closed his life on the scaffold on the 29th Octo-
ber, 1268. The popes now had the satisfaction of having utterly destroyed
the family of their most powerful enemy, and their triumph was purchased
by the complete distraction of Germany, the dismemberment of Italy, and
the ascendency of France.
§ 241. St. Louis. (1215.) 122%.— Aug. 25, 1270.
I. Joincille, (Seneschal to Louis) Hist de S. Lonis, p. Ch. du Fresne, Par. 166S. f. 17G1. f. Lu-
dovict. Vita et Conversatio per Gaufredum de Belloloco, Cotifossorem, et Giiil. Cürnotensem, Ca-
pellanum ejus. {Du, Cliesne vol. V. p. 444.) Ludotici Ep. de captione et liberatione sua. (lb. p.
895SS.)
II. Wilken, 7lh vol. : Die Kreuzzüge Lwl. des Heil. u. der Verlust, des h. Landes. Lps. 1832.
Louis IX. was, in his pious conscientiousness, a sincere Christian ; in his
scrupulous austerities and saintly humility, a rigid monk ; and in the energy
and equity of his transactions, even with the hierarchy, a noble prince. On
his recovery from a dangerous illness he assumed the vow of the cross, and
maintained his resolution against all France with such success that by his
policy and enthusiasm the Avhole nation was induced to co-operate in tlip
sacred struggle. The Holy Land had been devastated by the incursions of
the wild tribe of the Chowaresmians, and had once more fallen into the
hands of the Sultan of Egypt (12-47). Palestine could be conquered only in
Egypt. Damietta was taken by Louis in the spring of the year 1249, but
when the crusaders advanced into the interior of the country, between the
dykes of the Xile which had been cut through, they were attacked by famine
and pestilence. Louis was at last obliged to purchase a return to his own
land with the wealth of his kingdom. But in the midst of his misfortunes ho
was still unsubdued in spirit and unseduced to evil. By the encouragement
■which he showed to the third estate, and by the record which he made of
the established usages of the nation he gave a firm legal basis to the state, and
by the pragmatic sanction (12G9) gave stability to the national church.* In
heart he was not unmindful of his vow, and even when advanced in age. with
Christ's crown of thorns in his hand he called upon the nobility of France
by their love and honor to prosecute the crusades. When the expedition
accordingly set out, it was induced, by the hope either of an easier conquest
or of the conversion of their enemies, or by the influence of Charles of An-
♦ Leibnitii Mantissa. P. I. p. 15T. Comp. Raumer, vol. VL p. »»s-
CHAP. I. PAPACr. § 241. ST. LOUIS. § 243. P.UDOLPH OF IIAPSBÜKG. 2G0
jou, to turn asifle for the invasion of Tunis. The plan of establisliing a
French colony there was frustrated by the carelessness of tlie king, and the
unfavorable character of the climate. Louis died of the plague before Tunis,
and "with him as with the Emperor Frederic, perished the "work to "which he
had dedicated liis life. Louis belonged rather to a former age, "while Fred-
eric labored for results which could be attained only in the distant future.
Hence both of them seemed to toil in vain, but both were illustrious in their
lives.
§ 242. The Termination of the Crusades.
The Latin empire in Constantinople continued still, but it was perpetually
torn by internal divisions, and regarded by the people as a foreign yoke. Its
capital therefore fell an easy prey even to the feeble arms of the Greeks
under Michael Palaeologus (1261). Palestine and Syria, though frequently
reconquered, were alwaj's again lost in consequence of the divisions in the
Christian host. God seemed to have forsaken his own cause, {a) The ro-
mantic enthusiasm which had exhibited so many interesting forms had now
given place to a more sober, but more selfish spirit, and Mount Calvaries were
constructed nearer home. Gregory X. (1271-76) exerted all the influence
which a pope possessed, to obtain possession of the East by a new crusade,
and thus preserve it for Christianity, but his efforts were entirely vain, {h)
Plolemais (Acre), the last fortress of the crusaders, was stormed by the Egyp-
tian host on the 18th May, 1291. (f) The only benefit which the crusades
could accomplish was for tlie spiritual and commercial interests of the West-
ern nations, and this office they had now fulfilled. {<!)
§ 243. EudolpTi of Eapslurg. 1273-91. The Sicilian Vespers.
The German throne had been for a long time vacant when the Count of
Ilapsburg became king by the choice of the more powerful princes of the
empire. lie now endeavored to obtain the papal acknowledgment, and took
the oath which had been customary ever since the time of Otiio lY., because
Alphonso of Castile, a rival king, whom Gregory X. had persuaded to re-
nounce all claims upon the crown, was yet living. "With the moderation of
a mind powerful in its proper sphere, Kudolph abandoned all the rights of
the empire to its Italian dependencies, and confined his attention to the
establishment of a legal government in Germany, and to the attainment
of the power which his fimiily needed for its maintenance. He therefore
succeeded in living on terms of honorable peace with the pope, who needed
a powerful support against the iiitiuence of France in Lower Italy, and ho
had opportunity to pave the way for the future independence of the empire, (a)
a) Comp. Slrventes des TempK-r» In Diet;, Lebon u. Werke d. Troubad. Zwiok, 1S29. p. 589.
h) Uumhertiis tie /ioiiKtnin (in tlic service of the pope,) de his QUiio triictanda vldebnntnr in Cone
gen. Lugd. {.UdnHi vol. XXIV. p. 109»».)
c) 3f(irinm Siiniitim, Secretorum fldelliiin cruols 1. III. P. XII. c. 21s.». (Bungars vol. II,) Abul-
feda (himself present.) Annnl. Moslem, vol. V. p. 95s.».
d) Heeren, Entwlckl. d. Kol;;en d. Kreuzz. C Kiiropa. Oött 1S03. (Hi-^t. W. vol. II.) lifgenhogtn,
de fructibus qnos hiimanlta», libert»», mercatura etc. perceperliit e bcllo sacro. Amst. 1S09
a) Codex epistolarls Ilud. I. cd. Ofrbert, S. IJlasil. 1722. f. aus. Bodmann, Lps. 1306. Bo<hm«r
270 MKDIAKVAL ( IUKCII lIISToKV. VKll. IV. A. I). lülC-lSlT.
Clement 71'. had iviisoii to doubt tlic wi.-id(jrii of lii.s policy witli respect tc
tlio .Sicilies, for instead of deriving nny pecuniary aid from Charles of Anjou,
that prince was continually exacting money from him. (Jj) So intolerable
were tho oppressions of the French in Sicily that even Gregory X. predicted
that a day of Vengeance would soon arrive against his royal vassal, (c) But
when Martui IV. (1281-85) a Frenchman, and subservient to French inter-
ests, was seated in the i)apal chair, {(T) at the ringing of the vesper bells on
the third day in Easter, 1282, an insurrection broke forth, and every French-
man on the island was slain. Peter of Aragon, on account of his marriage
with Constantia, the daughter of Manfred, was proclaimed King of Sicily, and
■was immediately excommunicated by the pope. Charles of Anjou retained
possession only of Naples, and the popes lost all influence in Sicily until new
relations were formed with France in the beginning of the next century,
when a reconciliation was etfected. {e)
§ 224. The Hermit in the Papal Chair. July 5.— Dec. 13, 1294.
Soehmer, Regest p. 338. Ptolemaei Luc. (an eye-witness) 11. ecc. XXIV, 29ss. EaynsM. aJ
nnn. 1294. Jacohi Cardinalh Carmen de vita, and de caiionisatione Coel. {3Iiir<it. vol. III. P. I. p.
613ss. 65.5SS.) Petrus de Alliaco, Vita Coel. (Acta SS. M.nj. vol. IV. p. ii5.)—Coeleiiiini 0pp. (asce-
tic) ed. Telera, Neap. 1640. 4. (Bibl. PP. Lugd. vol XXV.)
The French influence in Naples had gained over a party among the cardi-
nals, which was opposed by another, embracing various shades of distinction,
called the papal, the Italian, and the German. But when neither of these
parties was found strong enough to elect one of its own number to the papal
chair, at the suggestion of the name of Peter de Murrhone, a hermit and a
popular saint, residing at Abruzzo, all agreed to bestow their votes on him,
each party hoping to find in him an instrument for its own purposes. He
assumed the name of Celestine F., and never renounced his saintly poverty
and his former simplicity of life. But with the exception of the King of
Naples, to whose influence he surrendered himself, and Avhose favorites he
appointed cardinals, all parties soon perceived his utter unfitness for the otfice
of government. Hence, when he had confirmed the rigid regulations of
Gregory X. with respect to the limitation and seclusion of the conclave, {a)
he was induced by Cardinal Cajetamis, who acted in behalf of the older car-
dinals, although with the view of himself becoming po]>e, voluntarily to
resign his oflice. Instead of the solitude of the mountain for whith he had
I'^nged, his successor consigned him to the solitude of a prison, in which he
died (1296). By his third successor he had assigned to him (1313) a place
among the saints, and by Dante a place in hell, (h)
Reg. p. 51ss. Pertz vol. IV. p. 8S2ss.— Ze Bret, de prnd. Kud. in rebus cum Curia peractis. Tub
17&8. 4.
h) Marlene, Thea. nov. vol. II. p. 174 179. c) &iha MalaDpina VI. 4 d) Boehmtr, Reg. SSÖäs
e) Mich. Amari, la guerra del Vespro Siciliano. Palermo. 1S42. ed. 4. Fir. 18ÖI.
a) Procmfmed at Lyons, 1274 Muim vol. XXIV. p. Slss. I) Inferno III, öSsa.
CHAP. L PAPACY. § 245. BOXIFACE VIIL PHILIP AUGCSTIS. 271
§ 245. Boniface VIII. Dec. 24, \'2'd-L— Oct. 11, 1303.
Ptol Luc. n. ecc. XXIV, 86. (Comp. Cod. Patav. In Murat. voL XI. p. 121Sss.) For Hist. Jk
oiig. document.«, {P. du Puy) Hi.sL du difTi-rend entre le Pape Boniface et Phil, lo Bel. Par. 1655. t
£ailM, Uht des demelez du P. Bc.nif. nvec Phil. od. 2. Par. ITIS. V2.—Pubeus, Bonif. et faniUia On-
Jetanorum.ltom.lC51. 7b«</, Storia dl Bon. VIII. e dc' suoi tempi. Rom. ISlC— If! Drumann,
Gescb. Bon. d. VIII. Königsb. 1S52. 2 Th.
Cnjetanns of Anajrni, a jurist and a priest, wbo hail grown eld while
employed in the affairs of the Roman court, ascended the papal chair under
the name of Boniface VIII. This distinction he attained tlirough the recom-
mendation of his enemy the King of Naples. Actuated hy a frantic hatred
to the Ghibelline party he sent into banishment the powerful family of the
Colonna who now declared Celestine's resignation invalid, and drove the
plough over Palestrina the town in which they resided, lie reproved Philip
of France for having seized upon the property of the Church, and for an
adulteration of the coin, and according to a right then conceded to the hier-
archy, he proposed to act as a mediator (1205) in the sanguinary war between
that prince and Edward I. of England. Pliilip the Fair forbade his inter-
ference, and when Boniface forbade all taxation of Churcli property, (<•/) the
king prohibited any exportation of the precious metals. That he might not
lose all his revenues from France, and as he was already forsaken by a por-
tion of the French clergy, the pope sought to become reconciled to Philip by
giving the mildest construction to his own prohibition. Both kuigs now con-
sented that he should decide their difficiüties, not, however, as the pope, but
as one selected by the parties for that special purpose. No sooner, however,
was his decision made known in a Bull (Juno 30, 1298), than Philip refused
to comply with its requisitions, because it did not properly re3i)ect the riglit
of prior possession against that of recent conquest. Reproaches of roya^
oppression, and papal treachery to the Church, were exchanged between
them, and the legate in France, as a French bishop, was thrown into prison
for high treason. Angry edicts were proclaimed by Boniface on the oth of
December, 1301, summoning the French prelates to Rome for the purpose of
reforming the king and the empire. The king, whoso ordinary government
was eminentl}' despotic, now appealed to his j)cople, and convened a general
Diet of his kingdom. The three estates were unanimous in maintaining the
independence of the French kingdom (1302). An extract from the papal
decrees which had been so falsified as to make it in tlio liighest degree often-
sive to the royal feelings, decl.ired every one a heretic who did not believe
that the king in temporal as well as in sjiirifual matters was subject to the
pope. To this tlie king replied by declaring every one a fool who did not
believe that the King of Franco was in temporal things subject to no one. (b)
Boniface now commenced a contest with the whole French nation, and al-
though ho denied that he had ever cluimed Franco as a papal lief, ho never-
theless maintained that every creature, under peril of his final perdition, wag
o) Clerlois laicos: .<Krt. Dfcret.il. lib. 3. tIL 23. c. 3.
h) Thet'eiiuliie: AuHJulta till. The opiirlous: Deuui time, JSuilM. p. in.3, in.<. Ihumann,
ToL II. p. 19.
272 Mi;i)iAi;vAi. <iii:k( 11 iiisT()i;y. i'li:. iv. a. d. 121G-151T.
bi)imtl to ohcy tlio Pvoinjin bishop, (r) lie tlien i>rocec(le(l to excommunicate
the kiiip, wlio appealed onco more to a general Diet of liis empire (June,
1808). ]{of(>ro that body ho had the pope accused of the most monstrous
crimes and deiiiaiided that a general council should be summoned to adjudi-
cate upon them. The pope pronounced an interdict upon tlie Avhole of
France, abrogated the privileges of the universities, and bestowed the French
crown upon tlio Emperor of Germany. Pliilip\s chancellor, Williain of Xo-
garet, and Sciarra Colonna, the expelled cardinal, surprised and imprisoned
the pope (Sept. 7) in his own city of Anagni. In the hands of his enemies
lie now resolved to die like Him, whose earthly vicar he professed to be.
After a confinement of three days he was liberated by his own countrymen,
but grief for the dishonor he had suffered had broken his heart. It is possi-
ble that Boniface thought more of himself and of his treasures than of the
general welfare, but ho was impelled forward by his idea of the pontificate,
his conduct was in the very spirit of Gregory, he only mistook in some cases
the proper hour for action, and in general had not observed the great changes
which had taken place since the time of his predecessor. Subsequent ages
have held him responsible for his misfortunes. But kings had learned the
secret of repelling papal assumptions, the universal dominion of the hierarchy
had been broken, and public opinion, expressed in powerful tones, had pro-
nounced its disapproval of all attempts to blend the spiritual Avith the secu-
lar authority, {d)
% 24G. Commencement of the Bali/Ionian Exile.
Although Benedict XL (Oct. 22, 1303— June 7, 1304), was a steadfast
friend of his predecessor, he was compelled to yield to adverse circumstances.
Accordingly he availed himself of an honorable embassy from Philip to ob-
tain a reconciliation with that monarch, in which all decrees against France
were revoked, so far as appeared consistent with the honor of the papacy. («)
"When the conclave was assembled for the election of his successor, it was
found that the party of Boniface was a complete match for that of France,
but the superior policy of the latter prevailed, and Bertrand d'Agoust, Arch-
bishop of Bordeaux, a creature of Boniface, but secretly pledged to act with
the French party, Avas unanimously elected, {b) Clement Y. (June 5, 1305 —
April 20, 1314) never crossed the Alps, but in the year 1309 fixed upon Avig-
non as his residence. By the appointment of numerous French cardinals he
secured the election of a successor of the same political character with him-
self. These were generally French court bishops Avho directed the usurpa-
tions of the hierarchy only against other nations. Although Clement sub-
jected the French Church to the payment of tithes to the king, repealed
some parts of Boniface's bulls, and made others inapplicable to France,
avoided with difficulty a formal condemnation of Boniface himself, and ven-
c) ünam sanctam : Ertrav. comm. lib. I. tit 8. c. 1. Prumann, vol. II. p. 6Tss.
d) Dante, rur^ator. XVI, 97ss. XXVII, TOss. Aegiditis de Columna, (Arclibish. of Bonreos,
4 1316) de potest.ite rcj;ia et pontiflcla. {Goldasti Monarchia S. K. Imp. Fret 1614. C toL IL p. 96.)
Joanru« de Parrhisüs, (Dominic, d. 1304.) Tr. de pot regia et papalL {Tb. p. lOS.)
3) Rayuald ad. ann. 1304. Du Pay, p. 20734 h) YiUanL, VIII, 80.
t-JlAl'. I. TAPACr. S 246. CLEMENT V. § 247. JOHN XXII. 273
tured only iu secret to recall a compulsory public recommendation of the
French prince for election to the imperial dignity, he hurled the most terri-
ble anathemas (1309) against the republic of Venice for its attempt to gain
forcible possession of Fcrrara, and -when Henry VII. of Luxemburg went on
a military expedition to Rome he renewed all the exorbitant demands of his
predecessors. Henry died in the midst of Ifn victories (131^), and it was then
liroclaimed in the papal bulls that the i)Ope was the emperor's lord paramount,
and consequently that when the imperial throne was vacant the pope was
tlie imperial rcijent in Italy, (c)
§ 247. Louis of Bavaria. 1314-47. Joanna of Naples.
I. Oris. Docc. in Olenschlager, Staatsgcsch, des roin. Kaiserth. 1. nalfte des 14 Jhh. Frkf. 175.',.
4. Boehmer, Ilegesta Imp. 1314-47. Frkf. 1S89. 4. & Additain I. Frkf. 1S41. 4. Vita Lud. IV. AI-
heru Massati Lud. Uavanis, Jo. VictoriensU and others in Boehmer, Fontes rer. Germ. vol. I. I/er-
icart ah Ilohenburg, Lud. IV. defcnsus. Mon. IfilSs. 3 vols. 4. Geiiti!<f, Derensio Lud. IV. Ingoist.
1618. i.—Jfii7i!t€r(, Ludw. IV. Landsh. 1SI2. ScMett, Biogr. v. K. Ludw. Sulz. 1S22.
After a long and violent assembly of the French and Italian cardinals,
John XXII. was presented to the people as their pope (131G~34). "While yet
in Lyons ho gave his oath to the Italians that he would never mount a beast
except on his journey to Eome, and accordingly embarked by ship for Avig-
non, and never left his palace there. In Germany, Louis of Bavaria and
Frederic of Austria were contending for the imperial crown, and at that time
it appeared to be the interest of France to allow the power of the empire to
expend itself in these civil dissensions. Hence, when Louis had made his
opponent a prisoner (1322), and in opposition to the summons that lie should
submit to the decision of the pope, pleaded that his title to the crown was
already complete by the choice of the princes of the empire, John simply re^
plied by a ban of excommunication and an interdict (1324). But even the
papal sanction of a breach of faith was ineffectual to make it tolerable to the
loyal sjiirit of the German.s. Louis came to an agreement with his opponent,
and after a formal appeal to a general council caused him.'jelf to be crowned
emperor at Rome, and a pious mendicant monk to be placed in the papal
chair (1328). No sooner, however, was his army withdrawn from Italy than
his power in that country ceased, the pope whom he had set up was sent to
Avignon, and a papal decree announced that Italy was for ever sei)arated from
Germany. On the one side of tlio Alps the emperor's, and on the other .«lide
the pope's extreme i>retensions to a universal dominion were advocated bv
influential writer,'^, {a) By his passionate interference in all kinds of theo-
logicid controversy John XXII. gave occasion for the imputation that he was
himself infected with heresy. (6) In his proud theocratic pretensions the
Germans could perceive nothing higher th.an the instigations of France. The
.interdict, however, though but partially carried into ctiect, waa not without
c) F. W. Biirthohl, Kümerzug lleinr. v. Li'it/.olbiir^. K.'.nlissb. 1'n'KK 2 vols.
a) On the imperial side : Jfarsilius of I'lidua an<l John of Jundun \n their princiiial joint pro-
duction, about 1.328, Defensor pads. (Goldanti Monan-hla, vol. II. p. 154.) On the papal siilo: Aiir
tfustinu» Triumplutu, Summa do potest, oec. ad. Jo. Aug. Vlnd. 1473. and often. Alvarua I'elagiii.i,
ae planctu ecele>iac. 1. II. Ulm. 1474. Ven. 1560. f.
b) Guil. Occaw, Comp, crrorum Joannis V. {fJoldiinti I. e. vol. II. p. 357.)
18
274 MKDIAKVAI- CllUIlCIt IIISTOIiV. I'EH. IV. A. I). l-'16-16n.
ita inflnenco in distiirhin^r the popular trfiiHjuillity. A reconciliation v/itli tlie
Chiiroli was sonj.,'lit for by Lonis, and altliougli it was (lesircd by Jiiiie<Hct XII.
(1334— i'2; no less tlian by tlic emperor, it was prevented by French influence.
This doi)endcnco of the popes induced the imperial princes to form the First
Electoral Alliance at Reme (July 16, 1338), and Louis announced that the
imperial dijrnity came directly from God alone, (c) But as the emperor had
done violence to the feelings of his people, sometimes by arbitrary invasions
of the prerogatives of tlie Church, and sometimes by pusillanimous conces-
sions, Clement VI. (1342-52) succeeded in obtaining five electoral votes in
favor of Charles IV. the son of the King of Bohemia (134Gj. But this par-
son-king was obliged immediately to take refuge in France, and did not reach
the ignominy of a new election and coronation until after the death of Louis,
and at the expense of the most ruinous sacrifices (1349). In Naples the Hun-
garian prince, Andreas, the husband of the young royal heiress, Joanna., was
murdered (1345), His widow, who was soon after married to her cousin, the
Prince of Tarento, was compelled to fly before the vengeance of the Hunga-
rians to Avignon. Clement VI., her liege lord and her judge in the place
of God, solemnly pronounced the beautiful queen innocent of the murder of
her husband, and confirmed her recent marriage. She, on tlie other hand,
that she might obtain funds to carry on a war with the Hungarians, sold
Avignon to the papal see (1348), and after various vicissitudes of war,
obtained permanent possession of her patrimonial estates through the media
i\on of the pope.
§ 248. Close of the Babylonian Exile.
In consequence of the absence of the pope and the weakness of the em-
peror, in Italy, every city there made eftbrts to attain independence, and
whenever this was secured, innumerable fiictions and tyrants commenced a
struggle with each other. The result was that all considerate persons began
to long for some powerful head who could rule over the whole. These de-
sires, however, were not satisfied by Charles IV., whose expedition to Rome
(1354) was welcomed with great enthusiasm by the people, for the only
object of that monarch Avas to obtain the pageant of a coronation. Innocent
VI. (1352-62), a prince Avell versed in legal science and of strict integrity,
recognized the necessity of a reformation, and he even entered upon it him-
self by reducing the splendor of his court, and attempting to appropriate to
the actual service of the Church the treasures accumulated from various
benefices. The estates of the Church had been divided into many indepen-
dent cities and principalities, or had been taken possession of by neighboring
governments. In vain the popes resorted to terrible excommunications to
frigliten these ecclesiastical robbers ; the papal government was not restored
until Alhornoz, the cardinal legate (1353-07), succeeded in raising a bold cru-
sade on a small scale, and brought into action all the arts of a skilful diplomacy.
The Romans had been for a brief period intoxicated with the idea of free-
'lom and universal dominion, excited by their tribune Cola äi liieuzo* but
c) OUiutcruaijer, X. (H. Bi^fhmei; Reg. p. 1'20.
♦ y. Papencordt, Cola di Eienzo u. s. Zelt U.imb. 1S41.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 2iS. IXXOCEXT VL § 240. THE SCUIsM. 275
when tliey saw the eternal city becoming almost desolate in consequence of
the absence of the pope, all, especially those to whom the higher object of
the papacy was dear, became anxious for his return. Urban Y. (1362-70),
in opposition to the wi.shes of his cardinals and the king of France, at last
returned to Rome (1367). He was soon, however, compelled to return
to Avi<rnon by the unsettled condition of affairs in Italy. Grcfjory XI.
(1370-78) once more yielded to the solicitations of his Italian subjects, and
was carried back by the Romans in triumph (1877). Yet the cities of the
Ecclesiastical States were not unmindful of tlieir independence, for they were
careful to intimate that all regard for religion must be laid aside when it be-
comes hostile to freedom, and that nothing but death could render the resi-
dence of the pope in Italy absolutely certain.
§ 249. The Schhm.
I. Orig. Docc. in IlaynaUl. Balus. and in BuUtei Hist Univ. Paris, vol. IV. Theodoricus d«
Xiem, do schistnate inter Papas et Antipapas (till 1410.) 1. III. et ncmus unionis. Bas. 15C0. f.
Ar?. 1600.
II. Du Pay, Hist du scliisme 137S-1429. Par. 1C54. and often. JSaimlotiro, Hist dn prand
ecbisme d'occident Par. 167S. Ucbers. 1792.
The election of an Italian pope was at last obtained by the persevering
obstinacy of the Roman people. The Archbishop of Bari, Urhan VI.
(137&-89), a Keapolitan, was favorably inclined toward the people, though
toward the cardinals, who.se opposition to himself be well knew, he evinced
the natural severity of his character. The twelve cardinals from beyond the
Alps therefore fled to Anagni, hired a band of condottieri, declared the elec-
tion of Urban invalid because under constraint, drew three Italian cardinals by
artful promises into their conclave at Fondi, and cho.*o Cardinal Robert of
Geneva for their pope, under the name of Clement VII. (1378-94). He took
up his residence at Avignon, and through the influence of France he was
gradually acknowledged in the Spanish peninsula, in Scotland, Savoy and
Lorraine, and was regarded as the proper successor of the French popes. In
opposition to Joanna of Naples, who had likewise declared in fovor of Cle-
ment, Urban .stirred up Charles of Durazzo, the heir-apparent to lier throne,
and recalled the memory of her deed of blood. The queen then adopted the
French prince Louis of Anjou, whom Clement invested with the kingdom of
Naples, and sustained in the expenses of his war. Charles liaving seized
upon the per-son of Joanna, had her put to death in prison, and maintained
possession of Naples. But Unban soon after became displeased witli him
because he refused to bestow Capua on a nephew of the pope, in considera-
tion of the assi.fitance he had received, excommunicated him, was besieged by
him in Nocera, and was finally compelled to take refuge in Genoa. In his
flight through the midst of his enemies ho had five cardinals bound and con-
veyed with him to Genoa, whero they were put to death. Both popes were
surrounded by a train of cardinals, so that the decease of both would have
no eflect in diminishing the schism. To sustain the expenses of the war be-
tween two popes and of two distinct i)apal courts it was necessary to devise
new methods of extortion by wbicli ovory tiling on earth and in heaven was
put up for sale. Each poi'c was under tlie other's ban, tlie people were
27G MKDIAKVAL CIIUKCH IIISTOIIV. TKI:. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
nccc3!*aril3' tho only arl)itrntor3 of this controversy, and tho organ.s of tho
popiilnr will woro those who rci)resentc(l the interests of science. The first
ftctual movement for the attainment of peace was made by tho University of
Pari». Tho only practicable method by wliich this strife could be composed
Beomed to bo the simultaneous abdication of both competitors. Peter do
Luna, under tho name of Benedict XIII., was then reigning (after 1394) in
Avignon, and Angelo Corrario, under that of Grcrjory XII., in Rome (after
140G). On their election both had promised to make the sacrifice which tho
interests of the Church required, but both, on various pretexts, refused to
abide by their engagements. Benedict was then abandoned by the French,
and Hod into Spain. Both popes were finally forsaken by their cardinals,
who, appealing to Clirist himself, a general council and a future pope, assem-
bled at Leghorn (1408).
§250. The Council of Pisa. JUarck 25-Äuff. 7, liOO.
I. Acts of Council, in Mansi vol XXVIs. Tlicod. de 2fiem, de schism. Ill, 3>ss. [Landon,
pp. 4SS-192.]
II. Lenfant, Hist du Cone, de Tise. Amst, 1724. 1727. 2 vols. 4. J. H. v. Wesseuherg, die gros-
sen KVcrsnmml. des 15. u. 10. Jahrh. (Const 1S40. 4 vols.) vol. II. p. 4S5S. Comp. I/>'/ele, krit
Belcuclit Tub. 1841.
There appeared to be no way in which tliis struggle between the rival
claimants of the papal dignity could be legally terminated, but by the repre-
sentatives of the whole Church, in whom the highest degree of power could
be combined. The cardinals now laid aside their divisions, and bj^ the advice
of the Universities, convoked a general Council at Pisa. The priesthood
was represented by twenty-four cardinals and two hundred bishops, present
either in person or by proctors ; the monastic orders by three hundred ab-
bots ; scientific bodies by deputies from the universities, one hundred and
twenty masters in theology, and three hundred graduates of the Roman and
canonical law ; and the state especially by the envoys of France and Eng-
land. In opposition to the protests of the two popes, Rupert, Emperor of
Germany, and Ladislaus, King of Naples, the council confirmed the principle*
defended by Gerson, Chancellor of Paris, affirming that the power with
which Christ invested the Church was independent of the pope. Both Bene-
dict and Gregory Avere then summoned before the council, and after a formal
trial were deposed for contumacy and the violation of their engagements.
The representatives of the Church, however, well knew that they could
hope for no influence or success unless they removed the innumerable
abuses then prevalent. The cardinals therefore bound themselves by an
oath, that whoever should be elected from their number, shoidd never dis-
solve the council until it had completed the work of reformation in the head
and members of the Church. Peter of Candia, an aged and quiet man who
afterwards bore the name of Alcxamler V., was made choice of, and that he
might make those preparations which he alleged to be necessary, he imme-
diately postponed the work of reformation to a council which he promised
to convene in three years from that date. By his unrestrained liberality the
• Tr. de nnitate Ecc. and Llbellus de auferibilitatc papae ab Ecc (0pp. vol. II. P. I.)
CHAP. I. r.VliCV. § 251. COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 277
resources of the Church Avere in a short time squandered. Benedict stUl
maintained his claims in Spain and Scothind, and Gregory was acknowledged
by Kupert and Ladislau«. Christendom beheld with amazement three popes
within its bounds, and all its abuses continued without restraint.
§ 251. The Council of Constance. Xov. 5, li^l^April 22, 1418.
L Kespecting John XXIII., after Platina liis secretary, consult Theod. de Xiem, Vita Jo. {llardt,
Cone. Const vol. IL P. XV. p. 335.) Invecliva in diffugiontem a Const Cone. Jo. {Ih. P. XIV. p.
290.) and L. Aretimis, Coininontar. {Jfurat. vol. XIX. p. 9278?.)— Magnum occum. Constantienso
Cone, od Ifenn. ton der llardt, FrcC ot Lps. 697s.«. 7 vols. f. Theod. Vrie, an Au^stlnian of Osna-
tMTUck, <lu consolatione Kec. (also Hist du Cone. Const, in Ifardt, toI. I. p. 1 )
II. L'mfani, Hist du Cone, do Const Amst (1714.) 1727. 2 vols. 4. Bourgeois du Chaetener,
nouvelle Hist du Cone, de Const Par. 171S. 4. Hoyko, Gcscli. d. KVcrs. zu Kostnitz. Vien. ifc
Prague. 1782ss. 4 vols. (1st & 2d vols. 2d ed. 1796.) Aschbach. Leben K. Sigism. (aeconiing to AVln-
d«ck.) Frki (lS3Ss.) vol. IL Wcssenberg vol. II. p. 69s8. [Landon, pp. 150-162. /-. Boimechose,
(§ 300.) on Gerson, John Huss, and the Council of Constance, rcpubl. in 1S53. Pur.]
Cossa, the cardinal legate, Avho displayed great talents in the management
of secular atlairs, but was totally destitute of all spiritual character, had
Alexander V. brouglit to Bologna, that he might close his days in that city
(1410). Having expelled the Visconti from Bologna, Cossa ruled without
restraint as the tyrant of that city, and the cardinals were obliged to make
choice of him as the successor in the papal chair. He assumed the name of
John XXIII., and was soon driven from the Ecclesiastical States in a war
with Ladisiaus. The emperor Sigirmund refused to aiford him any assistance
unless ho would appoint some place beyond the Alps in which a council
should be assembled for the removal of the schism, and the accomplishment
of the ecclesiastical reformation demanded by the people. The place agreed
upon by the pope and the emperor was Constance, and the council was sum-
moned to convene on the first of November. Full of anxiety and perplexed
with conflicting view.=!, John XXIII. repaired to Constance on the 29th Oct.,
1414. Besides the representatives of the clergy, a great multitude of secu-
lar lords came together there, presenting an array of all the glory of Europe.
At the head of the civil powers stood the emperor with the sincere intention
of effecting the reformation of the Church. Gerson and the Cardinal Peter
cVAilly were the principal leaders of the reforming party. Their superior
power in the a.'^sembly was evinced and increased by the arrangement that
the voting should take place by nations. This rule was adopted on account
of the numerical m.ijority of Italian prelates, and even in the preliminary
meetings business had been transacted in separate sections under the name
of the German, the Italian, the French, the English, and, after the ab;in-
donment of Benedict, the Spanish nations. (</) The cardinals constituted a
college by themselves, with no defined prerogatives. "Within their respective
nations, the prelates, it is true, maintained that their voles were decisive of
all questions which came before tliem, but they Avere generally swayed by
the influence of the princes and doctors. There were only a few pubhc ses-
sions in which all these nations were united in one body, and even in these
there were seldom any debates, but simply solemn communications and pro-
o) IlardI, vol. II. p. 224*8.
278 MF.niAKVAL riU-l:Cir MSTOHY. VER. IV. a. D. 121C-1M7
clainntions of (U-cisiotis clscwliero formed. The mnjority finally announced,
tliat in tlic-ir ojjinioii the scliism could never be eftectually healed but by the
Himultaneous abdication of each of the three pojjos, and the froneral voioo
hecanio more and more decided in its demands for the impeachment of John
XXIII., on account of his dissolute course of life. John then appeared will-
ing to resijin the tiara, but soon after, in spite of his oath to the contrary,
■with the aid of Frederic of Austria, he made his escape (March 20, 1415) to
SchafFhausen. lie afterwards removed still farther down the Rhine, and
revoked all his promises on the ground that they were given under con-
straint. After a brief suspense the council declared itself independent of all
popes, and superior to them. (A) The trial of John XXIII. was regularly
carried forward, he was proved guilty of a long catalogue of crimes, sus-
pended from his dignities, after the submission of Austria imprisoned, and on
the 29th of May finally deposed. Gregory also resigned, but on honorable
terms (d. 1417). After long and fruitless negotiations, Benedict was gene-
rally deserted by his friends, and deposed by the council as a heretic with
respect to the article asserting that there is only one Catholic Church (July
26, 1417). With as much expedition as possible a new papal election was
now held. In vain did the German nation urge that the reformation of the
head and members of the Church should first be completed ; they were over-
ruled by those who dreaded the predominance of an ultra-hberal party, if
the Church should continue without a head. Six deputies from each nation
were added to the twenty-three cardinals in the conclave, and on Nov. 11,
Otho Colonna was elected pope, under the name of Martin Y. He had pre-
viously been regarded as a courteous, skilful, and moderate man, and he now
knew well how to thwart the general demands for a reformation by separate
treaties, conceding some privileges as to ecclesiastical offices to particular na-
tions, and some claims of the papal chancery. The patience of the council
was completely exhausted. With great pomp, on the IGth May, 1418, the
pope took his departure, and the bafiled hopes of such as longed for reforma-
tion were now turned to a future general council promised in five years
from that time,
§ 252. Martin V. Nov. 11, UlT-Fd. 20, 1431.
The Concordat which, Martin proposed to the French nation was rejected
by the Parliament (1418), and all remittances of money to Rome for crimi-
nal trials and ecclesiastical benefices were once more forbidden. But in
spite of the protests of the Parliament, the king was induced by court
intrigues to eflect an acceptance and a partial introduction of the Concordat
(1424). The activity and caution of the pope was also sometimes successful
in renewing all the ecclesiastical claims and pecuniary extortions which had
formerly prevailed. Cossa, who had beguiled his imprisonment in Heidel-
berg by writing verses on the fickleness of fortune, met his successor at Flor-
ence, sued for clemency, and obtained peace and honor for the remainder of
his hfe. In consequence of a misunderstanding between Martiu aud the King
I) Eardt, vol. 11. p. 265ss. 9Sss.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. §252. MARTIN V. §253. El'GEXIUS VI. 279
of Aragon, Peter of Luna appeared once more on tue public stage (d. 1424),
and it was not until his second successor that this papacy at Peniscola was
brought to an end. Martin was obliged to tarry for a long time among the
proud mercliants of Florence, before he could obtain possession of the cities
of the Ecclesiastical States from the liauds of freemen, and from tyrants.
He finally became master of Kome (Sept. 20, 1420), and re-estabhshed the
government and the churches which had so long been suftered to decay. The
synods he convened at Pavia and Siena found a reasonable excuse in the
small number of prelates assembled to postpone the reformation to a still
later period. But public sentiment was so powerful, and the necessity of
«some assi.st;mce against the Hussites had become so urgent, that lie was finally
compelled to summon the promised general council at the imperial city of
Basle, in March, 1431,
§ 253. The Council of Basic. 1431-1443. (1449.)
I. Acts of Council in J/ir««i vol. XXIX.-XXXI. and Würdticein, Subsidia diplom. Ilcidelb.
1774s. vol. VIII. IX. [London's Manual of Councils, p. 5C-74.] Aeneae Syle. Conimtr. do geslis
Bas. Cone. (14.39.) 1. II. (OrViuini Gratii Fascic. reruni expetcnd. ac fupiend. Col. 15;35. f.) and
often. (Comp. Iltise in d. Stud. u. Krit. 1S43. II. 3.) Augmtini Patricii Suinnia Concilior. Basil.,
Florentini, etc {ITarzhem. Ginc. germ. vol. V. p. 774.) Vita F.ucenii. {Rtluz. Miscell. 1. VII.)
II. Richerii Hist. Cone gen. Col. 16SI. 4, 1. III. p. 20ss. Wessenberg, vol. IL p. 271.«s.
Eugenius'^^{\^\-4:^\m compliance with a promise made at his elec-
tion, confirmed the call which his predecessor had issued for a general eccle-
siastical council. This assembly gradually convened in Basle, and immediately
announced that the extermination of heretics and the purification of the
Lord's vineyard, Avhicli in the call had been proposed as the object of the
council, had refc^'ence to the reconciliation of the Hussites and the removal
of abuses from the Church. This announcement was scarcely made before
the pope perceived the designs of the council, and began to dread the influ-
ence of its independent spirit among a free people, and on the confines of
three great nations. He therefore hastened to give directions that it should
adjourn to meet in liis own city of Bologna. In this, however, he was op-
posed with the earnest remonstrances of his own legate, the Cardimü
Julian, (ii) The council solemnly re-athrmed the decrees of its predecessor
at Constance respecting the independence and supremacy of a general coun-
cil of the Church while engaged in matters of faith, schism, and reformation.
The pope himself was cited before it to answer for his conduct. Pressed as
he then was by disturbances among the Roman people, Eugonins sought to
become reconciled with the synod, and after acknowledging its indej^nidence,
his legates were allowed to preside over it (April 20, 1434). (I>) The as.sem-
bly having been increased by the presence uf many deputies of chapters and
persons belonging to the lower clergy, now proceeded to set forth a strict
order of business. To prepare all its decrees, it resolved itself into four
deputations, each of which was composed of persons from all the Ecclesias-
a) liaynalil. ad ann. 1481. N. 22. Given in full In the Fascic rcr. expetend. et fbgiend. CcJ
.535, f 275.«.
b) Jfansi vol. XXIX. p. 90. comp. 400. [rfadjington Ecc Hist Chap. XXIV.]
280 MKDIAKVAF, CllfUc II III>T(»i:V. I'KIt. IV. A. 1). 12IG-1.M7.
ticnl RtntcH, ('•) Evi-ry tliiiij; wliicli could be censured as an abuse iu the
Cburch by tlie clerpy and prelates Wiis brought forward. The papal court
was in manv respects reduced, significant references were made to the cus-
toms of tile primitive Cliurch, the revenues of the pope from countries be-
yond the Alps, and his i)ower of bestowing benefices there, Avere consider-
ably reduced, the illegal transfer of ecclesiastical trials to Rome was forbidden,
the pope was solemnly admonished for his disregard of these decrees, and in
a groat variety of ways even the administration of ecclesiastical aöairs was
interfered with. "When Eugenius heard of this, he adjourned the council
after its twenty-sixth session to Fcrrara (Sept. 18, 1437), and subsequently
to Florence. At the council which he convened at the latter place he excom-
municated tlie rebellious assembly at Basle. But this latter body instituted
legal proceedings against him, the issue of which was that Eugenius was de-
posed (June 25, 1439) for simony, heresy, and disturbance of the public
peace. But the greater part of the prelates had by this time either witl-
drawn, or had gone over to the council at Florence. Allemanfl.^ Archbishop
of Aries, a man of eminent piety but devoted to the principles of liberty,
being the only cardinal now left, presided over the assembly, and the places
of the bishoi)S were occupied by doctors and the pastors of churches. That
they might have a powerful protector near, Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, who
after a long and glorious reign had transferred his territories to his son, and
was then peaceably living as a pious hermit by the lake of Geneva, was
elected pope by a committee appointed for that purpose by the council (Oct.
CO, 1439). lie assumed the name oi Fdix T"., but his autliority was acknowl-
edged only bj' his former subjects, the Kings of Aragon and Hungary, a
few German princes, the Swiss confederacy, and the greater part of the uni-
versities. But the voice of the people, which had hitherto been the princi-
pal support of the council, disapproved of the rashness of a proceeding which
had no means provided for its support, and threatened the Church with a
new schism. The council was now placed in the position of a violent fac-
tion, comi)elled to make concessions inconsistent with its principles to increnso
or confirm its party. («■7) The imperial states observed a careful neutrality
between the pope and the council, but at a Diet convened at Mcntz (March
26, 1489), they accepted the decrees of reformation which had been passed
at Basle. Yet when Frederic III. of Austria, a well-disposed man, but pos-
sessed of neither inclination nor ability to carry forward the principles of lib-
erty, or any thing else of an elevated character, was raised to the imperial
throne, and Aeneas Si/Ivius of Piccolomini, the shrewd and enthusiastic
secretary and historian of the council, found it for his interest to enter first
into the service of the emperor, and then of the pope, Eugenius was induced,
in consideration of his recognition as pope, to withdraw his decree of depo-
sition against the Electors of Treves and Cologne, and conditionally to con-
cede that the decrees of the Council of Basle might be enforced in Germany
(Feb. 5, 7, 1447). («) But the same Aeneas Sylvius who had obtained these
<•) .V,tnsi vol. XXIX. p. 877.
d) J/ii n«i vol. XXXI. p. 202.
t) Concordat» rriucipum. Deines M Mont/., In I/orix, Concordafa X.it. Gtrin. Frcf. et Lps. «1
ClIAI'. I. PATACV. §253. BASLE. S '2W. NICHOLAS V. 281
concessions, subsequently induced Nicholas V., by a separate agreement ■with
the emperor at Vienna (Feb. 17, 1448), craftily to steal away from the Ger-
man Church nearly all the privileges thus secured. This agreement finally
became possessed of imperial authority by di.><tinct contracts with individual
princes and bishops, under the name of the Concordnt of Asi'.hifftnlurg. (/)
On the other hand, France had on the wliolc faithfully adhered to Eugenius,
but in the Pragmatic Sanction passed at Bourrjes (1438), it had received the
decrees of Basle as far as they were subservient to the independence of the
Gallican Church, {g) This ecclesiastical assembly at Basle having been grad-
ually abandoned by the Church, by its own pope, and finally by its own
members, closed its ses.sions after 1443 without a formal adjournment. Felix
resigned his precarious dignities (1449), in an lionorable compact with
Nicholas.
§ 254. The Popes nntil the End of the Fifteenth Century.
Platina, from Sixtiis IV. till Pius V., continued generally according to good autborilies by the
Augustinian Oniifrio Pantini (d. 156S.) Yen. 15G2. 4. and often, especially Yen. 1703. Stfphanri«
In/essura, Chancellor of the city of Itoine abmit 1494. I)iariiim Ronianac Urbis 1294-1494. (Eccard
voL II. p. 1803. Jfuratori, with omissions, vol. III. P. II. p. 1109.)
Nicholas V. (1447-55, Thomas of Sarzana), notwithstanding his hasty
temper, by tlie mildness and equity of his government restored once more
the glorj' of the papacy. Himself a man of extensive erudition, he was
always liberal to literary men, and to the poor. His last years were embit-
tered by his grief respecting Constantinople. ('/) Calixtus III. (1455-58,
Borgia) armed on his own account a victorious army against the Turks, and
spared no pains to secure tlie throne of Naples to his nepotes. (/<) Aeneas
Sylvius was in natural talents and in learning among the very first men of
his age, and at the expense of his character succeeded in attaining the object
of his ambition. Under the name of Pirn II. (1458-64) he vainly endeav-
ored to cast obloquy on the liberal tendencies and eftbrts of his earlier yeai"s,
to wrest the Pragmatic Sanction from the hands of the French, and to place
himself when old and sick at the head of a crusade against the Turks. Ho
was not a general apostate from his principles ; his youthful sins were com-
mitted in liis youthful dream.«, but his wliole career as a Roman pontilf has
left us no traco of its influence, (c) Paul II. (1404-71, Barbo), though an
2. 1772«. vol. I. The four bulls of Eugenius aro in C. W. Koch, Saiictio pragin. Germ. HI. Argent
17S9. 4. Byll. docum. p. l?.3s.s. Comp. HaijnaUl. ad «nn. 14-J7. N. T.
/) All the Archives of tho Diet of M.ntz are in Wnr(lttrein,^\\hA>\. diploni. vol. IX. X. 9. p
7Ss3. All the .Archives of tho Diet of Vienna are in Koch, I. c p. 2i>lss. On the question wliethei
the decrees of Uasle were abrogated with re.-poct to Germany, see Sjjitllei; Gef>cli. d. Fundanien
talge.s. d. deuUchkath. K. (GötL lilst. Mag. vol. I. pt 2-s. vol. IV. pt 1.) On the other side, see Koc7i,
;i. 3Gss. Uebor d. FundaiMontaJpcs. il. dt'Ut.«chkath. K. Frkf. u. L|is. 1790.
17) Hist do la pragm. fanctiim. (Tiaitoz <lo dmiLs et libertez de I'Egl. Gall. Pur. 1731. C As an
appcn<li.v to the 1st vol. of /'. I'ithou or Ihi J'uin.)
a) I. Vita Nie. by his Secrotary. <;itiiif::o Aftiiiftti {^fllratori vol. IIL P. II. p. 905.)— II. Dom
Georgii Vita Nie. Koin. 1742. 4. Jugrmaun, Gesch. d. fr. Künste u. Wis». In Ital. vol. III. P. 3.
I) Muraton vol. IIL P. II. p. 901 xs.
c) I. 0pp. (hist., geogr., rhct.) I?iv<. I.VjI. f. and ofiin. Epp. Nor. 14>1. and often. Oratt. e<l
Jfiiiisi, Lnc. ITriS. 4. His life by his admirers, Pliithiti, Citmpani (Miirat. vol. III. P. II. p. 907.)
»nd by himself in tho name of his Secretary, GoMlini Commculr. rcrum. memor. qu.10 temp. PU
282 MKIiIAKVAL ( IHIUll IMSTOUV. 1'»..:. IV. A. I). 12UV151T.
enemy t»> all tlic i»iirtisniis and policy of his predecessor, did not disturb the
trantpiiility of Italy. Ho was avaricious, but it was that he might spend
what ho anias.xed in jionip and prodigality, a persecutor of science on account
of wliat he regarded as its heathenisli tendencies, tender-hearted and easily
moved to tears, a fortunate rather than a holy father, and one who regarded
Ids own arbitrary purposes as his supreme law. ('/) SixtusIV. (1471-84,
dolla liovera), a learned Franciscan general, who had been implicated in the
conspiracy of the Pazzi, ventured to issue sentence of banishment against
Lorenzo Medici for escaping the daggers of the conspirators. His interviicts
were disregarded by the Florentines and Venetians. Rome was much em-
bellished by him, but the Church was sold and Italy tilled with blood that he
might acquire i)rincipalitie8 for his nepotes or sons. (<■) Innocent VIII.
(1484-92, Cybo) commenced his reign with the violation of the stipulations
he had made at his election. To obtain tlie rents which he claimed from
Naples, then in league with his seditious barons, he prosecuted against it a
disgraceful war, which both parties were finally willing to conclude with an
honorable peace, from a common fear of the French. In the very act of call-
ing upon Christendom to embark in a war Avith its hereditary enemies, he
sold himself to the Sultan Bajazet to become a jailer for that monarch.
T\"hile Rome was distracted by the factious struggles of the Colonna and the
Orsini, he acquired for disgraceful crimes the ambiguous title of father of
his country. (/)
§ 255. Alexander VI. Aug. 2, i^'il-Aug. 18, 1503.
I. Burchardi Diarium Curiae Eom. 14S4-150G. (Specimen Ilist Arcanae de Vita Alex. ed. Leib-
nit. Han. 1690. 4. more fully in Eccard vol. II. p. 2017. Comp. Paulus, Sopbronizon. vol. IV. U.
I. vol. VIII. II. 6.) Infessura. (p. 2S1.) In the higher sense of history, Guieciardini, 1. I. -VI.
II. Mr. D. U. (Dubos?) la vie d'Alex. Append, to the Hist. du. droit publ. eccl. franc. Lond.
1737. Tommasi, la vita di Cesare Borgia. Montechi.iro. 1070. 4. published in French .is anonymous
Memoirs. Amst. 1739. 2 vols. 12. Brl. 1782. Gordon, la vie du V. Alox. et Cosar B. trad, de
TAnglois. Amst 1732. 2 vols. 12. Epigr. in Flacius, 1. c. p. 403.
Alexander VI. (Eoderigo Borgia) made use of the whole power with
which the Church supplied him to establish an independent kingdom for his
own family. At one time he appealed to all the powers of Europe to assist
hhu in a struggle against France, when Charles VIII. overran Italy to obtain
possession of Naples, as an inheritance from the house of Anjou. At another
be formed an alliance with France, that he might overthrow some of the
principal families of Rome, and spoil the Italian princes of their laAvful pos
sessions. His son, the fratricide Caesar Borgia^ renounced the Cardinal's
II. contiguernnt. Rom. 1584. 4 Frcf. 1014. f.— II. IT. C. ITehcing, de Pii II. rebus gestis et
morib. Ber. 1S25. 4. Xic. Beete, do Aen. Pylvii mornm mentisque mutationis rationib, Ilarlem
1S39. K. li. llitgenhavfi, Erinnerungen an Aen. Sylv. Bas. 1&40.
d) riatina, who suffered too much on his account to be impartial toward him. and hence should
be comp, wlih CannfMus, edit by Cardinal ^uiVin», Pauli Veneti Vita, praemissis vlndiciis adv.
Platlnam aliosquc. P.om. 1740. 4.
e) His schola'tlc Treatises, Rom. 1470. Nor 1473. Life, probably by Platina in Murat. vol. III.
P. II. p. 1052. Epigrams in f/ncii/«, varia de corrupto Ecc. statu poemata. p. 4iils. — Walchuer
pt>lit. Gesch. d. 147S. zu Flor. geh. Synode u. des Zwistes der Republ. mit Sixt Rotw. 1S2J.
/) Iiifeastira In Ei-cord. p. 1947ss.— T'ia/ti'-t/i, Vita dlnnocenzo VIII. Ven. 1C13. f Epigramj
In Flüciu«, p. 403.
CUAP. I. PAPACY. § 2Ö5. ALEXANDER. § 256. JUL1U.S II. 283
hat to become a duke over the principality to bo formed from the possessions
of the Church, and of tlie princes of Central Italy. The Italians were en-
coura^'ed with the precious hope that the great object of his despotism was
the ultimate union of the whole peninsula. As a political sovereign, Alex-
ander gave great offence to the Church by his intimate alliance with the
Sultan against France, (a) Although Ins sensuality Avas so disgusting, that
he was accused by public rumor of even incest and every disgraceful crime,
his talents were yet so great and his activity was so \intiring in the pursuit
of his objects, and either he or the papacy was so much respected, that when
kings contended for the possession of the newly discovered Western world, it
was finally divided between Spain and Portugal according to his arbitration.
He was nnscrupulous with regard to the means by which he accomplished
his plans. While yet only a cardinal he paid some deference to public senti-
raeni, but when he had attained the papacy ho thought it necessary to put it
down by a censorship of books. This practice, originated by him, (I) was
regarded as amply sufficient to control the evil. Though he had moments of
painful contrition, he was sometimes false and hypocritical merely for his own
amusement. lie was never guilty of w-eakness except with respect to Ilosa
Vanozza and her children. Though his vices could not escape the general
hatred, he was always kind to the people. The rich and the powerful were
often the victims of his policy, and he did not shrink even from assassination
when he thought it needful for his purposes. In the midst of his career ho
fell a victim to poison, prei)ared by his son for a cardinal then his guest.
Uis government Avas so conducted that everj' vestige of an independent aris-
tocracy' was etfiiccd from the papal states.
§ 256. Julius II. Kov. 1, 1503-/16. 21, 1513.
I. Gulcciardini L VI.-XI. Paris de Graasi», Diarium Curiae Kom. 1004-22. never printed
but used hy Jloi/iiald ami Hoscoe (p. 2S5.) JAidriiinus Ow^^W^hsw, Ilinerarium Julil. (Cioconii
vita Horn. Pontiff. Lugd. 1G03. vol. II.) SjxitiUin, Leben Julii. (Tenzel, Ber. v. d. Ke£ Lpz. 1719.
vol. IL p. lis.)
II. Dtihos, Hist, do la ligue faito ü Canibray. llaye. 1710. 2 vols. Fruni tlie fi[iio of Julius
Bower'« Ilist of llio Popes lias been iiidepenilently revised by Jiatnbach.
On the sudden death of Alexander, the republic of Yenice, Caesar Bor-
gia, and the various inferior tyrants endeavored to obtain pcssession of and
divide among themselves the papal states, while the Roman emperor, the
Catholic sovereign of France, and the Most Christian King had tlio same de-
sign with respect to Italy in general. Under these circumstance.^, no one but
the Cardinal Julian della Kovera ai)poared capable of meeting the coming
storm. His election was decided upon even before the conclave met, by tho
large promises he was able to hold forth. Julius II. was by necessity as
well as by choice a military prince, but all tho arts of peace wore in tho high-
est senso fostered and Jionored during his reign. Considering his Genoese
extraction, ho was remarkably frank and sincere in his disposition, and
though sometimes swayed by an irascible temper and by wine, he could not
n) Eccard vol. II. p. 2n,')3s.s. Fund(fruben d. Orients, vol. V. \\ lS3ss.
h) Kaynahi. od nun. IWl. N. 8(5.
284 MKDIAKVAI, ( IIIKCII lll>TiH:V. I'KU. IV. A. I>. I21&-15n.
hv inlliiciia-«! 1-y fVar, or l>y ii love of piM or of relativen. Private pasjjioiis
wero indeed foreign to liis nature. His »word and Ids political ollbrts wcr<>
entirely devoted to tlio liberation of Italy and the enlargement of the papa.
Btate,s. So eflcctually, by stratagem and by violence, was Caesar Borgia ex-
])elK'd from Italy, that the very name of Caesar became contemi)tible. Bo-
lofjna and other cities belonging to Borgia's patrimony, which had been kept
back bv petty tyrants, were now conquered by the mere terror of Ijis mili-
tary prejiarations. In opposition to the republic of Venice, Avhich had
refused to surrender several cities belonging to the eastern border of the
ptatcs of St. Peter, he now entered into a combination with the Emperor
^raximilian and Louis XII. to form the League of Cambray (1509). Bat
when the French had brought nearly the whole of Lombardy into subjection,
he listened to the entreaty of the Venetians as they besought him not to give
up Italy to be plundered again by the barbarians. No sooner had liis de-
mands upon the Venetians been satisfied, than he directed all his civil and
ecclesiastical weapons against Louis XII. Though now an old man and bro-
ken down by the gout, he hesitated not to throw himself into all the cares
and dangers of a winter campaign, nor was he dismayed when his army was
utterly destroyed, and nothing remained to him but the majesty of the papal
name. Immediately by his exertions was formed the Iluhj Alliance, by
which Venice, Spain, England, and the Swiss confederacy became united
with him, and the French were soon driven beyond the Alps (1512). Louis
met the sword of St. Peter with spiritual weapons, and by means of some
disaffected cardinals he called a general council at Pisa for the reformation
of the Church (Nov. 5, 1511). A few French prelates assembled there, who
proceeded forthwith to suspend the pope as a modern Goliath ; hut they were
soon compelled by the displeasure of the Italians to remove their sessions to
Milan, and during the next year they entirely disappeared before the tri-
umphant army of the pope. The people, however, still continued to hope
that a reformation of the Church might be effected by a general council, and
Julius had promised at his election that one should be called together for that
purpose. Accordingly a general assembly of the Church was summoned to
meet in the Lateran, in opposition to that Avhich had convened at Pisa. In
the first session (May 3, 1512), a discourse was pronounced by Aegidius of
Viterbo, a general of the Augustinian order, in which it was maintained
that the Church had become great only by the use of the weapons of the
Spirit ; that temporal possessions were of comparatively small importance,
but that every thing depended upon its wealth in spiritual blessings, (n) On
the other hand the peculiar spirit of the poi)e himself was predominant in
the council, and nothing more was done than to summon France to answer
for the adoption of the Pragmatic Sanction and to anathematize all kinds of
simony in the election of a pope. Just as this was done Julius II. died while
meditating the most gigantic schemes. Upper Italy was apparently free, a
full treasury had been prepared for his successor, and the papal states were
extended to their utmost limits. There was inaeed an evident inconsistency
between his character and his office, which gave occasion to some bitter ani«
a) [farduini toL IX. p. 1576ss. JHclierii L. IV. T. II. p. 4s6.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. §257. LEO X. PEAG. SANCTIOX. 285
madversions and j)lea?ant satires (h) in countries beyond the Alp.^. Francs
had announced its determination to destroy the great modern Babel, (c) bu*-
in Italy the primary objects of this heroic man were so popular, that his
name has been invested there with a splendid posthumous renown. (</)
§257. Leo X. J/«7r7t 11, 1513-1517. (1521.)
I. Pariit de Grassis (§ 256.) Paulus Jovius (Bishop of Xocera, d. 1552), Vitao viror. illustr.
(Opp. hist Bas. 157S. f. vol. I. Vita I.) GuiccUirdini, 1. XI.-XIV. SpciUitin in Temel. I. c. p. 13.
II. Roscoe, Life and Pontificate of Leo X. [Loud. (Bohn.) 184C. 2 vols. S. Itankc, Hist, of the
Popes. Lond. 1845. (Bohn) 3 vols. 12. and Phllad. 1843. S.] Hanke, die Päpste, ihre K. u. ihr Stiat iin
10. u. 17. Jahrh. Brl. 1S.34. vol. L p. C9ss. 79ss. yludi«, Gesch. d. P. Leo X. from the French of
7?/'Wjr, Augsb. lS45s. 2 vols. {Bower's Hist, of the Pojies to 1759. and from that time cont by S. H.
CoK. till 1S4G. New York. 3. v. 1843. J. E. Riddle, Hist, of the Papacy, 2 vols. Lond. 1854.]
Giovanni Medici was tlie successor of Julius, witli wliose fortunes he had
been intimately and faithfully connected both in exile and on the throne.
By the influence of his father Lorenzo, he had, even when a boy, attainea
some of the most exalted stations in the Church, and when he reached the
papal chair he was yet in the vigor of his manhood. By his natural power««
as well as by his uniform habits he was prepared to reli.sh every i)leasure
which the world could offer, and he therefore collected in the Vatican every
thing which could give splendor to the arts and sciences of his age. Well
educated in the classics and in the liberal arts, he was qualified to do this
with discrimination, and from his connections he was disposed to look upon
these treasures as the appropriate patrimony of his house. Under the name
of Leo X. he always showed himself a skilful and kind master, who could
appear with dignity whenever his levity of disi)osition was not drawn forth.
He was not indeed a great man eitlier in action or in compreheui-iveuess
of views. Even the arts were promoted only for his own gratification.
Placed at the very summit of all human influence at a time in which God
created as it were a new world by the hands of consummate artists, he
allowed the most exalted talents in his service to exhaust thoraselvos in
trilling employments. Although ho seemed regardless of even the outward
semblance of apo.stolic or ecclesiastical propriety, he was far from regarding
Christianity as a mere fable. His administration was characterized by
earnestness, and when directed against criminals by a due degree of severity.
His unbounded liberality, however, as well as his lavish profusion, required
supplies of wealth which rendered all kinds of expedients indispensable. In
the contest which both Spain and Franco were waging to obtain possession
of Italy, it was his policy to hold each at a distance from the prey, and to
betray each in turn to the other. A glorious victory was achieved for the
papacy during his adminiötration, in the removal of the Pragmatic Sanction
(1516), which was yielded by Francis I., that by the friendship of the popo
his conquest of Milan might bo secured, and his hopes respecting Naples
might be realized. The Council of Lateran continued in session until March
10, 1517, long enough to celebrate this victory and carry into effect a few
papal edicts.
b) (Hütten f Erasmus?) Julius exclusis. {PusquUt. vol. II. Elentheropoll I. o. Ba«. 1544. p. 1234s.)
c) Waleh, Vorbcrlcht, to the 15th vol. of Luther's Werken, p. 42s«.
d) Guicciardini 1. XL p. 326.
286 MKDIAKVAI- ( IIIKCII lIl.xToKV. I'KU. IV. A. I*. IJIC-lJir.
ClIAl*. 11.— M'CIAL CONJ^TITUTION ÜF THE CHURCH.
§ 258. Corpus juris canoniri.
Flrit cniiiplcto oilltinn by Jo. ChappuU, Par. 1449!«. 8 vols. e«l. 2. 1503. The eillt. of tlio Correc-
toro» Kniiinnl, mill publislicil by Grt-pory XIII. tobe Immutable: Kom. 1582. 8 vols. f. and often
frtllfiil Kdlllons: e rec. nVioeorum cd. Cl<iud. le Pelletier, Par. 16S7. 2 vols. f. and often. J. It
Boehiner, Iliii. 1747. 2 vols. 4, A. C. liichter, Lps. lS38ss. 2 vols. 4
While the snpreme power in the Church was still in tiie hands of the
popes, by the side of the more ancient Decrees of Gratian, a new papal
code was gradually formed in three Collections of Decretals, Avhich were
abridged, harinoiiized, sent to the universities, and thus introduced as the
authoritative law of the Church. 1. Decretulium Grtfjoril IX. compHntin^
svstcmatically arranged in five books by liaymund de J'ennaforte, in compli-
ance with the orders of Gregory IX. from the rescripts of that pope, and a
iew older collections. It was intended to supply the same position in re-
spect to ecclesiastical law which was occupied in civil law by the kgislation
of the great house of Hohenstaufen, and it was published in the year 12.34,
both in Paris and Bologna. ('/) 2. Sextiis Dccrctalium Liler., compiled iu
five books by order of Boni/ace VIII., from Decretals of a later date, and
sent to the universities in 1298. 3. Clementinae, compiled by Clement Y.
from Constitutions principally issued by the general synod held at Yienne,
committed by himself to the Consistory of Cardinals (1313) and to his Uni-
versity of Orleans, and sent by his successor (1317) to Paris and Bologna, (h)
Since this latter period, the power of the popes has not been sufficient to give
the force of law to their enactments throughout Christendom, and hence the
general code of the Church has been regarded as complete. But a few later
laws have been added by various glossarists and editors as appendices to it
(Extravagantes). In the first complete edition of the code, a collection of
twenty Extravagantes of John XXII. which bad been before compiled, was
added, together with all the laws of a later date, so far as they could be ob-
tained (Extrav. communes), until the time of Sixtus lY. Both these Appen-
dices have been incorporated in the more recent editions, and have therefore
obtained in judicial proceedings an indefinite but never a legal authority, (c)
These decrees and decretals constituted the elements from which has been
formed the Corpus juris canonici, whose constituent parts are characterized
by the diversified peculiarities of the times in which they originated, but
take cognizance of all relations in ecclesiastical, civil, and domestic life. It
was freely accepted by the whole Western Church, and applied by them to
all cases in which its provisions were consistent with ancestral usages and
local legislation. On the one hand it often afl:orded the protection of law
against the arbitrary conduct of the priesthood, and on the other it served to
sustain the power of the hierarchy by the force of habit among the people,
a) Sleek, de interpolationibus Eaymundl de Pennaf. Lps. 1754. 4. Aug. Theiner : De Eom.
Pontiif. epistolarum deer, antiquis collectt. et de Grog. IX. codice. Lps. 1529. 4. and Kechercheä su»
plu-Mours coUccti'ns inudites dc dicretales. Par. Isji.
6) G. L. Boehmer, do Clementinis. (Obss. jur. can. Goett 1766.)
0> Biekeil, Ü. Entsteh, u. Gebr. d. Extra vagantcnsam ml Marb. Iv25.
CHAP. II. ECCLKS. L.VW. § 259. STATE i\XD CllUliCII. 287
and by tlie efforts of learned men, long after tlie real basis of priestly au
thority bad been destroyed. Many commentaries (glossae, apparatus) ui)on
individual collections were produced by tlie learned industry of tbis period.
From tbo explanations written upon eacli of tbese Collections, a summary
(glossa ordinaria) bas been formed under the autbority of tbe scbools, which
has obtained currency in the ordinary courts, and has the force of common
legal usage, (d)
§ 259. The State and the Church.
The political institutions of all the great states of Europe were estab-
lisbed near tbe close of tbe 15tb century, just as tbe feudal system was giv-
iTig place to tbe monarcbial. Although Germany continued divided under
various forms of government, some of which were free and others were arbi-
trary, the independence of the empire and permanent rules for tbe imperial
elections had been secured by means of tbe Electoral Union at Rhense and
tbe Golden Bull (1356). A definite legal condition bad also been established
(since 1495) by the Lnndfriede, or tbe Peace of the country, and tbe Impe-
rial Cliamber of Justice. France, by the despotism of some of its kings,
the persecution of its great vassals, and the favor shown to the Third Es-
tate, had finally become a consolidated kingdom, circumscribed by power-
ful subordinate corporations. For a while England had fought gloriously but
unsuccessfully for a territory by nature assigned to France ; it bad then been
distracted by civil war.'a, in which its principal nobilitj- contended for the
crown, until the leaders of the great parties were gradually .«truck down by
a terrible judgment of heaven, and finally Henry VII. (1485-150;"'), by de-
pressing tbe nobility and exalting tbe inferior classes, bad established his
throne upon a permanent basis. By the marriage of Ferdinand the Catholic
with the hereditary Queen of Castile, Spain also had become united as a sin-
gle kingdom, before whoso power Grenada, the last Moorish city, after an
heroic struggle, was compelled to yield (1492). In Italy the popes were
themselves too feeble to obtain tbe .sovereignty of tbe whole peninsula, and
yet too proud to allow any other prince to do so. From the time of the
Emperor Charles the Great, the people had invited various foreign rulers to
enter it, whom they soon found themselves unable to endure. («) Tbe power
of the j)riestliood was no longer needed or sufficient for the guardianship of
tbe state. The i)rclates of tlie several countries were compelled to .«bare iii
tbe various fortunes of tbe higher nobility. "Whenever any sec became va-
cant, the kings of France and England claimed its revenues as regalia until
the new prelate had taken the oath of allegiance to them, and tbe crowu of
France claimed possession of all vacant benefices in any diocese until it was
filled. By tbe Concordat with Francis I. the rights of the Galilean Church
were shared between the king and tiie pope. (Ji) In Germany the king pos-
Be.5sed a prerogative, according to which a prelate was bound to comply with
tlic first request for an appoinlraent to a benefice which the emperor made
</) S'trti I. 0. p. 33'2sB. Stirigvij, Gescli. <I. rom. K. vol. VI. p. S7>8,
(i) Machhndii, SHirie Fit.r. ((.»jip. Italia, 1S13.) vol. I. p. 13. 80.
h) P. de Marat, VIII, 'I'l. I 6. linnke, rfipstc, vol. I. p. S2.
288 MKKIAKVAI- ( llfUfll IMSToKV. riOK. IV. A. I). 121C-1517.
aftor liis consocrntion. (r) Tho loiif,' contested ri^'lit of requiring that all
\u\\m\ edicts slioidd l>c subject to. tho approval of the civil authority before
tliey were publicly acknowledged, was maintained by a few governments in
ft rntlior violent manner, ('/) In spite of continual denials of their compe-
t«iicy the civil courts asserted with increasing success their jurisdiction over
privftto legal suits, in opposition to tho exorbitant claims of the spiritual
courts. Tlio powers of the clergy were especially curtailed by governments
and rulers of a republican character. In France, when the parliaments had
once succeeded in attaining independent judicial and civil authority, their
rights wore guarded with extreme jealousy, and tho bishops were made re-
sponsible for every encroachment upon them. Tho Lombardic cities, es-
pecially Venice, tho Swiss Confederates (parson's letter, 1.370), and the Ger-
man imperial diet, demanded that the clergy should be subject to the ordinary
penal laws of the country, should contribute their share of public taxes, and
be restrained within certain limits in their acquisition of ecclesiastical pro-
perty, (e) The Free Court of the Vehme in "Westphalia went so far as to
withhold their secrets from the confessional. (/)
§ 200. The Ecclesiastical Power of the Papacy.
Tho papacy now essentially diseased, and yet obliged to put before the
world the most exorbitant claims, became henceforth a destructive power in
the Church. By the authority conceded to the decretals the pope became
the creator of his own prerogatives at pleasure. The bold announcement of
tlio papal decision that nothing could hinder the execution of the pope's com-
mands (non obstante quocunque), was in utter contempt of the acknowledged
rights of every class. The power which each party in a suit possessed when-
ever it pleased to have its cause removed to Rome, was occasionally almost
equivalent to a complete denial of justice. The influence of the pastors was
also much impaired by the profitable papal usurpation of a general power to
confer absolution, and grant dispensations. Then as the pope alone could
confirm the elections of all bishops and abbots, no one, however deserving,
could reach the oflice of a prelate without the friendship of influential per-
sons at Rome, or some act of royal authority. ISTearly all other lucrative offi-
ces in the Church were disposed of directly by the Roman see, under various
legal forms (reservation, prevention, devolution, commendam, accident of
death at the Roman court). Consequently, foreigners and mercenary tools
gained admission to the Church, united several otfices and the revenues de-
rived from them in their single persons, frequently without ever seeing their
congregations, and while living in extravagance at the papal court. This
power of ecclesiastical patronage was an inexhaustible source of papal wealth,
c) n. C. de S^nkenberff, de jure primarum precnm, indulto papali band indigente, Fret 17S4. 4.
d) Stocl-mans. jus Belgarum circa buUarum receptionem. (0pp. Col. 1700. 4. cap. 2.)
<) lianmer, Uohenstauf. vol. III. p. 193s.— ÄiZM(i»ar, bist, Entwickl. d. Freibeiten u. d. Gericbts-
bark. d Eiilgon. in geistl. Dingen. Zur. 1T6S. (Fudt«) Vers. e. pragm. Gescb. d. staatsrecblL KVerC
d. Eidgen. Genn.inion. 1S16.— j; G. lieinhard, Meditt. de jure principum Germ, cam primjs Sax-
oniao circa sacra ante temp, reformationis. Hal. 1717. 4.
/) C"". G. r. WCuhUr, 15eitrr. z. deuticbcn Gosch. insb. d. Straft-ecbts. Tub. 1S45. p. 3S.
CHAP. IL ECCLE5. LAW. § 260. ECCLES. POWER OF THE PAPACY. 2S9
partly on account of tho money usually given at every confirmation and the
annatß, and partly on account of the open sale of offices. The protection of
ecclesiastical property, which had formerly been confided to tho pope, became
gradually the occasion for a general assessment of tithes for carrying on the
war with tlie Turks, and finally became recognized as affording a right of tax-
ing the Church to sustain the popes in their various wars, (a) Even the bet-
ter class of popes could accomi)lish very little in opposition to these abuses,
during the short period of an ordinary pajjal reign. The reversions had in-
deed been prohibited after the time of Alexander III., but they had in some
instances been bestowed for the Avhole period of a single generation, and tho
officers of the Roman Curia Avere exceedingly depraved. But other popes of
an unworthy character were well acquainted with methods by which even
this unhapi)y state of things might become more disgraceful and treacherous.
Offices were sold to the highest bidder, and payment sometimes received from
different persons for the same hving. (b) It was in vain that individual pro-
tective laws and acts of authority were directed against these methods of
impoverishing the people. When the evil had attained its utmost limit an
effort was made by the great councils to restore security to ecclesiastical prop-
erty, and to re-establish the Christian character of the offices of the Church.
But France was the only country which succeeded in this attempt. The new
pragmatic sanction, which gave to that country this distinction, had been
abandoned, it is true, in consequence of the royal policy, but it never lost its
authority as an expression of what was regarded by the French people as
law, and it was always defended by the parliament and the universities, (c)
Other nations were satisfied with a few unimportant concessions. The Ger-
man people were contented with the Concordat of Vieima, by which appoint-
ments to ecclesiastical offices were withdrawn from the papal chair for one
half of each year. But concessions obtained as a mere matter of grace (d)
were soon rendered useless by new encroachments. Two theories had been
out forth at Constance and at Basle — Ejmcopali«m, according to which the
pope was merely the first officer of the Church, and was subject to its laws
and representatives; and Curialism., which carried tho earlier doctrine of the
plenary power of the pope so far as to assert his absolute infallibility, exagge-
rated his superiority to all law until it amounted to idolatrous honors, and
finally made its flatteries absolutely ridiculous, by asserting that simony was
impossible at Rome, {e) Both theories were founded upon positive laws, and
both were defended by men of great learning. The first was tho spontaneous
a.ssertion of tho whole French nation, and tho latter was maintained by the
body of the clergy at Rome. The pious reverence which tho people always
entertained for tho vicegerent of God on earth, had been essentially impaired.
And yet they were generally far from denying the necessity of a pope to
a) The complaints and concesylons In the acts of tho Councils of Constance and Basier, and the
Gravamina of the Oerm.-in natiun at the Dii-ts atrurd proofs In abundance.
I) E. G. Theod. de yittn, do schism. II, 7ss.
c) Lalbeiet CoKmrlii Cone. vol. XIV. p. 282i>8. Jiicherii Hist Concill. I. IV, 2. e. 4 Munch,
Concordat, vol. I. p. 255s8.
(T) Acn. Sijh-ii Ep. 8S5.
e) Aui/iut. Triumphi 1. c. Qu. IX. Art 1-4. Qu. V. Art 3.
19
290 MKKIAKVAI- CIlUKni HInTOUY. TKIl. IV. A. I;. 1210-I6IT.
inniiifaiii tin- unity and f,'ovc'nniicnt of tlic Cliurcli. A ]iro<liction, .'iscrilK.'«!
to Miilac'irme, Arclibisliop of Anim<.Oi, a friend of St. IJornard, but which
probably liad its origin in the time of the great councils, describes with more
or less accuracy, in concise, obscure, and ligurative language, tlie character
of tho popes from the time of Celcstine U. (1143). The centuries which
have since elapsed have developed nothing to bring discredit upon it, for
according to it eleven popes yet remain before tho last pope shall rule over
tho Church in great tribulation, and tlie city of tho seven hills shall be
dostroyotl. (/) On various occasions the Cardinals endeavored, by stipula-
tions before a papal election, to secure their persons and revenues from vio-
lence, and to bind the successful candidate by their decisions, (g) But no
sooner had any one actually reached the papal chair than he utterly disre-
garded all such illegal restraints, so that the privileges of the cardinals were
founded only upo» contradictory precedents, and were respected on personal
rather than official grounds. In the season of extremity, when the Church
was rent by divisions, thoy placed themselves at the head of tlie Church.
The decrees of the Councils of Constance and Basle, by which the college of
cardinals was declared to be the constitutional authority of the Church, and
which required that it should be composed of pious, learned, and useful men,
selected from all Christian nations, (/() were never carried into execution.
"With but few exceptions the cardinals were chosen from among the nepotes
of the popes, the scions of a few great Eoman fomilies (familie papale), and
certain royal fovorites, for whom the kings of tho different nations, according
to their intiueuce, were able to obtain tho scarlet hat.
§ 261. The Ecclesiastical Assemllics.
In a few bishoprics regular diocesan synods were formed, that they might
afford counsel to the bishops and be the depositaries of his will. Provincial
synods from an indefinite extent of country were seldom held, and only on
special occasions under the presidency of a legate. The national councils
had been almost universally absorbed by the assemblies of the estates of tho
empire. Tlie greater or less general councils which were convoked by the
popes until some time in the fourteenth century, either in the Lateran or in
the south of France, were composed of representatives of the states, assem-
bled partly to ascertain the sentiments and wants of the Church tbroughout
the country, and partly to carry into effect the papal decrees. In these
assemblies very little regard was paid to the peculiar jmvileges of the seve-
ral states either with respect to their position or to the order in which they
voted, but every one had influence and precedence in proportion to his knowl-
edge of the subject in hand, or to his official or personal authority. It was
for this reason that we find so much indefiniteness with regard to the right
of voting and the order of business which produced such want of precision
in tho mode of conducting the assemblies of the fifteenth century. As the
f) The litomtiire in Ftthr-ic. Bibl. med. et inf. Latin. T. V. v. Malacbias.
I/) l!,i;/n,il<r. ad ann. USl. N. 5ss. aii ann. 14,->S. N. 5.
h) Germ, n.itionis Concordafi c 1. (//arcU vol. I. p. 1055.) Cone Bas. S. XXIII. deer 4. (ITj««
roi. XXIX. p. 11&S.)
CHAP. IL ECCLE3. LAW. S 261. ECCLESIASTICAL ASSEMBLIES. 291
Ohurch could claim (lie essential prerogative of infallibility only wlien it
spoke tliroHgh an individual and supreme organ, the confidence of the peoi)le,
so far as relates to this power, was gradually withdrawn from the dependent
councils, and bestowed upon the independent pope. The liberal party, how-
ever, ever since the Council of Constance, were obliged to maintain that this
infallibility belonged only to the councils, for otherwise the supremo author-
ity of such assemblies must have been renounced, (a) When the three great
assemblies of the Church grasped after the supreme power, they certainly
could have appealed to the example of ecclesiastical antiquity, but in the
state in which legal matters had stood for centuries before their time, such
an assumption had all the etfect of a revolution. It had, however, been
called for by the force of circumstances without arbitrary violence on the
part of any one. These general councils formed the design of becoming
regular periodical assemblies for the administration of the legislative, execu-
tive, and suiiremo judicial atFairs ot the Church. At Basle it was also per-
ceived that this representation of the whole Cliurch would require the revi-
val of a Synodal Constitution, according to which there must be a regular
series of assemblies, beginning with the lowest. But from various local
obstacles it was found difficult to secure an actual assembly of the represen-
tatives of the whole Church, or perfect freedom to their decisions. Only in
times of great extremity, or of universally acknowledged necessity, could
these dithculties be overcome, and hence the pope did not ordinarily find it
hard to elude the action of these dangerous assemblies, or hy convening them
in the Lateran to reduce them to their former insignificance. Appeals to a
future general council were forbidden under penalty of excommunication by
Martin V., Pius, and Julius II., (b) since every papal enactment would
thereby have become nugatory on account of the indefinite period in which
it would remain in suspense. Still from tlie sense of justice which existed in
the Clmrch, these appeals were recognized, and were sometimes made with
greater or less success as legal forms of opposition to the papal decrees. The
legality of the Council of Pisa was questioned by the Hberal party, (c) The
decrees of the Council of Constance were generally acknowledged by the
Roman court. The validity of the Council of Basle Avas altogether denied
by those who favored Rome, but according to the principles of canonical law
it was certainly a legal assembly, at least until its twenty-sixth session. The
popes were careful to observe a prudent silence respecting the supremacy of
the general councils, but in practice they entirely disregarded it. They were
thus, unfortunately for themselves, victorious over a revolution which might
otherwise have preserved the unity and the peaceful development of the
Church.
a) (Slau) Krit. Ge-ch. A. kirchl. rnfoblbark. Ennkf. 1700. p. SlOss.
h) Geriion, Opp. vol. II. I*. 2 [>. ^OOs. (Jobellini C'inintr. I. III. p. 91.— (r<'r«on, quouioilo nt an
ijceat in cau^i.s fiiloi a Suiiimo INinlif. aiipillare. (vul. II. P. 2. i>. 3lÖ>s.) GoldosU Mouarcbia, voL
n. p. 157CfS. 1592SS. IHcherii, Hist. ConcilL 1. II. p. U2.
c) /laiät. Cone. Constant vol. IV. P. 2. p. 24. comp, vol II. p. 104.
292 MKI>IAKVAI> CIirKCII IIIHTOItY. VVAl. IV. A. D. 1^16-15:7.
§ 202. 'ffie National Churchc».
Th<i Churches connected with those nations wliicli had been developed
otit of the Kornnn empire througli the various Germanic races, had long
Binco become orfranizcd into distinct communities, in consequence of their
intimate connection witli the ]ieo])lc and the civil government of each coun-
trv. And yet the iiiiluence of a common origin, and of a central point of
intercourse was so great, that they all felt tlicinsclves as parts of one vast
empire receiving its laws from Eorae. Although the popes were frequently
requested to fill all ecclesiastical offices with persons who were natives of the
country in which they were to officiate, even such a demand was rejected
sometimes to maintain the grand doctrine of the unity of the Church, and
sometimes that special favor might be conferred upon the Italians.* But in
proportion as the centnd power became enfeebled, these nationalities became
more decidedly prominent first in France, in opposition to the papal as well
as to the imperial universal monarchy, and secured the peculiar privileges of
their respective national Church by concordats with Rome. Accordingly
we have seen that they presented themselves at Constance and acted there
as legal corporations. It was more especially by means of the separate com-
pacts then concluded, and the ground assumed by the synod at Basle, that
the great fundamental principle of law was settled, that no decree either of a
pope or a council possessed legal authority in any country until it had been
accepted by the national Church there.
§ 263. The Bi)i7i02)S and their Jurisdiction.
As the appointment of nearly all ecclesiastical officers had been usurped
by Rome, and ecclesiastical acts of all kinds could be purchased by the Ex-
emptions, especially during the time of the schism, the result was that the
episcopal power had been very much impaired. This induced the lishops at
Constance and at Basle to assume a threatening attitude, and to demand the
restoration of all that they had lost. But every bishop had something to
fear or hope for from Rome, and nearly every one dreaded to fall into the
hands of a body which, after it had shaken the papacy, had power also to
overthrow the prelatic sees. The prelates were therefore generally satisfied
with their secular honors, and abandoned the great struggle to look after
inferior advantnges. The Chapters became, especially in Germany, desirable
places in which the younger sons of the nobility were provided for, and con-
sequently their position was entirely secular and without interest to the body
of the people. On the other hand, the decrees of Rome and Basle met with
very trifling success when they required that half the vacancies in the chap-
ters should be filled by men of distinction in science and in the Church.
The archdeacons were also circumscribed on the side of the bishops, by a
college composed almost exclusively of secular officials., (a) and a kind of
pcnitentials, who were appointed for the purpose of preaching and having
♦ ITonorii regosta, a. V. N. 17. (Raumer, vol. VI. p. 15.) Comp. 2Iat. Paris ad ann. 1240. i\
8(h\ ad ann. 1245. p. 445. 450.
<i) Sejrl. I, 1.3. Po officio ykaTii.—rertsch, v. d. Arcbldi.ik., tisch. Officialen u. Vlcarltn
nildesh. 1*43.
CHAP. IL ECCLE9. LAW. § 2U INQU1SIT:0X. 293
ilie charge of souls, (h) Those bishops who preferred to live as princes asso-
ciated with themselves, for the performance of their episcopal and priestly
duties, a class of persons who were called Chorcjiiacojii and Suffragan
Jiishoji». These were bishops who had been expelled from their dioceses in
the Oriental Church, and were afterwards appointed by the pope as an ex-
jiression of a perpetual hope, and a protestation with respect to those ancient
eiiiscopal .«ees (Episcopi in partibus infidelium). ('•) In consequence of the
contest maintained by the University of Paris against the encroachments of
the mendicant friars, and as the result of the position assumed by the Synod
of Basle, the assertion was put forth in France, that the 2i('»(ors had been
instituted by Christ to be an essential element of his Church, with a limited
but a pecidiar sphere of action, (d)
§ 264, 7'he Inquisition.
Xic. Ei/mericus (d. 1399), Directorium Inquisitorum, Barcin. 150.3. c. Coinm. /*/•. Pegnae, Kotn.
157S. f. and often. Lud. de Paramo, do orig., officio ot progressu S. Inquls. Matr. 159S. f. Antu.
1619. f. Phil, a Limhorch. Illst. Inq. Amst 1692. f. Samml. d. In.^truct d. Span. Inquisitionsgor
uebers. v. Reuse, with Spittler's Entw. d. Gesch. d. Span. Inq. Ilan. 17S8. Zlorente, Hist critiqae
de Tinq. d'Espagnc, Trad, do TEspagn. p. A. Pellier, Par. ISlTs. 4 vols. [Limborch"s (abridged) and
Llorente's Histories have been translated and pnbl. in London and the latter in Philad. See also:
Records of the Inq. from the orig. MSS. taken at Barcelona. Boston. 1S2S.]
When the general massacre which took jilace in the war against the Albi-
genses (§ 231) was closed by their public subjugation, the work of extermi-
nating tho.se remnants who were known to exist in secret was intrusted by
Innocent III. to the synodal courts. The method in which this was to be
accomplished was determined upon at the Synod of Toulouse (1229), and
was as follows : (a) " Any prince, lord, bishop, or judge, who shall spare a here-
tic, shall forfeit his lands, property, or otlice ; and every house in whicb a
heretic is found shall be destroyed. Heretics or persons suspected of heresy
shall not be allowed the assistance of a physician, or of any of their asso-
ciates in crime, even though they may bo sufiering under a mortal disease.
Sincere penitents shall be removed from the neighborhood in which they
reside if it is suspected of heresy, they shall wear a peculiar dress, and for-
feit all public privileges until tlicy receive a papal dispensation. Penitents
who hrtvc recanted tliroiigh fear sliall bo placed in confinement." But lest
bishops sh.uld be tempted to show some favor to those who were dependent
on them, Gregory IX. devolved the holy office upon foreign monks (1232). The
Dominicans gradually became possessed of this office, and it was looked upon
as tlieir peculiar inlicritanoe. Louis IX., from a regard to religion, and Ray-
mond VII. of Toulouse and Frederic II., from a regard to their own reputa-
tion, enacted certain laws which re(iuired that tlio sentences passed by the
inquisition should lie carried into e.xecution by the civil authorities. (A) These
h) Cone. Later. IV. c. 10. (Qrtg. I, 31. c 15.)
<■) Dürr, de Suffrnganels s. vlcariis gcncrnlibus in pontiflcalilms Episcoporuin Germ. Mog.
irS2. 4.
d) Gerson, 0pp. vol. II. p. 25(1. 1(167. .
a) Cone. Later. IV. c. 3 {Mansi vol. XXII. p. 956ss.) Cone. Tulo»an. c. 1-2?. (lb. vol. .XXIIL
p 194ss.) [Laudon''s Manual of Councils, p. 594.]
b) Ordonances des Ilnys do France, p. J/, de Lauriire, Par. 1723. f. vol. I. p. 5<V. Statuta
294 MKUIAKVAL fllUKCIl 1II.ST(JKV. I'Ki:. IV. A. I). 1216-1517.
holy fiitlicrs were responsible to no ono but the pope himself, and it was thoii
duty to sriiroh for heretics in every quarter. They liad the ri^dit to imiirigon
anv ono who was Ptispectod, and instead of furnishing liim with a list of the
cliarjies alleged against him, they required of him a general confession. Tor-
ture was used in their examinations, and witnesses whose names were con-
cealed were sometimes taken from among convicted criminals, the most
worthless of men, and accomplices in guilt, (c) The punishments inflicted
were, public penance, confiscation of property, perpetual imprisonment, and
death by burning, from which even a recantation was not always sufficient
to deliver the victim. The inquisition now became, in the hands of tlie hier-
archy, a desperate means of sustaining by violence and terror that influence
whose true foundation had begun to crumble. In vain did the people in the
south of France rise in rebellion, and take sanguinary vengeance upon some
of their inquisitors. In Italy, where the spiritual power was more limited
by peculiar circumstances, the inquisition found it impossible to carry out its
murderous spirit. In Germany the people combined with the bishops against
this attempt to force ujjon them this tribunal for heretics, and Conrad of
Mai-lurg, then acting as its president, fell a victim to their violence (1233). {(T)
In Spain, where the Jews and Moors had recently been baptized (after 1391),
notwithstanding a strong remaining attachment to their ancestral faith, the
holy court was introduced to take cognizance of all public or secret relapses
which might take place among them ; for, although ecclesiastical ethics would
allow of no force in the conversion of men to Christianity, the violation of
Christian vows was punished not only by force, but by death itself, (e) It
was in this country that the inquisition, under its General Torquemada (after
1488), developed its fearful power. It was there established by the royal
authority (1478), but it soon became in his hands a government of terror
which dictated terms to the king himself, trampled upon the opposition not
only of the imperial diet, but of every other power, and finally crushed all
freedom of thought in Church or State. The popes with some reluctance
yielded their consent to these proceedings. Even Ximenes, with a character
truly heroic, and worthy of Spain in its ancient and best days, who, on ac-
count of his rigid monastic sanctity, had been appointed Archbishop of
Toledo, Cardinal of Spain, and finally Regent of Castile (d. 1517), and was a
munificent patron of science, regarded it as not beneath his dignity to accept
of the office of Grand Inquisitor, that he might secure power enough to cor-
rect injustice, defend the Christian faith, and rescue the monarchy from the
feudalism of the middle ages. (/) Such an inquisition could be introduced
and sustained only among a people which for centuries, and during long pro-
tracted wars for their country and for their religion, had been accustomed
Raimundi super haeresi Albigcnsi a. 1283. {Ifansi vol. XXIII. p. 265ss.) Petri de Vineis L L
Epp. 25-2T.
c) Maii^ne, Thcs. anccdot vol.V. p. lTS6ss. lT95ss.— Z'. A. Biener, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. InquisitJons-
Proce^se?. Lpz. 1S27. p. COss.
d) Albericus ad ann. 1233. p. &Wss. Ti-ithem. Cliron. nirs. vol. I. p. 52:3.
«) Thomax, Suinina, P. II. P. 2. Qu. 10.
/) C. J. UefeU, d. Card. Xjnienes u. d. kirchl. Zustände Span. Insbes. z. Würdigung d. Inquia.
Tub. 1S44. lMii:hd Sandier, Hist, de la vie et de radniinistralion du Card. Ximeses. Par. 1S53. il
CHAP. III. EOCLES. LIFE. §205. FRANCIS OF AÖSI5I. DOMINIC. 295
to regard tlie purity and antiquity of their faith as superior to all other con-
eiderations. It ha.s, however, reduced this noble nation to the lowest state
of morals, and defrauded it of its natural course of development.
CEAP. III. — ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 205. 2'hc Tico Great Mendicant Orders.
r. Vita S. Francisci by Thomas de Celano, 1220. (Acta SS. Oct vol. 11. p. 6S3.) completed in
1246. by I.eo, Angelus et Jiiiffinus (Trcs Socii, lb. p. 723.) as the holy book of tl)e Order by Bona-
ventura. {III. p. 742.) The First I!ule in Höhten. Brockte, vol. III. p. 30ss. Luc. Waddiiiff, An-
miles Minotum (till 1540.) Lugd. 1625ss. S vols. f. (till 1504.) Itom. 1731ss. 19 vols, f.— Vita S. Domiiiici
by his first follower Jbrdantis, (Acta SS. Aug. vol. I. p. 545.) by Ilumhertus de liomanU, the fifth
general of the Order. 1254. {lb. p. 858.) Others in Höhten. Brockte, vol. IV. p. 10. — liipoli et
Bremond, Bullariuiii O. I'raed. lioin. 1739ss. 6 vols. f. Jfamachii aliorumq. Annales 0. Praedlca-
torutn. Rom. 174G. f. Quetif et Erhard, Scrr. O. Praed. Par. 1719ss. 2 vols. f.
II. Legende dor6e, ou 8<imm,iire de I'llist dos frörcs mendians. Amst 1734. 12. {Alemberf)
Hist, des Moines mend. Par. 170S. 12. Nuremb. 1709. E. Vogt, d. h. Fr. v. Ass. Tub. ISIO. E. Cha-
vin de Jfalan, Hist, de S. Franf. d'Ass. Par. 1S41. Municli, 1S42. [A life of Francis of A. is given
in Bohringer's Church of Christ, &e. See § 192.] — I.acurdaire, Vie de S. Dom. Par. 1S40. Landsh.
1S41. [.1 P. Day. Monastic Institutions. Lond. lS4fi. 2 ed. 12. For'» Monks and Monasteries. Lond.
1S35. Stephens, (in Edinb. Rev. 1S47. and Eclectic Mug. Sept 1S47.) Fr. of As«. &c.]
The enthusiasm which properly belongs to the Church, and yet frequently
endangered her existence, was finally attained and enlisted in her service,
through the exertions of some very peculiar characters. "When Francisco of
Assisi (b. 1172) heard (1208), in the church dedicated to Mary at Portiuncula,
the -words in which our Lord sent forth his disciples to preach the gospel, an
idea was revived which lie had entertained among his indistinct youthful .
aspirations. This was the jiroject of an association which should walk
strictly in the footsteps of the apostles, preaching repentance in every part of
the world, despising all kinds of private i)roperty or possession-?, and obtain-
ing the necessaries of life from the charities of their fellow-men. At first he
was despised by his fellow-citizens, execrated by his wealthy father, and
while travelling through Western Europe and Egypt ridiculed as a victim of
insanity. It was not long, however, before his unfiinching contempt of the
world, his honest humility, his burning luve to God, and his imitation of Jesus
Christ in a remarkable style of living, (") drew around him thoasands of dis-
ciples. The law to which they vowed allegiance required love, humility,
poverty, and joy in Christ. To a degree which had never before been wit-
nessed on earth, it now became a luxury to share in the earthly sorrows and
passion of our Lord, llie brown capoch or frock, which, according to the
fashion of the country, was ftv-^tcned to the waist with a cord, formed all the
clothing which they deemed neces.«ary, and constituted the honorable badge
of the order. Imiocent III. was induced by the sinqdicity and humility of
a) This view was carried to Its nltlmate point in the 40 Conformities of Bartholomaei Alhicii
(de Pisis) Liber Conforniitatuni, 13^5, and acknowledged by the deneral Chajiter at As.sisl, 1399.
Mediol. 1510. f. and often. E.\trael.s hy Eiosniu« Alberu.^, with a Preface by /.»Mer .■ Der Car-
Tu-scr Mönche Eulenspiegel u. Alcoran. 1501. I/.Vicoran des Cordeliers. Oen. 1550. in I.at. and
French. Am.st 1734. 2 vols.
ii{\(] Mr.DIAKVAI. ClICKCII IIIöTüKV. TKI:. IV. A. D. 1210-1517.
tlii.>< slruiino siiiiit to allnw liini to consummate his plans witliout interruption
( I'iOU). (/') Honurius III. solemnly conlirmed tho right of the Order of the
l-'ratres Minores (1223) to prcacli and hear confes-.sions in every jtlace. A female
order (Ordo S. Clarae) was also established (since 1212) by C'Uira of Assist,
whose disjKxsition was similar to that of Francis, and for whose followers the
latter was induced to prescribe a rule (1224). (c) A broad basis was finally
formed (1221) for his order, when he established a fraternity composed of
tiiose who wished to be his disciples, and yet were under the necessity of
remaining in the midst of worldly employments (tertius ordo de poenitentia,
Tcrtiarii). ('/) Whenever Francisco attempted to pronounce a studied dis-
course he was always confounded, but when he spoke from a sudden impulse,
his spirit broke forth from the depths of his heart like a storm. Like some
Minnesinger, he celebrated the delicious raptures of heavenly love and the
devotion of all nature for its Creator, (e) He seems to have possessed a
childlike spirit, which loved to commune with all forms of natural life, auJ
made him salute all creatures as brethren and sisters. After many vain long-
ings to die in proof of his love, he perceived that he was to become like the
crucified Redeemer, not by a bodily martyrdom, but by the intensity of his
devotion. He at last died lying naked on the ground in his favorite church
(Oct. 4, 122G), with the five wounds of Christ imprinted on his body. (/)
The biographies of St. Francis were at an early period highly adorned by
the extravagant fancies of his foUoAvers. Even then among his immediate
att^dauts many legends were received and sent forth to the world, and yet
we are compelled to believe that this seraphic stranger upon earth really
experienced many things out of the ordinary com'se of nature. — Domingo
(b. 1170), a Castilian and a canon of Osma, was a man of a thoughtful
spirit, which in its cultivation and profound emotions sympathized intensely
with the welfare and miseries of his fellow-men. Deeply aflected when he
heard of the growth of heresy, he undertook a journey in the manner of the
primitive apostles into ditferent parts of the south of France (after 1206),
that he might efiect the conversion of the Albigenses. On him and his assist-
ants in this enterprise, Innocent imposed (1215) the rule of Augustine, and
Honorius (1210) conferred on them the privilege of exercising a general pas-
toral care in the character of preaching friars (Fratres praedicatores, in
France Jacobins). Even nuns, principally, at first, such as had been con-
verted from the Albigensian faith, placed themselves under his rule, and at a
later period a class of Tertiarians (Fratres et sorores de militia Christi) be-
came connected Avith his order. The leading principle of the order was, the
sacrifice of the dearest objects for the promotion of the saving faith, and the
means which its members used were a learned education, holy eloquence,
and the restoration of the priesthood to its original all-subduing poverty.
6) JM. Paris ad ann. 122T. p. 2U. c) In Hülsten. Brockie vol. III. p- 34ss.
d) Hülsten. Brockie vol. III. p. 39s3.
e) LiL-bcskampfe des li. Franc. Dt-r h. Fr. ills Troubadour. (Der Katliolik von Livberuiann. 1S2G
II. 4. N. Is.) In Uie Appendi.v in Vogt.
/) The fact of tlie sacra stigmata was joovcd by eye-witnesses ; the Legend is very delicateli
hinted .it by Cdano (II, 1. § 24.) Comp. Iiii',n<iUt. ad aim. 1237. N. GO. Wiuldini; ed. Eoir. val-
IL p. 429.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 265. MENDICANT ORDERS. 297
No sooner hud Dominicus, in the General Chapter at Bologna (1220), effected
the passage of an act by which his order vowed to maintain perpetual and
perfect poverty, than he died (Aug. G, 1221), uttering anathemas upon any
who should pollute his order by bestowing upon it earthly possessions. — The
constitution of these two orders was developed, so far as related to essential
matters, in a similar manner. A Guardian, who among the Dominicans was
called a Prior, presided over a convent, a Provincial was placed over all the
convents in a country, and a General (minister generalis) residing at Romo
was over the Avhole order. Each of tliese otficers had the counsel and
inspection of certain Defiuatores, who represented the several congregations
under their jurisdiction. The principal superintendence and legislation was
vested in the provincial convents, and for the whole order in the General
Chapter. Although these mendicant orders were freed from the ordinary
cares of secular life, tliey were thrown into frequent contact with the people.
They, in contrast with the cathedral chapters, presented to those possessed
of eminent talents and merit a path by which the highest dignities of the
Church might be attained. As they possessed the right to receive confes-
sions wherever they might be, they soon became the spiritual advisers of
the Avhole Church, for they were often intrusted with secrets which persons
would not confide to their own pastors at home. In this way they easily
fouud occasion to interfere in all the relations of families, cities, and .states, (y)
As their table was every where spread, they could admit vast multitudes to
their order. Many convents indeed amassed by begging much wealth, the
possession of which was reconciled with their vows of poverty by the fact
that it was owned not by individuals, but by the general body. With the
papal court they were united by the bonds of a reciprocal interest, and hence
the mendicant friars were regarded by the pope as his standing army, and by
various kinds of charters tliey were exalted above the episcopal clergy. (/<)•
But this exaltation above the more ancient orders, their encroachments upon
the spiritual duties of pastors and the jurisdiction of the universities, and
the complete violation of all privileges previously possessed, provoked a per-
manent and often stormy opposition. William of St. Amour became the
leader of their opponents, and pointed out the dangers to which the Church
Avas exposed on account of this foolish system of sanctified beggary. Al-
though such men as Thomas and Bonaventura defended the higher objects
contemplated by their orders with consummate ability, even they were
obliged to concede that such bodies were very likely to become worldly-
minded, and to be perverted from their true design, (i) Hence, although the
mendicant orders were at first regarded as instruments for restoring the
Church to its primitive vigor, and were hailed as a new establishment of the
g) Jfat. Paris ad ann. 1239. p. 850. ad ann. 1243. p. 414. ad ann. 124C p. 4G5.<s.
fi) Emm. Jioderici nova Col. privllegiorum apost Kcgulariiim nicndicatuiimi et non mend.
Antn. 1623. f.
i) Guilelm. de periculis novisslmorum temp. 1256. (0pp. Constant. 1632. 4. Broten, Append, ad
fasc. rer. expet et fugiend. p. IS.) Thomas: contra retrahentes a religionis inirressu. Contra im
pngnantes Dei eultum, (0pp. Par. vol. XX.) Bonaventura : L. apol. in eos, qui Ordiiii Min. adver
santiir. De paupcrtnte Cliristi c, Gnilelmimi. Expositlo in reguhun I'ratruni minor. (0pp. Lue±
CIS. vol. VII.) Biilaei 1. c. vol. III. p. 200ss.
208 MI'.PIAKVAI, ClICKCII lIlSIiiKV. TKU. IV. A. I). V21ß-1517.
power of till! I.jitoriin, llicy really produced a great dissension among all tlie
oloinontH of ccclosiasticnl life. The two orders were tliemselves often brouglit
into collision witii eaoli other in consequence of the identity of their worldly
objects. Mutual jealousies were exhibited in attempts to disparage one
nnotbor and in doctrinal disputations, so that it was soon evident that their
iiifircst.s were in dilferent directions. The Dominicans, in consequence of
ihcir control t)Vor the inquisition, and their possession of the confidence of
tlie higher classes, obtained ascendency by inspiring a dread of their power
and their political intlucnce ; but the Minorites possessed the affections of the
people, and in consequence of their Portiuncula-indulgences and their legen-
dary glorj', their order was supposed to possess more than common power in
conferring absolution for sins. (Z-) At an early period of their existence the
Dominicans perceived that they could never attain their objects without a
scientific character, and hence, in 1230, they secured for themselves a theo-
logical chair in the University of Paris. The Minorites soon followed their
example. — St. Francis himself lived to see the origin and progress of a party
under tlie guidance of £Uas of Cortona, combining eminent scientific acquire-
ments and wealth in the service of the holy cause. On the other hand, An-
thonij of Padua (d. 1281), in the true spirit of his master, thought salvation
possible only to those who were simple-hearted and separated from the
world, and when he could obtain no audience for such doctrines among his
fellow-men, he sought consolation by preaching to the fishes. For many
years the two parties contended for supremacy in the order. Elias was twice
elected General, was twice deposed from that office, and finally, having fallen
out with the pope (1244), he connected himself Avith the party of Frederic
II. (I) Victory at last decided in favor of this milder party (Fratres de com-
muuitate), since its principles afforded opportunity to combine the reputation
of a mendicant order with the power and wealth of the world. On the
other hand, those in whom the bold spirit of their founder continued (Zela-
tores, Spirituales), refused even to possess property in common. The pope's
decision was given in favor of the victorious party from regard to a distinc-
tion between a possession in fee simple' and a possession of usufruct, and also
to the fact that the ownership of the entire property of the Minorites was
ostensibly conferred upen the Roman Church, {in) "With the courage of men
who had nothing to lose, the Spirituales then turned their reproaches upon
the Roman Church itself, and as their demand that the order should be sub-
jected to the rule of absolute poverty was in glaring contrast with the
wealth of the clergy, and as their voluntary rejection of all earthly posses-
sions was seen in the midst of a Church filled with quarrels for this very
kind of spoil, a hope was indulged that St. Francis was about to effect
through them a great reformation of the Church. This hope was in some
degree sustained by a prophecy of the Abbot Joacldm of Floris in Calabria
(d. 1202), who, being full of grief for the corruptions of the Church, pre-
k) Acta SS. Oct vol. II. p. S97ss.— Cyprian the Younger (of Dantzic), krit. Gescli. J. Port. Ab
lisses. 1794.
Wadding vol. I. p. 860. vol. II. p. 160. vol. III. p. 34. 101. 312.
in) Greg. IX. a. 1-231. {Koderici 1. c. p. Tss.) Jiinoc. IV. a. 1245. {Ih. p. 13.)
OHAi». IlL ECCLES. LIFE. § 265. DIVISIONS AMONG THE FRANCISCANS. 299
dieted that it would be subverted and then be gloriously renewed, according
to the figures of the Apocalypse, at the commencement of the third age of
ihe Avorld, whicli he placed in the year 1260. (//) An Introduction to that
Ercrlastirig Goxpcl, (o) which was to come in the place of the gospel of
Christ which tlien prevailed and Avliich was originally intended only as a
preparation and symbol of the truth, was published, and announced that the
period then passing was the age of the Holy Spirit, which had commenced
with the labors of St. Francis and his genuine disciples. Those who put
confidence in such predictions were in no wise perplexed when the period
assigned for these wonderful revelations had passed. Tlie Spirituales were
united by Celestlne V. into a congregation of poor Celestine-Ercmites.
Boniface VIII. dissolved this association (1302). Juha XXII. surrendered
the Spirituales, and especially the lay brethren among them (Fratricelli), into
the hands of the Inquisition (after 1318). Many of them joyfully gave up
their lives in the flames, because they were determined to possess no pro-
perty on earth, {p) But even the other Minorites, having satisfied their con-
sciences by an apparent surrender of their possessions into the hands of the
Romish Church, were zealous in maintaining against the Dominicans, that
Christ and the apostles owned no property in common. John XXII. rejected
this assertion as heretical, and formally renounced the property of the Fran-
ciscans, which as a mere pretence his predecessors had held (1322). (^y) By
this means the order lost a portion of its members, who, with Alichael of
Cesciia, their general, took refuge with the Emperor Louis, and defended his
cause against the popes. On the death of Louis the Spirituales wandered
about as fugitives, and founded a few settlements. They Avere often over-
thrown, but were invincible by mere force, and at last most of them became
reconciled to the Church in consequence of some concessions made to them.
At Constance especially, they, together with the Conventuals, who regarded
their possessions as still belonging to the donors, Avere recognized under the
name of the Brethren of the Rigid Observance, with superiors of their
own. (r) — The most celebrated doctors of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies were mendicant friars. But when, in the fifteenth century, the hier-
archy were surpassed in attainments by the classes in the interests of science,
the mendicant friars became the principal opponents of the latter, and the
champions of every Romish abuse, and. made use of every artifice to keep
the people in the immaturity of a superstitions dependence. But the mastei
ti) De Concordia utriusque Test Expositio Apocal. Yen. 1519. Psaltcrium decern cliordar. Ten.
ir>Z' 4. Comp. Acta S9. Moj. vol. VII. p. OSss. Engelhardt, Jtmeli. u. d. ew. Ev. (KGeseh. Ab-
liandll. Ell. ls:i2. N. I.) C. U. Ilahn, die npol<al. Lehren d. Joacb. v. Flor. (Stud. u. krit 1S40. II
Ü.) Abel, riiil. d. Ilolienst. p. .31253.
o) Introductorius in Ev. aetcrnuin, by Gerhard, tlie confidant of John of raniia, a General sub-
sequently deposed, about 1254. Since destroyed, witli tlio exception of some Extracts in Argentre,
Col. jiuiiciorum de novi.s err. Tar. 1T2SS.'*. vol. I. p. IRJss. Eccard vol. II. p. 849s9. In a siinllai
spirit Olivae (d. 1297.) Postilla super Apoc. Extracts in Baluzii Misccll. 1. I. p. 213s9. [(7. Jlohn
Gesch. d. Ketzer im MA. Stutt^. 1852. 3 vols.]
p) Moskemii Instltt. II. ecc. Cent. XIV. Chap. II. § 2C. note ir.
q) Baluzii Vitae Pap. Avcn. vol. I. p. 59S. L>trar. Joun. XXU. Tit. 14. c. 2ss. Wadd-nf
to!. \ I. p. 8;»4s.
r) Sess. XIX. {I/ardt vol. IV. p. 515.)
SOO Mi;i>iAi;vAr, ciiiMicii histokv. via:, iv. a. i>. I2ir>-i5i7.
iniiuls of lliid piTiod coiiiliiiie«! with tlicir old adversaries to expose to geno"
ral Bcorn their intellectual shallowncsg, their stupidity, their covetousness,
and their aflbctcd clamor about heresy.
§ 2GC. ruhUc Worship.
Holiness, during this period, was generally looked upon as a mere external
thing. Even in tlie fourth century the hermits of the Thebais, and some others,
had been in the habit of reckoning the number of their pater-nosters by some
external token. («) This formality in prayer received a definite form and
predominant reference to the divine Mother, when the Dominicans intro-
duced the rosary (Rosarium) into general use. Public worship consisted
almost entirely in tlie offering of the J/«*"?, which professed to be the celebra-
tion of a j)resent incarnate Deity, but in fact it often degenerated into a work
of superstition, perverted by unbelief to purposes of gain. The business of
instruction, however, was not altogether neglected by the Church, especially
on the part of the itinerant mendicant friars, whose hearers were frequently
60 numerous that no temple bnt that of God under the open heavens was
sufficient to contain them. The discourses of many preachers abounded in
scholastic learning or fantastic conceits, but there were also some who pro-
claimed the word of God in a popular style. Thus the Dominican John of
Vicenza (about 1230) became distinguished for his eloquence, and before he
allowed himself to become an object of ridicule by meddling with miracles
and political affairs, he was an eminent peacemaker between the numerous
factions which then distracted Italy. (J) Thus also Berthold of Ratisbon (d.
1272) powerfully aroused the rude and hardened consciences of his hearers,
and urged upon them the duty of worshipping God in spirit, (c) Guiler,
also, of Kahcrslerg (d. 1510), whose own heart was pervaded by a smcere
love of perfection, assailed the follies of the world and of the Church with
the weapons of the keenest wit. {d) Gahriel of Barletta (about 1470), a
Neapolitan preaching friar, presented a specimen of this humorous style of
popular preaching, in which the speaker sometimes gave to his discourses
even the ordinary comic flavor, {e) This kind of address was thought to be
especially allowable during the Easter festival, when, according to a preva-
lent custom, the roughest jests were tolerated even in the pulpit to excite
what was called the Easter laugh. (/) As none but the clergy took part in
the public services, the hymns used in the Church remained Avithout alteration
in the Latin language. In addition to those which had been used, some of a
tender character composed among the Franciscans were generally adopted
a) ralladii nist. Laus. c. 23. Sosom. H. ecc. VI, 29. Jfahillon, Ann. 0. Bened. vol. IV. p
«C2i>. Acta SS. 0. Bened. Praef. ad Saec, V. N. 25ss.
l>) OriiTinal authorities in Eaiimer, Gesch. d. llohcnst. vol. III. p. 50Sss.
c) Bortliold do3 Franc Predigten, th. vollständig, th. in Auszügen, edit, by Kling, Eorl. 1S24
Comp. Wiener Jahrb. 1S25. vol. 32. p. 194ss.
d) Weltspiogel d. i. Predigten ü. Sebast Brands Xarrenseliiff. Bas. 1574 and often.— F. ITT Ph. r.
Amnion, O. v. K. Leben, Lehren u. Pred. Erl. 1S2G. A. Stroeber, Essai hist sur la vie et les ecriu
de O. do K. Strasb. ISS^t. 4.
e) Scmiin. qnadrigesiniales. Bresc. 1497. and numerous collections of bis discourses, especiallj
that of Ven. 1577. 2 so\s.—Biixtmgarten, Nachr. v. Älerkw. Büchern, vol. VIL p. 124ss.
/) Fa^sli, Beitr. z. K. u. Ref. Gesch. vol V. p. 447ss. Hist polit Blätter. 1S39. voi IV. H. 6.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 20ß. FESTIVALS. JUBILEE. 301
by the Church. Congregational singing, in -which tho people took part, had
its origin in tlie extraordinary festivals and among the Fraternities, •where
the congregations participated more tlian usual in the services. In Germany
it especially grew out of the Kyrie Eleison, which was anciently sung hy the
people in full chorus as a Refrain. {<j) During the fourteenth century the
festival of the Immaculate Conception (§ 225) was more and more observed,
and the doctrine Avhich it commemorated became, through tlie influence of
St. Thomas, a party question between the Dominicans and the Franciscans.
Great agitations were produced by the discussion of this question in tho Uni-
versity of Paris, but finally that body (1387) and Clement VII, (1389), Avho
was carried away by its influence, declared themselves in favor of the doc-
trine because they regarded it as most favorable to tho interests of the Church
and of true piety. (/;) In Berne the Dominicans supported their side of the
controversy by causing an image of the Virgin to shed tears of blood, by
producing letters from glorified saints, and by branding a deluded man with
certain marks in imitation of the wounds of Christ. ITie tissue of deceit,
stupidity and crime, by Avhich these things Avere rendered plausible, was
finally exposed to public scorn, a legate presided over the spiritual court ap-
pointed for an investigation of the affair, and four of the principal agents in
it were burned (1509). (/) The doctrine of a change of the sacramental
bread into tho body of the incarnate Lord was celebrated on the festival of
Corpus Christi (F. corporis Domini). This festival, which originated in con-
nection with numerous dreams and visions in the diocesan church of Liege,
over which he had formerly presided. Urban IV. proclaimed (1204) as a gen-
eral festival of the Church. It was, however, generally neglected by his
successors, and was merely re-establislied by Clement V. as the festival of
the grand miracle in which Avas displayed the highest glory of the Church, (k)
Near the close of the thirteenth century a report, the origin of which was
unknown, generally prevailed in the city of Rome, that according to a cus-
tom remembered by some very aged people, a centennial indulgence might
be obtained in the church of St. Peter on the occurrence of the Jubilee Year,
1300. Boniface VIII. was induced by the vast concourse of devout persons
who on this account thronged the city, to bestow upon all who, in a peniten-
tial spirit, sliould on this year of Juhilee visit tlio churches of tho apostles, a
complete pardon for tho sins of the whole previous life. Hundreds of thou-
sands flocked to Rome, so that i)eople were compelled to acknowledge that
the whole human race was Romish, and like one great family assembled
around its common father. Hence, in consideration of the brevity of human
life, and the benefit of the Roman people, Clement VI. (1342) decreed that
g) IT. Uoffmann, Gesch d. dcut KLIedcs b. Lolher. BrcsL 1532. F. Wolff, ü. die Lat«, Se-
quenzen u. Leiche. Ilcldelb. 1841. C. FranU, GoBcb. d. gelstl. Llcdcrtexto vor. d. Kef. Ilalbrst
1S53.
?l) Thomas, Siimma. P. IIL Qii. 27. Art Iss. Dun» Scotus in Scntt L. IIL Dist. 3. Qu. 1. § 9.
Dist 18. Qu. 1. § n.—Hnlaei I c. vol. IV. p. ClSfS. Argfiitre I. c. vol. I. P. IL p. Clss.
i) Anishelm's Berner Chronik, edit, by Slierhin, vol. III. p. 8C9s9. vol. IV. p. Iss. Jlotiinger, H.
ceo. P. V. p. 834ss.
*) Jo. IJocsemitis (iibout 1849), gest» PontifT. Leodion?. c. 6. {ChapeaiHlli gestor. Pontiff. Leod
tcrlptt. vol. II. p. 293.) lizovii Ann. sA aim. 1280. N. la Acta SS. .ipr. vol. I. p. 443. Both buU»:
7lem&nt. III. Tit IG.
302 Mr.i)iAr.VALcnri:ciMiisT<'i:Y. i-kk. iv. a. d. ]2ic-imt.
tlio fostivjil of the Your of Jiiljileo sliould be cclcl)riitc(l every fiftieth year
Urban VI. (138'J) reduced ibe interval to 33, and Paul II. (1470) to 23
years. (0 From tiieso pageantries in public worship were finally developed
the rci)rcscntntion of sacred dramas in tiio form of Mysteries and Moralities,
enacted by ck-r^ymcn, students, or fraternities, frequently with an admixture
of poj.ular comie parts, but always as a mode of divine worsliip. (»i)
§ 2(57. Flourishing Period of the Imitatite Arts in the Church.
Vitmri, le vUc do" pittori, arcliitctti e sciiltori ital. Fir. 8 P. 1550. 4. and often. lb. lS4Css. G vols.
TTcIhts. v. Srhoni n. Forster, Stiitt^'. 1832-49. 6 vols, [and transl. into Enpl. X'nmrCs Lives of the
riilntors, ic. in IJolin's Stand. Lib. Lond. 5 vols. 8.] Seroux d'Agincoiirt,1V\st de I'Art par lee
nii>niime'ns. I'ar. et Str.isb. 1S23. [transl. fr. the Fr. Hist of Art, &c. 1 vol. Lond. ISIS, f.] 11. //use,
lU'l)irslclit6taf z. Gesch. d. neu. Kunst b. Itafael. Dresd. 1827. f. F. Kwjler, Handb. d. Kunstgesoli.
Studs. 1S42. [h'ii(//er's Hist Manual of Sculp. Puint Arch. anc. and mod. in Bolm's St. Lib.
Lond. 2 vols. 8. 1852.] //. Otte, Abriss e. kirclil. Kunst-Arcbacol. d. MA. d. deutsclien Lande.
Ji'ordliaus. (1842.) 1845. C. Schnaase, Gesell, d. bild. Künste in MA. DQsseld. 1844. 2 vols. G.
Kinkel, Gesch. d. bild. Künste b. d. chr. Yolk. Uonn. 18-15.— C F. r. Jiumohr, itiiL Forseh-
unsen. Brl. lS2"ss. 8 vols. E. Forster, Gesch. d. deutschen Kunst Lpz. 1851-53. 2 \<i[s.—Qn(iter-
mere de Qiiincij, Hist de la vie et des ouvrages des plus celebres architeetes du XL S. jusqn"i\
la tin du XVIII. ed. 2. Par. 1832. 2 vols. Uebers. v. Ueldmann, Darmst 1831. 2 vols. G. Mül-
ler, DenkiiKihler d. deutsch. Bauk. 12 U. D.armst ISlGss. new series. lS21ss. £ [tran-^l. into Engl.
Memorials of Aiic. Ger. Goth. Arch. &c. Lond. 2 vols.] Sidp. BoUseree, Denkmale d. Bauk. am.
Niederrhein. Munich, 18-33. f. B. Stark, Eom u. Köln o. d. Entwickl. d. chr. German Kunst (Stud.
w. Krit 1851. IL 2. — Cicognara, Storia della scuhura dal suo risorgimento in Ital. sino al secolo d.
Napoleone. Ven. ISlSss. 3 vols. t.—Lanzi, Storia pittorica della Ital. ed. .3. Bassano. 1809. G vols. Pisa.
ISli. 6 vols. 16. [Hist of Painting in LTpper and Lower Italy, from the Ital. of Lanzi by TP. Rosvoe,
Lond. 1847. .3 vols] Kugler, Gesch. d. Malerei, vol. I. p. lilSss. [IL of Painting, transl. from the
Germ, of Kugler by Ftistlake and Head. Lond. 1842. 1846.]— j: //. Wesvejiberf/, die chr. Bilder.
Const. 1827. 2 vols. (./ v. liudoicitz) Ikonogi-apbie d. Heiligen. Brl. 1S34. Didron, Iconogr. chre-
tienne. Par. 18-11. vol. I. [Christ Iconogiaphj', from the Fr. of Didron by ilillington, Lond. 1S5L
2 vols. Jj>rd Lindsay, H. of Chr. Art Lond. 1847. 8 vols. 8. E. Creseij and G. L. Taylor, Arch,
of MA. Lond. 4to. J. S. Meines, H. of Paint. Sculp, and Arch. Boston. 1831. 12. A. Cunningfiam,
Lives of eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. Lond. and New York. 1S80. 3frs. Jameson,
Eariy Italian Painters. Lond. 1S43. JT. Shaic, The Decorative Arts, Eccles. and Civil, of the Mid.
Ages. Lond. 1852.]
Among the Germanic nations, the antique style of Architecture, espe-
cially in its Byzantine character, had been adopted in the erection of tbeir
churches. Barrel-shaped and cruciform arches, much depressed, were gene-
rally adopted in their construction, as the knowledge of the ancient propor-
tions and ornaments had been gradually lost (portal of the Scottish monas-
tery at Kalisbon, crypt at Freysingen). But with the new life which sj^rung
up in the eleventh century, a peculiar style of sacred architecture was
developed in consequence of the use of the pointed arch. In a few instances
this form had been previously adopted as a temporary expedient in some Ital-
ian structures (St. Lorenzo of Subiaco, 847, Euiris of Tusculum), but its appro-
priate home was among the Northern nations, with whose pointed gables it
admirably corresponded, and yet required but little counterpoise. But that
/) Jacohi Ciijetani de centesimo s. Jubilaeo anno Lib. (Bibl. PP. Max. vol. XXY. p. 936. Ex-
tracts in Ilaynold. ad ann. 1300. N. Iss.) Villani YIII, 36. Extrav. comm. Y. Tit 9, c. 1. Ray-
nahl. nd ann. 1470. N. hü.—Charl. Chats, Lett hist et dogm. sur les Jubilees et les Indulgences.
Haye. 1751. 8 vols.
wi) U'. Hone, Ancient Mysteries. Lond. 1823. W. Marriott, Coll. of Engl, miracle pla\-s. Ba^
1888. Monmerqut et Michel, Theatre franfais au moyen-age. Par. 1839. Hist pol. Blätter. 1S4Ö.
vol. YI. Til. 1-4. C. A. Wittenhaur, de artis scenicae apud Germ, initiis. Bon. 1852. Gervinitt,
Gesch. d. poet Xat Lit vol. II. p. 355ss.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 2GT. ARCIHTECTUKE. 303
which was at fii"st a work of necessity soon became the fre<.-st expression of
the heart, tlie vaults of the domes rose up on every hand like a stone forest,
and the tall, slender pillars struggling upwards, became the type of a spirit
aspiring after heaven. The ground-form still continued to be the Basilica,
often in the shape of the cross (in the Latin style), the choir terminating in
a polygon, as a church of priests represented the highest aspiration of archi-
tecture in the interior, and the towers expres.sed the necessary culminating
and final points of the general effort. In the fantastic decorations of leaves
and flowers, of scrolls and grotesque figures, of gentle animals and the old
conquered dragon, wrought in stone, the abundance of nature as well as of
the world of fancy, was enlisted in the service of devotion. A mysterious
light entered the lofty, sombre, halls through painted windows, which were
the purest transparent representations of color, (a) Figures derived from
sacred history grew out of the twisted columns, and scenes from profane and
ecclesiastical history were represented by shepherds engraved in stone, and
resting with folded hands upon the tombs of saints, bishops, and princes.
The Church was thus like a new temple of Solomon, a type of the earth
with all its children, and the vault of heaven stretched above them. The
erection of these sacred buildings was then a great popular expedient by
which men could conquer a holy land on their native soil, could pour the
wealth of private life into the house of God, and transmit the vast jilans of
one generation to its successors, (h) The first stonemasons and architects
came from the monasteries, and gradually lodges of freemasons Avere organ-
ized, in which the results of mechanical skill were communicated from one
person to another, and the credit of the trade was secured, (c) In the se-
crecy of these lodges an asylum was also found for dispositions which rose
superior to the contemporary Church, and hence we find that ecclesiastical
corruptions were sometimes freely and boldly proclaimed by the stones
which compose the most splendid monuments of the Church itself. The
most flourishing period of this architecture was during the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, when Conrad of Uocliatadeix laid (1248) the foundation
stone of the cathedral of Cologne, and Ericiii oi Steinlach formed the design
( 1275) of the tower of the minster at Strasburg. ((/) During the fifteenth
century it passed in some measure into decay, not on account of an excessive
refinement in building, but because that form of pious feeling which creates
such works for a distant future no longer existed in the public mind, and the
spirit of the middle ages was gone. This Germanic style of architecture,
which since the time of Vasari has received the name of Gothic, has subse-
quently prevailed extensively in France, England, Spain and Sicily. In Italy
the sight of the old Koman architectural structures was too overpowering to
a) J/: A. GfSKert, Gcscli. d. GlassmaWreL Stultg. 1S19. [Art of Painting on Glass, from the
Germ, of Ges-^crt. Lond. 1925. 4.]
li) Cdhiiv C. Grwtlvisen u. E. ^fauc■h, Ulm's Kunstlcben im MA. Ulm. \'>40.
c) Comp. I/eld/nann, dio 3 ältesten Denkmale der teutschen Freiinaurerbrüdrreclifjt. Aariiu.
5819. (1819.)
d) S. Jii'isMree, G(*v\\. u. IJesclir. d. Doms v. Cr.lln. Munich, (1S2.").) 1S42. 4, J. v. (.'iu-reft, t\et
Dnin. V. Kölln. u. da» Münster v. Strasb. llcgensb. 1842. F. A'tiyUr, d. Uoui. v. KCilln. (Deutsche
Viertelj. Sehr. Is4-.'. N. 19.)
304 MKDIAKVAI, CiniU 'I IIISTOUV. I'KIl. IV. A. 1). 121C-1517.
ftllow of its adoption. It« utmost limits in that direction are witnessed in the
wliito mnrl)lü mountain of tlio catliedral of Milan, with its liost of statues,
wiicro the liomisii clcmerit already begins to interfere with the German.
Kvery reriiujiiit of this Gorman style was surrendered wlien antique grandeur
and jiurity was introduced witli tlie revival of classical antiquity. JJrunel-
h\sro formed tlic arch of the cupola of the Cathedral of Florence (since 1421),
and Julius II. laid tlie foundation of the modern St. Peter's Church (1506),
tlie beautiful structure of which was commenced after the plan of Bra-
mantcs, and has been so fatal to the interests of the papacy, but has finally
proved to be its most exalted type, and its proudest monument, (c)
The Plaiitic Arts^ from which Christian morality withheld the privilege
of presenting any figures without costume except those of the martyrs, Avere
developed in forming the ornaments and utensils of churches, and had their
principal home in Florence. (/) Nicolas Pisano (1221-74), whose works
were wrought after the models of antiquity, deserves the credit of being their
modern father. Lorenzo Ghiherti (1378-1455) cast in bronze the doors of
tlie baptistery in a style which made them worthy of adorning the entrance
to Paradise, but he was an artistic painter in metals, and hence his successors
have been much perplexed when they attempted to imitate him. During
the same period every delightful variety of nature's beauties was represented
in the pure and animated reliefs of Lucca della liollia (1388-1450). Dona-
tello (1383-1466) made up for Ms deficiency in depth of character by his
passionate emotion. Michael Angela (1474-156i) in his youth formed a
group of the Madonna with the dead body of our Lord, in which much feel-
ing, delicacy, and beauty were exhibited, but at a. later period he seems to
have despised all attempts to delineate subjects of Christian beauty. Ilis
mausoleum of the Medici is an embodiment of profound and petrified
thoughts, and his Moses is a terrible representation of a popular ruler. On
the other side of the Alps the imitative arts were generally made subservient
to architecture. From the shops of the goldsmiths and bra.^iers of that
period proceeded many careful imitations of ordinary nature adapted to pious
uses. In this limited department of art, Peter Vischcr^x Rehquary of St.
Sebaldus (1506-19) possesses an artistic excellence of the very highest degree.
Modem Painting originated in the eflort to represent the views which
are peculiar to Christianity, and received its highest cultivation from the
patronage of the Church. In the "Western Church, it is true, there were
some who denounced the use of pictures and statues as an unlawful indul-
gence of the eyes, but generally it was thought that the arts might properly
be used, and the treasures of the Church might be worthily expended at
least in commemorating the saints. Ecclesiastical laAvs were therefore
directed only against those representations which were thought to be grossly
sensual and of a corrupting character. The pious feelings which found satis-
«) Descrizione istor del principio e proseguimento della fabrica del dnomo di Firenze. Flor. 1786»
Fontana, il Tenipio Vaticano e suo online. Eom. 1694 f. Plainer, d. neue Peterskirche. (Beechr.
d. Stadt Rom. vol. II. pp. 134-229.)
/) Comp. Aug. I/agen, die Chronik s. Vaterstadt v. Florentiner Lor. Ghiberti. (Kunst-Eoman) Lpi
1833. 2 vols.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 267. PAINTING. 305
faction in the use of relics, obtained still higher enjoyment from an image in
which we j)Osses3 such a beautiful medium of connection between the flesh
and the spirit. The glorious forms in which the martyrs receive the palms
of victory as they ascend to heaven, reconcile us to the repulsive scenes in
the midst of which their tortures are depicted. The old traditions (§ 139)
which had been so prevalent in the ancient Church, never became entirely
obsolete in Italy. In the mosaic work of the Roman churches are to be
found specimens of paintings produced in almost every preceding century.
A very delicate and expressive style of miniature painting appears in the
manuscripts written in the convents in the time of the Saxon emperors, (g)
As soon as intellectual life began to be awakened by intercourse with Con-
stantinople, Christian art also-made its appearance first among the Italians.
A corporation with a regular constitution was formed under the patronage
of St. Luke among that highly refined people, when it advanced to its great-
est perfection. The design of the paintings obtained from Constantinople
was generally grand, but the figures were vacant, mummy-like, and of an
extravagant size, but painted with some degree of skill, and generally on a
ground of gold. The school formed on this model was commenced by Guido
of Siena (about 1221) and Giunta of Pisa (1210-36), and was completed by
Cimabue (about 1240-1300). The divine Virgin painted by the latter in
Florence is noble and saintly, but unnatural. Giotto (1270-1336) abandoned
not only the stiff manner but the lofty spirit of antiquity, and under the im-
pulse of Dante's suggestions, founded a peculiar style of Italian art by imi-
tating nature in her most animated movements. Not only the commissions
given but the conduct presented by the monks, afforded the artistic skill of
this Florentine school many oppportunities to combine the pathetic with the
burlesque of ordinary life. Even in representations of Scriptural history,
this school, which attained its highest perfection in Domenico Ghirlandaio
(1451-93), presented its scenes in a domestic, common style, so that in its
hands the manger of Bethlehem exhibited simply a Florentine accouchement.
But Angelica of Fiesole (1387-1455) had already introduced into his art the
significance and endless variety of human expression, and infused into his
sweet pictures the riches of a heart at home not only in the convent but in
lieaven. He was peculiarly the painter of glorified saints, and by means of
his employment enjoyed communion with his Lord. JIasacchio (1402—48),
to whom was opened the secret of the chiaro scuro, returned again with joy
to beautiful nature, and to the grand thoughts of the old ecclesiastical tradi-
tions. When Leonardo (1452-1517) had profoundly developed the laws of
the art, and even in his Lord's Supper (the heads of the apostles in Weimar)
had combined the charm of the supernatural with exalted individual beauty,
Fra Bartolomco (14G9-1517) nobly and clearly delineated scenes from sacred
history with devout conscientiousness, and in attractive coloring. Finally
Michael Angcio, by his gigantic power and thorough knowledge of nature,
became the painter of the Old Testament, because no subjects seemed wor-
thy of his master pencil but the prophets of olden time and the tremendous»
g) Hire, Essni sur I'art de verifier IVige des niinlntnros pelntos dans les manuscrits. Par
1T62. C
20
;]0G MKDIAKVAL CIIUKCII IIISTOUV. I'Elt. IV. A. I). 1210-1 r,l 7.
ncone« of tlio Lnst Judgment. Even the Lomlnrdic nchool had its origin in the
Church. ]}iit nltlioiigh Montcgna^ occasionally with sacred eavncstncss, and
Jiilliin\ with cheerful loveliness, have given us pictures of heavenly and
saintly forms, the most jjcrfoct specimens of this school arc brilliant rcpre-
Bentations of atlrnctivo sensuous beauty and republican glory. In Germany,
a national school of Christian ])ainting was formed at first on the Lower
IJhiiie, and afterwards at Nureinburg, whoso subjects were generally taken
from the common traditions, but with a decided preference for those of a
typical and allegorical nature. The very first effort it put forth, in the cathe-
dral i)icture of the patron saint of Cologne (1410), seemed like a new crea-
tion. The masters of this school are the two brothers Van Eyh (about
(1300-14:70) and Alhert Durcr (1471-1528), each devotedly attached to sub-
jects taken from sacred history and from nature. They all excelled in the
use of a beautiful indestructible coloring, and labored within the limits of a
contracted and rather beautiful yet appropriate reality, which in their hands
became exalted as the type of the celestial. The two first were poetical and
graceful, the last was more judicious, fond of common scenes, but fanciful
and inexhaustible not only in his power of invention, but in his diligence in
execution, and was scientifically acquainted with all the treasures of art in
the Netherlands and in Italy. (Ji) The simplicity of the old ecclesiastical art
was still preserved in the purest form in Uinbria, by means of the spirit and
the patronage which proceeded from Assisi, although its rigid sublimity had
become somewhat softened and tender. Thus was it with the works of Fe-
rugino (1447-1524), in the beautiful sphere to which he confined himself,
until lie condescended to betray his art for money. Thus also was it with
respect to Francisco Francia (1450-1518), Avho in spirit belonged to this
school, and correctly delineated the ancient forms, while he gave to them the
most delicate blending of colors. Thus also was it with Eapliael (1483-1520),
who in Urabria combined the rigidness of ancient Christianity "with a proper
.lelicacy of feeling, in Florence found liberty fully to gratify his ardent love
of nature, in Ivoine imparted the beauty of nature to Christian ideals, and in
his own bosom found a correspondent sublimity of conception while gazing
upon the propliets of Angelo. The Madonnas of his youth are full of sad-
ness and presentiment, those which he executed in Florence of simple per-
fect happiness, and those of the Sistine chapel have an expression appropriate
to the virgin queen of heaven. The Bible in the hands of this great painter
of the Church became a series of pictures, and in the Stanzas of the Vatican
he has given perpetuity in the world of art to the gorgeous vision even then
beginning to vanish, according to which the papacy was the central point of
all ecclesiastical and spiritual life. (/) Even liis other purely secular produc-
tions were adjusted to the same exalted position, and the adventures of the
Olympic deities were conformed to the spirit of the age of the papal Medici,
and exhibited all the embellishments of the most exuberant fancy. But in
A) G. F. Waagen, Ilubert u. Job. v. Eyck. Brsl. 1S22. J. Weisse, A. Dürer u. s. Zeita. Lpz.
ISia. J. ITeUer, <l Leben u. d. Werke A. Dürers. Lps. 1531. Only 2 vols, in 8 Abth. B. Stark, A.
Dürer. (Germania, 1S51. p. 6'25s«.)
i) G. Brill» i Dffcr. delle ini.<igine dipintc tla Eafaello nolle camere «lei Tnticano. Eom. 1895,
[/?. DupjKi, Life of Kaplüicl. (Hogue's Kur. Lib.) Loiul. If4;. 8 ]
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFE. § 2G9. SAINTS. CANONIZATION. 307
the work which enlisted liis List and dying energies, he appeals to hava
caught a glimpse of Christ in his future glory, (l)
§ 208. Worship of the Saints.
The confidence reposed in the goddess, who, either as a bride or as a
mother, was supposed to have all power in heaven, was at this time so great
that the dominion of the world seemed to have been regarded as a vast female
lief (Kunkellehn), and it was no longer a captious jest when it was said that
the virgin queen was every day annoyed with all kinds of importunities, (a)
In Poetry and in the Imitative Arts she was represented as the Christian
counterpart of the Siren of Venus, and of Mother Earth, although nature
was frequently unconsciously adored in her. The interest felt in particular
localities for those relics which had for the most part been brought home by
the crusaders, gave occasion for a continual multiplication of saintly legends,
embracing many newly invented adventures. A collection of these was
made by the Dominican, James de Voragine (d. 1298), and not so much on
account of the literary contributions of the author as of the popular elements
it embraced, and the summary of saints' days in the year which it presented,
it was used in all parts of the ^Yestern Church under the name of the Golden
Legend, {h) Some enlightened teachers indeed feared tliat the continually
increasing worship of saints would produce a forgetfulness of God, but the
Church not only inculcated a confidence in the prayers of saints, but an imi-
tation of their virtues. The personal relations of particular patron saints to
individual families and guilds which had the care of their sacred things, gave
occasion to various rival interests in their behalf, and to promote their re-
spective glories by metms of the arts. The etlect of this was sometimes
highly favorable to an increase of this saintly piety. The creation of new
saints was dependent upon a very difficult and expensive process at Rome.
In some cases where the claims for a canonization were not made out, a bea-
tification was provisionally granted. Tlie right which the popes had reserved
exclusively to themselves with respect to these matters, was sometimes exer-
cised by the great councils. The halo of sanctity was a mark of nobility,
and the badge of an order whicli- encouraged the highest services by a reward
in the humblest form for the present life, but eternal in auother. The mere
possession of a high ecclesiastical position was not ordinarily enough to con-
fer any special title to this honor. But even the saints of this period present
no very exalted specimens of genuine human excellence, since their merit
consisted rather in strange and diversified exhibitions of the power of faith in
extreme self-denials, and in sacrifices. The influence of the monastic orders
was sufficient to obtain the canonization of a few monks, wliose scientific in-
vestigations were especially characterized by the ecclesiastical spirit. It was
generally held that no one should be canonized unless, either during life or by
his dead body ho had wrought some miracles, as divine announcements of liid
k) J. D. PasRamnt, Eaf. v. Urbtno. Lps. 1S.39. 2 vols.
CI) Erasmus, Peregrinatio religionis ergo. Ainst 1C55. p. 3553.
h) Lcjendaaureas. Ili.-^t. Lonibardica. Argent 1479. f. Ac otten eJ.Tb. Gvaesse, DresJ. etljis. 134Csa
Translated into all the Western lansiiagcs.
308 MKDIAKVAI. < IIIIUII lllSir.UV. I'KU. IV. A. I). 10I0-1.',17
panctitv. Nirolii» r<>n (hr FU'if, on (lio Alj)«, appears as an instance of a i)eco-
liar class of saints, similar to those of tlie Thobais. After liavirif,' performed
tho duties of a Inishandman, a futlior, a warrior, and a judge in liis native
land, lie became possessed wirli an intense longing to spend his life with God
in the solitude of the forest. A light, like a sharp knife pierced his spirit,
and henoeforth, during twenty years (14G7-87J, he lived entirely with God,
and witli no sustenance except wliat lie obtained from his communion with
God. I lis liumble silence, however, could not save him from the suspicions,
nor the pious veneration of his fellow-men. In consequence of the former
the miracle of the spirit seemed confirmed, and in consequence of the latter
he became the counsellor and arbitrator of the neighboring shepherds. When
the freedom of the Swiss confederacy was endangered by dissensions among
its members (1481), harmony was restored by the presence and authority of
Brother Claus, (r) Under the guidance of their confessors Avomen became
saints. In Germany, Elkaheth^ the daughter of a king, and full of grief that
she could not die a virgin, though tho "wife of a prince, sustained herself by
the profits of her own toil, and turned the Wartburg, so recently the abode
of worldly pomp and music, into a hospital. In her Avidowhood she solemnly
renounced her own Avill and all the Avorld, that she might devote herself to
the care of leprous persons, and died (1231) Avhile young, beautiful, and glow-
ing Avith a saintly love. The stern priest, under Avhose perverted counsels she
thus fell a sacrifice, delighted in the hope that all remnants of earthly feeling
had been slain Avithin her spirit, and announced at Kome, with many sworn
Avitnessos, her ardent piety, the radiance of her countenance in prayer, and
the miraculous cures which she had efi\jcted. Her apotheosis, as of an ideal
of charity, was celebrated as early as in the year 1250, a lofty monument of
German architecture spans her grave at Marburg, {d) and in the legend the saint
has obtained so much grace, that even her timid prevarication miraculously
became a truth. In Italy Ave find Catharine of Siena, the daughter of a
dyer, who grcAv up among the sacred services of the Dominicans. "When a
child she was accustomed to kiss the very footsteps of these pious men. She
could never be satisfied with self-denials and tortures, and at a later period
indulged in the use of no nutriment but that Avhich she derived from the ele-
ments of the Lord's Supper. Jesus Christ himself condescended to pay the
child a friendly visit, Avearing his triple crown, and gradually either alone or
in the company of a few saints his visits and conversations became more fre-
ijuent, until they became daily occurrences. Finally he solemnly betrothed
the virgin to himself, by conferring upon her a ring, and took from her side
her heart, and substituted his own. Such at least Avas the statement Avhich
c) WiJnifr, das Gottl. in Ird. Entwickl. nacligewiesen iin Leben Nik. v. d. Fl. Luz. 1S19. B'l
tingfi; Bruder Klaus u. s. Zeitalt. Luzorn. 1S2T. {G. Gbrres) Gott, in d. Gescb. Munich. 1S31. II. 1
A bwk imputed to liim on voluntary seclusion (Pliilos. mystica. Neost 161S. 4.) is not genuine.
<i) I. Conradi Marpurg. Elis. vidua. Ep. E.xaminatorum luiracc. ad. Dom. Papam. (Kuchenleche)',
Annal. Hass. Marp. 1735 Collect IX.) Thcodoricun Thuring. (of Apolda) de S. Elisab. {Canisii
Lectt. cd. Ba-in. Th. IV.) Greg. IX. Canonizatio S. Elis. viduae. (Bullar. Kom. Th. I. p. 104.—
II. K. W. Juiti : Ells. d. Hell. Zur. 179T. Montalemhei-t, Hist do S. Elis. de uongrie. Par. (1S36.)
1837. i Th. inlt. Anm. v. StädUr, Aach. 1S36. [C KingsUy, The True Story of Elizabeth of Hun-
ary, ir the Salnfs Tragedy. Lend. 1S52. 12.]
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE, g 2CS. CATJIAEINE OF SIEN.V. 309
she made to her father confessor. It is possible that the interest of the order
may have had some influence in tlie result, but it is certain that this lowly
maid was finally adored, not only by thi.s powerful order, but by nearly the
whole of Itah'. Compelled to .spend much of her time in the midst of secu-
lar employments she frequently fell into a trance. She was finally induced
to abandon the luxury of this contemplative kind of life, and of her attend-
ance upon couches of loathsome disea.se, that she might devote herself to the
work of composing the strifes which then existed in Italy and in the Church.
She exhorted Gregory XI. to enter upon another crusade, otfected peace be-
tween him and the Florentines, urged the return of the papacy to Rome, was
used as an instrument in the quarrels of the mendicant friars, and finally died
at Kome (1380) the saint of the Koman papacy in its dissensions, and pas-
sionately longing to meet her espoused Lord. In consequence of the un-
friendly feelings of the Franciscans with respect to her, she was not canonized
until a long period after her death, and even then this oflBce had to be per-
formed (1461) by her own fellow-citizen, Pius II. (e) The only saint France
could claim during this period, since she only effected the deliverance of her
country, and met with a tragical end, was never recognized by her age, but
was burned as a witch (May 30, 1431). (/)
§ 269. Miracles and Magic.
PelUecia, de superstit medii aevL (0pp. Basan. vol. IV.) Meiner», Abcrgl icr scliol. Jalirh.
(Hist Vergleich, d. Sitten des MA. vol. III.) [ Walter Sc-ott, Demonology &, Witchcraft. Lond. 1S3Ü.
New Tork. 1S31. G. C. ZTorst, Zauber Bibliothek, &e. Mainz, 1S26. 6 vols. 8. For. Quart. Rev. {\n
Litteirs Museum.) 1830. E. Salterte, Hist, of Marfc, ic, transl. by A. T. Thompson, Lond. IMI.
New York. 1347. 2 vols. 12. W. C. Dendy, Phil, of Mystery. New York. 18-15. 12.] •
The intelligence of this age sometimes imposed limits upon the enthu-
siasm which delighted only in supernatural revelations, and assumed higher
ground than the popular faith, since it occasionally tore the mask from de-
ception, or proposed to the legend some questions with regard to its veracity.
Bloody Hosts were not generally regarded as miracles, though none could
then explain them on scientific principles. And yet Birgitta's revelations
were solemnly confirmed («) at Constance and at Basle, and the people cried
out " A miracle I" when the mendicant friar saw the blood of Christ flow
down the crucifix erected for absolution, (i) Numerous pilgrims and beggai-s,
as well as immense wealth and treasures of art were collected at Loretto, on
account of the legend of the fourteenth century, respecting the house of the
divine Virgin, which, having been consecrated as a temple by the apostles,
had been removed by angels from Nazareth, after the loss of the Holy Land,
<■) Acta gS. April, vol. I IL p. WSs^ Her Lotters, conversations, and revelations are «Itted in
Italian, by Gigll, Sien. ITO'.ss. 5 Th. 4. comp. FahrU. Bib), med. et Inf. LaL Tu. L p. 86.38. Proccs-
BUS contestationum super .sanclitite et doctr. B. Catli. {ifurteiw, amp). Col. Tli. VI. p. 1237ss.)
/) ProcC'S de condamnation ct do rihabllitatlon do Jeanne d'Aro dito la Pucelle, sulvis de tons lea
documents hist, par Jules Quichenit, Par. 1S41-9. 5 vols.— A'. Hase, d. Jungf. d. Orl. (Xeuo Prophe-
ten. Lpz. 1SÖ1.) [J. M. Evans, Story of Joan of Arc Pliüad. 1S31. Anon. Memoirs of Jean d"A. &
Hist, of her times. Lond. 1S24. 2 vols. 12 ]
aj werson, Fr. de prohatlone sj'j-ituum. (0pp. vol. I. P. I. p. .37.) Tr. : do distlr.ctlone vcrar.
rislonuin a falsis. (/?;. p. 4;3.) ItinU, Const Cone. vol. IIL P. III. p. 25-s. vol. IV. P. IL p. 39s.
V) According to George of Anhalt, Lüacfter, Viet Acta, wl. I. p. 8S5.
310 MKDIAÜVAL <IMi:m mSTOKY. I-Ki:. IV. A. I), I'-MCISIT.
nnd nftcr many wftridcrinfjs had found a i)ermanent abode at Loretto ("1295;. (r\
Mvstcrioiifl arts to nsccrtnin tlio futnro bad never been entirely discontinued.
Astrolopy liad been raised by the influence of the Saracens to tlic dignity of
a pcionce, and sometimes had an oflicer at court appointed to attend to it.^
intiTosts. AVbite magic was tolerated by the Church. But the unfriendly
spirit shown by the advancing intelligence of the age toward sujjerstition,
Ii;irmonized with the suspicion of the vulgar that the ordinary limits of hu-
manity can seldom be passed without Satanic art. The same spells which
the Church used for the deliverance and exaltation of souls were supposed
to be employed by the infernal powers in like manner, for their destruction.
The horror felt in the depths of our own nature for such arts has been gen-
erally expressed in the arbitrary symbols which superstition has invented.
Yet in the Italian legend of the enchanter, Virgil, we have not only the
unconscious prophet of Christianity who was lamented by Paul, but the skil-
ful employment of the black art in the performance of wonderfal feats, and
in the construction of buildings. In the Norman Merlin also, is set forth a
shadowy counterpart of the divine Saviour, when the wild impulses he derived
from his demoniac origin are contrasted Avitb the graceful humanity he in-
herited from his mother. In the German story of Faust, the representative
and compiler of all the magic of the Middle Ages, and in that of his younger
brother of a more southern clime, Don Juan, is exhibited the ruin of the
most richly endowed genius, when it is determined by the aid of infernal
powers to exceed the limits God has assigned to human knowledge and enjoy-
ment, {d) The truth of this popular faith in covenants and unlawful inter-
coilrse with the devil was finally conceded by the Church, and those wh»
were supposed to be guilty of such things were arraigned before the eccle-
siastical tribunals as traitors against divine majesty, {e) Sometimes those who
addicted themselves to the black art were burned by the direction of the
Church, but frequently the imputation of sorcery was derided as a mere su-
perstition. On heai'ing that witches and wizards practised their arts in Ger-
many to the serious injury of both property and life among the people,
Innocent VIII. revived (l-iSi) the laws against magic in the widest sense
implied in the popular faith, (/) and appointed two judges of witches foi
Upper Germany, who compiled a manual for the trial of witches, as remark-
able for its learning as for its superstition and impurity, {g) Then commenced
a process, during which the popular faith, avarice, and the new modes of evi-
dence required by the penal law, consigned thousands of witches to the
flames. The injuries which they were accused of inflicting were generally
confined to the most trifling matters of ordinary life, and no witch appears
c) BaptUta Jfaniuanvs, Ecc. Laurctanae Hist (0pp. Anta. 1576. vol. IV. p. 216ss.) Martonelli
Teatro istor. dolla S. Ca.sa Kaz. Rom. 1732. 2 vols. Treated polemically : Vergerii L. de Idole Lanr.
(0pp. adv. rapatiim. Tub. 1563. 4. Th. I.) Ingol. 1554. Bernegger, Hypobolimaea Mariae deiparae
camera. Argent. 1C19. 4. Apologetically : Titrriani IJesp. ad capita argum. Vergerii bacretici Ingol.
15S4. 4. Turselini Lauretana Hist. Mog. 1599. Yen. 1T27.
d) J. Gorrei. die dentsclien Volksbüclier. Heidelb. 1S07. p. 2n7ss. C. I.. StieglUz, Sage v. F.ausL
(/?<z»m^r, Hist. Taschcnd. Lpz. 1S34.) Comp. Jahrb. f. wi?8. Kritik, 1*34. N. 25. [TT. Godwin, Lives
uf the Necromancers, New York. 1S35. 12.] e) According to Gen. 6. 1-4. Exod. 22, 13.
/) nauber, Bibliothcca. St I. p. Iss.
g) {Jac. Sprenger et lleinr. Institor.) Malleus Maleficarum. Col. USO. 4. & of.en.
C1IA.P. in. ECCLES. LIFE. § 209. WITCnCRAFT. § 2T0. DISCIPLINE. 311
ever to ]iave become -wealthy by her arts. Actual crimes were never legally
proved. Some may have been induced by the popular super.-^tition, by som-
nambulistic states, and by narcotic salves, to form criminal desires, and to
regard themselves as witches. But in general the violence of tortures, and
tlie various illegal processes of investigation were suflBcient to account for the
confession of unnatural crimes, witliout 8upi)0.«ing tliem real, (h) But no
persons ventured to express doubts with respect to the propriety of such pro-
ceedings, except on very rare occasions, and in the most guarded manner. {()
The picture drawn of the Witch's Sabbath is only a copy of the fantastic
representations often given of the assemblies of heret.vjs. The process against
M-itclies now supplied the place of that which had formerly been employed
against heretics. It was only in Germany, England, and Scandinavia, that
the nation generally became enlisted in its behalf. The bulls of Alexander
and Leo against magicians and poisoners in Lombardy, appear to have been
directed against some remnants of the Manichaeans. (k) As all nature was
believed to be subservient to the kingdom of God, and to have a share in the
blessings of the Church, many thought proper sometimes to defend tliemselvcs
even against noxious beasts by exorcism and excommunication. (/)
§ 270. Cliurcli Dmijjline and Indulgences. Cont.from §§ GO, 202.
The Ban and the Interdict had now lost their power, in consequence of
the abuse which had been made of them. The popes were therefore com-
pelled in their political contests to sharpen their spiritual Aveapons, by abol-
ishing every right previously recognized among enlightened and Christian
nations. Clement V. and Sixtus IV. declared the Venetians infamous and
outlawed, even to the fourth generation. ('/) In the thirteenth century the
popes introduced the annual practice on the day before Good Friday (incoena
Domini), when absolution was especially bestowed before the altar, of
eolemnly pronouncing sentence of excommunication, in a form not then inva-
riable, agaiiK^t the whole host of heretics and wicked persons of all kinds,
then so constantly increasing. (7>) The discipline of the Church had become
exceedingly lax, in consequence of the vast number of the mendicant iViars,
and the preachers of indulgences. The prerogative by which the popes pro-
fes.sed to remit all ecclesiastical punishments became so much extended that
they finally possessed the complete power to forgive all sins. This was de-
rived from the doctrine which taught that the merits of Christ and the saints
(Thesaurus supererogationis perfoctorum) were so abundant, and the unity
h) JV; Itemigii Daoinonolatrla. Lupd. 159.V 4. Frkf. \t/i^—fTnvher, Bibliotlioca, »eta et scripta
ninfpcn. Loinso. ITSOss. .10 St W. G. SoUlan, Oo.*h. d. lloxonprocc&^e. Stuttu. lS4a ('. G. r. Wiuh-
ter In S. Ik'ilr. z. deutsclien Qcscli. insb. z. Gc.sch. (L Strafr. p. SI. 277ss. Comp. Grimm, doufsclic
MytlK.I. p. f>:'.)»^.
»■) I'll-. .Volitor, de J.AwXn ot pyllioiilols iniillorll). Col. 1459. Stra.sl). 15T5. 4. J. Wier, dc praesti-
piiH dniMiionuin. lias. l.W?. it often.
k) /fiitiher, St. III. p. ISIsw. St, V. 2T7sH.
[) Ifemmerlin, Tr. do cxorc. ot adjiirationlb. c. nnliimlia briita (.ibont 1-151).— .*< /";■!>, Itapport ct
rtclicrolios sur \i» procC.s et jiifrem. roliitlt's mix nniinnnx. Par. 1S2P.
a) üdi/nalil, ad ann. 13ii9. N. C. ail ann. US2. X. 13.<.'<. Comp. Jfuratori vol. A'lll. p. ll.'d.
b) iMiiiherlini do I'osti?. P. I. c 190. li^ii/ndhi. ad. ann. MU. N. 1. (/.« llret) Geseh. d. Bull«
In Co4!na Domiu'. (Stuttg.) 17C9ä. 4 vols. 4.
512 Mi:i»iAi-.\ AI. ( iiii;(ii iii-ioKV. I'Ki:. iv. a. d. ijioi.mt.
of tlio mystical IkmIv of tlie C'liiiroli wuri so j)erfcet, tliat slic li.id fiOwer tc
dispose of tiioso nu'rits acconiing to the wants of rnen. (f) Even tlio indul-
gences of tlio year of Jubilee were sent bej'ond the Aljis, and when divines
were debating whether the pope had power of absolving souls in i)urgatory,
the bulls of indulgence issued by Alexander and Leo soon decided the ques-
tion, (d) Ever since the papal chair had sustained some severe shojiks, the
popes had opened such a shameless trade in indulf/enccs, that those who
farmed and dispensed them paid little attention to the repentance and reforma-
tion which had ahvaj's been demanded by the Churcli as conditions of for-
giveness. The indulgence was disposed of as all that was nee<lful for recon-
ciliation with God, even for yet future and intended oflcnces. Grave
ecclesiastical letters on the nnlawful use of butter were harmless. Some
indulgences were granted to obtain funds for the erection of inland churches,
hospitals, and even secular establishments of general utility. A large portion
of the revenue was consumed by^ the preachers themselves, Init the final
receptacle was tlie treasury of the pope. Just as the profits of all money for
indulgences had been formerly devoted to the crusades, they were now ap-
propriated to the Turkish war or to the erection of St. Peter's church. A
general rumor, however, prevailed, that Leo X. had promised a part of the
money so hascly obtained from Germany, to his sister, (e) It Avas in vain
that the people remonstrated against these extortions and immoralities, and
some of the princes either forbade the preachers of indulgences to enter their
dominions, or deprived them of the revenues they had collected. Literary
men directed the shafts of their ridicule against these hawkers, and even
expressed some douhts whether the tickets they bestowed would be respected
by the great Judge of all. The more earnest class of preachers were also
indignant and zealous against a trade which involved the murder of the souls
of men. (/)
§ 271. Flagellants and Dancer».
{Jac Biileau) Hist Fl.igellantiura. P.ir. 1700. 12. Sahoettffen, de secta Flag. Lps. ITU. F&rst-
emann, die cbr. Geisslergesellscbaften. Hal. 1S28. Möhnike, ü. Geisslergescllsch. u. verbrüd, dieser
Art (Zcitschr. f. hist. Th. 1933. vol. III. St. 2.)—IIecker die Tanzwutb. Brl. 1S3-J.
A system of penance and fleshly mortification by scourging (disciplina) in
the closet, Avas especially recommended by Damiani, and extensively encour-
aged by the mendicant orders. But all at once appeared long processions of
penitents, who went about day and night, naked down to the waist, Avith
heads covered, singing penitential psalms, and whipping themselves until the
blood flowed. This peculiar mode of contrition commenced in Perugia
(1260), and soon spread over nearly all Italy. In the struggle between the
c) Alt!-. ITitles, Summa, P. IV. Qii. 23. Art Is.
d) Ale.r. Hales, P. IV. Qii. 23. Art. 2. Thoma«, Suppl. ad Summ. P. III. Qu. Tl. Art 10. Tri-
thun. Chron. lUrsang. vol. 11. p. 535.— -Imor^ 1. c vol. I. p. 96. 209. vol. II. p. 2S3.
t) M. Villain VI, 14. Giticciardini 1. XIII. p. 396.
/) AppcUatio pro parte prince. Noriuib. a. 1460. interposita. {Senckenherg, Sol. jur. et hist Frcf.
ITSS, vol. IV. p. 37S.) Wexufli adv. indulgenti.is Dsp. {Walc7i, Mon. medii aeri, vol. I. p. 111.) £fr-
(hohl, edit, by K.ing, p. 3S4. Zöscfier, Ei-f. A-l.a, vol. I. p. S.55ss. Kapp, Samml. einiger z. Abi
gehör. Schrillen, Lps. 1T21. Veesenmei/er,z. Geäoh. d. Ablasswes. kurz. vor. d. Bot (KHist Archiv
1S25.V01. III. st 4.;
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFK. § 271. FLAG ELLAKT3. ])AXCERS. 313
Guelplis and the Ghibellines this country had boen more than ordinarily filled
with vices and crimes, and tlie people now seemed to have been siezed by a
penitential paroxysm, and to celebrate a general season of reconciliation with
God. (a) A few of these processions crossed the Alps, and were there rather
objects of astonishment than of imitation. But when the hlctck death came
from Asia and pa.ssed through Europe (1348), even in Germany every place
was startled by the scourging processions of the brethren of the cross, whose
doleful songs were especially directed to Christ, entreating him by the recol-
lection of his own sufterings, and from a regard to their repentance, to stay
the progress of the plague, (i) These scenes were repeated as often as the
people were visited by national calamities, or there appeared to be a call for
an unusual degree of penitence. A number of these scourging processions
passed through Southern Europe, near tlio commencement of the fifteenth
century, under the direction of the Dominican, Vincentius Ferreri, a Span-
iard, whose eloquence was so powerful among different nations, in exciting
men to a religious earnestness, that the gift of tongues seemed to have been
restored in him. (c) At first the popes were in favor of this movement, because
they hoped it might stimulate the energy of the ecclesiastical party against
the Ghibellines. But when the scourge began to be looked upon as more
efiicacious than all ecclesiastical penances and means of grace, the hierarchy :
became displeased with it. Clement YI. declared himself opposed to an
enthusiasm (134:9) which threatened the subversion of all ecclesiastical and
civil order, (d) and finally Vincentius himself yielded obedience to the dissua- i
sive admonition of the Council of Constance, (c) This unfriendly disposition of
the Church induced some societies of Flagellants to assume a hostile position
toward the ecclesiastical authorities. In Thuringia a company of them which
bad been condemned to the flames by the inquisition (after 1414), denounced
the clergy as Antichrist, rejected the use of tlie crucifix and of images, and
the invocation of saints in worship, and substituted the baptism of blood by
the scourge for all ecclesiastical sacraments. (/) The same kind of sensuous
devotion by means of convulsions of pain or pleasure, was practised by bands
of Dancers in a few towns along the Rhino (1374, 1418). This epidemic was
treated in Strasburg as a demoniacal possession, against Avhich, invocations
were made to St. Vitus, (g)
a) Uonachi Pattivinl Cliron. (Muratori vol. VIH. p. 712s.)
I) After Cli)snor"9 Clironik: C. Schmidt, Lied u. Preilii;t <L Oeis.-!. (Stud. u. Krlt. 1S.3L H. 4.)
L. Sfhneegan», lo prand pelerlnnjro des flairell.ints. Stra-ib. \^<i^. Freely revl^^jd by Tischend or/, L[>s.
1S40.— //-^fivr, d. .scliwarze To 1. lin 14. Jnlirh. Url. IS«.
c) I.wUcig llMer, Vine. F«rr. niicli s. Letien u. WirktMn. Drl. HGO. Come» de IMi«tithal-Sl<ied'
tdn, de Vine. F.rr. Li>s. ISTO. 4.
(/) TrlOif.nll Chroii. lllrs. IL p. 2n9. H.iynald. ad ann. 1549. N. 20.
e) Gerson, Kp. ad Vine. (dpp. v<d. IL p. C.'>3.) Tr. contra secUim flat'ell. »o. {lb. p. COO.)
/) Ilardt, Con.st Cone. vol. I. p. 12r>. Comp. Jl. Stumpf, Hl.st. n:«ell. praeclpuo In Thuringia. KSO.
IFOrft^manns Neiio Mlttli. n. d. Gebiete hist antlq. Forsch, vol. IL If. 1.)
g) Notices of lludulpluis de Ilivo, In tlio Limpiir,'lau and Alsatian (.hroniele In FOrsteinann, pi
K4«s. & lloikcr.
314 MIDI Ai.vAi- cinnrii iiisTouY. peu. iv. a. d. 1210-1517
§ 272. Morah of the Clergy.
Avij^non and Ilonio had now received the names of Sodom and Babylori,
and it was reported that in those i)laces Christianity was of no otlier benetiü
than as a profitable fable, {n) The most exalted and wealthy stations in tho
Church were regarded merely as livings belonging to certain persons by birth,
i>r easily to bo purchased, and those who occupied tliem fulhjwed the exam-
j)le of the Roman court, by devoting themselves wholly to worldly interest.
Public services were for the most part administered by an ignorant and low
minded rabble, from which no one could ever expect to raise himself by the
most meritorious exertions for the good of the Church. (Z») The clergy Avere
also corrupted by- secret lewdness, for the practice of which the spiritual office
itself was made subservient, or by concubinage, to Avliich they were often
urged by their congregations for the safety of the people, and for which they
were taxed by their bishops, (c) During the various reformations projected
in the fifteenth century, it was sometimes proposed that the honor of the
priesthood should be redeemed by restoring to them the rights of nature.
But even liberal-minded prelates acknowledged that such a measure would be
the commencement of a revolution in all hierarchical relations, {d) Hence,
while the most unscrupulous portion of the clergy compensated themselves
by indulgence in base and scanty pleasures, those who were serious-minded
and anxious to comply with the requirements of the Church, and by good
works attain a seat in heaven, were borne down by their burden, and made
uneasy on account of doubts respecting their salvation. The sentiments of
tlie people Avith reference to the clergy wavered between habitual reverence
and an involuntary feeling of contempt. Sometimes, however, the popular
indignation against the sins and privileges of the clergy broke forth into open
violence. Tlie literary portion of the laity put into circulation heavy accusa-
tions and bitter satires against the clergy, {e) Even in some books cf pictures
were represented many scenes from the lives of the prelates, in contrast with
others taken from the humble lives of Christ and his apostles. But in this
way the Christian spirit maintained its rights, or at least preserved, in the
midst of the Church a full liberty sternly to reprove such enormities; and
there were not wanting even in the great councils, some preachers of repent-
ance, who held up a faithful mirror in which the Church could recognize its
own distorted features. (/) There were always many among the clergy wor-
thy of a better age, who felt the disgrace of their times, and to whom it was
a) Petrarca, Epp. sine tit Lib. (Lngil. 1621.) Ep. 10. IS. Kic. de Clemangix, de ruina Ecc. c 27
h) Oresmius cor.am Urbino V. (Flacil Cut test ver. N. 106.)
c) Cone, raleiitin. a. 1322. c. 7. {Jfa/isi Tli. XXV. p. 70S.) JN7c. de CUmangh c. ii.— Vuiner
envr. Ehclosigk. vol. II. p. 591ss.
d) Gerson, Dial, sophiae et naturae super caelib. (0pp. vol. II. p. 617.) More sliglitly : Pius II
(Platina p. 645.)
e) Many of those by the Troubadours in Diets, (Zwick. 1S29.) in the Fabliaux et contes pubL pai
MiVm (Vi\T. ISOS) In Flacii Catal. testiuin veritatis, Epp. viror. obscurorum. Pasquilli (Eleutheropol.
1M4.) & others.
/) The discourses of }>enntrdus BaptiKatii-% Theohaldus k others in ILinlt, Co:ist Cone. Th. 1
r. XVIII. p. S79ss
CHAP. IIL ECCLE3. LIFE. § 2T2. CLERGY. § 273. PEOPLE. 315
evident that so contemptible a hierarchy could no longer control the hearts
of men. {g)
% 273. The Religiom Character of the People. Cont. from § 200.
The gradual transformation which had taken place in the character of the
people did not publicly manifest itself until near the close of this period.
Superstition was not yet eradicated, but the enthusiasm and poetic fervor it
had displayed in former times had gradually disappeared, and the exuberance
of fancy which had been enlisted in its service now gave way before the
efforts of the understanding. Tiiese liad been awakened to the highest inten-
eit}-by the exigences of the real world, and in order to obtain the comforts
of life. Not only had the morals of the people been endangered with re-
spect to individual actions, but the very principles on which they were founded
had been changed by the free sale of indulgences. Still the Christian spirit
and the common sense of the people always returned again to the great ele-
ments of moral truth. Literature and science then reviving in great vigor,
were generally clothed in a learned dress, and confined to the Latin language.
The people were not prepared to enjoy the benefit of the new art of print-
ing until they had learned to read. "While the lower clergy remained so
ignorant, it was needless to enifdoy any special art to retain tlie people in that
state of pupilage without which no hierarchy will be tolerated, and yet we
find some institutions like the censorship of tlie press, the inquisition, and the
limitations imposed upon the use of translations of the Bible, which clearly
evince an intention of keeping the people in a degraded condition. The
proofs, however, which we possess, that the people were generally ignorant
and corrupt, (a) refer principally to Northern Germany, and to the lowest
classes. The best domestic chaplains were the mothers, (V) and knowledge, not
sincerity or strong religious feeling, was wanting. It was night, but in many
respects a sacred night. Kniglitliood, and consequently the true basis of an
aristocracy, had been undermined by tlie use of gunpowder, the legal consti-
tutions of the several states, and the new power of the commercial classes.
Even the poetry of chivalry had been exchanged in the schools which the
Master-singers who lived near the close of the thirteenth century held in
the ditforent cities, for lays which related more to the ordinary lives of the
middle and laboring classes. The poi)ular elements contained in the ancient
[)()etry were made more prominent, and modern imj>rovements were added to
them as in the Low-Geriuan fable of Ileynard the Fox. During the strug-
gle then in progress between the Church and the State, a third estate had
been gradually formed by the side of the nobility and the clergy, whicli had
g) After Gerson, Thcod. a. Niem, ami especially Xic. de demaugh, de ruina Eccl. {Ilardt,
Const Cone, vol \. P. III.)
a) CollectoJ in the first clmiiters of the Histories of the Koforinatlon. e. g. El. Vejelii Hist et
nooessitas reform, ev. Ulm. ICsS. Lüscher, Wvt Acta, vol. I. p. Iü9ss. SpieJcei; Luther, vol. I. p. 8Ts8.
61ss. Bretschiiddi'r, Luthers SehiMer. «1. sitll. Verd. Deiitschl. (Kef. Alman. 1S17. p. 212ss.) [His-
tories \<y Hanke (transl. hy Mrs. Austin), n adJinyton, Stelling, Soatnes, Scott, D'Aiiligrid and
others.] On the other side l?etr. ü. d. Zust d. K. im 15. u. Anf. 16. Jahrh in Bezug, a. d. Nolhw
♦iner d. Gnindl. d. K. verletzenden ReC (Tub. Quartnlschr. IS-Sl. P. 4.)
t) Predigten d. Fürsten Georg v. Anhalt Witt. 1555. p. 2s9.
810 MKIiIAKVAI. CIIUKCH mSTOKY. I'KK. IV. A. I). 121C-1517.
become ac(iiiniiiti'il with tlio plonauros of mental freedom and of civilization
In Italy, especially, wlierc the doctrines of the (Jliibellinc party were com-
mon, -where cliussical studies were cultivated, and the pai)acy was seen in its
corruptions at home, this class became indiöerent to the Church, and some-
times to Christianity itself, though it condescended to allow the popular re-
li;,'i()r to reJnain unmolested, (c) In Germany, especially, a healthy energy
«till remained, and many had tasted of intellectual freedom in consequence of
the nHinic'ii)al liberties they had acquired. Such were therefore prepared to
rei)el every unlawful aggression which might be made upon them in civil or
ecclesiastical aöairs.
§ 274, Survey of the Monastic Life. Hont, from § 2G5.
The more ancient orders lived in retirement, some of them strictly observ-
ing their original severity of discipline, but most of them in the enjoyment
of great wealth. Frequently scarcely a semblance of their original rule re-
mained, and sometimes vows were made by the members that they would not
regard it. The convents, in some instances, became jdaces of the most shame-
less lewdness, and the most unnatural crimes were concealed within their
walls. Various attempts at reform were therefore made during the fifteenth
century, especially at Constance and Basle, and were partially carried to a
successful issue by the right or wrong means used by the ecclesiastical depu-
ties, the bishops and the local princes ; but they were generally repelled by
those who resided in the convents, sometimes with subtilty and insolence, and
sometimes with powerless desperation, {a) A careful system of legislation
respecting the rights and duties of the private members of the orders was
gradually perfected in the decretals, (h) The prohibition issued at the fourth
Council of Lateran (§ 204) Avas not sufficient to prevent a monastic commu-
nity from sometimes gathering around some extraordinary master spirit, or
from being gradually and imperceptibly formed where persons of like dispo-
sitions were brought into contact. These peculiar associations generally found
some poi)e who could be induced to recognize them as incorporate commu-
nities. The peculiar circumstances of the age which had called into exist-
ence and given such success to the mendicant friars, induced many to follow
their example ; but for want of some effective and prominent character in the
commencement, they could never attain important form or influence. Inno-
cent IV, (1245), to console the Carmelites for the loss of the Holy Land, con-
ceded to them the privileges of mendicant friars, (c) Alexander IV. (125G)
conferred the same privileges upon the Augustinian Hermits, whom ha
gathered together from various scattered associations of monks, and united
under the rule of Augustine. ((/) Martin F., after exhibiting many tokens
c) Kappe, Eef. Urk. vol. II. p. 39T. 499. Henke, Freigeisterei n. Atheismus in Italien. Anb. z
Uebers. v. ViUers, ü. d. Ecf. p. 409ss.
a) Instar omnium : Jo. Biucfi (d. 1479) de reform, monasteriorum quorundara Sason. {leibn.
iciT. Brunsu, vol. II. p. 4T6. SOOss.)
I) Greg. III. 81. Soxt. III. 14. CUm. Ill, 9. Extr. comtii. Ill, S. & others.
c) Bullarliim CariiullUinum. Rom. 1715ss. P. I. p. 4ss.
<0 BuUarium Roia vol. I. p. lia Acta S3. Febr. vol. II. p. 447.
CHAP. IIL ECCLEJj. LIFE. § 2T1. CONVENTS. § 275. BEGHINES. 317
ef his dislike toward tliein, granted similar privileges to the Servites (Servi b.
Mariae Virg.), an order -which originated (1233) in a religious excitement
among some gentlemen belonging to the principal families of Florence, and
which was intended to celebrate the honors of the divine Virgin and her sor-
rows, (e) Colomhino, while perusing the lives of the saints was excited to
renounce the highest power in the government of Siena for the mo.?t menial
occupations, and founded, in accordance with the rule of Augustine, the order
of the Jesiiites, (/) which was confirmed by Urban V. (1307) ns an order of
mendicant lay brethren, but was abolished by Clement IX. (16G8) as wealthy
padri del' acquavite. Finally Francisco de Paolo (d. 1507), whose life is
represented to have been a monstrous caricature of tlie life of Jesus, founded
an exaggerated resemblance of the order of the Minorite.«, in that of the
Minimi^ incorporated by Sixtus IV. (1474) and confirmed with a gradual
enlargement of their rule by Alexander VI. (1402, 1501), and Julius 11.
(1506). (g) In Spain and in Italy there were certain hermits, who were united
in congregations, and assumed the name of St. Hieronymiia (after 1370).
Some of these lived according to the rule of Augustine, but under the patron-
age of Ilieronymus, and others were governed by a rule derived from the
writings of him whose name they bore. (/;) The OUvetans (Congr. S. Mariae
montis Oliveti) were founded as a congregation of Benedictines in a wilder-
ness near Siena by John Tolomei, in commemoration of the recovery of his
sight, and were recognized by John XXII. (1319). (i) With the approbation
of Urban V. (1379) Birgitte (d. 1373), a pious seeress, belonging to the royal
house of Sweden, who had fulfilled the duties of a wife and a mother,
founded the order of the Iledeemer (commonly called Ordo S. Birgittae).
The rule of this order required that there should be in each convent sixty
nuns, and for the performance of its spiritual duties thirteen priests, four dea-
cons, and eight lay brethren. All these, with the numerous convents of the
order in the northern countries, were to be under the control of the abbe.'s
of Wadstena, who was regarded as the representative of the holy Virgin. (Jc)
§ 275. More Independent Associations.
As early as in the eleventh century some women in the Netherlands a.?so-
ciated together, without entering into any absolute vows, for tlie perform-
ance of works of mercy, and were popularly named Bcghine»^ or praying
sisters. Their number increased during the thirteenth century, when many
could not bo satisfied without something more than a connection Avith either
the general Church or witli tlie convents, or were too poor to assume the
veil. A more honorable kind of nunneries (the Canonissae saeculares) was
also established for the noble widows and the orphan children of tiie cru-
saders. The example of the Beghines was soon followed by certain men who
t) Pauli Florent. Dial de orlg. 0. Sorv. (Lamii Dellc. Erud. Th. I. p. Iss.)
/) Acta SS. Jul. Th. VII. p. 833ss.
g) Acta SS. Apr. Th. I. p. 103s3. Ifelyot, Th. VII. p. «d'»».
K) IloUten. lirockU Th. III. p. 43. Th. IV. p. Iss. t) RdynalJ. ail ann. 1320. N. 50.
Jt) Birgittae revelationes, eil. Turrecrfinntti, Lub. 1492. Mon. 16S0. f. &, often. Lifo in: Vaitto-
*»■» Vitls Aquilonia s. Vilae SS. in Scandinavia. Col. 1623. f. c. notls Erici Bentnl, \J[>^ 170S. 4. llule
In IMsten. Biockie Th. III. p. lOOss.
J18 MKIHAKVAL CIlI-KCn IIISTOUV. I'KU. IV. A. 1>. 121&-15IT.
wore cnlled IJcfrlmnls, (") A pcctiliar cIuhs of tlicse iJCoplc, whose officu it
was to attt'iul ui)Oii tlio sick and to bury tlio dead, iiroceedcd also (about
1300) from the Netherlands, and were called from tbeir patron saint
Ahxiaiii, from the huts in which they resided, Celliiae, and from their low
funeral chants, Lolhirdu (Nollbriidor). There was naturally an intercourse
between tlieso fraternities and the Tertiaries connected with the mendicant
orders, and there were many unobserved transitions from the one to the
other. Accordingly after the middle of the thirteenth century, when they
were thrown into a hostile position with respect to the hierarchy, and the
suspicions of the inquisition had been awakened, many Beghines betook
themselves to the communities of the Tertiaries, and again, when the Minor-
ites became involved in party conflicts, many of them became connected
witli the Begliards and Lollards, since these were regarded as their com])an-
ions in suflerings and hopes, and were likewise then persecuted as heretics.
But after the time of John XXII. the popes protected against the inquisition
those engaged only in works of charity. {l>) In the same country, distin-
guished as the home of practical views, was formed under the influence of
Gerhard Groot of Deventer (d. 1384), a powerful preacher of repentance, a
society called the Brothers of the Common Lij\\ which was composed princi-
pally of clergymen engaged in copying books. The convent of regular
canons at Windesheim (1386), with which all similar institutions were con-
nected, became the spiritual centre of this community. Some of its mem-
bers remained in connection with the parishes where they resided, and others
lived in the houses of the brethren, supported by the profits derived from
their common occupations. The latter were bound by a special vow to re-
fuse all secular, literary, and ecclesiastical honors, and the lives of all Avere to
be devoted to pious exercises and studies, in which nothing was to be allowed
unless it tended to their improvement. Laymen were admitted as members,
houses were also established for sisters, the literary education of the youth
was conducted on Christian principles, and the perusal of the Scriptures in
the vernacular language was encouraged, but the grand object of the society
was the cultivation of their own spiritual happiness, (f)
§ 276. The Templars and the Knights of St. John. Cord, from § 211.
Jlaynuld. ad ann. 1Ö07-13. F. du Puy, Hist de la condamnation des Templiers. Par. 1G50. 4.
Krkf. 1ÜCÖ. 4 Mohleiihaicer, Process gegen d. O. d. Teini)l. a. d. Acten d. {läiistl. Cummiss. Uauib.
lTa-2. Jiaynouiird, Monumens. hist, relalifs. a la condamnaiiun des Chevaliers du Temple. Par.
1S13. in MicheUt, Proces des Teuipliers, Par. 1S41. 4. MaiUard de Chambure, Eegle et statutes
secrets des Temp., prccodCes de I'hist. de Tetablisscment, de la destruction et de la continuaiiuu
moderne. Par. 1S41.
Dark rumors began to prevail respecting the secret crimes committed by
a) Jfosheim, de Begliardis et Beguinabus, ed. JTartini, Lps. 1T90. K FTallmann. Gesch. d. Urspr.
d. belgischen Bogliinen. Bcrl. 1S4-3. [Mosheim. Eccles. Hist. Cent XIII. Chap. II. § 40. note r.)
h) Bulls of John XXII. and Greg. XI. 1318. 1374. and 1377. in Jfo-sheim. 1. c. p. 396. 401. 627.
c) I. Lives of Gerhard and Florentius by Thomas a Kempis. (0pp. ed. Somnuilius, AntiL ]Gi"i7.
4. p. 76Ö.) J. Suicfi, Chronicon Windesemense, ed. Ilosxceide, Antu. 1621. — II. CUtrzsse (Son and
Father) over den Geesl en de Denkwijze van Geert Groot (Archief voor kerkelije Geschiedenis.
.S29. vol. I. p. 3ix>. 1S30. vol. II. p. 347.) DeJprat, over de Broedersclmp van G. Oroote. Utrecht
1530. with an App. by Afvhnil-e, Lpz. 1S40. Ullmann, Keformatoren v. d. KeC vol. II. p. 62ss.
CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. § 17G. TEMPLARS. KXIGUTS OF ST. JOHN. 319
the Templars. Philijy the Fair commenced an actual investi<^ation of these,
by the imprisonment of all the Templars then in France, for which he had
made secret i)reparation, and by the confiscation of their property (Oct. 13,
1307). Tlic charges especially xirped against them were a denial of Christ,
adoration of the idol called Baphomet, and unnatural lewdness. The pro-
ceedings before the royal connnission at Paris, which i.«sucd in the condem-
nation of the order, were characterized hy the grossest injustice and illegali-
ties. It is indeed true that more than once the interests of Christendom had
been sacrificed to the selfish policy of the order, and it is probable that some
knights had been guilty of unnatural vices, that the order had become per-
vaded by a spirit hostile to the Church, and that a few Grand Commanderies
had been indificrent to the religious controversies of the day. Nothing,
hoAvever, was legally proved against the order. It was evident that Philip
was eager to get possession of the wealth belonging to the Templars, and to
break up the government which they had formed Avithin and independent of
his own. Clement V. sacrificed them to obtain the favor of the king, and
this proud order of knights could expect no aid, for it liad lost the friendship
of the clergy {n) Even before the proceedings were concluded, fifty-four
knights were burned by order of Philip (May 12, 1310), because no confes-
sion could be extorted from them by all the power of the rack. As a matter
of expediency and not from regard to a judicial sentence, the order was
abolished by Clement (May 3, 1312). (h) Its property was to have been
given to the other orders of knighthood, hut in France the king firmly
grasped the reward of his guilt. Jtoncs of Jlulmj^ the Grand Master of the
order, who with other high functionaries had been condemned to perjietnal
imprisonment, was burued (March 19, 131-i) because he publicly denied cer-
tain confessions alleged to have been made by liim. (c) The people looked
upon his death as that of a martyr, and upon that of the king and of the
pope, which speedily followed it, as special citations to the bar of God. The
fate of the expiring order in the several countries where it prevailed Avas
ditlerent, according to tlio justice or favor shoAvn toAvard it by tlie princes
and bishops, and the courage and unanimity exhibited by the knights them-
selves. Except in France, they generally Avero permitted to enjoy hfe, lib-
erty, and a competent support during life. The memory of the sainted
Molay, and a hope that the ruined Temf)le Avould in some future day bo re-
stored, Avas secretly spread abroad among the people. — The Knights of St.
John, deprived of Ptolemais by the Saracens, settled in Cypru.><, but having
con(iuercd Rhodes (1310), they afterAvnrds made it the principal seat of their
order. Tbe tragical fate of the Templar.«, in Avhoso guilt they had partici-
pated and Avhose rivals they had been, Avas not beheld by them in vain. As
they Avero generally connected Avith the nobility of Europe, and possessed
a) Kicoliti ü. d. Beschuldigungen, welche dem T. O. gera.icht worden. BrI. 1TS2. On tlio other
side: nerdfi>\\nX\\f Mcrcur. March, IT*«-?, ^fünter\n Henke'-s N. Mng. vol. A', p. SSlss. ITiimmer,
Myr^toriiiui Baplioindis rcvoliilurn. (Kuncl;.Tub. d. Orl. ISIS. vol. A'l. pt 1.) Hiii/iiouard In the
Journ. des Snviins, Mars, Avr. 1S19. Bibliuth. uiiiv. vol. X. ]>. 827. XI. p. 3.
b) M(imi vol. .\XV. p. 8t!9.
c) Villain AMI I, 92. Contln. Cliron. Guu. ae Xangls In D'Achenj Splcll. vol. III. ji. 61. Hay-
nouitrd 1. c. p. 2ii5ss.
320 MKDIAKVAL CIIKKCII mSTOKV. TKR. IV. A. D. 121f>-l.M7.
greftt power on tlio son, tlicir order became n. Ibrniiduldo Imlwurk ol' Chris-
tendom against tlio Turks.
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURE.
^ 277. Scholasticism. Second Period. \Zth Century. Cont. from § 218.
Paris now gave unequivocal evidence that it had become the princijjal
seat of a scliolasticism which developed its maturity in intimate connection
with academic life. The Physics, the Metaphysics, and the Ethics of Aris ,
totle were introduced by the Arabians, and even Thomas made use of a
translation from the original Greek, {a) The hierarchy were indeed jealous
of the ascendency of a heathen philosopher, and attempted (after 1210) to
jirohibit the use of tlie whole, or at least of a part of his writings, but even
the power of the Church was ineffectual against a prevalent intellectual ten-
dency of the age. Through the influence of the mendicant friars especially,
this jyMloioplier was regarded as the harbinger of Christ, and the representa-
tive of all natural science, in accordance Tvith whose principles the eternal
truth of the doctrines of the Church may be proved, and a systematic con-
nection between them may be established, (h) But the spirit of the Church
was as powerful as a philosophy vrhich was obliged to direct its energies
wherever the highest intellectual interest existed. The Franciscan Alexan-
der of Hales., a master of theology in Paris (Doctor irrefragibilis, d. 1245), by
his acute analysis of all possible questions, already indicated what was to be
the next form philosophy would assume, and at the same time showed by his
practical ecclesiastical tendencies the peculiar character Avhich it then pos-
sessed. (<■) The little Dominican Albertus of Bollstädt (d. 1280), in the midst
of his various academic and ecclesiastical engagements, made a collection of
all the knowledge of his age. From the Arabians he derived a knowledge
of nature and of its mysteries, {d) By his history of the Winter Garden and
of the Speaking Head, he obtained the reputation of being a Avizard and a
man of the people, (< ) and from his relation to his still greater pupil, the
saint, he received the appellation of the Great. The Dominican Thomas
(Count) of Aquino (d. 1274), who taught in Cologne, Paris, Rome, and other
cities of Italy (Doctor angelicus), and who refused the office of archbishop of
Naples, his native country, may be regarded as the highest point of Scholas-
ticism. Subtle and profound, full of enthusiasm in behalf of the doctrines
of the Church as well as of philosophy, he made a powerful effort to effeot a
reconciliation between Aristotle, Plato, and Augustine. The order to which
a) Jourdain, (p. 237.) p. 40ss. ISOss.
I) Jourdain,, p. 19Sss. Bulaetts vol. III. p. SI. 140ss. Laiinoiiis, de varia Aristot in Acnd.
Tar. rortuna. Par. 1669. 4. ed. J. IT. ab SUicich, Vit 1720. Acta Philosophor. Ual. 1720. St XI. p.
716. St. XV. p. 869.
c) Summa univ. Thcol. in 1. IV. Sentt Yen. 1475. Col. 1622. 4 vols. f.
d) After the Conmientarios upon Aristotle and Lombardus, consult Summa Theol., physic, and
astroL -writings, 0pp. cd. P. Januny, Lugd. 1G51. 21 vols, f.—ßudol. Xoviomagenais de vita Alb.
Magni. Col. 1490. f.
<f) Gorres: toiit Vo.ksbüch. p. 27ss. Volks- u. Meisterlieder. Ueidelb. 1S17. p. 205;«.
CHAP. IV ECCLES. LIT. § 27S. SCHOLASTICISM. SCOTUS. 321
he belonged has been accustomed to re^iird bis Snmnia as the most perfect
development of Christian science, and even the Church, after some hesitation,
finally received it as a work in which Christ himself might find pleasure. (/)
§ 278. Scholasticism. Third Period. 1-i^A and 15th Centuries.
When the highest intellectual energies had been exerted to harmonize the
two great authorities of the age, the only alternative for science in its pro-
gress, was to dh-ect its attention to tlie differences which existed between
tliem. But this struggle with the internal and external power of the Church
was manifested in a j)lay of bold questions which exceeded the proper
province of theology, and although they were all so decided as not to con-
flict with the doctrines of the Church, in the mere proposal of them intellec-
tual freedom was preserved, and an obscure dissatisfiiction was shown toward
the limitations imposed upon it. The remark that a principle might be true
in philosophy and yet be false in theology, betrays the doubt which Scholas-
ticism felt with respect to its own ultimate tendencies. The leaders of this
school generally came from those orders which were most prone to disagree
with the Church. Duns Scotns^ a teacher in Oxford, Paris, and Cologne
(Doctor subtilis, d. 1308), recognized man as an individual created by the
Holy Ghost, and consequently in his original condition pure and free, but
limited by his connection with the world, and capable of redemjition, so as
to possess a true divine intuition only by the power of the Church. ('/)
William of Occam, a teacher in Paris (vcncrabilis inceptor), after 1322 the
provincial of the Franciscan order in England, and after 1328 a resident at
the court of Louis (p. 299, d. 13-47), wielded the sword of a free spirit not
only in his doctrine but in his life. He however knew no other way to res-
cue the absolute doctrines of the Church but by asserting, in accordance Avith
a new form of Nominalism, the subjective conditions under which all human
knowledge must be placed. (//) The old controversy respecting Nominalism
was consequently revived, and although Louis XL had proscribed (1473) it as
dangerous, and with a similar stretch of arbitrary power had subsequently
(1481) (c) invited a free discussion of it, victory now preponderated in its
favor. The Franciscans, delighted with the prospect of opposing the mys-
terious subtlety of their Scotus to the saintly authority of Thomas, now
resolved to follow none but him. Tlio controversies respecting the proper
limits of human freedom, the satisfiiction of Christ, and the sinlessness of
Mary, were only subordinate elements in the intricate conflict in which the
Thomists and the Scoiists, the Realivts and the Nominalists, proved the full
/) Cotnm. in 1. IV. Sentcntlarum. Summa TIicoI. In 3 P. (8 vols, incomplete, supplied by Suppl.
e Comm. in 4. 1. Scntt.) Comment. Q. Büclier <1. Arist, u. d. li. SolirlH, apoloj:. u. askct Schrr. 0pp.
Rom. 1570. 17 vols. f. and often. Yen. 1745ss. 2S vols. A.—At:ta SK Mart vol. I. p. CM. Touro»,
Vie do S. Thomas. Par. 1737. -i Bern, de Huhei» do postis et Srrr. P. Tli(ni\(ie. Von. \'Tyn. t. Kling
D. d. Theol. d. Thorn. (S^rigler'a rel. ZclLschr. 1S33. vol. IlL II. 1.) //. Ifoertil^ Tliom. u. s. Zeit.
Augsb. 184G. [Art in Kitto's Journal of Bib. LiL vol. I. p. 1.]
a) Quaostiones In 1. IV. Sentt Qncstf. quodlibcfales XL 0pp. od. Waddlnff, Lugd. ICSOa,«. 12 Th.
t—F. E. Alhergoni Kcsolutio doctr. Scottcae. LugiL 1G43. JliititngurUn-Cnisiin», do Theol. Scoti
Jon. 1S26. 4.
b) Quaostiones super 1. IV. Sentt Cenflloqulom theol. Lugcl. 1495. f.
c) Bulaeus Tli. V. p. TOCss. Comp. UUmann, Wossel. p. 327sa,
21
322 .MKiii,\i;v.\i, ( ini:< i[ nisTOKY, rnn. iv. a. d. i2trt-iM'..
power of tiiiir iiitclloctii.il ."iml spiritual Aveapons. ((Z) The systematic chnr-
lU'lor of Sclioliistitisiii In'oaiiie inucli relaxed in sucli polemic engiigements,
and in tlio confiict« of the scliools it lost its religious earnestness. Its decline
Iiad already conimenced Avlien it refused its coiintoiiance to tlie new form in
which science now made its appearance. It liad, however, aroused men to
freedom of thouglit, given a rigidly scientific form to the doctrines of faitli,
and presented the true questions on which philosophy should bo employed.
It had tlierefore fulfilled its destiny by giving a definite form to the existing
materials. Gohrici Bid (d. 1495) is usually mentioned as the last of the
Scholastics, llo was the faithful counsellor of Count Eberhard in the estab-
lisliraeiit of the high school of Tubingen (1477), and was intimately con-
nected with Occam in a liberal opposition to the papacy. He was also much
engaged in making known the Ethics of Aristotle, but he was of a modest
spirit, and inclined to favor a scriptural and practical Christianity, (e)
§ 279. Mysticism. Second Period. Cont. from § 219,
Arnold, Leben d. Gläubigen. Ilal. 1701. Arnoldi Hist, et descr. Tlieol. mysticae. Frcf. 1702. p.
292ss. De Wette, dir. Sittenl. Brl. IS'21. vol. II. II. 2. p. 220ss. Cli. SchmhU, Essai sur les Mystiques
(in quatorziemo siöcle. Strasb. 1S86. 4. P/i»m?i«, Reformatoren vor d. Itef. vol. II. p. 125ss. F.
Galle, Gcistl. Stimmen a. d. M^V. Hal. 1S41.— /*. Pfeiffer, deutsche Mystiker d. U. Jahrh. Lpz. 1S45.
vol. I. (the less important.)
The course of Scholasticism was always completed by the prevalence of
Mysticism. It was not, however, until it had become much degenerated in
the wranglings of the schools, that new advocates began to arise, who es-
caped from the tumult of the buyers and sellers to find a refuge in the inner
sanctuary, and now defended the cause of Christian feeling principally in the
German language, and with a German spirit. There were two tendencies
distinguishable among them, although they are often blended together. The
first was a class of persons addicted to speculative reveries, and may be
traced back to Erigena, Dionysius, and the New Platonists. They described
the extinction of all selfishness and the perfection of holy love as an absoi-p-
tion of the soul in God, and more or less consciously interpreted ecclesiastical
dogmas simjdy as allegories. And yet so strong were their moral and eccle-
siastical tendencies, that this was always connected with a recognition of a
creation, and of the historical son of God. Master FcJcard alone, the pro-
vincial of the Dominicans at Cologne, by his feeling of nearness and ardent
love to God, attained such a giddy height that he lost all consciousness of
the distinction between God and man, Christ and the Christian, good and
evil, and his memory was attainted by the ecclesiastical tribunals (1329). (a)
John lauler, a Dominican residing at Cologne and Strasbourg (Doctor sub-
d) Ai-ada, Controversiae inter 9. Tliomam ct Scotiim super IV. 1. Sontt. Ci'l. 102il. i. Jßiilaeu.J,
rii. IV. p. 29Ss& Argentre Th. I. p. 342ss.
e) Collcctori\un ex Occamo in 1. IV. Sentt (Tub. 1502. 2 vols.) Brix. 1574. 4 vols. 4. Scrmm. de
Temp. Tub. 1500. i.—Trithem. do Scrr. ecc, c. 903. Moseri Vitao Trofoss. Tubing. Tub. 171S. 4w
Decas I. IT. W. Biel. (pr. Wernsdorf) do Gab. Biol, coloberrimo Paplsta Antipapista. Vit. 1719. 4.
n) Hai/iitilil. a,l ann. 1329. N. 70. IMc^ii. Misoell. z. Goscb. d. dout Literat, vol. I. p. igSss. G
S\-hmi,lt. Moistor Kckiu-d. (Stud. u. Krlt. Isi9. II. 3.) //. Jfarienseii, Meister Eck. Tlieol. Studl«.
Ilaiiib. lS-12.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. § 279. TAULER. KUTSBEOEK. SÜSO. 323
5mis et illuminatus, d. 13G1), after preaching for some time in a spiritual and
acceptable manner, became convinced by a layman (Nicolas of Basic) that bis
spirit had never been truly consecrated to God by a complete death to the
vrorld and to himself. He immediately became, in consequence of his utter
despair of himself, a most awakening preacher to others. In strange lan-
guage he allured them to seek for intellectual poverty as the true way to
become like God, and invited them to taste the delicious pleasure of com-
pletely dying in God. (l) Standing in no need of sensible imagery, and set
at liberty by God himself, he preached that the spiritual and the temporal
sword should never be used in the place of one another ; that in the con-
flicts between civil princes the poor innocent people should not be placed
under the curse, and that if they were, the curse would become a blessing.
It was not long before he himself experienced the power of such a curse, (c)
JoJui Ruysbroch (Doctor ecstaticus, d. 1381), having been long emi)loyed in
the service of the Church, sought to find a quiet retirement in the Augus-
tiiiian convent of Gruentlial, near Brussels, in which he recorded his thoughts
in a simple and monotonous but lofty manner, under the impression that
they were insj)ired by God. lie described the sacred frenzy of love as
merely a state of transition, and the higher life as a perpetual birth of the
Son and an everlasting effusion of the Holy Spirit within us. lie warned
men against spiritual indolence, recognized the moral power of the will, but
commended mental ecstasy as the highest state of existence, because in ?t
man is released from the images and veils of his own being, and sunk in the
abyss of divine love. (</) Even the German Theology of the fifteenth cen-
tury expended its principal strength in discussing subjects relating to perfec-
tion and its several degrees, the extinction of Adam and the formation of
Christ in us, and the necessai-y processes of becoming human and divine.
These expressions, however, could readily have been adopted by a simj)lo
pious spirit, as mere descriptions of that revelation of an exalted love of
God out of which they sprung, (c) A transition from this position may be
noticed in the Dominican Uenry Stiso (d. in Ulm, 13C5), who was said to
have been named Amandus by God himself. Even in his youth ho had been
remarkable for an affectionate spirit, and troubled with the sorrows of every
tiling around him. He appears in the character of a Suabian Minnesinger,
?/) Xaclifolgiins (Ics nrnien Lebens Christi. Mark d. Sccio, & others. Lpz. 149^. Atigsb. 150S. &, often.
Works conformed to tlio present forms of Inn^iiiiL'e, nml cd. by CanseJer, Luz. IS'23. Unchanged
edilüm of tlio armen Lebens Cliristi. with Lexicon Taulerlannin by Si'^iloiier, Frkf. 1S.33. von d.
Leiden uns. Herrn. Sulz. ISUT. 0pp. lat. redd. /iiiriiiK, Col. IMS. f. rredlRten. Krkf. Is2rt. 8 vol.s.
Prefixed to these, the history of his conversion by hlm.self: Historie des Khrw. d. Job. Taulcr—
IfeupeliuH, Memoria Taul. liistaur. Vit ICSS. 4. (>bertiii. de Taul. dietiono vern. et myst. Arg
17SG. 4. C. Schmidt, J. Tnul. Hamb. 1811. Hmhlbach, ehr. Blogr. p. ISTss. [Z?. Jiiuhring, J. X
n. d. Freunde Oottes. Lps. 18.54. 12.]
c) Spec<iliu'n Collectanecn ad ann. 1350. ä7ihm'(//, p. 638S.
(/) l)e ornatu spirltualluiii nuptiaruin. Speculum aeL salutl.s, etc, Opp. o. r>ral>anllao germonico
Idiom redil. lat par L. iSiiriiim, Col. ir)55. f. and often. Hi» Vita by a brother Domlidcan <if tlio
next generation, revised by Surius. Four treatises of Ilusb. In Low Germ. (ed. hy Ariimcaldt.)
Praef by Ullmonn, Han. 1S48.— ä"h{/''/A<i;v/< (p. 240. n. b.) p. IGSss.
e) Teutscho Theologia, ed. by I.utlifr, Witt l.MC. 4. by Grell. Brl. 1«;1T. by F. L. Krüger,
Lemso. 1S22. by D>tzer, Erl. 1S27. by Trorler, 9. Oallen, 1S37. by VUsenUnil, Berl. 1^42. by P/tif-
fer Stuttg. 1S51. comp. Ulimann in Stud. u. Krit 1S52. H. 4.
324 Mi;i)i.\i;vAL cHuncii niSTOKY. i'ku. iv. a. r>. isio-isn.
bnt llio mistress of liis nflections, to -wlioin lie devoted himself in raystcrions
lonfxiiig:?, niid witli all the passion of youth, was eternal Wisdom. In pursuit
of this he tortured himself for many years, until his nature hccame utterly
wasted. lie was then favored by God with still severer trials, in the endur-
ance of which lio succeeded in attaining the tranquillity of divine love, and
became lost in that divine nature which is the real essence of all creatures.
Ilis fundamental doctrine was, that a passive human being must be divested
of the creature, formed anew in the likeness of Christ, and perfected in the
Deity. There was a vigorous moral spirit in his ardent love which souglit to
save every thing ruined by sin around him. (/) The other tendency of Mys-
ticism was directed to the simple wants of the heart and of the people.
Thomas (Ilamerken) of Kempen^ a canon of the convent of Mount St. Agnes,
near Zwoll (d, 1471), in spite of his zeal for monüsticism and the worship of
the Blessed Virgin, by his writings as well as by his private counsels uncon-
sciously led many from the Roman Church to the true Church of the heart,
by a quiet communion of the soul with God and Jesus Christ, (y) The book
on the Imitation of Christy respecting the author of which whole orders of
monks and nations have contended, became a kind of Bible for the people,
and in quiet contrast with the worship of the saints, the formal life pursued
in the convents, and the fables of the Minorites, set forth the true spiritual
following of Jesus in the destruction of all selfishness, and in the exercise of
a love which unconditionally surrendered itself to God. (//) This branch of
Mysticism had a seminary which was maintained among the Brethren of tho
common life.
§ 280. Excesses and Compromises.
From what is related of Tournay.i it is evident that Scholasticism had
the presumption to imagine that the very existence of Christianity depended
upon its power and its logic, {a) Scholasticism was accused of forgetting the
word of God while contending about mere words, of frittering away the
earnestness of the Christian life by its sophistries, of driving away animation
by its frigid learning, and of making theologians seem like fantastic vision-
/) Life of If. Suso by himself. Bücblein v. d. ew. Weisheit, and other writings. — Leben tu
Schriften according to the old style of wriling and printing by Diepenbrock, with Einl. v. Gorres,
r>atlsb. 1S29. 0pp. latt. red. Surim, Col. 1555. Geistl. Blüthen. v. Suso. Bonn. 1834. C. Schmidt,
'il. Snso. (Stud. u. Krit. 1843. H. 4.)
g) Soliloquia aninjae. Exercitia spiritualia. Ilortulus rosar. Vallis liliorutn. Hospitale paupernm.
Vitae Beatorum. Dial. Novitiorum. 0pp. ed. Sommalius, Col. 1560. 4. and often. Ansserl. Sclirr.
Weim. 1S24. 4 vols. Sämnitl. Werke iicbers. v. Siliert, Vienna. ISSSss. 4 vols. [Transl. into Engl.
Lend. 2 vols. 12.]— Scholia, Th. a K. sent de re. chr. e.xponitur. Gron. 1S39. £. Baliring, Th. v.
K. Brl. 1&49.
h) De imitatione Ch. Argent. 1472. often and in various languages since Fabric. Cibl. mod. et inC
Lat. vol. IV. p. 214S5. [Imitation of C. new ed. Lond. 1S49. 8.]—G. de Gregonj, Memoire sur le
veritable auteur do Timitatiün de J. C. revn p. le Comte Lavjuinain, Par. 1S2T. With app. by
TlVi(77, Sulzb. 1S82. Silbert, Gersen, Gerson u. Kempis, welcher ist Vr£ &c. Vicn. 1S2S. G. d»
Grt-gory, do imit Ch. Aquae Sest. 1S33. UUittann, Beformatoren. vol II. Snp[plement J. £.
^alou, Kecherches sur le veritable auteur. (acad. royale de Belgiqne. Bms. 1S4S. 4 vols. XIV.1 — Se-
cundus tract de imit. Chr. ed. Liebner, Goet 1S42. Comp. UUmann In Stud. u. Krit. 1S43. H. L
[and S.iehring, in Stud. u. Krit 1S50. H. 8.]
a) Mat. Paria ad ann. 1201. p. 14L Bnt comp. ITenr. Gandavensii L. dc scrr. ecc c 21
'^Fabric. Bibl. ecc vol. II. p. 121.)
CHAP. IV. ECCLE9. LIT. § 2S0. ßONAVENTUEA. GEESOX. 325
aries in the eyes of other learned men. "With such views, Gerson and Nicola»
of Glamcnyis demanded that the course of theological studies should be re-
formed. (Jj) There was, however, so much of truth on the side of both
Scholasticism and Mysticism, that the compromise which had been effected
between them could not be abandoned. This compromise was attempted
during the most flourishing period of Scholasticism by Bonaventin-a (John of
Fidanza, Doctor seraphicus, d. 1274:), and during its decline by Gerson (Jolm
Cliarlier, Doctor Christianissimus, d. 14:29), but it was attained rather in their
personal lives than in a scientific form. Bonaventura strictly conformed to
the rules of Scholasticism, but he has enlivened its most subtle definitions
with the ardor of his own feelings. His afiectionate spirit contemplated
both the internal and the external life as a mirror of the eternal reality,
thougli he Avas not unfrequently invited to the most extensive spheres of ac-
tivity in the Church. He is one of those exalted forms in which the eccle-
siastical spirit most complacently exhibits its glories. "We need not wonder,
therefore, that the representatives both of the Eastern and of the "Western
Church mingled their tears at his tomb, (c) From the position of Mysticism,
which he established by psychological arguments, and fortified by sound
logic, Gerson carried on a powerful conflict in behalf of tlie true peace of
the Church against the extravagances of tlio hierarchy and the errors of su-
perstition. ((/) Eaymond de Sabiinde, a Spaniard, endeavored to eflect (about
1430) a more perfect union of these opposite parties by laying aside the
formulas then generally in use. "God has bestowed upon man the book
of nature, in which every creature is a letter written by God. This
divine book and the Iloly Scriptures can never contradict one another. The
former, which is common and open to all, is the primary source of knowl-
edge, is intelligible to the laity, and cannot be perverted by heretics. But
the highest knowledge is the love of God, which is the only thing man can
truly call his own, to be offered to his Creator.'" According to this signifi-
cant train of thought, it is not very difficult to construct the doctrine of the
Cliurch from materials supplied by the book of nature, /. e. from the internal
and external experience of man, wlio needs not an artificial science, but only
a higher illumination, (e)
I) Gersonii Epp. dune do reform. Thcol. (0pp. vol. I. p. 121. 43.) jVic. de CUmangii L. de studio
Theol. {O'Acheri/, gpifil. veil. I. p. 473.)
c) Comnientar. in IV. 1. Scntt BreviKH^uium (cd IT-'/ele, Tub. 1S45.) Ci-ntiloquiuni.— Itiiiernriuin
urontis in Deum. Stimulus. Inccndium auioris. Opi). jussu Sixtl V. emend. Horn. 15SS. S. Tli. f. Veil.
1T51SS. 13 Til. 4.
d) After tho ecclesiastical pnblislicd writings, rspecinUy : Consideratlone.s do Tli. mystica. 0pp.
ed. L. E. du Pin, Antu. ITOG. 6 Tli. t—Lecui/, Essjii sur la vio de J. Gers. Par. 1S32. 2 Th.— Engel'
hardt, do Gers. niysiico V. II. Erl. lS22s. 4. Ilundenharjfu ü, d. myst Tlie<il. d. .T. Gers. Lpt 1S34.
(Zeitichr. f. liisL Tli. vol. IV. St 1.) Liehiier, ü. Gers. iiiyst. Theol. (Stud. u. Krit. 1SS5. 11. 2.)
Jowddin, doctr. J. Gers. d. Tli. inyst Tar. IS-??. C/i. Schtnidt, Essai sur Jean Gers. Strasb. 1S3!».
e) Lib. ereaturarum s. Theol. naturalis. Argent 1496. Lallnloro stylo In comp. rod. a. J. Como
nif>, Amst Iß.'iO. 12. Solisbac. ISüi.—Jfuntaiffnf, Essais II, 12. D. JfnUl-e, d. nat Thool. J. K. v
Sab. Bresl. 1S4C. Stud. u. Krit 1847. U. 4
326 MKDIAKVAL CIIUKCH IHSKOKY. TLU. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
§ 281. The 80-callcd Jicvival of Literature.
Meiner», Lfb'.nsbcsclirr. berühmte Männer a. d. z. <]. Wlederh. d. "W. Zur. ITfiss. 8 vol»
Ilffren, Goscli. d. clii^s. Lit s. d. •\Vicdcraufl. d. W. Oütt. 1707. 1801. 2 vols. //. A. KrharJ, Gesclw
d. ■\Vlodfraiif binii. wiss. Blldiinjr vorn, in Deutsclil. Magdb. 1827-32. 8 vols. /'. Krantri Kar. d«
ImiiianlUlls studlor. X\'. ot XVI. 8. in Germ, orijjine et indole. Miscn. 184.3. 4. Kditlons of th«
iiiodorn Cla.'<sic3 and their Commentaries in Ehert. {II. I/ullam, Int. to the Lit. df Kur. in tlie 1.5.
IC. ajid 17. Centt. Chap. I. & II. Lond. 1S12. New York. 1847. J. Berington, Lit Illst of the Mid.
Apes. LoncL 1846. S. de Sismondi, II. of Lit. in tlic South of Eur. transl. by lioscoe, New York.
1S27. 2 vols. 8.]
A scientific education bad been extensively secured and diffused by means
of tlio Universities. Tbese were sometimes devoted only to a single depart-
ment of science, and at otber times embraced faculties fur all tlic sciences.
Tbey bad generally been founded by tbe princes, or tbe cities in wbose neigh-
borbood they were, and especially in Germany tbey were all conformed to
tbe model of tbat of Paris. Tbe first of tbese was establisbed at Prague
(13-48), and tbe last at Wittenberg (1502). But tbey -were dependent for all
tlieir privileges upon tbe papal see, and very readily settled down in tbe
comfortable routine of traditionary learning. Tbe scientific spirit tben
awakened received only indirect encouragement from tbese institutions.
Tbe Franciscan Roger Bacon (Doctor mirabibs, d, 129-i) pointed ont tbe
defects of a barren knowledge of Scbolasticism, and in tbe character of a
propbet of worldly science, witb genial energy and multiplied experiments
penetrated thoroughly into tbe mysteries of nature, whose arrangements be
recognized in every thing, (rt) Dante Alighieri (d. 1321 in exile at Eavenna),
in his Divine Comedy, eflected a reconciliation of the claims of love and reli-
gion, and as in a General Judgment of sacred poesy gave an allegorical repre-
sentation not only of the state of the human mind and of Ms age, but of tbe
history of tbe world, TVitb tbe boldness of a Gbibelline, in whose eyes tbe
universal authority of tbe empire was as truly instituted by God, and was as
essential to tbe welfare of the world as tbe papacy itself, he denounced tbe
abuses of the hierarchy, and on bis own authority canonized or consigned to
perdition whom be pleased. A friend of Yirgü, be was no less an admirer
of St. Thomas, an enthusiast for ecclesiastical doctrines, and the first-born
son of the Church among tbe poets, (h) This great work of modern genius,
which he composed in tbe language of tbe people, but witb a perfection
wortliy of tbe best of the ancient writers, awakened a spirit which could
appreciate and confide in those Avriters also. Tbe age was in fact now fully
prepared for a revival of the great Avorks of antiquity. Although the
classics, especially tbe Roman, bad never been entirely forgotten, tbe true
spirit which pervaded them bad not been perceived, and tbe language in
a) Opus niiyus (1266.) ed. &J?n. Jehl, Lond. 1738. f. comp. SainmL merkw. Lebensbescbrr. llaL
1T57. vol. IV. p. 616SS.
h) Conip. Dantla Epp. c. notis ed. C. Witte, Patav. 1827. BaumgarUn-Ci-u^iun de Dantis doc-
•rina theol. (0pp. p. 327ss.) Ozanam, Dante et la phil. cath. au 13 siccle. Par. 1839. Münst 1S44.
L. n. Arndt, de Dante scritpore Ghibellina Bon. 1846. SchrV. of Schlosser, 1824 u. 1830. Witte,
1*51. £l<inc in d. Encjkl. vol XXIIL Philalethes (John, Duke of Saxony), 1839ss. Goschtl,
Artaud, 1842. F. X Wtyele, Dantes Leben n. Werke, kulturgesch. Jena. 1S52. [Schl-eget, Hist, of
Lit, New York. 1844. IT. Stelhing.% Lives of the Ital. Poets. Lond, 1832. 3 vols. 8. C. Bulho, Uf«
and Times of D.inte, from tbe Ital. by Binihwy, Lond. 1S51. 2 vols. S.]
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. § 2S1. HUMANISTS. 327
which they were written had become quite destroyed. Petrarch (d. 1374)
was the first who turned with a congenial spirit to the ancient authors, and
even if his imitations be regarded as unsuccessful, he was certainly trained
by them until he became a general spokesman in the alTairs of Italy, and of
the human heart, (c) Boccaccio (d. 1375) labored in the same field, and
brought back to Western Europe the gods of ancient Greece. He was pub-
licly appointed to expound the writings of Dante, wrote the first polished
prose in the language of the people, and wts allowed to exercise his wit at
the expense of the monks, of good morals, and probably also of Christianity
itself, {d) A knowledge of Grecian antiquity had been introduced, especially
after the Synod of Florence (l-i39), by large numbers of Greeks, who as
deputies or fugitives became scattered in all parts of Italy. These were gen-
erally persons of only moderate talents, but they brought with them the
inheritance which a refined antiquity had bequeathed to them in living tra-
ditions, and they were therefore received in the halls of the Medici and of
the Vatican as if they had been apostles. The wealth which had been pre-
served at home was now also brought to light, the convents opened their
graves, and the resurrection of classical antiquity was now regarded as a
national aftair by the whole of Italy, and as a solemn festival in honor of the
great ancestral world, whose fragments were recognized not only under the
rubbish of centuries and the ashes of Vesuvius, but even in the customs and
dispositions of the people. To studj' these sacred relics of heathenism, the
youth of the Western world, with the Germans and Hungarians in the van,
now went on pilgrimages across the Alps (after 1400). The influence of this
upon theological studies may be observed in the life of the Roman Laurentiiis
Valla (d. 1457), who first developed the laws of a true Latinity, and was
induced by the artistic refinement which it produced, decidedly to pronounce
the scholastic style absurd, by the philological knowledge it afforded to ex-
plain and illustrate the original text of the New Testament, and by the his-
torical criticism it fostered to give judgment against the fables of the hier-
archy. {(•) The monks whom he derided invoked against him the power of
the inquisition, but his fame was too great and he was too highly esteemed
by the nobility of Italy to be reached by that court, and he was silenced only
by papal confidence and favors. In fact the papal court was by no means
displeased with these elTorts, the serious consequences of which it did not
anticipate. The bishops beyond the Alps knew but little about them, and
Scholasticism could no longer present to them any considerable resistance.
The mendicant friars, who wore attacked with the greatest severity, and
whoso ignorance rendered them the most suspicious, were the only class
which, especially in Germany, wore boM enough to accuse the new literary
c) AfrloA Epistolao (0pp. Biis. 15M. 1581. Lnpd. 1601. 2 vols. f. ) Sonnettl, CanzonI, Trionfl.— r.
F. Fernoir, Frnnc. Tetr. Lpz. 181S. [T. Camphell, Life of V. Lon.I. 2 vols. WoUimton, Llfu of T
transl. from the lliil. L'md. Svo. Mid. Doh»mi, Lifo of V. from tlio Frcneli. PIiiI.nl. 1S17. $.]
d) Dc pencalogia Deor. 1. XV. J!as. 11)32. f. Dccumerono. [Decam. transl. lii Engl. 4. vols. 12
Lend. 1S22.]
e) EK'gaiitiariim latlnne Hnsuao I. VI. DiaU-ctico 1. III. Annott In K. T. (od. Erasmus, Par.
IÖ05. f. rep. /i'eviHH, Aiiist 1G31.) Bo cmentlla Conslaritini donatione. (0pp. l?as. 1540. 1543 f.) —
D. Ii. Gcriclit u. L. Valla. (Paitlii», Koltr. z. K. u. lief. Gesell. Urem. 1S37. p. 315ss.)
328 MKDiAKVAi, ciirrcii iiisToi:v. im:i:. iv. a. u. V21o-151T.
irnprovcineiits of heresy on nccount of tlicir heathenish and schismatical ori-
gin. The Ghibellino party In Italy was distinguislied for the interest Avhich
in varions ways it showed in pagan antiquity. The now school of Perijxi
(ctir.s, in ojiposition to tho scholastic Aristotle, declared that the theory of
the universe nuiintained by the ancient Greeks was, to say the least, a philo-
soi)hical trutli, and Pomponazzo (d. 1520), like a modern Prometheus, ven-
tured openly to declare his conviction that tho immortality of the soul was
according to philosophical principles more than doubtful, although it might
be conceded as a theological truth to a Church which could not dispense
with it. (/) The Platonic Academy^ in the gardens of the Medici, defended
only a few of the religious ideas pccaliar to Christianity. (,'7) There was a
kind of superstition which in some places made a boast of its attachment to
heathenism, and the language of the Holy Si)irit which liad been used in the
ancient Church, was now exchanged for some delicate flourishes of a pagan
Latinity. (/<) Infidelity and superstition were arrayed boldly and distinctly
in opposition to each other. In Germany, it is true, the disposition to en-
gage in classical studies originated in the school of Thomas a Kempis, and in
general it preserved the Christian seriousness of this source, (i) But from
the very nature of the new studies, those qualities of the mind which have
most to do with the world obtained the ascendency in the hearts of such as
Avere devoted to them, and the common people seized upon them as though
they constituted a general education of tho whole individual man (Humanis-
mus). The consequence was that a mental revolution was commenced,
which in its essential character was properly named a restoration of tho
Sciences. At the same time the great ocean which surrounded tho world
was crossed, and a heaven began to rise before them, in which the earth,
hitherto regarded as an immovable empire in the centre, modestly assumed
its proper position. (Ä) Now also Maclnavclli (d. 1530) revived the ancient
doctrine, that Avbile religion was of vast importance for its salutary influence
upon the state, the highest political objects might nevertheless be attained
without the aid of the Church or of Christianity. (Z) Thus was formed inde-
pendently of the hierarchy an intellectual power which had detected the cor-
ruptions of the Church, and had lost a sincere faith in its assumption that no
one could be saved except by its offices. Through the discovery and preva-
lence of the art of printing (about 1440), which was almost equivalent to a
new gift of tongues, this power became absolutely indestructible and ii-re-
isistible.
/) Petri Pomponatii L. de immortalitate snimae. Eon. 1516.— Cone. Later, a. 1513. {Uarduin
\ol. IX. p. 1T19S.)
(7) Poscoe, Lorenzo de Medici. [Lond. 1S46. 1 t. in Bohnä Stand. Lib. and PliiLid. 2 v. S.]
Sifiteking, Gesell, do Plat. Acad, zu Flor. Giitt 1S12.
/() In Pauli II. YiUi Plntina, p. GCSs. Cannesius p. 7S3. Qtiirinus p. J>ss. Era^mi I. XXVI.
P.p. 84.— ir«;c7(ü IlisL crit. Lat. linguae c 12. n. 3. Bcii/le under Bembo. Ilenke on Villers. p.
460S8. Pi;,ei; Mytliol. d. cl.r. Kunst vol. I. p. 2T9ss. [Ratike, Hist of the Popes, vol. L p. Täs.]
i) Mtiners vol. II. SdSss. after Peril Paventria ilhistrata. Lugd. 1C51. 4.
k) G. L. Schulze, Astrouomia per Copernicum instaurata rcliglonis et pietitis chr. per. Lutli. re-
purgatac egrcgia adjutrix. Budiss. 13-30.
I) Discor?i sopra la prima Dec di T. Livio. II. Principe. Storia Fiorentina.— iS:ÄZo»««r in lit*
Zeitschr. f. Gosh. u. Lit vol. Y. p. 4.%ss. [M<ic/ri.ir'^lirs ^i^t of Flor, the Prince and other work«
transL into Engl, in Buhn's SUnd. Lib. Lond. 1<47.]
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. § 2?2. REÜCIILIX. 329
§ 282. John licuchUn. 1455-1522.
J. n. Mahnt, Tita l:euchl. Durlacl 16'j7. Meiners vol. I. p. 44ss. E. Th. Mayerhoff, Reucli. u.
I. Zelt Brl. 1S80. Erhard vol. II. p. 14Tss. {Barham, Eeuchlin's Lifo and Times. Lond. 12mo.]
Rciiclilin (Capnio), who had been educated in the study of the Classic«,
and was a leader of the Humanists, came originally from Pforzheim. At
first he devoted him.-clf to the study of Jewi.sh literature, expecting to find
the mysterious Avisdom which had been promised there. Though disap-
pointed in this, he obtained a knowledge of Hebrew, Avhich he succeeded in
diffusing through the Church, and applied to the exposition of the Old Tes-
tament. ('/) From a scientific spirit as well as from private inclination he
disapproved of the proposition urged by r/cfferkorn^ a converted Jcav, to
commit all the Rabbinical books to the flames, at least so far as they did not
blaspheme Christ. This was construed by the inquisitor llogstraten^ who
then presided over the Dominicans at Cologne, as evidence that he was
secretly a convert to -Judaism. In the eyes of such a man the Greek language
was the mother of all heresies, and tlie study of Hebrew was an unquestionable
apostasy to Judaism. Standing in the independent positi(m of an advocate of
princes and cities, Reuchlln assailed the theological barbarism of the Domini-
cans with every kind of intellectual weapons, to which the inquisitorial
judges had nothing to oppose but cries for his condemnation, {h) The whole
German people Avere witnesses of this ecclesiastical feud, and a learned class
of spirited youth under the banner of Ulrich of Halten, ojfenly declared
themselves on the side of Reuchlin. From the circle thus formed proceeded
the Letters of Olsrure Men, (c) in whicli the extreme stui)idity of the mendi-
cant friars, their general immorality, and their loud outcries respecting the
heresies of the Humanists, together with their own dog-Latin, is described so
naturally and truthfully that the Dominicans themselves joined in circulat-
ing the book, though they afterwards hurled their anathemas against it in
vain. The controversy was at last brought before tlie poi)o himself, and de-
cided in favor of Reuchlin. The Dominicans made every effort to obtain a
reversal of this decision, and the papal court was not altogether inditferent
to the threatenings and briberies they made use of, but on the other hand,
Reuchlin was sustained by the whole influence of the emperor and the em-
pire. The party at Cologne were finally compelled by the sword of Francis
of Siclcingen to defray the expenses of the suit (1520). Tbe amount of
these was only a hundred and eleven gold-florins, but the mendicant friars
were tliemsclves ovorwladmed witli ridicule, their cause was utterly ruined
in the csliination of intelligent persons, and Germany had now proclaimed
.0 the world where she would stand in the decisive struggle which was ap-
proaching.
a) De verba tnirinco 1. III. Tub. 1514. f. Do nrtc cabballatica I. III. Hng. 1517. f.— De rudlmen
tis hcbr. riiorcne. 15<l0. f. Hiis. 1573. f. Do accentlbiis ct ortliogr. linguae lifbr. Hog. 1518. f.— Epp
Hag. 1514 1519. 4.
I) 12. Ilntlisrlk. ob miin don -luden alio Ihre Rüchor neTimen nnd verbrennen soll. 1510. Pfffferl:
Handspiegel. 1511. It. Augen.«piogel. 1511. Defenslo saluinntatores c Colunleuses. 1513. besides otliei
orlg. docc. ir. If>irdt, Hist. Liter. Kef. V. II.
f) Epp. obsouronnn vlroniin. 1. I. Hngon. 1510. 1. II. Ros. 1517. and often, don. ed. j:<,tern:uiid,
Ilann. 1827. 2 Tli. edit, and c.\pl. by Munch. Lpz. 1S27.— t'. ah //m«<;;i, Triiuupbus Oipnlon. ItlS.
330 MKDIAKVAI, ( llCliCII lIISTor.V. I'KIt. IV. A. I). 12IC-101T
§ 283. Dcs'ulcrius Eranmiis. 14G5-1530,
Opp. c<l. Clfiirii», Liigd. UOSss. 11 vol», f. Comp. "Vltao Erasml by lilinsolf in Cleric, ynl. 1
J. I« Clrrc, IJll.l. cliolsle, voi. V. p. 13.Jss. vol. VI. p. 7.<s. Jortin, Life of E. Lond. 17ÖS. Jiarlgmj,
Vic tl'R Tor. ^'TH. Uebors. v. Ilcich in. Zus. v. IlenK-e \\i\\. n. Ulm. 17S2. 2 vols. (IIos.s) E. r. JlotU-rd.
Zur. 179(1. 2 voK A'l. Midler, Leb. d. E. v. R. Ilinb. 1S28. comp. Ulimann in d. Stud. u. KrIL 1S29.
11. 1. [Butler, Lifo of E. Lond Svo. VAuhigne, Illst. of Kef. vol. I. p. llSss.]
Anionp: tlio.sc engaged in promoting tlio literary improvement of this
period no one was more prominent than Erasmus of Eotterdara. He was
the offspring of a faithful connection, but one which never received the sanc-
tion of a Clnireh fettered by monastic prejudice.'!. He wa.s for some time a
pupil of the Brethren of the Common Life at Deventcr, and afterwards a
monk at Stein (1486). When he lacked courage to refuse the monastic vows
he was released frona them (about 1490) by the Bishop of Cambray, Avho was
anxious to turn his classical education to a better account. Several years
were then spent in journeys for literary purposes in France, England, and
Italy, until he became settled with his publisher at Basle (1521). "When a
young man, and devoted to literary pursuits, he lived in a state of depend-
ence upon the capricious favor of his English patron.s, and at a later period
when reigning supreme in the learned world he refu.sed with a lofty conscious-
ness of his power, ever}-- office of dignity both in the Church and in the courts
of princes. But as he was of a feeble constitution, fond of ease, and as he
enjoyed with a high relish the elegancies of life, he was always delighted with
costly presents and pensions. He displayed an astonishing activity in the dis-
cussion of the various subjects then brought forward in ecclesiastical and
social life, sometimes for his own pleasure and sometimes in compliance with
the wishes of his patrons. Many classical authors and ecclesiastical fathers
were edited by him, but above all, the original text of the New Testament
was made accessible to the public, and the immense benefits of the press were
then realized principally by his agency, (a) His character was not of the
highest order, fur he was easily excited and suspicious, and he was destitute of
inventive power or depth of thought; but his common sense was of the most
solid nature, his stores of knowledge were abundant, he was never at a loss
for the happiest turn of expression, and his wit was inexhaustible. The in-
Bipid practices of the monks, the subtle refinements of the scholastics, the
weak points of the worship of the saints, the extravagances of those who
preached indulgences, and the follies of every class, even of the popes them-
selves, were all unmercifully ridiculed in his writings. Nor did he hesitate
to throw suspicion upon the foundation on which the whole fobric of the
hierarchy rested, and to refer to Socrates as a saint, although he reproved the
heathenish tendencies of the modern Ciceronians, and always appeared ar-
dently attached to the Christianity of the sacred Scriptures, (o) Ho was not
backward to attack the interests of many classes, and when excited or exer-
cising his wit he was frequently bolder than circumstances required. It was
o) CoUoqui.i Ciceroniauus. Adagia. Moriiie encomium. Enchir. niilitis clir. Katio verae Theol.
Matrimonii clir. institutio. Ecclesiastos. Epp. etc [Ilis Panegyric upon Folly bas been transl. and
publ. In Oxf. 1GS;1. 12. and his Familiar Colloquies transl. by B.iiley, and publ. in Lond. 1725. S.1
h) J. A. FiihrUii Exerc. de rcl. Er. (Opusc hist, crit. lit p. 379ss.)
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. § 233. ERASMUS. § 234. SCKIPTCEE3. 331
therefore not surprising that nearly every kind of heresy vras imputed to him.
The common people, however, were not the object of his etlbrts, neither did
he aim to eflect any very violent changes in society. Even to those who were
enlightened he only ventured to hint at truth, he never ohjected to an in-
trenchment of himself behind ambiguous expressions, and on all subjects pro-
fessed his readiness to submit to the judgment of the Church should it eveii
teach the doctrines of Arianism and Pelagianism. It was, therefore, no very
difficult matter for such a man, eminently intellectual and distinguished
among his contemporaries, to keep up a tolerably good understanding with
tlie principal men of the hierarchy, whose education was accomplished and
secular. By all those who filled the papal chair during his lite ho was es-
pecially esteemed.
§ 284. The Holy Scriptures.
In matters of faith an indefinite kind of authority was every where con-
ceded to distinguished writers among the ecclesiastical fathers, the Scholas-
tics and the Mystics. In the controversy with the Hussites the principal
object was to prove that the authority of the Scriptures was dependent upon
that of the Church, but all those who contended for reform in the Church
itself, directed their attention to the Avord of God. During the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, considerable interest was taken in a tedious kind of
Scriptural exposition, much like the allegorical and devotional method of an
earlier period, according to which each passage had various senses. Few,
however, ventured to go beyond the authority of the Vulgate, of Ilieronv-
mus, and of Augustine. Individuals indeed, like Tlioma»^ though ignorant
of the original languages, and full of preconceived opinions, nevertheless
under the guidance of a congenial spirit, sometimes penetrated deei)ly into
the meaning of the Scriptures, (a) Some assistance in an intelligent expo-
sition and criticism Avas also derived from the works of Jews and heathen
writers. Nicolas oi. Lyra ((\. 1351), a Minorite, investigated the literal mean-
ing of the Old Testament with no small amount of Iiabbinical learning. (V)
The first printed edition of the Hebrew Bible was published under the care
of the Eabbins, and was conformed to their critical traditions (J/asora). (c)
Xim'encs (after 1505) in the po.ssession of unbounded means and opportunities,
got up an edition of the Bible in all the sacred languages, but the original
text was based ui)OD recent manuscripts, and was corrected by the Vulgate, {d)
The I^Tew Testament had already been placed in the hands of thousands by
the labors of Erasnnis. (e) Valla was desirous of teaching the Latin Vul-
gate, but Erasmus pointed out its errors, and endeavored to make the simple
meaning of the words of the New Testament intelligible to his readers, and
a) A. TJiciuck, do Thoma Aqnlnstc stquo Abaci. Interprctlbus N. T. Ilnl. 1S42. 4.
I) Postillao pcrpotiiao in uiiiv IJiblin. Uom. 1471. Ö vols. & often.
t) Soncinl. 14SS. f. JJrlx. 1494. &; oAin.
d) Kiblia hcbr. cliald. pr. ot Lat, do iiianilato Fr. Ximeneg de CUnfroi>. In Complutensi Univ.
I.'514-17. Th. C. f. K->t publicly until l.'>20, ami beyond the Pyrenees In 1522. Comp. Il^d« (p. 294.)
p. 120SS. [Hurrett, Lifo of Xlincncs. Lond. 8.]
e) Xov. Inslruin. lias. 1510. f. With continual Iniprovonicnts 1519. 1522. 1527. 150.>. ffeiiK-e y. d.
Er. Arbeiten ü. d. X. T. Anh. zu. Burigny vol. II. p. 53-')aä.
332 MKDIAKVAL CIIL'KCH IIISTOUV. VV.K. IV. A. 1). llilO-l.MT.
although ho was in possession of only a few manuscripts, ho availed liirnseli
of tho lahors of the C!reek oxcgetical writers. With a bolder criticism Faler
(Lefevro d'Etaplos, d. 1537) broke through the custom of relying upon tho
Vulgato, and although he fled before his enemies when threatened with mar-
tyrdom, ho iirci)arcd the way for the triumjjh of the gospel in France. (/)
lionavontiira's L'illc for the jtoor proposed that the fiivorito object of all
proacliing should be the contents of the Scriptures, (g) The opposition of tho
Cliuroh to primitive Christianity was evinced in tho fact that when it per-
ceived the almost universal use of the sacred Avritings by parties liostile to it,
the hierarchy ventured more and more decidedly to prevent tho perusal of
the Scriptures in the language of the people, and to subject every translation
to an ecclesiastical censorship. (Ji) In spite of all their efforts, however, after
the middle of the fifteenth century, the wishes of the people and the power
of the press prevailed, and fourteen editions of a translation in the High Ger-
man, all founded upon the Vulgate, though none were in the genuine lan-
guage of the people, are evidence of tho extent to which it was used, (i)
§ 285. T7ic Doctrine of the Church.
The introduction of genuine Christianity had all the eflrect of bringing for-
ward a new law. The doctrine of the Church made no further progress than
that which sprung from an attempt to justify, in the view of literary men,
the corruption of ecclesiastical morals by indulgences, and an outward for-
mality (§ 270). From this proceeded the doctrine that, without regard to the
spirit with which an ecclesiastical observance was performed, it possessed a
certain degree of moral value, and that man might be forgiven by his God on
account of his own works or of indulgences. It was, however, argued that this
reconciliation with God was primarily founded upon the original atonement by
Christ, (rt) The Scholastics made justification before God a consequence of
love or of the faith which is quickened by love (fides formata). A few ilys-
tics made it the consequence of faith alone. In a limited sense only can it be
said that the Thomists stood on the same ground as Augustine, for while they
regarded original sin as a culpable offence, and divine grace as predestination,
they nevertheless looked iipon the former as consistent with the possession ol
some remnants of power, by which a man can render himself worthy of the
divine favor (meritum e congruo), and tho latter as dependent upon the
divine foreknowledge. The Scottists, on tho other hand, described both origi
nal sin and grace rather as tho invariable condition of all men, and as de-
/) rsaltorinm Quincuplex. Par. 1509. In Epp. Pauli. Var. 1512. In IV. Evv. MeM. 15-2-2. French
Bible after 1528, complete at Antw. 1530. i.—Ch. IT. Graf, Essai sur la vie et los t-crits de J. Lofövre
d'Et. Strasb. 1842. A'. /7. Graf, J. F. Stapulens. [Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1S53. H. Is.]
g) Biblia panperuin, rraedicatoribus perutilis. 1590. 4. & often.
Ä) Innoc. III. 1. It. Ep. 141. Cone. Tolos. a. 1229. c. 14. (Mami Th. XXIII. p. 197.) [Laiidon'-i
Manu.al, Toulouse a. 1229. c 14.]— Css^m Hist controv. de Sc. et Sacris vernaculis. Lond 1C9Ö 4
IIegflmaier,GQS<:\\. d. Bibelverbots. Ulm. 1TS.3.
First edit was tli.it of Meiitz, UGi.— Panzer, lit. Nachr. v. d. allerfdt. gedr. dent Bibcla.
Xiirnb. 1774. u. Oesch. d. r.iiti. kath. deut Bibel. Nnrnb. 17S1. J. Kehrein, z. Gcsch. d. deutscheu
Bib<:lucbers. vor. Luth. Stuttg. 1S51.
a) DallaetM, de poenis et satl^fr.ctt hum. Arast 1G49. [nagenlach Hist of Doctrines, § 1S6.]
CHAP. IV. ECCLE9. LIT. § 2S5. DOCTEINE. § 2SC. CASUISTEY. 333
relopmcnts of the si)iritr.al world in the course of Providence. The Pelagian
tendency was essential to a Cluirch which placed works by the side of grace,
and taught that our own merits may exceed the demands of duty. The pro-
found Thomist Thomas de Bradicardina, a Professor at Oxford, and finally
an Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1349), summoned the whole generation in
which he lived before the bar of God, to answer for its adoption of Pelagian
sentiments. Ilis pliilosophical system was founded upon the principle that
God is the necessary cause of every event, and man only his shadow, (h) This
manner of speaking was so foreign to the prevalent mode of thought, and
the delusion with regard to the opinions of Augustine was so general and
indispensable to the times, that it awakened as little favor as it did oppo-
sition, (c) It is, indeed, not improbable that when men happened to be ar-
raigned under some peculiarly unfavorable circumstances, even trifling depar-
tures from the ordinary opinions of the Church, were condemned by the
tribunals, but certainly a great variety of opinions were freely tolerated,
particularly with respect to anthropological doctrines and in literary discus-
sions. The popes Avere far from possessing either the ability or inchnation to
pronounce any decision with respect to those controversies of the schools in
which great parties were arrayed against each other. The Church seemed to
be so indifferent respecting all subjects not connected with its own usages
and privileges, that it was commonly said that it would bo safer to impeach
tlie absolute authority of God than that of the pope.
§ 28G. Ethics and Casuistry.
X>e Wette, chr. Sittenl. Brl. 1S21. vol. II. II. 2. p. 116ss. and Lobrb. d. chr. Sitteiil. BerL 1S33. p.
USat. Stäudlin, Gesch. (L moralph. Han. 1S22. p. 4GGss. & Gesch. d. Sittenl. Jesu. Gütt 1S2.3. vol. IV.
p. 29Ss8.
Ethics now became properly a science. Ahelard had already presented
the principal points of a regular moral system (§ 220), in which his dislike to
a merely external ecclesiastical sanctity and penances, is made especially promi-
nent. According to him sin is not an outward act, nor a thought, nor a
natural desire, but a consent to that which we think wo are bound to refuse
from a regard to the divine will. We truly repent only when the pain wo
endure springs from love to God. Other methods by which wo attempt to
make satisfaction for sin are merely means of discipline. Tho.so scholastics
who came after him generally connected their ethical system Avith their the-
ology, without however, on that account, assigning to it an inferior position.
Thomas was most successful in rendering the usages of the Church consistent
with the purity of Christian morals, (a) According to him the ultimate ob-
ject of ethics is to attain a likeness to God by means of the Cliurch, the con-
templative life is more exalted than the active, and monks and prelates are
ndispensable to a perfect state of society. Like Aristotle before him he
describes Prudence, Justice, Courage and Temperance as the cardinal virtues.
h) De causii Del adv. Pel. 1. III. cd. Satiliii/i. Lond. ICIS. f.
c) Argeiitre vol. I. p. 323ss. With great probability Gicseler cites on this subject also Jiaynald
»d. ann. 13T2. N. 33.
«) Summa, secundnc Partis prima ct seciinda.
331 MKDIAKVAL CIIfKClI lIIrtTOKV. I'KI;. IV. A. I>. lülG-l.'/.T.
nnd following Aiigiistino ho represents tlic virtues peoiili ir to Cliristianity as
coiisirttiiig in Initli, Jiopo, niid love. In contraf^t witli tliose stand tlie seven
deadly sins, with i)ridü tiie motlicr of them all. The etiiical .«ysteui of the
Mystics was confined to the dtlincation of the means and degrees by which
the creature can die to self and awake to the life of God. Through the
influence of the Humanists, sprung np in contrast with the conventional
morality of the Church and of the knights, the idea of a purely human ethics
which differed from the law tf Christ only in name, and had been already
halted at in Thoraasin Tirklefs Italian Guest (121 Gs.). According to this,
constancy of mind is the basis of all virtues, and inconstancy the basis of all
vices, God is not a Judge who can be induced by money to make wrong
exchange places with right, good men will be happy Avhether in ontward
prosperity or adversity, wickedness renders those who commit it miserable,
the will alone gives character to every action, and God always loves the vir-
tuous, (b) "When this scholastic method of treating the subjects of faith and
law wa.s applied to ethics, a science of Casuistry was formed, for those espe-
cially who had the care of souls, and to take the place of the old penitential
books, {c) In this theory of cases of conscience, the conflict between duties
and the ambiguities of particular circumstances were either invented with the
most artful ingenuity, or taken from actual life. When it was received as a
real counsellor in the path of life, the rock of conscience was still shaken by
it. The moral judgment of the Church itself appeared to waver. "When in
thie Council of Constance the Franciscan, Jean Petit, was solemnly accused
by France of having defended the Duke of Burgundy for his assassination of
the Duke of Orleans, on the ground that the latter was a tyrant and a
traitor, and the Dominican, John von Falcl-enburg, was charged by Poland
with having preached in behalf of the German orders, that the Polish king
and nation should be expelled and massacred, the only result which could be
obtained by all the eloquence of Gerson was a general disapprobation of the
assassination of tyrants, while the particular crime complained of and its
defenders remained unrebuked, and 3i[artin V. refused his assent to the con-
demnation of Falckenbm'g. Political considerations and bribery were doubt-
less concerned in this result, but the hesitancy of the Church allowed the
mendicant friars to place the sentiment under the protection of their doc-
trine of probabilities, that any one was justifiable in punishing by his sword
all those who were beyond the ordinary reach of justice. ((/)
I) Dor Walscbe G.^st d. Thomasin v. Zlrklaria, ed. with phiL & hist. obss. by II. Rückert, Qued-
liiib. 1852.
c) In tlie thirteenth centnry, Summa Eaymunaiana, by Eaym. de Pennaforte; in tlie fourteenth,
Astesana, by Astesanus, Bartholina s. Pisanella, by Barthol. de S. Concordia, in Pisa : iu the fifteenth,
Angehca, by Angelus de Clavasio, nnd otliers.
«0 Genton Oi.p. vol. V. II. P. 11. p. 3SÖSS. Hardt, Const. Cone. vol. IV. p. 439ss. 1555. Dlugossi
Ulst. Pol. Fret ITll. f. 1. XI. p. 87&
CHAP. V. EXTEisS. OF THE CHCECIL § 2S7. ArOLOGIsTS. 335
CHAP, v.— EXTENSION OF THE ROM AX CATHOLIC CllUIiCII.
§ 2 87. Apologetics. Islam. Judaixm.
The literary defences of Christianity were principally directed against
some objections urged by Miissulmen and Jews, but they merely justified the
views of Christians at the bar of their own judgments. Thomas of Aquino
gave utterance to the rigid views of the Church when be maintained that
she is the only judge of reason and the only gate of salvation, {a) The Pla-
tonist, Marsilius Ficinus (d. 1499), maintained the view adopted by the Hu-
manists, according to which God had revealed himself also to the heathen,
but had never become a perfect man except in Christ, (h) Mussulmen were
prohibited, under the penalty of death, from even listening to Chrbtians.
Raymond Lullus, of Majorca (1230-131 6), who had been startled from the
poetic dreams of a gay youth by the image of a sufiering Christ, attempted
to overcome the power of Islam on the one hand by establishing institutions
for philological missions, and on the other by his new art of reasoning, which
he supposed was able to conquer any mind. "Witli restless activity he pro-
claimed his fanciful doctrine of combination to Christians, and a Triune God
to the Saracens, and liiially suöered the martyrdom which he had long sought
but feared. The Church long hesitated whether he should be regarded as a
saint or as a heretic, (c) It was not until tlie Cross had become victorious
in Spain that many Moors and Jews were induced by the alternative of death,
or banishment from their native soil, to receive baptism from their conquer-
ors. In that country, especially, Judaism became pervaded by the literature
of the Middle Ages, and exceeded even the learning of the times. Maimo-
nides (d. 1208), by combining the doctrines of Moses with those of Aristotle,
gave new life to Hebraism, and yet with warm affection preserved collected
traditions. (<?) So decided was the ecclesiastical prejudice against loans of
money on interest on tlie ground that it was usury, that nearly all the pecu-
niary wealth of Christendom in each generation fell into the hands of the
Jews, at that time scattered in every country of Europe. It was, however,
as speedily lost by them in consequence of the extreme oppressions and vio-
lence to which they were universally subjected. Wherever a protracted
profit from them was regarded as more advantageous than a sudden robbery-,
they were protected by the princes like any other lucrative possessions.
Many laws were passed and frequently renewed by the Church, to prevent
all dependence of Ciiristians uj)on Jews, to destroy all bonds of afil-ction be-
tween Jews and Christians, to forbid the employment of Jewish physicians,
and to nullify all mortgages held by Jews upon sacred utensils, and the pro-
perty of the (.'Inirch. Even (Jregory I. regarded it as unquestionably proper
a) Summn catliol. fldel contra Oontilcs, 1. IV.
h) De ril. clir. ct llclel |.let!ite nd Laurent. Mi-cI. (Opp. Par. ICH. t vol. I.)
c) Ji. F.nUi 0\-\\ qiino ad iiiveiitnin nb i|>so iirUMii uiiUi'r.<a:cui portlneiit, C. Junl. Uruni ct C.
Agrippae coniiiitr. Argent. 1J19S. Acta SS. Jiin. vol. V. p. frJU^s.
d) Especially More NtliKolilin, Has. lCi!>. 4. 15er. 1T9I. uebors. v. Schtijer, Frkf. 1S30. [.T. Toicii-
leij. Reasons of the Laws of Mo.<cs from tlio More Neb. of Nfuim. with notes, vtc. Lond. 1S23. Lit-
teU's Matr. vol. I. p. '.';!:5.ss. 5lös>'.] n.-er. Leben u. Wirken d. Moses bii\ Mniuion. Prag. 1S35.
33G MEOIAKVAL CIIUIU'II IIISTOIIV. rKK, IV. A. I). 121&-1.M7.
to entice Jews into tlic profession of Christianity, were it only for the sake
of their cliihheti, and frequently arrangements were made for compelling
Jews to listen to discourses for their conversion. All, however, conceded
that they should never bo comi)elled to profess the Christian faitli, and tho
popes excommunicated those who attempted to injure these living witnesses
for the truth of tho Christian faith, in tho enjoyment of their usual privi-
leges and disciidine, on tho ground that at some period before the second
coming of our Lord they wero to be converted to Christianity, (f) But tho
exclusive iniluenco of ecclesiastical prejudices, the wealth of the Jews, and
the necessities of thoso indebted to them, continually nourished the popular
hatred. The commencement of the crusades was remarkable for scenes of
Jewish slaughter, and not unfrequently afterwards the feelings of the popu-
lace were so aroused against this people by vague rumors of the crucifixion
of Christian children, of poisoned wells, and of the piercing of the Host,
that in some cities the whole Jewish population were suddenly massacred or
burned at the stake. Excluded as they were from public stations of honor
and enjoyment, they applied all their energies and keen intellects with almost
convulsive eagerness to the accumulation of money, by which alone they
could possess influence. In silent bitterness toward the whole human race,
but faithful to their principles even to death, this reprobate people of God
by hundreds gave themselves and their children to the slaughter rather than
to baptism. (/)
§ 288. Prussia. Lithuania. Lapland.
Liter, see § 211. 3fone, Symb. n. Mythol. toI. I. p. ~9si.—Dlugo8si Hist Pol. 1. X. p. 96s. J.
Liruleiihhitt, Jahrbb. edit, by Voigt, Künigsb. 1S23. p. 60ss. SZias.—Scheß'eri Lapponia. Frcf. 1673.
4. Jlone, vol. I. p. 21ss.
The bishops who, since the tenth century, had been consecrated to carry
the gospel to Prussia, found nothing but death there. The Polish Cistercians,
after 1207, appear to have been more successful. But when the converts
were used by Polish princes in the subjugation of the Prussians, they were
all murdered, and the Polish provinces on the border were reduced to deso-
lation. In this extremity the order of the German knights was invited to
assist the distressed Poles (1226), and by a league between it and Poland, the
empire, and the Koman court, Prussia became its perpetual possession.
These knights then proclaimed a crusade against their enemies, and after
long and bloody wars they effected the conquest of the inhabitants (1230-83).
Innocent IV. divided Prussia into the dioceses of Culm, Pomesania, Erm-
land, and Samland. The bishops were to have possession of a third part of
all the land as an independent property, but they soon became dependent
upon the knightly order, by which a refractory bishop of Samland was
allowed to starve in prison, (a) Every foot of territory conquered by the
e) Alexand. III. in Cone Later, a. 1179. c. 26. Innoc. IIL 1. IL Ep. 302. Comp. Bemardi Ep.
822. Thomas, Sumnia. P. H, 2. Qu. 10.
/) Jö«f, Gesch. d. Isr. vol. TL VII. & Allg. Geseh. d. Isr. Yolks, vol. IL p. Sii7ss. [JoiVs Hist of
the Jews, &c transl. from Germ, by J. 11. Ilopkins, New York. 1S4S. Jfil*nan't Uist. of Jews. New
York. 1S;30.] Depping. los Julft dans le moyen age. Par. 15:54. Locherer, Geist dor v. d. Kirche fur n.
R-lder die Juden hcrvorgesangenen Vorordnn. (Jahrb. f. Tbeol. n. ehr. Phil. 1535. vol. lY. H. 2.)
a) Gthser. Geacb. d. Domk. za Königsb. Konigsb. 1S35. p. 204s8.
CHAP. V. EXTEX3. OF THE CHURCH. J 2S9. PRUSSIA. LITHUANIA. 337
order was secured by permanent cities colonized by German.'', so that ulti-
mately the Prussians were more jjroperl}' exterminated tlian converted. In
the beginning of the fourteenth century the Gnmd Master made the city of
MaricnMirg his permanent capital, and there were put forth the most splen-
did exhibitions of knighthood. Q>) Soon, liowcver, dissensions arose be-
tween the order and the bierarchy, the people whom they governed were
driven to dosjjair, one portion of the country was wrested from them by the
King of Poland, and tlie remainder was received from him as a royal fief
(14G6). — JaijtUo, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, jiurcliascd the hand of the
heires.s-apparcnt to the throne of Poland by submitting to baptism (1386).
His countrymen received each a white woollen coat as a sponsor's gift, and
allowed themselves to be baptized in troop.s, all in each company receiving
the same name. But even in the sixteenth century heathenish customs main-
tained their i)lace side by side with Christian usages. — The sovereignty of
Sweden was acknowledged by the Laplanders (about 1270), and a church
was consecrated for them at Tornea (1835) by Ilcimning^ the Archbishop of
Upsala. After this, children were generally baptized, and marriape was cele-
brated by the priests, but the natural poverty of the country ai. J the sepa-
ration of the families was so great, that a pastoral charge seemed almost
impossible, and the minds of the people were subject to the m.igical rites of
their former heathenism, (c)
§ 289. rrester John and the Mongols.
Assemani Bibl. or. vol. III. P. I. II. Mosheim, Hi.st Tartaroruiii ccc. Illmst, 1741. 4. Ahel-
Remusat, Mumoires sur los relations polltifjuos des princes clirutlens avcc les einpereurs Mongols.
(Mem. <le I'lnst. de France, Acad, des Inscript. 1S22. Tli. VI. Yll.) Sc?imidt, Hist des Mongols
depnis Tschingulz-klian jiisqu'ä Tiinur-lenk. Par. Is24. [Hist, of the Mongols from Glicnghis-Ktian
to Tamerlane. Auist. 1SÖ3. 4 vols.]
Near the commencement of the eleventh century the Nestorians induced
a Tartarian prince to profess Christianity, who transmitted to his successors
the name (Ung-Klian) which has been rather doubtfully translated into Euro-
l)ean languages in the form of Prcatcr John. In the popular traditions of
his own age ho was a mythical personage, in which Europe admired an ideal
surpassing the papacy itself in its union of the royal and sacerdotal power.
A royal priest of such an illustrious character, Alexander III. was very
anxious to connect with the Roman Church.^ His glory, however, was soon
lost in the confusion created by the conquests of GIu-nghisKhdn. Europe
itself was delivered about the same time (1241) from the perils of the great
national migration of the Mongols, not so much by the hand of man as by
the power of God, Mendicant fiiars were sent to these coiKpicrors of Asia
by the lionmn Churcli and St. Louis of France. Brilliant hopes had been
awakened by the personal favors shown to individuals, the regard which a
conquering people usually entertain for the deities of the nation they wish
to subdue, and the actual hesitation which Mongolian Deism exhibited in
choosing between the gospel and the koran. The exaggerated accounts sent
I) J. Voigt, Gesell. Marlenb. K.inlgsb. 1S24.
c) Comp. liheimpaUra Rep. 1841. vol. XXXIII. p. S2s8.
* Barotiitw, ad ann. 1177. N. AJs".
338 MKDIAKVAL CiniK II IIISTOIIY. I'KU. IV. A. I). lilf,-1617.
l>iirk by tlic iiiiMsioiinrit's tlicro, filled all Europe with the most exalted ex
poet jit ions. Kvcn in tlio tliirtcenth century, however, tlie liapjicy of the
Diilfti-liiinn. hopnn to be dcvc]t>i>e(l, and other Mongolian trihes embraced the
ivlij,'ii>n of Islam. One small congregation in the city oi Peking^ over which
un ardibishop had been consecrated by Clement V. (1307), was entirely de-
stroyed during an insurrection in China against the Mongols (13C9). The
Nestorians .'done succeeded in preserving a few settlements there.
§ 290. The Xew World.
BarVi. de Ici Cd-tas, EoKicion de la destruiclon do las Indlaa. 1552. 4. (lat 1614 germ. 1CC5. 4.>—
Jiohertson, Illst of America. Lond. 1772. and often. [New York. 1S40.] IIVjV, ü. Las Ca.s. (Zcit-
»ehr. f. liist. Tli. vol. IV. Pt 1.) Wolten'ti Weltk. 1S35. vol. I. p. 87s.'. [ ir. IrriJig, Life and Voyages
of Columbus and bis Companions, new ctL New York. 1S49. 8 vols.]
In Spite of the ecclesiastical prejudices he was obliged to overcome, Co-
lumbus believed himself called by the Holy Spirit to fulfil the word of the
Lord, predicting that the gospel should bo carried to nations at the utmost
borders of the earth. The discovery of America (1492) and the circumnavi-
gation of Africa (1498) were regarded as mighty conquests in behalf of
Christianity. The Indians, however, had no desire for a heaven where they
were again to meet their Spanish tyrants. In every way that European vio-
lence could devise, they were forcibly compelled to receive baptism. And
yet the blessings the gospel ever carries in its train could not be altogether
withheld from them. The Dominicans exerted all the power of the Church
to secure for their converts the rights of human beings. Finally the heroic
sufferer Las Casas (1517) obtained a law from Charles I. (Y.) securing to the
natives the enjoyment of their personal freedom, but it was purchased by
the introduction of the African slave-trade.
CHAP. YL— OPPOSITION AND REFORM.
Liter, before § 228. Fl<Jciuf>, Catal. testium veritatis. (Bas. 1556. Arg. 1562. f) Frcf. 1666. Fascia
rerum expetendarum ac fiigiend. ed. Orthuinus Gratiim, Col. 15.35. f. aux. E. Broten, Lond. 2 Tols. £
■Jo. Wolf, Ltctiones memorab. et recond. (Laving. 1600.) Lps. 1671. Haidt: Const. Cone vol. I. P.
IX. Hist. lit. Kef. V. III. C. Ullmann, Keforniatoren vor d. Keformation. Ilnmb. 1S413. 2 vols.
F. A. Ilokhausen, d. Protest nach seiner Entsteh. Lpz. 1846. vol. I.
§ 291. General Vieic.
The highest forms of the ecclesiastical system then prevalent had their
origin in enthusiastic notions and feelings, inconsistent with nature, (a) But
as all enthusiasm must in the course of time expend its force, and nature
will ultimately assert its rights, the extreme self-denials which that system
had undertaken and required, soon became a false display, for which Bomo
indemnified themselves by unlawful and unnatural means, and others became
a prey to idiocy or despair through their compulsory fidelity. Hence, so
long as Catholicism was looked upon as the only possible form of the Church,
there were either perpetual corruptions of all ecclesiastical institutions, or
a) Comp. ITegel, Phil. d. Eel. Brl. 1S32. vol. I. p. I'lss,
CHAP. VI. orros. & eefoem. § 292. stedin'gees 339
continual renovations of thö spirit, which eitlier gave new life to the old
forms, or created new. But the true mission of Catholicism in Europe was
now nearly complete, the people began to think that they had passed the
period of pupilage, and those who were employed in political and scientific
pursuits were evidently superior to the hierarchy. The internal spirit which
called for such a system no longer existed, its ahases had attained a high
degree of extravagance, and finally a painful schism had become perceptible
in every part of the Church. The necessity of a reformation was therefore
generally acknowledged. Many felt that it waa near, and expressed their
convictions by predicting sometimes the destruction and sometimes the glo-
rious renovation of the Church. Not unfrequently their feelings were ex-
hibited in prophecies that God was about to raise up pious doctors, Christian
heroes, and even monks or hermits for this work. (/>) Two classes of per-
sons became prominent in the course of these struggles for reform : 1) The
hostile parties continued from the preceding period, whose revolutionary ele-
ments were soon almost completely destroyed by the Charch, while all that
was true in them passed over into the other class. 2) A party composed
partly of a series of ecclesiastical teachers still deeply imbued with the spirit
of Catholicism, and anxious to bring it back to its original intention, and to
render it consistent with its own principles and laws, and partly of those
who despaired of any general reform according to the customary forms of
law, and who therefore ccmmenced the work in their own way. These,
longing for a primitive Christianity unknown in later times, had no scruples
in renouncing all terms with the Church of that day. All these tendencies
v,-ere in various ways intermingled with one another, inasmuch as tlie Catho-
lic and the Protestant elements were as yet comprehended in each other.
I. Hostile Pai;ties.
§ 292. The Stedingers and the Jfoctical GhihelUnc^.
A tribe of Frieslanders in the district of Stcding, among the settlements
on the Weser, succeeded in maintaining the popular freedom which origi-
nally prevailed in Germany. The castles from which tlie Count of Olden-
burg threatened their country were demolished, the tithes which the Arch-
bishop of Bremen demanded of them were withheld, and the curse of
excommunication which the latter denounced upon them was disregarded.
For forty years the count and the bishops contended against this little tribe,
protected only by the courage wliich freedom supplies, and their country's
mora-sses. Their here.>;y consisted not in the adoration of a toad, as wa.s
asserted in the stupid and lying accounts sent to Rome, but in something Ar
more dangerous to the peace of the Church, {n) It was the finst triumphant
struggle of the people against the nobility and the priesthood, and therefore
exceedingly interesting to the peasants, who every where gloried in it. Gre-
h) Wiclife, Trial IV, 30. Apol. Conf. August p. 27C«. Loncher, Ref. Acta. vol. I. p. 145»
Jlotlinyer, II. ecc. 1. XV, p. 41-3. IliipfnlKuh, Ooscli. d. Rcf. vul. I. p. 112. Augmti, die Eef. Pro
phctcn. (Beitrr. z. Gesch. u. Statist, A. ev. K. 1S83. vol. IM. p. llSssy
<i) MoiiM vol. XXIII. p. 823. Hai/mM. a<l ann. 123:3. N. 428s.
340 MKDIAKVAL CHURCH HISTORY. I'Klt. IV. A. I). 121»-15i:.
gory IX. caused a cnisndo to l)c i)rorluimefl ngtiinst the Stedingers as fioro-
tics of tho most deadly and absurd character. Tlieir great and gloriou.«
Btrugglo was finally terminated hy a dreadful battle (1234), -wiiich only a
Binall remnant survived to submit to the yoke of the Chnreh. Qi) — During
tlie contest between tho popes and the house of Ilohonstaufen, some sectaries
residing in tlio 8uabian city of Hall (about 1218) declared tlie pope a heretic,
and tlirtt the clergy had forfeited their power on account of their corruption«.
Tlicy therefore offered prayer for tho members of the liouso of Ilohenstaufen
as tlio only just and perfect rulers. AVhen the power of these princes was
broken they also disappeared, (c) But for a long time after a story was cur-
rent in various forms among the people, according to which Frederic II.
■would at some future period return, or from his blood .should arise a mighty
caglo which Avould destroy the Koman Church. ('7)
§ 293. Fraternity of the Free Spirit.
The bold aspiration of the spirit toward God, which was not seriously
opposed when it appeared in all its indistinctness and benignity in the sys-
tem of Mysticism, necessarily fell under tlio judgment of the ecclesiastical
courts when it came out with scholastic definitions, exalted itself above the
Church itself, and was even perverted to the gratification of wicked pas-
sions. A synod at Faris (1209) pronounced judgment upon the school of
Ämalric, which combined the Pantheistic doctrines of Erigena with their
own principles of reform, which they announced in the style of the abbot
Joachim. They maintained not so much that every thing was one and God,
as that God is the essence, the end, and the object of every thing created.
Every pious person is a Christ in whom God becomes man, the resurrection
is regeneration, heaven and hell are internal and moral states, the body of
Christ is in the bread even before its consecration, just as God is in all na-
ture, and the Trinity is merely the incarnation of the Deity in three difierent
periods of the world. After them and among them the age of the Holy
Spirit was to commence, when there would be no more need of an external
Church. They also maintained tliat the pope was Antichrist, that every
thing done from love was pure, since the Spirit who reigns in the hearts of
all who know themselves to be one with him cannot sin. Amalrich of Bena
was himself compelled only to recant his assertion, that no one can be saved
who does not consider himself a member of Christ's body (1204). The con-
demnation of persons then in their graves, by the Synod of Paris, and the
connection of the proceedings with the name of Erigena, indicate what must
have been the pantheistic object of that assertion. A treatise of David of
Binanto Avas at the same time destroyed, which would seem from arguments
urged against it at a later period, to have founded upon certain Aristotelian
6) Jo, Otton, Catal. Episcc Brem. {Menken vol. III. p. 793.) Gregor. JX. ad Arcbicp Brem.
{IJndenbrog. p. 172.)—^ Z>. Hitter, de pago Stcding et de Stedingis. Vit. 1751. 4. {ßrrg. Museum
Duisb. vol. I. P. II. p. 629.) Scharling, de Stedingis. Hafn. 1823. Schicsser, Weltgescli. wl IIL
Th. 2. Abtb. 2. p. 127s8.
c) AibertM Sladeii^, ad ann. 124S.
(/) Mosheini, Vers. e. unpartb. Kctzergesch. Hinist. 1748. p. a42ss. iflcheUen, d. Eiifhäaser Ks}>
MTsage. ^ZcitscU. f. thuring. Goscb. 1SÖ3. H. 2.)
CH.vr. VI. OPPOS. & REFORM. § 293. FEATEKNITY OF THE FREE SPIßlT. 341
conclusions the idea that the Deity could have no distinctions in his nature,
and that from him proceeded spirit and matter, (a) Soon after this holocaust
at Paris, a popular party with similar principles made its appearance on the
Upper Pihine. and, until .«ome considerable time in the fourteenth century, in
some parts of France, Germany, and Italy. They were known under vari-
ous local appellations, frequently as Beghards and "Waldenses, but among
themselves they were generally called Brethren and Sisters of the Free
Spirit. The nature of their principles leads to the conclusion that they had
their origin in the scattered fragments of Amalric's schuul, in which their
doctrines had been advocated in a systematic form. Thvir principal doc-
trine, however, docs not seem to have been the Pantheism which contains
no popular elements, but an opinion which they made prominent in all their
teachings, according to which it is the Spirit alone that makes us free and
happy, (h) From this they inferred that all outward things were unprofita-
ble, and thus adopted a sentiment which in every age has been very ambigu-
ous in its application. Some found access to God by breaking loose from
all earthly objects, but others gave themselves up to worldly lusts, on the
ground that these could have no influence upon the mind, but might, on the
other hand, serve to extricate the feeling of original unity from the artiticial
distinctions of society, by abolishing marriage and the possession of private
property, (c) The Picards or Adamite.^, who in the fifteenth century en-
deavored to introduce among the Hussites a paradi?iac state of nature, were
children of the same spirit, and perhaps were externally in connection witli
them. Some of these escaped the swords of the Hussites, and preserved a
secret remnant of their sect in Bohemia. ('/)
§ 294. Order of the Apostlex.
I. Hist Dulcini & Additamentuin ad IHst. Dulc. (Muratori vol. IX. p. 423.)
II. Jfosheim, Goscli. d. Ai>. O. (Kctzcrgo.-cli. p. 193.) &. de Ik-glianL ji. 221s8. &Mosse>; Abiil. u.
Dulcin. Gotha. 1S07. [L. Marioni,VTä Dolciiio, An Hist. Mcnicpirof, trans!, from tlic Ital. by -4.
Galenga, Lond. 1852. 8.]
Ghcrardo ScgarcU't^ of Parma, a youth of a fanatical disposition who had
been rejected by the Franciscans, felt called upon to invite men back to the
true poverty of the apostolic life. The Order of the Apostles, which lie
collected (after 12G0) around his person, went about with their spiritual sis-
ters begging, and proclaiming that the kingdom of God was near. The popes
prohibited (after 128C) this new mendicant order, but they continued to
assemble Avith the Catliarists and Fratricelli, and awaited the api)roaching
downfall of tlio jiajiacy according to the imagery of the Apocalypse. Ghc-
rardo Avas buried in Parma (13U0j. The apostolical brethren wore then
a) C'lnc. Par. Act.n In 3f<irten^ The?. Anccd. vol. IV. p. 163s-'<. Accounts by Rigordu« ad nnn.
1209. and öteiarius lleiiiterhitc. V. 22. In Mitnsi vol. XXIl. p. SOl.ss. Gernon. do concordIa nicta-
phy?. c. logica. (vol. IV. p. S-2G.)—Eii(/Mtir<lt, A. v. Bern». (KHKsf. Abh. N. 8.) C. U. Jluhu, Am. v.
15. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S4G. H. 1.) J. If. Kröulein, Am. v. B. u. Davi.l v. D. (Stud. w. Krit. 1S47. H. 2.)
I) Jolin 4, 23s. Rom. S.
t) JfoKheim: do IJosliardis et P.fgtiin. p. 210. 2T)r>. H. ccc. vol. II. p. W2s.
rf) Contemporary account* In LfiiiUnt, IIi<f. de la guerre des lln.<s. vol. I. p. 79ss. (Comp. Beiuu
«o'/;r, Diss, siir !os Adamites de Boliiiiie. /?'. vol. II. p. SOIs-i.) J/cWifi«), H. ccc. p. C37s. Brl. K
Z. N. 12.
342 NfKDiAKViL ciiri:rii iiisTour. rF.it. iv. a. tk i2\r^\r,u.
induced to follow Dolrhio, a native of Milan, and Iji« spiritual friend Marina«
rettft. His proplictic circular Letters recognize indeed the liistorical neces-
sity that the Church should pass into the hands of the wealthy and power-
ful, hut maintain that since the hierarchy had left tlieir first lore, and
surrendered themselves to earthly thinfrs, it was now needful to return to
tlic poverty of the apostles. His assertions, which prohably attained this
distinct form only hy degrees,* were merely a comjiilation of the heresies
which had prevailed at an older period : " The Koman Church is the great
harlot of the Apocalypse ; all the popes since the time of Sylvester, with
the exception of Peter de Murrhone, have been false leaders ; it is better to
live without vows than with thera ; men and women may cohabit without
distinction ; perjury is lawful in opposition to the inquisition ; and the
power of the Church is transferred to the Order of tlie Apostles, in which
alone salvation can be found." Believing that the revolution lie expected
was at hand, and that the Staufian imperial dynasty was about to be re-
stored, Dolcino took up arms against the inquisition, with something like a
thousand men went forth on a bold predatory expedition, and finally in-
trenched himself on Mount Zebello. Here he was surrounded by the host of
the crusaders which had been sent against him by the Bishop of Vercelli,
and at last sank under the power of hunger and the swords of his ene-
mies (1307).
§ 295. Termination of the Earlier Sects.
In the soutb of France, after many fluctuations of fortune, victory be-
came decided in favor of Catholicism, amid fields strewed with the slain and
the ashes of dwellings (1228). In Italy itself the Holy Father was sur-
rounded by all kinds of heretics. The CatTiarists bad been allowed opportu-
nity to complete a regular system of Church polity, and in Brescia they even
ventured to destroy some Catholic churches, and solemnly to excommunicate
the Eoman Church, (a) But when the chief of the Ghibelline party had
fallen (until 1269), they sunk under the power of the inquisition, and in
consequence of their own unfaithfulness. In Bosnia alone they succeeded in
maintaining their ascendency, until the measures of the government against
them (after 1442) led to the subversion of the empire by the Turks, (b) In
Milan, some who advanced the idea that a female hierarchy ought to be
formed on the ruins of that which then existed, because the Holy Spirit had
become incarnate in a woman, were obliged to atone for their rashness at
the stake, {c) The Waldenscs were reduced in numbers because they had
been burned by their persecutors, but some congregations still remained in
the south of France and in the secluded valleys of Piedmont. The reasons
for the increase of heresy were declared by a zealous Catholic to be : the
vanity and the zeal of heretics of every condition in life to teach and con-
♦ This is sustained by the milder view in the accounts discovered by Baggiolini Dole, e i Pa-
toreni. Novara. lS:iS. A<\er him : ,;: Krone, Fra Dole. u. d. Tatarener. Lpz. l&W. Comp. Hahn is
i. Stud. d. ev. Gcistl. Würtemb. 1S46. vol. XVIII. II. 1.
a) Raynald. ad ann. 1225. N. 47.
V) Raynatd. ad ann. 1445. X. 2-3, 1440. N. 0. 1459. N. 13.
c) After Pclackij : Pischeck; d. B..hm. Wilhehuino. (Zeibcbr. f. hist. Th. 1539. U. S.)
C^AP. VI. OrrOS. & KEFOKM. S 290. DAILLY. GEBSON. 343
Tert those witli whom they were conversant by means of the Holy Scrip-
tures, and on tlio other liand, the neglect of popular instruction, tlie contempt
for the Church shown by its own servants, and tlie unapostolic lives of the
nrelates. {d) After the thirteenth century, no one who considered merely the
worldliness of tlie Church and the multitude and zeal of the heretics, could
have any doubt whether the latter or the Catholics would obtain the vic-
tory. In the commencement of the fifteenth century heretical congregations
of almost every kind were scattered and broken up. But it was only in
secret that tliose forms of opposition were maintained or organized whicli in
the sixteenth century came forward under the name of Anabaptism, when
assailing the constitution of the Church, and of Unitariauism when arrayed
against the doctrines of the Church. (<) The victory, however, was depend-
ent partly upon the hopes which might be entertained of a reform and the
disposition of the liberal party then powerful in the Church itself, partly
upon the lifeless dispos^ition of the age, which, as represented by the Human-
ists, was satisfied with a shrewd and selfish smile at existing evils, and finally
upon the more settled condition of the states and their reconciliation with
Kome. A victory on the part of such heretics, as most of those were who
existed at that period, would have destroyed for ever the historical develop-
ment of Christianity. If, therefore, we may concede that the Church was
right in slirinking from no calamities or laceration of feeling (f) to overcome
tliis first threatened revolution, the very relation of such a victory to Chris-
tianity rendered it evident that at some future time an entirely different
result might be expected,
11, Kefor.m,
§ 296. licformation in the Head and Members,
When the ilinorite, Alcarus Pelayius (about 1330), poured forth his
lamentations over the low condition of the Church, the only remedy he
sought was the re-establishment of the papal authority, (a) About tlio close
of the same century public opinion became decided that the reformation of
the head of the Churcli must commence with a limitation of its power to
do mischief. In the fifteenth century, when every nation and class in society
demanded the reformation of the Cimrch, when prelates and popes united in
the promise that it should be given, and in fact proclaimed tliat it was already
begun and completed, every one understood this indefinite term to mean pri-
marily that which he most desired, tlie removal of what seemed to him most
oppressive and unchristian. Reformation was generally understood to mean:
the establishment of Christian morals among all classes, and especially among
the clergy, the abolition of Roman extortion, and the restoration of all eccle-
siastical institutions to their original design. The canon law, however, was
to remain untouched, and hence its meaning was indefinite. Nothing was
d) Append, to lialneHi ßuinina c 3. (BIbl. Max. vol. XXV. p. 268.)
e) Illgen, Pynibb. ad vllam i-t üoctr. Latlll Sue. 111. 1'. I. Lp». 1S26. 4. Gelier, de prlmordlli
Anabaptistar. Ki-g. lS:iO.
/) Leo, MAIter. vul. I. p. 6ü9s.
a) Siimiiiade planctu Eccl. L'lni. 1474. f. ii oftoa.
344 MKDIAKVAI. ( IICKCII msT()i:V. I'Kk. IV. A. I). I-'HVIMT.
saiil ros[)ectin;? doctritio. In consistency with this view, tliosc whd gave
expression to public opinion, especially the Parisian divines, represented tl.e
retbrmation ns essentially connected with the reconciliation of the great scliism,
Tlio Bisliop of Canibray, Peter (VAilhj (d. about 1425), combined all the effort«
of the French Church in the demand of a general council, and although after
the experience gained at Pisa, he had doubts whether any help could bo de-
rived from such a source, (Jj) he exerted all his intellectual energy at Con-
stance to have one summoned. Gerson also defended the independence of
the general assemblies of the Church, as the only medium by wliich a legal
and salutary reform could be eßectcd, but maintained that the only way in
which a sound state of heart could be secured was by the study of the Scrip-
tures, and a better education of the people. Accordingly, toward the close
of his stormy life, Jio commenced the reformation among the children, (c)
Finall}', Nicolas of Clamengis (d. 1440), believing that the time had come in
which judgment should begin at the house of God, and having described the
corruption of the Church in language rhetorically extravagant, but in Roman
Latin, and with graphic distinctness, then waited for the exaltation of the
Chui'ch by external means, whenever she should humble herself, and amend
her ways, {d) Jlemmerlin^ a canon of Zurich, as a preacher and as an im-
pressive author, has faithfully represented the spirit of the Council of Basle,
but his aristocratic hatred of the Swiss Confederacy produced his removal
from public life to the prison of the convent of Lucerne (about 1457). {e)
Andreas, Archbishop of Crain, of the order of preachers, in his wrath against
Sixtus IV. called, on his own authority, a general council at Basle (1482), for
the deliverance of the Church. Although the old City of Councils ventured
to endure an interdict in his defence, he was, on the pope's requisition, im-
prisoned, and when he found himself forsaken by all on whom he had relied,
he hung himself on the railing of the tower (1484). (/) The more advanced
champions of reform in the great councils sometimes inadvertently went be-
yond the fundamental principles of Catholicism. D'Ailly appealed to the
opinion of the ancient fathers in proof of his position that councils might err
even in matters of faith, and Gerson advanced the idea of a universal Church,
which, under Christ its sole head, was the only Church in which salvation
could be found, was without error, schism, or sin, and was consequently very
different from that of Rome, {g) The Mystics believed in the possibility of a
Reformation springing from within the Church itself. Those in particular
who were called the " Friends of God," and Avho professed to take refuge
uuder the cross of Christ, and depended upon visions and secret leaders, must
have occupied a position quite ambiguous with respect to the Church, and
were full of bitter complaints of its degeneracy. (A) The saint of the Xorth
V) De difflcultate Reform, in Cone. unir. {ITarclt. vol. I. P. VI. p. 255.)
c) Tr. de parvulis tr.ilieiulis ad Christum. (Opp. vol. III. p. 27S.)
rf) X. de Cliimetiffis, de ruina Eccl. .ibout 1400. {ITanlt. vol. I. P. III. p. 1.)— Jd Jfüniz, Xic. da
Cli-manges, sa vie et ses ecrits. Strasb. 1S40.
e) B. lieber, Felix Ilemmerlin, Zur. 1S4Ö. Here see p. ISss. of his writings.
/) Peter Xumugen. Ge<ta Arcbicp. Crayensis (Wirceb. 1514.) in I/otlinger, U. eec. p. XV. jv
B47SS. Wuratisen. Busier Chronik, VI, 14.—./ Bunirhartlt, Erzb. A. v. Krain u. d. letzte Concilsver-
rach in B. Basel. 1S.V2. g) I/ardt. vol. II. P. V. p. 19G. & vol. I. P. V. p. 68.
A) liulmati Jfersiciii (d. 13Ö-2), das B. v. d. neun Fe'.äen. (comp. C. S^miJt in d. /eitschi. f. hi.*t
CHAP. VI. 0PP03. & EEFORM. § 206. EEASMUS. CCSA. 345
when she visited Rome found the wliolo Decalogue reduced to a single pre-
cept, " Bring money ! " and she therefore predicted a Reformation, which
should proceed, not from the pope, but from Christendom, (i) Gregory of
Ileimburg (d. 1472), a legal counsellor, even when excommunicated and
homeless, remained true to his character, and with German sturdiness invoked
the German national spirit, in opposition to Roman encroachments. (A)
Brastnrts perceived that the only vocation suited to his character was, in the
quiet leisure of a literary life, to effect a reformation of theology, and thus
prepare the way for a peaceful reformation of the Church, by promoting a
knowledge of classical and ecclesiastical antiquity, and by cultivating the
faculty of independent and sober common sense. But there were in the hier-
archy prodigious resources for evading tliese calls for a Reformation, and f(jr
corrupting those leaders in it who could not bo overthrown. All the bold
champions who advocated it at Basle gradually submitted. St)me of the more
cautious did this first, and all could do so with dignity. Xicolas of Cusa
(d. 1404), afterwards Cardinal and Bishop of Brixen, defended the supremacy
of the pope at the bar of the very synod for whose independence he had just
been contending. According to his metaphysical speculations all the affairs
of Church and state were arranged on the principle of a unity before which
no opposition could be true. To the scholasticism of his day he opposed his
learned want of knowledge, to an absolute faith in the Scriptures ho opposed
the authority of the Holy Spirit who had been given to men and had estab-
lished tlie Church before the letter of the sacred writings had been composed,
and to such as disbelieved the miracles of the Church he opposed his own
disintei'estedness as a legate and as a preacher of indulgences. He, however,
preserved in his heart a desire for a Reformation, and predicted that the
papacy would be subverted and the Church renovated, but at some distant
period. (?) At tlie commencement of the sixteenth century every thing
accomplished for tlie Church at Constance and at Basle had apparently como
to nothing, and all confidence in councils was given up. There were not
wanting, however, even among the friends of the hierarchy, sonae individuals
who warned them of the consequences of this course. Cardinal Julian wrote
to the pope (1431), " If all hope of our amendment should be cut off, we shall
be attacked by the laity according to our deserts." (;«) Chancellor Mayer of
Mentz wrote (1457) to Aeneas Sylvius : " The German nation, once the Queen
of the world, but now a tributary handmaid of the Roman Church, begins to
arouse herself as out of a dream, and is resolved to throw otF the yoke." («)
Th. 1839. P. 2. p. 6Iss.) Plalntes d'lin La quo allcmand sar la ilOcadence de la chrötlcntö (1356.) opus-
cnle publlö p. Ch. Srhmktt, Strasb. 1S40. 4. liöhrich d. Gottcsfr. u. Winkler nm Oberrlioin. (Zcitsclir.
f. hist Th. 1S40. P. 1.) C'. Schnii'lt, Tauler, p. ICIss.
f) HirgitUif Itevflatt in Wuljii Lcclt. incinor. vol. II. p. 670^8.
/i-) Admonitio do injiistis usur|iatt. Pa[inruMi Rom. ad ImiH-nitor. P.cgcs ct Prince, chr. s. Confuta-
tlo priinatus Pnime. (Oohiast, Monarch. S. \X. Imp. vol. 1. P. 5.')T.v).) & othors. Comp, ll^igtn In d.
Braga. IKidelb. 1*39. vol. II. p. 414ss. I'Umaini, Reformat, vol. I. p. 212sä
I) Do eath. conconlantia. De doctn Ignoranlhi, Apol. doctae ignor. Do Doo nbscondito. Do con-
jcclurls. Kpp. VII. ail Cloruni ct Lltoratos Roliemi.io. Conjcctnra do novi>siiiiis dieb. (0pp. Bji.s
15C5. 3 vols, f.) /•: A. Scharj.f, d. C.ird. N. v. C. Mainz. 1S4.J. vol. I. J. M. Di'i.r, N. v. C. Ü. d. Iv.
sr. Zi'it. Ralisb. 1S47. 2 vol.-^. /.'. Ziinmenmuvi, Cam. .ils Vorläufer LcibniUens. Weiui. 1S.V2.
m) Richeril Hist. Conce, gen. Col. lOSl. I. III. p. 82. ri) WiJßi LcclU iiicinor. vol. I. p. S53.
340 MKDIAKVAL CHUUCII IIISTOUY. I'KK. IV. A. I). 12IC-1517.
A litorary ninii in (iinnany thought the Reformation equally impracticable
and neoesrtary at that tinio. (o)
§ 2117. Jofin de Wycliffe. 1324.— /)«c. 31, 1384.
I. Writing* "f -I. ■\Vicl. Lond. 1S.3G. // Knyghton, de cventib. Angllao usque 1895. {Twisden
Sorr. Hist. AiiR. Lotid. Iß.VJ. f.) Argentri vol. I. P. 2. p. \i~\
II. J. r.ewit, Illst, of the Lifo & Siifferiii!.'« of J. W. (Lond. 1720.) 0.\f. 1S20. Kuh. Vauffhan
Lifo & Opiiiliins of J. do W. Lond. (IS'29.) 1831. 2 vols, [new ed. Lond. ISM. 4. C. W. Le Bas, Life
of W. Xe-v York. 1838. 2 vols. LUtell's Rel. .Ala^. vol. III. p. 81ss. 142s9.] De liaever Grone^min,
Hiiitr. in J. W. vltam, Ingenium, scripta. Trnj. 1S3T. O. Weber, Ge.Stli. d. akatli. K. n. Sccten in
Grossbrlt. Lps. 1845. vol. I. Th. 1. E. A. Leicard, d. theol. iJoctrin. W. (ZeiUtli. f. liist. Tli. 1840. U-
2. 4. 1S47. II. 2.) G. V. Lechlei; W. u. d. Lollarden. L (lb. 185:3. II. 3.)
The papal power in England had been renovated by mean.? of the mendi-
cant friars. In the time of Edward III. parliament enacted that every ono
■who should be the bearer of any papal orders with re.spect to ecclesiastical
offices should be imprisoned (1350), forbade all appeals to the court of Rome
(1353), and declared that all rents paid to the pope as a liege lord were un-
lawful (1366). Wycliffe also wrote in the style of the Abbot Joachim
respecting the last times of the Church, (a) Under the instruction of Brad-
wardine he had become skilled in scholastic learning, and in both branches
of the law, and as a subordinate member of the University of Oxford he sup-
ported that institution by his learned tracts in opposition to the mendicant friars
(after 1360), and defended the government in its endeavors to render itself
independent of the French papacy. As a professor of theology after 1372,
and much respected as a realistic philosopher, he was sent as one of the
deputies to Bruges (1374—76), to confer with the papal commissioners respect-
ing a free appointment of ecclesiastical offices by the Church. lie afterwards
spoke and wrote against the oppression of the Church by the papacy, against
the arbitrary mode of excommunications then prevalent, against monasticism,
purgatory, and against the necessity of auricular confession, indulgences, and
the worship of saints and of images. Gregory XL condemned (1377) nine-
teen articles selected from his writings, which however "Wyclitie, under the
protection of the court and the high nobility, merely explained in a milder
and more definite sense. But when he longed to extricate himself from the
antichristianity of his own day, and enjoy the privileges of a Church like
that which Paul bad constructed, and therefore taught that the Scriptures
alone were Avorthy of complete confidence (Dr. Evangelicus), that the tem-
poral power of the pope was derived solely from the emperor, that it "was
treason to obstruct appeals from the spiritual courts to the king, that priests
lost all spiritual power by the commission of mortal sin, that tithes and other
alms should be withheld from priests living in sin, that the saving grace of
God was not connected exclusively with the priesthood and the sacraments,
and, finally, that Christ was present in the Lord's Supper only in a spiritual
manner ; his doctrines were condemned at the Earthquake-Council at London
(1382), and "Wycliffe himself was excluded from the University. He was,
o) Life of the celebrated Z). Crantzll. Hamb. (1722.) 1729. p. 51. Mönckeberg, d. theol. Charak
tor d. A. Kranlz, Hamb. ISol.
a) The last age of the Cliurcb, 1.356. Dublin. 1S40. 4
CHAP. VL 0PP03. & EEFOEM. § 297. "WTCLIFFE. § 203. nUSS. 347
however, assured of his personal freedom by the ITouso of Commons, and
betook himself to his own rectory of Lutterworth, where ho had leisure to
complete his principal work containing his Augustinian system of scriptural
scholasticism, and his propositions for the reformation of the Church, (J)
His influence was exerted by means of his translation of the Scriptures from
tlie Vulgate, his sermons, (c) his pamphlets, and some poor priests whom he
sent among the people, and many were known to be his adherents to whom
the name of Lollards was transferred, but he produced no permanent religious
impression upon the masses of society, and the insurrection which occurred
in his day among some peasants, in favor of liberty and equality, was only
aided by a misunderstanding of his doctrines. His views were principally
received and promulgated by the higher clas.scs and men of learning, and
hence, no sooner was the government hurried into a sanguinary ])cr5ecution
(after 1400) than all his adlierents were easily tlirust back into obscurity. It
was with especial reference to Bohemia that the anathema of the Church
against the views of Wycliflfe was made so severe at the Council of Constance.
§ 298. JoJdi IIuss and the Hussites.
I. Tlie Literature of the Sources may bo found in //. v. Au/nets, Anz. f. Kunde d. dent MA. 1S88.
p. 78s 22"ss. — IJitt. et .Vonumm. J. IIuss ct Hier. Prag. Nor. (155*.) 1715. 2 vols. f. Gerichtl. Anlc-
Ini;e u. vertlieid. d. J. 11. ehe er nach Constanz ginj;, niit;;cth. v. Leliinann. (Stud. u. Krit. Is37. P. 1.)
Many thinirs are in IlariH & in Aen. Sylvii Hist Boheinor. Eorn. 1475. f. & often. — Bnesynn, Calix-
linor, Canzler d. Neust Prag, Diarium belli IIuss. {J. P. de Liidcuig, Eeliquiae Manuscc vol. YL
Cdinp. DohroxMky in d. Ablib. d. böbm. Gesellsdi. d. Wis-s. 17S8. p. 3o3s3.)
II. J. CocWr/6M.s, Hist Huäsitar. Mog. 1549. f. Z. Theobald, llussitenliricg. NQrnb. 1C21. 8 cd.
Brs). 1750. 8 vols. 4. Zitte, Lebensb. d. J. II. Prag. 17S9. f. 2 vols. A. Zürn, H. zu Costn. Lp». 1S3&
D. G. V. d. Ilornt, de Uussi vita praesortiinq. illius condomnati c.iusis. Atn.< 1S;37. K. de Botine-
y'lose, J. IIus e le Cone, do Constance. (Lcs reforinatcurs avant la ret vol. I. II.) Par. 1S45. — Pa-
lacky. Gesell, v. Cühm. 1945. vol. III. Abtli. 1. (•/ A. Ile'/ert, IIus u. lllcr. Studie. Prag. ISÖ.3.)—
ycander, Gesch. d. ehr. Kel. ti. K. Th. XL p. SSOas.—Ldi/ant, Hist do la gnerro des Huss. Amst
1731. 2 vols. 4. Prsb. 17S3. 4 vols. Supplement p. lieaiisobre, L.tus. 1745. 4. [BoiinetJioge'» work above
referred to ^v.^s republ. in Paris in 1n>3.]
Ever since the middle of the 14th century a few eminent priests of Prague
who had been persecuted but not silenced, as preachers of repentance (a) and
in their writings (h) liad contended against a corrupt clergy as the Antichrist,
and had endeavored to draw off the minds of men from the human institu-
tions of the Church to the apostolic laws, to the universal priesthood, and to
a crucified Redeemer. John IIuss, of Ilussinecz (after 1398), a Professor of
Philosophy, a scliolastic realist, and (after 1402) a Bohemian preacher in the
cliapel of Bethlehem at Prague, fallowed in their foot.steps. Toward himself
ho was rigidly severe, but toward others he exhibited a friendly disposition,
his reading was not extensive and was principally directed to the histories of
7>) Trlalogus (DIalogor. I. IV.) 13S2. (Bos.) 1525. 4. FrcC ot Lps. 1753. 4.
c) Engelhardt, Wyel. als Prediger. ErI. lS.3t
a) Conr. of Waldliauscn i 13Ö9. Jan of Stckno, about 13Ö0. MiUcz d. 1374. J. P. Jordan, tl
Vorläufer d. Ilussiteiith. in IMlinicn. Lp». l#4r>.
b) Matth. v. Janotc, d. 1394, do regulis Vet ot N. Testanienti 1392, do aboniinatione & de ami-
Christo aro only sections of this work, the last has been regarded a« a writing of IIuss (Hist et Mo-
num. vol. I. p. 87C.SS.) Xeand«r, M. v. J. als Vorläufer d. deut. P.of u. Uepräsent d. neuen Prlncipa.
^WLssensch. Ablih. ed. by Jacobl. Brl. 1S51. p. 92.) Extracts in Jyrd.in in Ncander (KGe.sch.)
348 MKDi.vr.vAL ciiriicii uisToiiV. ri;it. iv. a. i>. i2irM5iT.
(ho iii.'irtyra, iiiul his cloqiienco, tliotif,'!! considerable, wns owinf,' more to his
lofty enthiisi.'isiii tliaii to liin natural talents, lie Avas devotedly attached to
tlio IJomish Church until, in consequence of the intercourse between Oxford
and Prajiuo ho bocanio acquainted (about 1403) Avith tlie reformatory wri-
tings of Wyclitfo, in -whicli ho recognized particular truths of the greatest
importance, and soon publicly avowed his admiration of the name of Wye
lillo. His preaching and his publications were then directed against the
worldliness of the clergy and the abuses of the papacy, but it was not long
before his direct reference to the gospel led him to announce that all clergy-
men possessed equal authority, that a visible head was not needful to the gen-
eral Church, that the congregations possessed some special rights, that tithes
were nothing but alms, and that civil authorities had a right to confiscate any
property of the Church which had been perverted to improper uses. As long
as the votes of Germans were most numerous in the councils of the Univer-
6ity the writings of Wyclifle were condemned there. But by appealing es-
pecially to a feeling of old national jealousy he succeeded in obtaining the
I)assage of a law (1409) by Avhich the German corporations were deprived of
their privileges in the academic republic. In consequence of this proceeding
the University lost most of its students and! became strictly Bohemian, and
IIuss, himself, became an object of hatred, in all parts of Germany, (c) With
him, at the head of an evangelical clergy, advanced the impetuous but learned
knight, Jerome of Prague, who had just returned from an academic crusade
in behalf of Wycliife's scholastic principles. On the complaint of the Arch-
bishop of Prague, IIuss was cited to appear at Rome, deposed and excommu-
nicated as a "WyclifBte (1410), but he appealed to a pope better informed, and
in consequence of his favor with the people and King Wenceslaus, the arch-
bishop found it necessary to become reconciled to him (1411). When John
XXIII. (1412) had indulgences oftered for sale to raise funds for his crusade
against Naples, Huss boldly preached against them, and against the erection
of the standard of the cross in opposition to professed Christians. The bull
of indulgences was burned at the public pillory in the same manner in which
the archbishop had burned the writings of Wycliffe, public tranquillity was
disturbed, and the disturbance was avenged with blood. The views of Huss
Avere now elevated above all regard for the Roman Church, and he formed a
conception of the true Church as a communion of aU who have been eternally
elected to life, the head of which could not be the pope but Christ alone,
since no earthly dignity, no human choice, and no visible sign could confer a
membership in it. {J) When the place of his residence was placed by a bull
under an interdict (1413), he retired to the castles of his friends, and preached
to the people with great power. As he had appealed to a general council, to
God, and to Christ, the Emperor Sigismund summoned him to Constance.
He freely obeyed this citation, trusting to his own orthodoxy, and prepared,
if necessary, to lay down his life with joy. He was soon thrown into con-
finement (Nov. 28, 1414) ; the Bohemian and the Polish nobility contended
f) J. T. mid, Tontainen hist illustrandis rebus a. 1409 in Univ. Pragena goeli«. Trag, ls-27.
W. Toinet^ Gesch d. Prag. Univ. Prag. 1S49. p. 47ss.
d) Tr. (L Eccl. (Hist et Monum. vol. I. p. 243.)
CHAP. VI. opros. A i:ki"op.m. §29s. iiuss & the iiussirES. 349
for his rights in vain, and the emperor had nothing hut a blush to give as an
apology for the violation of his safe conduct, (e) Some of the charges alleged
against him he was able to deny, and others he could modify — he had never
rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, the pope had been created by Con-
stautine only with respect to his temporal honor and earthly possessions, a
king, a pope, or a bishop in mortal sin was in the sight of God unworthy of
the name, and sach a priest could not properly administer the sacraments.
The council required him unconditionally to recant his opinions, and con-
demned him for his obstinacy, since he would make no concessions except to
the authority of the Scriptures or of reason. (/) A person of a ditferent
character might perhaps have extricated himself without betraying the cause '
of truth, and indeed have become a leader in the synod. The farewell let-
ters which nuss wrote to his friends were full of heroism and tenderness, Qj)
and ho died (July 6, 1415) praising Christ and fully believing that his cause
would become victorious at some future period, in the hands of more power-
ful men, {7i) Jerome at first recanted, but soon recovered his courage, sum-
moned his judges before the Supreme Judge of all, and, according to an
account left us by a philosopher, died with the fortitude of a Stuic. (i) Theo-
logical heresies were charged against these men, only in an indefinite man-
ner, and by a misunderstanding of their views. "When we find that a liberal
assembly like that of Constance rewarded these liberal efforts by martyrdom
at the stake, we must also recollect that the hostility of the scholastic school,
the hatred of the Germans, and the bitterness of the clergy on account of the
general contempt to which they had been exposed, all co-operated in pro-
ducing the result. But the decisive object which the hierarchical party had
in view was simply to terrify its opponents by bringing to the stake men
whose sentiments were so similar to theirs ; while, on the other hand, they
were sacrificed by the liberal party lest it should expose itself to the suspicion
of sharing in their heretical sentiments. But a largo part of the Bohemian
nation were seized with horror at the cruel deed perpetrated at Constance,
under the guise of sanctity, and in a body they rose in rebellion. IIuss and
Jerome were honored as martyrs, and the priests and monks became victims
to a most terrible and sanguinary vengeance. A custom introduced by Jacob
of Misa and approved by IIuss, according to which the cup in the Sacrament
Avas administered to the laity, was now made the badge of the Hussite cove-
nant, {/c) "When Wcnccslaus, who had retained possession of his crown, in
consequence of the weakness of his government, died (1419), and Bohemia
became the inheritance of his brother, the emperor, the greater part of the
estates refused to sAvear allegiance to a prince who had broken his promise,
and they therefore raised the standard of civil Avar (1-420). The Hussites
«) On the otlicr hand : J. IIuss u. s. QeKltsbr. (Hist pol. Bl. IS-TO. vol IV. 11. T.)
/) A. Cnppenherg, utruin II. «loclr. fuerit horellea et mcrito anntb. proscrlpta? Monast. 1S34.
g) Briele d. J. II. zu KonstiiDz. Nach. d. böliin. Urtexte cd. by F. Mikowea Lpa. 1S49.
h) Hist et Monn. vol. I. p. 33>s. vol. II. p. 515ss. — Mansi an vcre de Luthero vuticinatus sit lluas
(Verm. Abhh. Brtl. 1S21. p. löTss.)
i) Poggii Ep. ad Arotln. (ea. Orflll. Tur. IS-W. IhrJt Th. III. p. G4ss.) lllst et Monn. Th. II. p
522.'«.— Z. IleUer, 11. v. Prag. Lüb. IS;».
*) Martini Ds. de Jac. do Misa. Altd. 1T^3. 4. conf. Schr^iher, de Pctro Dresdens!. Lps. löTS. 4.
350 MKDIAKVAL CULUCH IIISTOIiV. I'Kli. IV. A. 1). 12It;-l.')17.
•wore (liviiKd info two parties, of wliich tlio milder, cjilled ddixtines (I'tra-
quists), rediict'il tiicir duiiiiuid.s to four iirticlc.s : the iirivilego of freely preach-
ing the word of God, tlic aflmini.stration of the Lord's Siipjjer in both forms,
the return of the clergy to the apostolic life of poverty, and the riglit of the
congregation to punish all mortal sin. The other more rigid ])arty, called the
TaOoritcs, cl limcd to be the true elect of God, rejected unconditionally all the
principles of the Church -which could not bo proved from the Scripture?,
expected in a short time the second advent of Christ, and under their infatu-
ated leader, Zkhi, carried on a war of extermination against the neighboring
nations. After the death of Ziska (1424), his place was filled by a raonk
whose name was Procopius^ but as many of the troops looked upon the loss
of their general as irreparable, they called themselves Orphans. Although
these parties were opposed to each other they became united when a common
danger threatened them. Every army sent against them by the emperor or
the pajial legates was beaten, being composed only of mercenaries under the
name of crusaders, and opposed to a people whose wratli had been power-
fully awakened. The conquerors were now in the most cautious manner
summoned to appear before the Council at Basle. After much debate the
Calixtines came to an agreement (1433) respecting their articles, and it was
agreed that the word of God should be regularly preached under the direc-
tion of spiritual superiors, that the Lord's Supper should be administered
under both forms by the special authority of the council, that the property
of the Church should be managed by the clergy according to the usages of
the fathers, and that mortal sins should, as far as possible, be punished by
the civil magistrates according to law. The Taborites and Orphans, who re-
garded this compromise with contempt, were overcome (May 30, 1434) at the
battle of Prague, and Bohemia became subject to the emperor by a treaty
formed at Iglan (1436), by which religious and political liberty were secured
to the people on the basis of the compromise with the council. But this
treaty was in many ways violated in favor of the Catholics, who, after the
dispersion of the Taborites were a sufficient match for the Calixtines alone.
On the death of Sigismund (1437), when the nation "were called upon to
choose a successor, controversies respecting the succession sprung up, and
civil wars were prosecuted with no decisive results, until at the Diet of Kv.t-
teiiherg (1485) a religious peace was established by King "Wladislaus, which
secured the Catholic and Calixtine parties in the possessions Avhich they then
held. So long, however, were the Hussites agitated by political storms that
ultimately none of their advantages remained, except the outward form of the
cup in the sacrament, and recollections of former glory.
§ 299. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren.
Köcher, dio 3 vorn. Glanbensbekennt A. B. Brüd. Trkf. u. Lpz. 1742. J. Camerarii hist, narra-
tio de fratruin orthod. ecclesiis In Boh. Moravia et Tol. (about 1570.) Heidlb. 1G05. Frcf. 1C25. J.
Comenii lltst frat, Bohemor. (Amst. 16G0.) c. pr.icf. Buddei. Hal. 1702. 4. Locfmer, Entsteh, u.
erste Schicksale der Brüdorscm. in B. u. M. Nürnb. 1S32. A. Koppen, d. KOrdnung u. Disciplin. d.
»Iten hiiss. Brüderkirche. Lps. 1845.
A small band, composed principally of remnants of the Taborites, but
mollified by necessitous circumstances, became dissatisfied with the concea
CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & EEFOP.M. § 299. BOHEMIANS. § :JÖ0. WESSEL. 35 1
Bions made to the Catholics, and tho low state to which the evangelical spirit
had declined, and therefore separated themselves from the Calixtines (after
1450). Their congregations were prescribed on the eastern borders, but soon
became numerous in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland, in spite of severe perse-
cutions. Their first bi.shops received ordination from the "Waldensian bishops,
and several renmants of the Waldenses, with other pious and peaceable per-
sons, were received into their community. They were generally poor, quiet,
well versed in the Scriptures, and divided into three classes in regular grada-
tions, called Novices, Proficients, and Perfect. They rejected tho saints and
prelates of the Catholic Church, taught that there was a mystical connection
between the body of Christ and the elements of the Lord's Supper, did not
pretend to be tho only saving Church, but only members of it, and by an
ecclesiastical di.scipline like that of the first centuries, maintained a habit of
life rigidly moral, spiritual, and pious, though in many rcsiiccts contracted in
its objects.
§ 300. Learned Precursors of the Reformation in Germamj.
Nearly all the subjects which so powerfully agitated the world during
the conflicts of the next century, were more or less discussed by learned men
in the midst of the general opposition to the Church raised by science and
piety in the fifteenth century. The great points common to them all were
the purification of the Church by means of the Scriptures, and the reception
of Christianity as tho only saving faith. John (Pujtpcr) of Goch^ rector of a
convent of nuns in Mechlin (d. 1475), endeavored to find Christianity in
those errors which have in all ages been its snare, viz. the perpetual observ-
ance of the Mosaic law in some form, fiiith without works, satisfaction with
works without divine grace, and finally voavs as iudispensable conditions of
evangelical perfection, {a) John Wes!<cl (Gansfort), originally from Gron-
ingen, but afterwards a resident successively in Cologne, Louvain, Paris, and
Heidelberg, whose mental activity at last found congenial cnii)loyment in the
stirring excitement of a counsellor's and a teacher's life (Lux Muudi, Mag.
contradictiouum, d. 1489), has, in the style of the Scholastics and Eumauists,
conceived of Christianity on a basis of mysticism, and regarded it as some-
thing entirely spiritual, wholly confined to a man's own heart and God. Ills
expressions, therefore, Avith regard to ecclesiastical institutions are generally
very limited, and formed with a careful exclusion of all reference to doc-
trines. "Tlie Holy Scriptui'c.'j, God's own abbreviated word, is the living
source of all true faith ; the Church is based upon a compact ; there is a
general priesthood of tho rational universe; faith is to be reposed only in an
orthodox pope, and not in every council ; sins can be forgiven by none but
God; excoiiiinunication has only an external inflnenoo ; indulgences refer
only to ecclesiastical penalties; repentance is internally complete through the
righteousness of Christ and God's free grace, when wo are sincerely grieved for
our sins ; the true satisfaction for sin is a life in God ; and purgatory is noth-
ing but the purifying influence of a longing after God." (i) His friend John
a) De liberlate clir. ed. C. Gntplieu», Antii. W21. •). De quatuor «rrorib. Dial. In Wnkh, Mon.
medil aevl. v<il. I. Fuse. 4. C'oiiii). Wiilck'n Vorr. p. XII I^s.
6) .\ cullectionof liistliool. tri-alLses: F^i-rago We«»eli {\^1\. Witt 15'2'2. aiul often. Later pracl
SSvi MKniAKVAL ciiiiicii IIISTOKV. ri:i:. IV. a. n. i2iß-ir,i7.
(Iliirnnuli) of lIV.s^/, a professor in Erfurt, aiul a i)rfcaclior in "Worms, stand-
ing on tliu f,'rounil of tliü ri;,'id Angiistinian tlicolo;:}', made an assault upon
the received system and usages of the Cliurc]i. If the names of all tlie elect
are inscribed from eternity in the book of life, lie inferred that no cxcommu-
nicntion could ever blot them out, no absolution could insert any in addition
to tiiem, and no observation of merely human statutes with which the-
Church is burdened, could raise them to a higher rank. As long as propo-
sitions like these wero not addressed to the people, they could be tolerated
under favorable circumstances as learned doctrines in the school. But John
of AVesel, wlio glorified Christ although he despised the pope, was accused
by the Dominicans of Mentz, was compelled to recant when old and sick,
and was finally imprisoned in a convent (1479) until he was set at liberty by
death (1481). (c)
§ 301. Jerome Savonarola.
I. Trattnto circa il resiinento di Fircn/e. Fir. 1494. ed. 6. 1S4T. Compendio di rlvelazloni. Fir.
1495. 4. (Comp, revell. Flor. 1495. 4.) De simplidtate vitae chr. Flor. 1496. 4. Trluinpbus crucii.
Flor. 1497. 4. E.xpos. in Psalmum : Miseroro mci. Flor. 1498. 4. and often, especially sermons and
letters. Catalogue in Meier, p. 393ss. — Roman \iew: Bnrchardi Diarium. {Eccard vol. II. p.
20SISS. Paulus, Beitrr. z. D. K. u. Eel. Gesch. Brcm. 1S37. p. 2Sls3.) Apologetieal : J. F. Picua
de Mirandida, Vita Patris II. Sav. 1530. (with other orig. Docc.) ed. J. Quetif, Par. 1G74. 3 vols. 12.
Pad/. Btirlamacchi, Vita del. P. Sav. ed. Mansi in Baluzii Misccll. Luc. 1761. f. vol. I. (Bnrlamac-
chi, d. 1519. Mansi has edited only the hyperorthodox revision by BotUmi, which was not made till
1527. I have sought in vain at Florence for the original test not longer ago than 1S52, numerous
Codd. in the Bibl. Magliabecchiana, contain the simple text of Mansi with only unimportant varia-
tions.) In connection with Gen. Hist. : Guicciardini \. III. p. 99ss. Macchiardli : Discorsi I,
11. 45. Principe c. 6. Commines Till, 2. 19.
II. Buddeus de artib. tyran. Sav. Jen. 1690. 4. with his later Retractatio. (Parerga hist Jen. 1719.)
F. ^^: p. r. Ammoyi, Grundz. d. Theol. d. Sav. (Winer's krit J. 1S2S. vol. VIII. II. 3.) Budelbach,
Hier. Sav. u. s. Zeit. Ilamb. 1835. K. Jfeier, Gir. Sav. BrI. 1S36. JT. JTaae, Sav. (Neue Propheten,
p. 97.) [/?. n. Madden, Life and Mart, of J. Suv. Lond. 1853. 2 vols. 8.]
After a period of literary activity in a convent, the Dominican Savona-
rola became known as an impressive preacher of repentance in Florence
(after 1489). lie reproved the sins of great men as freely and as faithfully
as those of ordinary men, and predicted that divine judgments were about to
break forth upon Italy, but that a great purification of the Church, proceeding
from Florence, should follow from these severe troubles. He also predicted
tlie approaching ruin of the house of the Medici, and the march of a foreign
king across the Alps, to chastise the tyrants of Italy and to reform the
Church with the sword. Accordingly, Lorenzo Medici died, Charles YIII.
advanced (1494) across the Alps, and the sons of Lorenzo were banished
from Florence. After this partial fulfilment of his prophecies, and when the
people by his advice had seized upon the government of the republic, the
state was entirely dependent upon his counsel, although he never interfered
with the details of the administration. He looked upon a government by
by Luther In his W. by WaWt, vol. XIV. p. 219. 0pp. Groning. 1614. i.—G. B. Goeze, de Jo. Wess
Lub. 1719. 4. G. Muurling, de Wes^-li Gansfortil cum vita, tum meritis in praep.ir. sacrorum emen-
datione In Bclgio sopt P. I. (Vita.) Traj. ad Rh. 1S31. C. Cllmann, J. Wessel, ein Vorgänger Luth.
H»mb. 1834. Die 2 nmg. A. in d. Reformatoren vor d. Ref. vol. IL
c) His treatise adv. indiilgentias in Walch, 1. c. Fasc. I. p. 111. Legal documents relating to his
trial In Argentri vol. I. P. II. p. 891ssl Ullmann, voL I. p. S67s8.
CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & EEFOEM. $ 301. SAVONAP.OLA. 353
tlio people as most appropriate to such a place as Florence, and he advised
that it sliould be a spiritual coniiiinnity, established upon the principles of
the fear of God, true patriotism, and i)eace among all its citizens. From his
pulpit he commenced a great moral reformation. His system of faith was
founded upon that of St. Thomas, though it deviated somewhat in the direc-
tion of the Mystics, and was animated by the spirit of the Scriptures. Of
course he had no hope of salvation from the saints, nor from his own works,
but his Avhole trust was in tbe grace of God. Although he declined the
dangerous appellation of a prophet, he derived his predictions from a pro-
phetic spirit nourished by the Scriptures, and he believed that in his conclu-
sions he could no more be mistaken than that God himself could err. Alex-
ander VI., wounded in various ways, and threatened with a council,
endeavored to silence the terrible prophet at first by brilliant promises, and
afterwards by sending him a crafty summons to Rome (July 21, 1495). Sa-
vonarola excused himself on the groimd that he could not at that time be
absent from Florence. Many Florentines were otlended at the rigid morality
which in its enthusiasm held a carnival with the works of luxury and art,
and consigned them to an auto-da-fe. The noble families were chagrined at
the ridiculous manner in which the government was conducted by a monk
and the people. An attempt to restore the Medici Avas expiated with the
heads of its authors, in the midst of legal forms before unknown. The
sturdy confidence which Savonarola reposed in tlie King of France, brought
the city of Florence into a dangerous political condition, and the retreat of
the king gave a ridiculous aspect to his propliecies. Already was his influ-
ence over the minds of the people abated, Avhen he was forbidden by the
Roman authorities to enter the pulpit (Oct. 1496). As he would not allow
the word of God which burned within him to be smothered, he was excom-
municated (May 12, 1497). lie regarded such a prohibition as utterly void
when opposed to the spirit of love, and concluded to appeal from the earthly
to the heavenly Pope. lie therefore continued to ]ireach to the people,
assuring them that his cause would bo triumjjhant though he himself should
suflfer martyrdom. The Franciscans placed themselves at the head of the
opposition to the Dominicans of his convent of St. Mark, the people became
excited at the disappointment Avhich their curiosity had received when
assembled to witness a divine trial of his claims by the ordeal of fire, for
which neither of the champions had any inclination or confidence, and
finally the city was threatened Avith a papal interdict. The convent of St.
Mark avjls attacked by a mob, a feAV of Savonarola's adherents Avere struck
down, and he himself was thrown into prison. An extraordinary court of
justice compelled him to confess on the rack tliat he had played the part of
a prophet from motives of ambition. Condemned by the judgment of the
pope as a heretic, and by the voice of the Signoria for crimes not specified,
ho piously submitted himself to death, and between two brothers of his
order Avas burned at the gibbet (May 2:3, 1 lOSj. Even the politic Secretary
of State in Florence considered it becoming to speak of such a man with
reverence. His portrait, with the halo of sanctity, painted by Fra Bartolo-
meo, is suspended in the gallery of St. Mark even to the present day.
354 MKDIAKVAL CIII:KCII IIISTOUY. PKU. IV. A. I>. 12IC-1517.
CIIAI'. VJI.— THE GKEEK ClIUKCII.
§ .302. Arsenina.
G. P.ii/i>n>ifrfit III, in. 14. lOss. IV, Iss. VII, 22. Klceph. Gregoraa III, 1. IV, Iss. VII, 9.-
EnOelhardt, die Arscnlnnor u. Hcsycliastcn. (Zeitsclir. f. bist Th. 1888. vol. VIII. II. 1.)
A complete re-establishment of tho monarchy had been prevented by the
Introduction of an arrangement resembling the feudal system, and by the
formation of an independent nobility, composed of those families Avhich were
contending against the occupation of tho country by the Latins. Tlie Church
regarded itself as the moral power by which the unity of tlie nation was to
be preserved and the erai)iro was finally to be restored. But when Michael
Fiilaeologiis actually set up the imperial autliority in Constantinople (1261),
he had the lawful heir to the throne, John Lascaris, deprived of his sight.
For this act the patriarch Arsenius pronounced sentence of excommunication
against the emperor (1262), who Avas compelled by the murmurs of the peo-
ple to promise compliance with every penance required of him. But when
the patriarch demanded that he should lay aside the ])urple which he had
unlawfully seized, the emperor retaliated the ecclesiastical Bann with a civil
banishment, lie also succeeded in gaining over a synod to his purposes, by
which Arsenius was deposed (12GG), on the ground that his election and his
administration had been irregular. Only three gold pieces which had been
earned by transcribing the Psalms were found in the episcopal treasury.
Even when banished to a desert island, and Avith his last breath, the deposed
patriarch rejected the prayer of the emperor to be reconciled to the Church.
The next patriarch was obhged to yield to the popular displeasure. Michael
tlien succeeded in having a popular saint consecrated as patriarch, by whom
the restoration of the emperor to the communion of the Church was finally
effected (1268). But an influential party of monks called Arsenites persisted
in rejecting the emperor and his patriarch. This dangerous schism was not
healed until Andrviiiciis caused the dead body of Arsenius to be deposited in
the holy place, and the wrong which had been committed against him was
atoned for by a penance imposed upon the whole nation (1312).
§ 303. The Light of God and Philosophij.
I. Among contemporaries, for Bad. Niceph. Gregoras XI, 10. Against him, Jo. Cantacusen. II,
SDss. (Both in tlie Corp. Scrr. Byz. Bonn. lS-2Sss. P. XIXs.) Documents in 3Iami vol. XXVs.
II. Petatim, de theol. dogmatib. vol. 1. 1. I. c. 12?. Engelhardt, de Hesych. Erl. 1S29. i.
Mount Athos, with its dark forests, in which tradition says no creature of
the female sex can exist, and looking far out upon the sea, had become, after
the ninth century, covered with monasteries. These constituted a republic
made up exclusively of monks, from which the Eastern Church was supplied
with bishops, (a) In this place Barlaam^ a classically educated monk from
Calabria, found monastic saints who thought they could attain while yet in
the body, by a perfect cessation of corporeal life, an intuition of the divine
a) J. P. Follmeraijer, Fragmente a. d. Orient Stuttg. 1S45. vol. II. Comp. Eustaibius v. Thos-
pfilonicli, Ü. d. M.inclisst.niid. from the Greek, by G. L. F. Tttfel, Tub. 1S4T.
CHAP. VII. GREEK CHÜECIL § 297. LIGHT OF GOD. § 29S. UNION. 355
Light and Essence. The method they adopted appears to have produced a
kind of magnetic clairvoyance. "When Barhiam ridiculed these Quietists ('Hav-
Xaa-Tai) as uavel-gazers CO/i(^uXo\//-uxoi), Gregory Palamas maintained that
the divine light might he intuitively contemplated, and referred to the newly
created light which surrounded our Lord on Mount Tahor. Barlaam rejoined
that nothing but God could be uncreated, and consequently that his opponent
had made out that there "were two Gods. A synod convened in Constantino-
jile (13-il) decided in favor of the monks of the sacred mount, and Barlaam
passed over into Italy and to the Roman Church. At Constantinople the
controversy was carried on with reference to various pointed questions, and
with many interferences from the court, until it reached the conclusion
(1350) : that God's essence and energy were distinguishable ; that there is an
uncreated energy, like the light on Tabor, which is inseparable from God,
and that this was denominated Deity by the fathers, although it is subordi-
nate to the divine essence. Platonism, whose gospel was proclaimed by Ge-
niistus Plttho at the time of the Synod of Florence, generally maintained its
pious trust in opposition to the worldliness of Aristotle, hut its radical prin-
ciples were deeply fixed in an atiectiunate attachment to Greek antiquity. It
was therefore accused of being a new form of heathenism by those who de-
fended Aristotle, whose system, on the other hand, had now become adapted
to the requirements of the Church. (l>)
§ 304. Attempts at Union. Cont. from % 2^5.
Leo AUatius, Graccia orüicxl. Eom. 1652. 1659. 2 vols. 1
While the Latins possessed the imperial authority, a reconciliation be-
tween the two Churches was impoi^sible, on account of the political abuses
of which the Greeks complained, and the exorbitant demands of the domi-
nant Church. But when Constantinople again became the capital of the
Greek empire and of the Greek Church, the emperors were anxious to effect
a reconciliation, or at least the .semblance of one, because during the thir-
teenth century they w'ero apprehensive of another crusade from the West,
anil after the fourteenth century tlioy were desirous of aiil against the
Turks. At the Council of Lyons (1274), tlierofore, Michael I'alaeologus
allowed his representatives to subscribe the Koman confe.'^ion of faith, reserv-
ing only the old established usages of his Church, {<i) and at the Synod of
Florence (1439) the union of the two Churches was consummated by the
Greek emperor and tlie Patriarch himself. (/') But the jjcoplc were entire
strangers to any such union, and when tiie throne of the ralacologi was
tlireatened, the poi)ular party betook themselves to the Comneni at Trebi-
zond. The learned men on tiie (ireek side defended tlieir Church by proving
its agreement with ecclesiastical antiquity, and those of the Latin party de-
l) PMho, do Pint, ntfjuc Arist. phll. dlfTorcntln. Par. 15-11. Georg. TrapfzuuL Compar. Ar. et
Plat Yen. 1528.— jr. Gus», Oenna.lius u. Plotlio. Ilro.Hl. 1S44. Tlio 2(1 part contains both treatises.
n) Raynahl. ad ann. 1267. N. "2.«3. Jf-ttisi vol. XXIV. p. 00. C7ss,
b) Lablit'i ct Cossartii Concc. vol. XIII. p. Sli's". S>/!r. &juroj/uli vera Hist unionls non
vorae Inter Gr. et Lat s. Cone. Flor, narntio. Gr. ct Lit ed. U. Creyg/iton, Hag. Com. 1C60. 4. Oa
the other side Leo Allut. Koni. ICW. 4.
35b MKDIAKVAL CIIURCn HISTORY. I'KP.. IV. A. 1). 121f^l517.
fended theirs after the cxjimplo of St. Thoman, (c) by forged original docn«
meiits and false constructions of the Greek fathers. Once more, when the
Turkish bastions had been already erected against the walls of Constantino-
ple, ft reconciliation was celebrated in December, 1452, and a Roman cardinal
legato held mass in the Church of St. Sophia. But the only effect of this
was that tlio consciences of the people were fretted, and their love was
alienated from the emperor himself. The only true union of the Churches
took place in the social circle of the Platonist Cardinal Bcssarion (d. 1472),
Archbishop of Nicaea, who, after the Synod of Florence, abandoned a cause
which he regarded as desperate. By his interest in the cause of his na-
tive land and her exiled children, he subsequently proved that he was not
a deserter, but a mediator between two nations and two mental king-
doms. ((/)
§ 305. End of the Greek Empire.
After Phranza, Diicag, and others, Cnisiua Turco-Graecia. Ba?. 1534. f. J. r. Hammer, Gesch.
A osmaa. Eeichs. Pesth. lS2Tss. vol. L p. 509ss. vol. II.
Abandoned by "Western Europe, after one more glorious struggle on May
29, 1453, New Rome was stormed by the Turks, and the church of St. So-
phia was desecrated and converted into a mosque. The family of the Palae-
ologi retired to the Peloponnesus, and there wasted away untU it became
extinct (1460). The Comneni indulged the vain hope that they could obtain
deliverance by the surrender of Trebizond (1462). («) One Christian hero,
Scanderheg, who had formerly attained the highest dignities among the Mo-
hammedans, but, late in life, had forsaken them all to become a Christian,
now effected the deliverance of Epirus, for more than twenty years withstood
the whole power of the Ottomans, and finally may be said to have been
overwhelmed rather than overcome (1466). (b) His Albaniana became more
properly the allies than the subjects of the Porte, and generally adopted a
false kind of religion intermediate between that of Christ and that of Mo-
bammed. The Mainots and the Thieves remained independent tribes of Chris-
tians in the mountains. The remnant of the Grecian nation was allowed by
Mohammed JL, the conqueror of Constantinople, to continue under a mild
form of servitude and in the free enjoyment of their religion. Gennadius,
who had been chosen patriarch by order of this sultan, presented to Mm the
confession of faith of the Oriental Church, in which were embraced all those
important particulars in which Christianity is distinguished from Islam, (c)
One half of the churches remained in possession of the Christians untU the
beginning of the sixteenth century, when the Sultan Selini appropriated as
many of them as he thought needful to the use of the Mohammedans. The
patriarch, being regarded as a high political officer, receives his confirmation
c) Opnsc. contra errorcs Graeeorura ad Urban IV.
d) A. Bandini,äiTitcL et rob. gestis Bess. Kom. 17T4. 4. I/. ITasf, Bessarion. (Hall. EncycL
Tol. IX.)
a) Fallmerayer, Gesch. d. Kalserth. Trapezuut Munich. 1S2T.
b) Marinw Barlttiiis de vita Georgii Castrioti L XIIL Argent 1537. t to be modified by Git>
bon & nammer. c) Gasa. Abth. II. p. Sss.
CHAP. TIL GREEK ClIUECH. § 305. TURKISH BULK 357
or deposition according to the will of the sultan. He has a permanent synod
of bishops and notables to act as his council and judicial court, in connection
with which ho is the arbitrator and judge of his people. The administration
of justice in civil matters, and generally with respect to minor offences, is
performed in the episcopal courts. These have, it is true, no power but that
of arbitrators, yet the fear of being excommunicated by them is so great that
this is sufficient. ((T) The Greek Church was compelled to share the depressed
fortunes of its people. It now undertook the vocation of consoling a people
overwhelmed by misfortunes, and of preserving its own peculiar institutions
until a brighter day should dawn upon it.
d) G. Geib. &»rst d. Reclitszust In Griecbenland wahrend d. turk. Ilerrsliftft, Ueidelb. :S85k
"N
MODERj^ CHURCH HISTORY.
FIFTH PERIOD.
FEOM LUTHEK TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA.
I'or Gen. History: Correspondenz K. Kavls V. ed. by K. Lanz, Lps. 1944ss. 3 vols. Guicciardini
(p. 2.3S). P. Giovio, Hist, sui tomp. (1493-1513. 1521-27.) Flor. 1550s. & often. De Tliou, Hist, so!
temp. (1543-lGOT.) Frc£ 4 vols. f. & often. Khevenhiller, Ann. Ferdinande!, 2 ed. (1573-1637.) Lps.
1716SS. Vi vols. f. Goldaat, Imp. Pvom. Frcf. 1607. £ & Constt. Imp. R. FrcE 1615. 3 vols. f. £och,
Samml. d. Eeicbsabschiede. Frc£ 1747. 4 vols. f. — Sastrotc, (1595.) Herkommen, Geburt u. Laufs. Le-
bens, ed. by Mohniko, Greifsw. 1823s. 8 ro\a.—Ilobert3on, Hist, of the Emp. Charles V. Lond. 1769.
3 vols. 4. ed by Frost, 1 vol. 8. New Törk. 1840. Uebers. v. Eemer, Brnsch. 1793. 3 vols. F. v. ^k-
choltz, Ferd. I. Vienna. 1832-8. 9 vols. [S. A. Dunham, H. of the Germanic Empire. Lond. 1334-5.
8 vols. 8. W. a Taylor, Anc. & Mod. Hist. New York. 1S46. 2 vols. 8. W. Smith, Loctt on Mod.
Hist &c. 2 vols. 8. Lond. 1S41. W. Busse!!, Hist of Mod. Europe to 1763. 8 vols. 8. New Nork.
I', KoUraiisch, Hist of Germany, transl. by Haas. New York. 1347.]
D § 306. General View.
The necessity of a reformation, now universally recognized, was the prin-
cipal legacy bequeathed by the preceding age. This work now commenced
among the people simultaneou.sly in Saxony and in Switzerland. It was the
result, not of literary improvement, though in connection with it, nor of con-
tests with the papacy, although much of its success was owing to the arro-
gance and the corruptions of that system, but principally of the fear which
pious persons felt lest true repentance and salvation should be utterly lost
sight of in the eager chase after indulgences and human merit. It was not
until the Reformation was decidedly opposed by the hierarchy, that the
Church was compelled by the inevitable force of circumstances to divide. It
was then that the principle of Protestantism which had previously been sub-
ordinate, led its friends to establish an independent Church, that Christianity
might there find an appropriate development. This was accomplished in
Switzerland in the midst of isolated struggles among republican parties, and
in the interior of Germany, in the midst of learned controversies, solemn
imperial transactions, popular commotions, and mercenary wars. Both re-
forming parties justified their views by appealing to the Scriptures, and
§3ÜC. GENERAL VIEW. §307. LITERATURE. 359
expected salvation wholly from the grace of God through Christ; both
serionsly misunderstood each otlicr, not indeed at first, but at a very early
period, and both were German in their national characteristic.'^, although, as
was to be expected in a border country, the Helvetic Church partook at an
early date of a French admixture. The Reformation now began its course
around the world. Pohtical interests, foreign to its true objects, in some
instances interrupting and in others promoting its progress, became involved
in the conflict, but the ecclesiastical interest never ceased to be prominent.
In consequence of the very opposition it had received, Catholicism renewed
its energies, and "Western Europe became divided into two great hosts, which,
in the very country where tlie Reformation originated, contended with earthly
weapons for the existence of Protestantism. Its rights, however, were finally
purchased at the expense of the devastation and disunion of Germany. Both
Churches, while agitated by the highest excitement of opposition, were finally
,''bliged to leave each other in peaceable possession of what each actually
occupied. The development of this contest, and its results in the contend-
ing Churches, constitute the central object of our history during this period,
and supply tlie peculiar conditions according to which the topical arrange-
ment will be formed.
CHAP. I.— THE GERMAN REFORMATION.
§ 307. Original Authorities and Literary Uintorij.
A. L Writings of the Reformers § 303. 313. Spalatini Ann. Ref. (till 15 W.) e<l. by Cyprian. Lps.
1718. F. Myconii Ili.st Ref 1518-42. ed. by the same. Gotlia (1715.) 1718.— J! CocMaeti^, Cmtr. clc
actis et. scrr. Lutlicri 1517-17. Mog. 1549. C & often. L. Siiriui, Clironicon 1500-66. Col. 1507.— J! S!ei-
daiius, (le statu rel. et reip. Carolo V Cacs. Cmtrr. Arg. 1555. f. completo 1.157. & often, ill. am Ende,
Fref. 17S5S. 3 vols. Uebers. v. Stroth, Hal. 1770ss. 4 vols. Contin. usq. »il 1564. Londorp. FrcC 1019.
3 vols. 4. [IIi;.L of the Ref. of the Church. 1517-02. from the Latin of J. Sleidanus, by E. Bohuti,
Lond. 10S9. f] — Collections: F. Ffortleder, Handlungen u. Ausschreiben v. d. Urs.ichen d. dt. Kriegs
wider d. Schmalk. l?undts-Ver\v. (till 15Ä5.) FrkC 16173. 2 vols. f. Gotha. 1645. f. //. r. d. ITanlU
Hist litter. R«f. Frcf. et L. 1717. f. B. Löscher, vol'st. Ref. Acta. (1517-19.) Lpz. 1720s.s 3 vols. 4.
J. Kapp, Nachlese z. ReC Gesch. nützl. Urk. Lps. 1727ss. 4 vols. Strohel: Miscell. Numb. 177Sss.
G Th. Beitrr. z. Lit. 17S4ss. 2 & 5 vols. Johantuieti, die Entw. A. Prot. Geistes, c. Samml. d. wich-
tigsten Dokumente v. Worms. Edict b. z, Sp. Prot. Kupenh. ISSO. C. G. Xeudecker : Urkunden a.
<L Kef. Zeit Cass. 1>30. Actenstücke. Nürnb. 1S3n Neue Beitrr. Lps. 1341. 2 vols. C. E. Förstemanii,
Neues Urkundenb. z. Gesch. d. KReC Hariib. 1342. 1 vol. 4. J. A'. Seideinann : Erläutt z. Ref.
Gosch. Drsd. 1344. IJeitrr. z. Ref. Gesch. Drsd. 1340. 2 Th. Vitao quatuor Reformator. Luth. a Mel.
Mel. a Cum-erii rio, Zwlngl. a ifijconio, Calv. a Ii>':<i. Trnef. est Neander. 13er. 1341. 4. J/l Adaytii
Vitae Germanor. Tlieologor. Ileidelb. 1620.— IL /'. Siirpi, {P. Soar« Pol.) 1st del. Cone dl Trento.
Londr. 1619. f. & often. Hist Cone, Tridentlni, Lond. 1620. Lps. 1690. 2 voK 4. & often. Uebers. v.
liiimbticli, Hal. 17Clss. 6 vols. v. Winterer, Mergonth. 13.39. 4 vols. PnUacicini, 1st del Cone, di
Tr. Rom. 1646. 2 vols. f. Mendrlslo. 1336.ss 10 vols, lat redd. Ginttino, Antu. 1070. 3 vols. f. &, often.
Ueber.s. v. Klitsche, Augsb. 1S36. 8 vol.\ Bonnuet, Hist des variations des Egl. prot Par. 1638. 2 vols.
4. & often. 1731. 4 vols. /,. .Vdimbotirf;, Hist du Lutheranlsmo. Par. 1630. 4. & often. K. liißel,
KGesch. d. neuesten Zeit Mainz. (1341s\) 1S44-7. 3 vols.— I' L. dt SeclCi-ndor/, Cmtr. hist et apol.
de Lutheranismo. Frcf. et L (1033.4.) 1692. f. Uebers. u. vrm. v. Frick, L|«. 1714. 4. Ausz. u.
Forts. V. Juninn, Frkf u. L. 1755. 4 vols. vrh. v. Rons. Tub. 1733. 2 vols. TentzeL, hist Vor. v. d.
Kef. z. ErI. Seckend. e<l. by Cifpriau-, Li«. 1718. 2 vols. C. A. Stilig, Uesch. d. A. Con£ (1517-62.)
Hal. 1780SS. 3 vols. 4. t". J. Planck, Ge^ch. <L Enst Veräiid. u. BiUL uns. prot Lchrbgr. b. z. Con-
cord. Li«. (1731s.s. 8 vol.«.) 1791-1300. 7 vols. Woltmunn, GcscU. d. Kef. in Doutschl. Alt (lS01s,s.)
1817. 3 vols. Marheineki-, Gesch. d. teufch. Ref b. 1555. (1317. 2 vols.) ]93Iss. 4 vols. C. A. .Men-
?«/, KeC Gesch. (Neuere Gesch. d. Duutschl. 12 vol».) Brsl. 1320. 8 vols, Z. Bunke, deutsche Gesch. im
300 MoDKItN CHfttCII IIIöTOUV. PKK. V. A. D. lülT-KlS.
Z.lliL il. lief. Itcrl. 1S39-13. 8 e<l 1S52. 5 vols, it 1 o<l. 6 voIk. Soiircf» : [Illst. of the Met. In Germ
iniiisl. by .Wim. Aiiitln, 2 voK 8. I-ond. lS4r..] A'. ILtgen, DcuUsclil. lit. u. rcl. Verli. im Met. Ä^il^
Krl. 1H41-H. .") vols (J »t 3 vol«. : Crclst (1. Mot. ii. ». OcgensäUo.)— ./: G. Midler, I^eiikw. a. d. Gesclt
il. Ucf. (Ufllq. nllerZolt. vol. 8.) Lp3 ISOO. Mut. Alinunatb, ed. by KtijHer, Krf. I^IT. 1518. 1820.
1921. /totermunJ, orn. Andonken d. Männer dlo für n. gegen d. Kef. Lutli. (.'carbcltct haben. Urem.
ISIS. 1 vol. C. G. Keiide.cker Qescli. d. ov. Trot In Deutsclil. d. a. iin.sro Tiigc. Ljiz. ISW.s. 2 voU.
B. I. Wiltlnss of tlio KufornuTS § 'AM. 3JC. V. Anihelm, IJcrnor Chronik till l.ViiJ. cd. by Slier-
tin & H>», Born. lS25ss. vol. Vs. /A BuHingfrS Wut. Gcscli. (till 1532.) ed. by IloUinger ii. VixjeU,
Frauenf. l-^aSs«. 3 vols.— Hof. Chronik d. Knrtliäus. Georj. uebcr». durch K. Bii.\torf, Bas IS^.—
./. O. Füxuli: Beytrr. z. Krl. d. K. It. Hist. d. Schwclzerl. Zur. 1741ps. 5 vol.s. Epp. ab Ecc. Ilelv. lie-
forniator. vol ad eos .-icr. Tig. 1742. J. J. Simler, ?inl. alt. u. neu. Urk. Zur. l"57ss. 6 vol?.— II. Mninv-
hoarg, Hist, du Calvinisnio. Par. \mi.—Bayli; Critlquo Ri<n. do \'\l. dn Calv. liotL IC54. 2 vols. 12. A
Lettrcs do I'liutcur de la Critique Pv. 1CS5. J. Baanage, Hist do la IJel. des igl. rtforniee». (Rot. 1C90.
2 vols. 12.) Hiiyc 1725. 2 vols. i. J. J. ITottinger, lielv. KQosch. Zur. 1G0S.SS. 4 vols. 4. A. Jiuc/uit,
H. do la Uef. do la Suisse. (Gen. 17:27.s. G vols. 12.) Nyon, 1S35-S. 7 vols. J. de Beamohre, \l\M. de la
ruC ((ill 1530.) Ber. 1785. 3 vols. L. Wirz & M. Kirchliofer, neuere liclv. KGcscli. Zur. 1813-19. 2
vuis.— .1. S<-ulteti Ann. Ev. renovati. Ildlb. ICIS. Gerden: Introd. in Hist Ev. renovati. (1510-06.)
Gron. 1744SS. 4 Th. 4. Serinium 8. Miscell. ad Eef. spcct Gron. 1748>s. S Th. 4. A'. Ii. IlagenhacK,
Vorless. ü. Wesen u. Gesch. d. Eef. Lps. (18.34 2 vols.) 1S51. J. II. Merle d'Auhigiie, Hist de la rOf.
d. 1Ö sicclc. Par. lS35s. 4 vols. [Hist of the Rof. of the ICtb cent by J. H. Merle D'Aubi-n^, transl.
by n. White. Edinb. vt New York. 1847-1S5.3. 4 vols. 12. //. Stehhing, Hist of the Ref. 2 vols. 12.
Lond. 1836. G. Waddiiigton, Hist of Kef. on the Continent 3 vols. 8. Lond. 1841.]
C. de VHler.i, Essai sur I'esprit et I'influence do la ref. do Luth. Par. 1802. ed. 5. 1551. [Ess-aj on
t!ie KeC of Luther by Yillers, transl. by S. Miller, 1 vol. 12. Phil. 183-3.] N. d. 2 ed. Ucbcrs. v.
Cramer, m. Beil. v. ITenke, Uamb. (ISO.').) 1S2S. v. Stampeel m. Vor. v. Eosenmüller, Lps. flSOö.)
XSiM.—Rohelot, do l"influence de la Ref. de Luth. Lyons. 1S22. Mayence. 1S23. J. Düllinger, d. Kef.
ihre Entw. u. Wirk, im Umfange d. Luth. Bekenntn. Uatisb. 1S46-S. 3 vols.— A". G. Bretichneider, d.
deutsche Ref. Lps. 1844.
The events of the Reformation Avere produced principally by published
Avritiiigs, which, in subsequent times, needed only to be collected. The ac-
counts left by Spalatin (d. 1545) and Jlyconius (d. 154»)) are valuable merely
as the testimony of those who actually witnessed what they related. A
more comprehensive picture is presented in the work of CocJilaeus (Dobnek,
d. 1552), although colored by the peculiar views of his party. In opposition
to his abusive representations the learned statesman, Sleidanus (Philipson, d.
1556), showed by original documents that the Reformation was a work of
Providence, in which the whole human race was interested, and that it had
important relations to general history. In the contest waged against Maim-
honrifs elegant but malignant representation, Seclcendorf. on account of his
access to the archives preserved by the State, is entitled to a place among
the original authorities. Among the historical writers, the Reformation has
been described by Sarjri, a real Protestant under a monk's cowl, and by Pal-
lavicini, with all the advantages and the prejudices of a cardinal. Bossuet
has more particularly noticed the gradual development and the human ele-
ments, as well as the variations and arbitrary character of the Reformation.
The work oi Plancic is impartial, but sometimes altogether too full of minute
details, while th.at of Marheineie is popular, and yet, in consequence of its
documentary character, possesses much of an antiquarian aspect. Woltmanti
has bestowed special attention upon the rights of those who were opposed to
the Reformation. A vast amount of original authorities, especially from the
records of the Gorman empire, has boon brought forward in an intelligent
manner by Iianlr, who has interspersed in his narrative many admirable
reflections, and in a style of almost dramatic interest has contrived to exhibit
not only general characters and incidoiU*. but the most insignificant agents ia
CHAP. I. EEFOr.MATION. § 808. LUTnEE'S YOUTH. 361
their utmost efforts against the more prominent historical personages. Lu-
ther's cause has been described ■with much less precision by Ilagen^ as thi
result of a general effort at a compromise, and as an eai-ly departure from its
own original principles. The Helvetic Reformation does not so clearly i)re-
sent a common centre, and the development of great characters in the midst
of great events. "With the sympathies of an actor in the scenes which he
describes, BulUnger has slmplj', clearly aTid faithfully narrated in the Chroni-
cle of his own times and vicinity (1510-82) not only those incidents which
were important, but many which were of but trifling consequence connected
with the glorious transactions of his native land. As Dayle had previously
vindicated the Reformation in opposition to Maimbourg's passionate shrewd-
ness, so Basnage in a .skilful and si)irited manner defended it against the inge-
nious declamation of Bos.suet. The historical materials were collected with
honest diligence by JTottlngcr, and more perfectly and more skilfully by Bu-
chat, but both were under the influence of a powerful party sjilrit. From a
position in which he happily combines practical with contomidative view«,
Ilagenlach instructs and consoles the paiulully excited age in which he live.«,
by holding up before it a vivid picture of preceding times, and yet preserves
a proportionate representation of the whole Reformation. In the lofty and
attractive picture presented by Merle d\iul>igne, the author seems conscious
of a perfect agreement with the reformers in their theijlogical views, and yet
avails himself of all the resources of modern literature.
I. ESTABLISUMENT OF THE LuTlIEKAX ClILBCII, TILL 1532.
Luther. Literature: Fahricii Ccntifolium Lutli. Ilaiiib. 172?ss. 2 vols. Ukert, L. Leben. Gollia.
ISl". 2 vols. E. G. Vogel, Bibl. IJio^raphlc.i Lutlierana, Hal. 1S51. Works: Lat. Vit 1545ss. 7 vols.
f. Jen. 155GSS. 4 vols. f. Gcrmnn, Wilt lM9s«. 12 vols. f. Jena ISKJss. 8 vols. f. Altenb. 1661ss.
10 vols. f. e<l. by J. G. Walch, Ilal. 1737-5:3. 24 voLs. 4. According to the orig. language by Ploch-
inann & Irmischer, Krl. 182G-Ö0. CS vola (Selections by rßz>-r, Frkf. lS.37ss. O. v. Gerluch, 15rl.
\HUs,.\)y Zimmermann, Frkf. 1S4C-'.) Letters cd. by De Wettf, Brl. 1S'.'^-2S. 5 vols. Life: ih-
lanct/ion, IlisL de vita et actis L. Vit. V)i6. den. cd. Auou^ti, Vrat 1S17. Uebers. v. Zimmermann
in. Anui. v. ViUer«, Gott, (ISIS.) ISlC J. JfaOievius, lIlsL v. I« In 17 I'red. Nürnb. 15C5. 4. <k often.
^L Anin. v. Jiimt, Brl. ISll. The MS. Hist of HuUeherger, Q. L. ii. s. Zeit edit by Keudecker, Jena,
1S50. IL Walcli,\.'L. (Werke, vol. XXIV.) /: Ä AV//, L|.s. 17C4. 4 vols. 4. &/.ro«cXA, Lp.«.177j;.
SjAeker, Gesell. L. n. d. KVerb. Bcrl. ISIS. 1 vol Gust. Pfizer, L. Leben. Stuttg. 1S36. {Axidin,
Hist de la vie de L. Par. (ISiJS.) ISil. 2 vols.) M. Menrer, L. Leben, a. d. Quellen erziililt Dresd.
(lS4-'$s.s. 3 vols.) 1S.V>. M. L. der deut.scbe l!ef. In bildl. Darst. v. G. König, in ge.^cli. Umrissen v.
ir. Gelzer, Hainb. lS.')t.— A'. Ji'irgrn», L. Li-bon. (14S.M517.) Lps. lS46s. 3 vols, [/loicer. Life of L.
ic early Prog, of the Itef. S. Jf. MichelH, Lifo of L. New York, 1818. 12. J. K. ItiJdU, L. ic, his
Times, &c. I^)nd. ls:jT. 12. J. Scott L &, the Luth. KeC Now York, 1S.'<3. 2 vols. 12. Laicson, Auto-
biog. of L. Lond. ICnio.]
§308. L'lt/wr's Youth.
Martin Luther was born at Elsleben an hour before midnight on the lOtb
of November, 1483. Ills father, John, was a respectable miner belonging to a
peasant Thuringlan family In Moehra, (a) and afterwards the projirletor of some
foundries and a couiioillor in Mansfeld. lie was In early liio subjected to a
severe discipline. Having .';pout some time with the Nullbrothren at Magde-
«) J. C. Ortniann, Moehra d. 8tanitnt«>rt Luth. Salzung. 1S44. yobbe, Statnuib. iL Familte M. I,
Grimiiia. HIG. Comp. (./ C. & T/ion,) Sehloss Wartburg. Kis. 1S2C. p. llSs.
302 MoDKiiN cHirr.cn histoiiy. pkk. v. a. d. imt-ims.
Imi-fr, fiiid MS ft current scholar (I) at Eisonacli, wlicrc lie was supported for a
while hy the cliiiritv of a matron interested in his earnest style of singing njid
praying. With the view of preparing himself for the legal profession he
became a student (1501) in the University of Erfurt, where his principal
studies were the Dialectics of the Nominalists and the Latin Classics, He
there also became Master of Arts and commenced reading the Physics and
the Ethics of Aristotle. But, full of anxiety for tlic salvation of his soul,
alarmed by the sudden death of a friend, and haunted by terrors respecting
his own death, on the night of the 17th of July, 1505, he fled to the Augus-
tinian convent, where, in spite of many remonstrances he became a monk,
and in 1507 a ])riest. But all the austerities of a conscientious monastic life,
all the humiliations of a mendicant friar, together AVith the most intense study
of the scholastic writers, especially Thomas, Occam, and d'Ailly, only
increased the dejection of a mind which had nothing to do but to consume its
energies in a course uncongenial to its nature. The Vicar General of his order
in Germany, John of Staupitz^ who had entered into Augustine's doctrine of
faith and of election, with all the ardor of a sincere love to God and man,
now gained his confidence, foresaw his future greatness, and strove to cheer
his spirit, (c) Gradually Luther found consolation by discovering in the
Scriptures, and in the writings of Augustine and Tanler, a doctrine which had
been overlooked by Scholasticism and Monasticism, but which taught him that
man is to be saved, not by his own works, but by faith in the mercy of God
in Christ. It was not, however, until he had been transferred by Staupitz to
Wittenburg (1508) that he began to find rest in a more abundant and unre-
strained activity. He soon discontinued his lectures upon Dialectics and
Physics, turned his attention to Theology, acquired a knowledge of the origi-
nal languages of the Scriptures, took delight in religious disputations, and
finally ventured, though with great reluctance, to preach. In 1510 he took a
journey to Eome as a pilgrim, {d) and on some business of his order. During
his brief residence there the glories of Koman antiquity and art had no
attractions for him, but with all the zeal of a devoted Catholic he visited
every churcli and grotto there, and was ofieuded by nothing but the levity
of the inferior clergy with whom alone he then became acquainted. His call
to become a Doctor of the sacred Scriptures, and the oath he was then
required to take (Oct. 18, 1512), raised his thoughts to higher objects than
any suggested by his monastic vow. {e) His conscience now compelled him
freely to investigate and make known the truths of Christianity. But though
lie preached Christ instead of the fables of the saints, and the grace of God
instead of any merit acquired by human prescriptions, he was even then full
of wrath at the obstinacy of heretics. (/) His literary eflorts were directed
\Ji) Current scholars are such as get their living by alms as they wander tlirongh the town and sing
and pray at the doors of the principal citizens.]
f) Von d. Nachfolgung des will. Sterbens Chr. 1515. Lib. de exsecut, net. praedestinationis. 1517.
Von d. holds. Liebe Gottes. Lps. 151S.— (7. II. Götze, de Stäup. Lub. 1715. 4, C. L. ^Y. Grimm, de
Stftup. ojusque in sacroruni instauraL nieritis. (Zeitsch. f. hisL Th. 1S37. vol. VIL II. 2.) -1. £>. Geuder,
Viu StJinp. Gott 1<37. 4. Vllmann, Eeff. vor. d. Ret vol. IL p. 256ss.
<i) Jürgens, vol. II. p iOOss.
<?) Liber Dec.inor. Fac th. ViL ed. Foeratemann, Lps. 1S3S. p. 116. Wakh, vol. XVI. p. 21^1.
J) Jürpeii6. vol. HL p. 2ui\«.
CHAP. I. REFORMATION^. § 309. TETZEL. 95 THESES. 363
not merely against the Pelagian external holines«, but the logical forms which
ScholasticLsra then sanctioned, and these occupied his attention quite as much
as his expositions of the Scriptures, especially of the Psahns and of the Epis-
tle to the Romans. But the University had already abandoned Aristotle and
Bubmitted to the authority of Augustine. (^)
§ 309, The Ninety-Five Theses.
Albert of Mcntz authorized the sale of indulgences in Germany for the
erection of St. Peter's church, on condition that one half of the profits should
bo his. "When the Dominican Tetzcl carried on this trade with the utmost
effrontery in the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, Luther found at his
confessional that much injury was done by it to the practice of true Chris-
tian repentance. lie therefore preached against it, and -wrote to the neigh-
boring bishops (f/) against it, but when he saw that ho was despised, (5) on the
eve of All-Saints' Day, 1517, ho affixed to the gate of the Cixstle-Church of
"Wittenberg (c) ninety-five propositions, which he proclaimed himself ready
to defend against any man who might assail them. They asserted : That
God alone could bestow true absolution, and the pope, like any other bishop
and pastor, can only dispense this divine absolution to penitents and believ-
ers ; that absolution might indeed bo beneficial, but could not bo indispensa-
ble to the recipient, nor should it be esteemed higher than works of piety
and mercy ; that it referred only to ecclesiastical punishments, and that it
was then so much abused by those who traded in indulgences, and w;\s so
misunderstood by the jieople, that if the pope knew what was going on, ho
would prefer to see the Church of St. Peter reduced to ashes than to have it
built by such means. — Even if Luther really thought that in all this he was
maintaining nothing prejudicial to the interests of the Church and of tho
papacy, he certainly must have been aware that he had thrown out a chal-
lenge to the most powerful prelates and monks.
§ 310. Interference of the Fope.
Tctzcl now raised against Luther tho helpless outcry of an inquisitor, («)
and the learned Sylvester Frierias^ a liigh officer in the papal palace, de-
fended tho cause of his brother Dominican with a stately inditlerence. (J)
Both of them, however, founded all their oi'guments upon tho infallible au-
thority and absolute power of tho popo. In liis reply, and especially in
opposition to the quotations from St. Thomiv«, Luther avowed that he, like
St. Augustine, recognized no authority a.s infallible but that of the sacred Scrip-
tures, (c) The Dominicans made every eöort to arouse the people against him.
g) De WeHe vol I. p. 5T.
n) J. J. Vogd, Lel)oii il. pilpstl. Gnndcn-rred T. Lps. (1717.) 1727. J. E. Ä'ipp, Schnnpl. d. T.
AblasskniiiifS. Lps. M-iO. mid Siiiiiml. lili-rliergehiir. Schrr. Lps. 1721. F. G. Uofmann, Lebeosb. T.
I^p9. 1S44. h) Jiiryiug vol. III. p. 46;?S9.
<■) Disputa Dr. M. Lutlierl pro doclarat. vlrtutls Indulgcntlar. Trlnted In Ldtcher vol. I. p. 48Ssa
Wiiich vol. XVIIL p. 2548». Comp. Walch vol. XVIL p. 1703.
a) Löscher vol. I. p. 45^1. Wiinplna In favor of TetztO.
I) Dial, in presuiiiptuosfL's Lutli. concliisioncs de potestate Papae. (Löschtr vol. II. p. llae.)
c) Resp. ad Trier. {Löschet- vol. II. p. 3S9ss.)
3G4 MODERN CIIUKCII HI9T0UY. rKK. V. A. V. 1M7-164S.
But in spile of nil tlioir endeavors, his well-tempered discourses and writingf
convinced tlio i)0()i)lo tlmt what ho had taught thorn respecting repentance
and tlio abuses of indulgences was true. (<T) His theses flew willi astonishing
celerity into every part of Germany, and were commended by many honest
and learned persons, but the Bilenco or the displeasure of the prelates lay
heavily upon him, and ho became alarmed at the consequences of what ho
feared might be his own rashness. But in tho midst of all his internal and
external conflicts, tho conviction became more and more settled in his mind
that ho was contending not for his own cause, but for that of Christ, and
tliat while he was at peace with his beloved Redeemer, he had nothing to hope
for or to fear from the world, (c) lie himself had sent a copy and a defence of
his theses to pope Leo X., (/) accompanied with a letter in which he expresses a
firm consciousness of possessing the truth, but unconditionally submits his per-
son to his superiors, (c/) lie was summoned (Aug. 7, 1518) to appear at Rome,
but the Elector of Saxony obtained a concession that he should be examined
in a paternal manner at Augsburg by Thomas de Vio, of Gaeta, the cardinal
legate. Luther appeared (Oct. 1518), under the safe conduct of the emperor
and the city of Augsburg. Cajetanvs, a learned scholastic of severe man-
ners, expected to refute Luther's propositions respecting indulgences by sen-
tences from St. Thomas and the Decretals, but frightened at this Ger-
man beast with piercing eyes and strange speculations in its head, he soon
bade him go away and never return until sent for. Luther privately de-
parted on the 20th Oct., having entered an appeal to the pope when better
informed. As, however, he soon after became more and more satisfied that
be could expect no justice from a court of Rome, and when a Bull had been
issued which solemnly confirmed the controverted doctrine of indulgences,
he changed this appeal and directed it to a General Council. (A)
§ 311. Amicable Negotiations.
In the letter which Cajetan sent to the elector, he demanded that Luther
should be sent to Rome, or at least into banishment. Luther justified his con-
duct before his sovereign (at Augsburg) by pleading that it was his duty to yield
only to the truth, entreated that his master would not act towards him the part
of a Pilate, and declared that he was ready to wander forth into exile. (</) But
Frederic the Wise was personally a friend of the people, and as a prince, was
distinguished for his caution and his piety toward the Church, {li) Though
he had once gone on a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, and expended much
money in the purchase of sacred reliques, he now prohibited the preaching of
indulgences within his dominions. He became conscious of an increasing
attachment to the evangelical principles maintained in the writings of Lti-
d) Sermon v. Ablass. u. Gnade. Nor. 1517. (Löscher vol. I. p. 465ss.)
e) Wiilch vol. XIV. p. 4T0. De Wette vol. I. p. US.
/) Eesolutlones disput de virt indulgg. {Löscher vol. IL p. ISSss.)
17) l>e ]\'ette vol. I. p. 119.
/() Augsb. Acta In Löscher vol. II. p. 4.35«. Kalch vol XT. p. 544ss. De yTette ToL I. p>
U2s8.— JSörn^r, de coIUkiuio L. c. Caj. Lps. 1722. 4.
a) De VTett^ vol. I. p. I74ss.
h) G. SpaUitin, Leben u. Zeitgescb. Fr. d. W. (from biä MSS.) Jena. 1861
CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. § 311. FREDERIC THE WI?E. MILTITZ. 36^
ther, altlioagh he was always undecided and distrustful of bis own judgment in
spiritual matters. lie was at least averse to all violent measures, and was fearful
of the injury which his university at Wittenberg might sustain should he sacri-
fice its most distinguished instructor. ('•) lie therefore replied, that Luther's de-
mand to he arraigned before an impartial tribunal in Germany appeared to be
nothing more than was reasonable. The pope was under obligations to the elec-
tor, and was anxious by some favors to secure his influence to prevent the Ger-
man crown from being bestowed upon his grand.son, Charles of Spain, by
wliich the supreme power in Italy and Germany would once more be com-
mitted to the same hand. A Saxon nobleman, Charks of JJildlz, and a
chamberlain in the papal court, was sent to Saxony for tlie i)ur[)ose of eflfect-
ing a reconciliation. During his journey through the cities of the empire,
this legate found that public opinion was already so decided in behalf of
Luther, that he acknowledged his utter inability to take Luther to Korae at
that time, even if an army were present for his assistance. In a respectful
manner he summoned Luther in Jan., 1510, to ai)pear at AUenhurg. He
conceded that the abuse of indulgences was wrong, and avowed that he had
already expressed his displeasure at Tetzel, but he entreated at the same time
that tlie Church might not for such a reason be distracted by a schism.
Lutlier promised that he would maintain silence respecting indulgences as far
as his opponents would do the same ; that he would receive instruction re-
specting any errors into which he niiglit have fallen from any German bishop
Avhom the pope might appoint for that purpose ; that he would puLlisli let-
ters in which he would admonish all persons to be obedient and respectful to
the Roman Cliurcli ; and finally, that he would write to the pope, and assure
the Holy Father, that although he had been unduly severe in some of his
writings, he had never thought of infringing upon the privileges of the Ro-
man Church. ('/) Accordingly he indited the promised letter, in which his
language was full of expressions of humility, and the Roman Church was
exalted above every thing but Christ himself. («■)
§ 312. The Disputation at Leipxic. June 27-Juhj 16, 1519.
Acta colloq. Lps. In Löscher vol. III. p. SOSss. IValch voL XV. p. 9,'lM. I.uth. Account In De
Wette vol. I. p. 2S4. 290ss. SO'ss. MeUmcth. Account in Corp. lief. vol. 1. p. STss.— ./. G. Stickel, do
vi, quam colloq. Lips. Imbuerit ad promov. reform. Jen. 1S27. C, G. Hering, do illsp. Ltpsiao a. 15ia.
hnblto. Lps. lSd9. J. K. Seidemann, d. Lpz. Disp. Dresd. lS4a
Luther had already agreed in Augsburg witli his learned friend. Dr.
(Mayr von) Eck of Ingolstadt, that the controversy of the latter with Carl-
stadt (Andr. IJodcnstein) should lie decided by a disputation. 15ut in the
polemical writings sent forth by Eck, Luther perceived tiiat ho was himself
the object of tliis treacherous attack, and he therefore deemed it indispensa-
ble that ho also should take part in the debate. («) The apprehensions of
c) Comp. Ids Letters to Biiko John, l>')20-23. In Forntemnnn'» new Urknndenb. vol. I. p. Iss.
d) IMcher vol. I. p. M2k'«. vol. III. p. C««. 820^8. 1>« Wetta vol. I. p. 207iis. — ^itlemann, IC v.
Milt, Chronolog. Unters. Drosd. 1S41. //. E. Aj>el, quae C. Mllt. c, Lutli. Altenb. cgerlL Alt
1S52S. 2 P. 4.
e) De Wette vol. I. p. 23.3»
a) Kccii ObellscL Lntlieri Asteriici. {Löscher vol. II. p. 833s?.)
3GG MODKKN CllUnCII IIISTOIiV. I'KR. V. A. 1). 151T-1(H9.
tlioso who shrunk from tlio new agitation were allayed by their confidence in
the brilliant talents of Eck, {h) and the disputation Avas held before a highly
respectable asscmldy in the Pleissenburg at Lcipnic. At its comincncenicnt
and at its close, Otrhtadl maintained that the natur.il man is totally unable
to perform any thing good, and that even in a state of grace no action could
be meritorious. ('■) lie had Augustine, and Eck had the ancient fathers and all
the scholastic writers in his favor, but both of them appealed to the Scrij)-
turea. In his theses. Eck had ventured upon the assertion, that even before
the time of Sylvester the Roman Church lield rank above all other churche?,
and that whoever was in possession of the chair and the faith of St. Peter,
was always recognized as Peter's successor and the universal vicar of Christ.
This declaration was assailed by Liithei\ and the controversy was soon
pressed to the assertion that the pope was not by divine right the universal
bishop of the Church. Luther adduced arguments for this jfosition from the
Scriptures and from history, but Eck threw upon him the reproach of hold-
ing to a Hussite heresy, and urged him to express a doubt of the infallibility
of councils. The glory of a victory was not indeed obtained by Luther in
this contest, but the controversy had now become universal, and Luther,
finally freed from all feelings of sacred awe with respect to the Ilomau
Church, now saw Avith astonishment that the truth had been uttered long
before his time, and that all the spirits of opposition had become collected
within his bosom.
§ 313. Melancthon. General Affairs.
I. Opp. Bas. 1541fs. 5 vols. rec. Peucer, Vit. 15G2ss. 4 vols. f. Selection by Köthe, Lpz. ISiSs. 6
vol.«. Couiplete ed. begun in the Corpus Eeforniator. eil. Bretschneider, post Bret-seli. Binclseil,
Hui. et Brunsu. 1S3-1-53. 19 vols. 4. Camerarius, de Ph. M. ortu, totius vitae eurric. et morto nar-
r.ilio. Lps. 1566. ed. Strohel, Hal. ITTT. Augusti, Viat 181T.
II. Old Lit in Strobel's ed. of Camerar. s. 569ss. A. U. Niemeyer, M. als Praeceptor Germa-
niae. Hal. 181T. M. Faciiis, M. Leben u. Characteristik. Lps. 1S32. L. F. Ifetjd, M. u. Tübingen.
Tub. 1889. F Galle, Ch.iracteiistik M. als Theologen u. Entwickl. s. Lehrbcgr. Hal. 1840. K. F.
JfaWies, M. s. Leben u. Wirken. Alteiib. 1S41. [F. A. Cove, Life of P. Mel. from a Lond. ed.
Boat. 1835. 12.]
A young man accompanied Luther to Leipsic, Who brought to the aid of
the Reformation vast treasures of learning, and the scientific reputation of
the second humanist of his age. This was Philip Melancthon, the son of
George Schwartzerd, a skilful armorer, at Bretten, in the Palatinate of the
Rhine, where he was born Feb. 16, 1497. His great-uncle Reuchlin was
much delighted with the early development of his precocious mind. Hav-
ing finished his preparatory studies at Pforzheim and Heidelburg, after 1512,
he passed through the whole course of the sciences taught at Tubingen, pub-
lished his Greek Grammar in 1513, and after 151-i gave lectures as a Master
of Arts upon the classics and the original philosophy of Aristotle. He was
no sooner called to Wittenberg than he declared that the course of instruc-
tion for youth must be improved (Aug. 29, 1518), and gave to it a humanistic
Greek tendency. He soon became intimate with Luther, not only on account
I) Eccii Epp. Ep. de r.it studior suor. Ingol. 1543. 4. {Strohel, Misc. H. IIL p. 95ss.) Uottr-
viuml, emeu. Andenken, vol. L p. 251ss.
c) -I. G. DUikhof, de Carolst Luth. de servo arbit doctrinae defensore. Gott, 1S50.
CHAP. I. REFOKMATION. § 313. MELANCTHON. § 814. Ill TTEN. 367
of tho high esteem which both felt for each other, but because botii were
with equal zeal laboring to exi)lain and establish the authority of the Scrip-
tures, against which nothing was looked upon as of any avail. He was gen-
tle only when compared with Luther, fur he was really impetuous and easily
excited. lie was timid and sumetimes yielding from his anxiety lest in the
excitement of controversy Christianity itself should be lost sight of, («) and
because he could make proper allowance for the position of an opponent,
while Luther dashed onward to his conquests without looking to the right or
to the left. He had more learning and eloquence, but less strcngtli of char-
acter, less depth of feeling, and less creative enthusiasm than Luther. Tho
position which he assumed, and which nature seemed to have designed for
him with respect to Luther, was that of a trusty counsellor and assistant.
There were seasons when he felt lonely in Saxony, (/<) and was wounded by
Luther, but tlicre was something in the latter which he reverenced as almost
divine, and which he never ventured to restrain, (r) iUthough he was con-
fessedly the first among the theologians of his party, ho often betook himself
fondly to his classics, and Luther found it necessary to hold him firmly to his
theological Lectures. (iT) The division of the Church produced a pang of the
most intense grief in his guileless spirit, (e)
§ 31-i. Appeal to the Christian Xohility of the German Xation.
The German knighthood formed a kind of third estate, wliich took rank
after the princes and the bishops, and Avas determined to maintain freedom
for themselves, if not for the common people. At the head of tliis order in
respect to power at that time, stood Francis of Sickimjcn (d. 1523), a n^an
violent in assault, but a shield to all who were oppressed, {a) In respect to
intellectual intiuence, however, no one was superior to Ulrich of Iluttcn (d.
1523), the knight that never rested, that never hesitated to oppose every
form of injustice, and lojig before Luther's appearance had boldly attacked
popes and monks with his utmost satirical power. Ihis bold kiiigiit now
gave his hand for the assistance of Luther in the great contest with the king-
dom of Antichrist, believing that in doing so ho was struggling for the lib-
erty of Germany, {b) It was to tho German nobles, many of whom ollercd
either an asylum or their swords to the reformer, as the genuine representa-
tives of his people, that Luther addressed his pamphlet on the improvement of
Cliristian morality. ('•) In the introduction he jiointed out how the Konuinists
liad intrenched themselves against tho Reformation within tlircc walls : Threat-
en them with the secular power, they cry out, "The spiritual power is supe-
rior!" riy tlicin with arguments from the Scriptures, they exclaim, "Tiio
a) Corp. R'f. vol. I. p. S93. 918. V) Ih. vol. I. p. 859.
c) Ih. vol. I. p. 211. 0) lb. p. 0069. 67T. De WetU vol. II. p. 60S.
<?) Corp. Uff. vol. I. p. 1110.
«) Hub. Leotiil L. do reb. gestis ct calumUoso obitu Fr. do SlcV. (Frther \\A. 111. p. 29j). E.
Jlüiich, Fr. V. S. .Stutts. lS27.<s. 3 vols.
b) Werke cd. by Manch, Hrl. 1521S5. 5 vol». SelecUon and Trans. I.ps. ISiJs. .3 vols.— ^ Scfiu-
hart, V. V. 11. Lps. 1791. J/i;//;iiAv, Jiigfiidlolicn II. Grelfcw. ISIO. W.iffenifil, U. v. H. NarnU
1828. K V. Brunnoic, V. v. II. 1S42.-'. 2 vols. Comp. lIlsL pol. Bl. 1839. vol IV. II. 5s. 88.
c) Aug. 1.V20. In M'ahK v.d. X. p. 20Ü8a.
368 MOUEP.N CIIUKCII IIISTOKY. TKi:. V. A. 1). 1517-1CI3.
pope alono can c'Xi>l!iiri tho word of God ! " Appeal to a general council, and
tlicy reply, " None but the pope can summon or preside over it I " He then
proceeded to break tlirongli these -walls with tho assertion that every real
Christian belon;,'cd to tlio spiritnal order, and appealed to tho great body of
Christians as the real sovereigns in each congregation, to whom he presented
tho articles of the reformation, for which they should contend as for a na-
tional interest. These wore : The reduction of the luxuriant extravagance
of the papal court, security against the gradual exhaustion of the German
people by Roman avarice, the independent appointment of Germans to eccle-
siastical otlices in Germany, the final decision of all trials before German
courts, the abolition of tho servile oaths which bishojis Avere required to
receive, the surrender of all secular power then held by tho pope, so far as
it was founded upon pretended donations and usurpations, the hmitation of
the orders of mendicant friars, the restoration of the convents to their origi-
nal design as simple Christian schools, the abolition of compulsory cehbacy,
reconciliation with the Bohemians on reasonable conditions, the abrogation
of the canonical law, the discontinuance of the idolatrous homage generally
paid to Aristotle, and of the worship of the saints, and finally the improve-
ment of the course of academic studies and of popular education. "NVith the
grief of a Christian and the indignation of a German heart, the pope was
here called to account for teaching by his indulgences a noble and sincere
nation to practise deception and perjury, and the Germans are exhorted to
hunt out aU papal messengers with their merchandise, and expel them from
the country. Indeed, this pamphlet was a pubhc disruption from Eome, and
a general summons to the nation to do the same. "With terrible eloquence
the national feeling was aroused by a relentless exposure of all those indigni-
ties which had been endured for centuries with a German good nature, but
which had only provoked derision at Rome. The revolutionary character of
the reformation was decided by this little work. Luther, however, in the
most absolute manner declined all offers of the sword which were made tc
him by the knights. As the world had been created and the Church had
been originally established by the word of God, he had no doubt that a
restoration of the Church could be effected by the same means. (J)
§ 315. The Babylonian Captivity and Christian Freedom.
Luther's army was his ever fresh and always interesting writings, and
these he sent forth with a rapid development of mental power. The book
which he called the Babylonian Captivity of the Church ((() commences with an
expression of thanks to his opponents for assisting him so much in his attain-
ment of truth, and an announcement that he must now reject what he had
in the beginning of the controversy conceded. In the course of the debate
it had become evident to him that indulgences were nothing but a roguish
trick of Roman sycophants, that the papacy itself was not even a human, but
a devilish institution, that the cup in the sacrament belonged to the people,
d) Seckend. I. § 83. p. 193.
a) Oct. 6, 1520. 0pp. Jen. Tom. II. p. 25?ss. TT'ci/cA vol. XIX. p. Iss
CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. $ 315. LUTHER ON CHi:. FKKEDOM. 369
that the mas.s was not a sacrifice nor a good work, and that tlie newly-dis-
covered doctrino of transubstantiation, or any view which as.serted a real
connection between the con.sccrated bread and the divine body, was not ne-
cessary to faith. The only sacraments allowed to bo of divine institution
were baptism, penance, and the Lord's Supper. In opposition to a reliance
uj)on the outward Church and its forra.s, ho introduced the doctrine of the
saving power of fliith alone. Christian liberty, therefore, ought not to be
fettered by any statutes and arbitrary vows like those which required fast-
ings, donations, pilgrimages, and nionasticism. This declaration he said might
bo considered as a part of the recantation whicli had been demanded of him.
And yet, at an interview with Miltitz at Lichtenburg (Oct. 12, 1520), Luther
once more allowed himself to imagine that a reconciliation was possible, {h) and
that he might lay a foundation for it, he wrote a treatise on Christian Free-
dom, in the s])irit of the old mystics, exalted above the pending controversy,
but with the whole reformation in his heart. ('') A Christian inan was repre-
sented as a free lord of all things by a faith which commits his soul to Christ,
and as a king and priest, subject to no law and dependent upon nothing ex-
ternal. And yet this Christian man was a servant of all things, since from a
regard to the divine will he endeavored to be useful to all around him.
From kindness of heart, and not as a matter necessary to jtiety or salvation,
he might even comply with the innumerable mandates of the pope, just as
Mary conformed to the custom of purification, as Paul circumci.sed Timothy,
and as Christ j)aid tribute. Such was the discourse wliicli Lutlier sent to Leo
X., accompanied with a letter {d) full of expressions of personal regard, but
with sentiments of a lofty self-respect. lie at the same time exhorted Leo,
as St. Bernard once did his Eugenius, to remember that he was as a lamb in
the midst of wolves, or as Daniel sitting among the lions, and to avoid the
catastrophe which could not much longer bo delayed, by a reformat i<m of his
infected court and of the general Church. Tlio noble Medici was delighted
with the fine talents displayed by brotlier Martin, but was disposed to regard
the whole controversy as a mere quarrel among tho monks, (t)
§ 316. The Fire Signal.
The ojjinion, however, prevailed at Rome, that this perilous controversy
could bo annihilated by a sudden blow, (u) A bull was issued on June IC,
1520, in which forty-one propositions taken from Luther's writings were con-
demned, his works were ordered to be burned wherever thoy were found,
and ho himself was excommunicated unless he recanted within sixty days,
after which every Christian magistrate was required to imprison him and
h) De WetU vol. I. p. 49«. J. G. Droyten, I'.ef. Oe^ch. (Zolt'<ch. f. tliQr. Oo.icli. 1«.3. If. 2.)
c) Do llbcTtRtc clir. Vit. 1520. 4. (Opp. Jen. Tli. I. p. 640.) Von Freiliilt clnos Cliristi'niiicn!«cbcn.
Witt 1520. 4. ( WuUK vol. XIX. p. ]2iiC.)
d) After Oct. 13. dateil back to Sept, 6, 1520. Ep. I.utlierlang ad I.co X. Witt. 1520. 4. published
•t the same time in Geniian. />« WetU vol. I. p. 497^!*.
e) After IJandrlll (ierdeg, H. Kv. ren. vol. I. p. 205.
a) Lilerso cvjtmd<nn (I'irckhelnicr) e liorna. (liUJerer, Nachrr. z. K. Hi-I. u. BücherpescU
iltd. 1764. vol. I. p. 17983.) Sarpi, II. Cone Trid. vol. I. p. 15s. Pallavic. II. Cone. Trld. I, 20.
24
370 M(>i»r.i:N CHUUCII iiisTonv. ri:ii. v. a. d. iöi7-1648.
deliver him at Rome. 0') Tlii.s bull was brought to Germany by Eck as a
token of his victory. The heart of Ltitlier now becaine strong as he saw
tlmt tlio (lie was cast, and lie no longer doubted tliat the pope was antichrist.
His works were burned in Mentz, Cologne, and Louvain, but in many cities
those who endeavored to execute the bull met with severe abuse, and in the
electorate of Saxony, in accordance with the precedent given by the Univer-
sity, it was rejected, (c) Luther published a pamphlet in opposition to this
bull of Antichrist, renewed his appeal from the pope as from an obdurate
heretic to au independent Christian council, (cl) and on the 10th Dec, 1520,
at the head of a procession of students, he went out of the city by the
Elster-giite, and threw the bull, together with the book of the canon law,
into the flames. At the same time he offered up thanks for the burning of
his own writings, and declared his present act the fire-signal of his irrevoca-
ble renunciation of the papacy. Other books of his opponents were also
committed to the sanae flames by other hands, (e)
§ 317. Foliiical Relations until 1521.
In the legal condition in which .the German empire then was, common
measures either for good or for evil were equally difficult. The chivalrous
emperor Maxiinilian, that he might effect a reformation, had at one time
seriously entertained the strange idea of becoming a pope himself, (a) It
was not therefore consistent for him to attempt any thing rashly against one
who Avas contending against Eoman abuses. After his death (Jan. 12th,
1519), nothing of a violent nature could be undertaken against Luther while
the elector of Saxony was the imperial regent in Lower Germany. Charles
I. and Frcaicis I. were candidates for the German crown. The influence of
the pope was secretly opposed to France, and as long as he had hope of suc-
cess he openly protested against Spain. Frederic the Wise declined accept-
ing the crown when it was offered to him, on the ground that the power of
his house was insufficient to maintain it. It was principally through his
influence that Charles was elected. The Emperor Charles V., on his way to
bis first Diet at "Worms, was saluted with splendid promises if he would in
the spirit of the German people place himself at the head of the movement
for the establishment of a national Church. Ilis mind, however, was now
occupied with preparations to contend with Francis I. for the sovereignty of
Italy. The natural policy of the pope with respect to this contest was openly
to attach himself to the party of him who might for the time be victorious,
and yet secretly to support the vanquished. The conduct of the emperor
with regard to Luther depended very much upon his interest and policy in
this struggle. Just as he was about to form an alliance with the pope, whose
assistance he needed in Spain, he was compelled to pay deference to the feel-
l) Kxsurgc Dotnlne: Bullarum ampl. Col. ed. Coqiiel, P. III. toI. III. p. 4S7ss. With Mutten»
Anin. in Walch vol. XV. p. 1691ss.
c) JlUdei-er, Gesch. der durch Public d. Bulie gesjen Luth. erregten unrnhen. Altd. n. Nürnb
776. 4.
(T) Witlch vol. XV. p. 1732SS. ^909ss. e) Ih. p. 1025ss
a) S<.ü. Ci/prian, dc Max. I. Pontificatuin M. ail'oct.'inte. (Dss varil. arg. Cob. 1755. 4.)
CHAP. I. KKFOIIM-VTION. § 8'S. DIET AT WORMS. 371
ings of Frederic the AVii^c, who continually demanded that Luther should
be tried before an impartial tribunal. Hence even a second bull of excom-
munication issued against Luther (Jan. 3d, 1521), the object of which was to
deprive him and his followers, reproachfully called Lutherans, of all the
privileges of men and Christians, produced no eflfect whatever, (b) Spalati-
nus, the learned and sinftero friend of the elector as well as of Luther, (c) at
the request of his master made every ellort to moderate the rapidity of Lu-
ther's course. The attempt, hoAvever, was without success, and the reformer
only a«ked that his sovereign would allow him to proceed at his own peril,
as he had no fear that the power of God would be impeded.
§ 318. The Diet at Worms, 1521.
I. Acta Luthcri in cotnitiis Wormat cd. Pollicariita, Tit 154G. (0pp. Jon. vol. II. p. 43Cs.)
Walch vol. XV. p. 2052SS. vol. XXII. p. 2026s. Förstemann, new Urkundenb. vol. I. p. 27ss.
SpdMiii. Ann. p. 3Sss. Sfnidan. I. III. p. Slsa.—Cochlaeus (Col. 156S.) p. 65ss. Parody: Paseio
Miirtini Lutli. sccund. Marcollum. (Genlesii Monuin. vol. II. N. 5.)
II. Boye, L. z. Worms. Ilal. (ISIT.) 1S24. Zimmer, L. z. W. Heidclb. \il\.—X<jnv:eiUr, Wlcdor-
crinn. an L. u. d. Kef. Mainz. 1S2I.
The legate Aleander demanded of the states of the empire at "Worms,
that in order to carry out effectually the papal excommunication, Luther
should be placed under the ban. of the empire. The demand, however, that
he should bo condemned without a hearing, was regarded as inconsistent
with German usage. The states made a distinction between the opinions
which he entertained respecting the constitution of the Church and tho.sc
which were opposed to the faith of their ancestors. With regard to the
former, they were disposed to deal very leniently with him even if he should
refuse to retract what he had published, but with regard to the latter they
were willing to take his case into consideration, {a) On receiving a citation
and a pledge of safe conduct from^ the emperor, Luther came to "Worms,
though he regarded his situation much like that of lluss at Constance. On
the 17th and 18th of April he stood before the emperor and the imperial
diet. At the close of a discreet defence, in which he showed why he could
not retract what he had written, either with respect to tlie word of God in
the Holy Scriptures, or against the ungodly conduct of the pope, or yot
against the wicked advocates of the pope, his last words were, '• Unless I am
refuted and convinced by proofs from the Holy Scrijitures, or by plain, lucid,
and evident argument, I yield my faith neither to the pope nor to the coun-
cils alone, for it is clear as the day that they have fre(]uently erred and con-
tradicted each other. Until so convinced, I can and will retract nothing, for
it is neither safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I stand, I
can do nothing else ; God help me ! Amen." In subsequent communica-
tions with a committee of the princes, when it was proposed that he should
hitrust his cause to the diet or to a council, ho remained constant to his
h) naynahl. ad a. 1521. N. 1?3. Wnleh vol. XV. p. 2030.
c) Siial. bist. Nachlass. n. IJriif.-, cd. besriin by Xeiid.uler and L. Prellfr, 1. vol. Jena. 1851.
(§ 811. n. b.) M'ligner, G. Spal. Altenb. 1S.'50. J'trlhtl. G. Sp. In emend, eacrr. nierlta, Jena. 1S4(1
(/) litinke vol. I. p. 37ös.
372 MODEBN CnUBCH HI8T0KT. PKE. V. A. D. 151T-1648.
avownl that lio could yield to nothing but the Holy Scriptures or to reason-
ahlo arfi:uinc'nt, and einoo the cause in which he Avas engaged was not hia
own, hut tlio cause of God, lie could not commit it to the hands even of his
dearest friends, (ft) The promise of the emperor to afford him a safe conduct
Avas sacredly fulfilled. On the 20th of May, when many of the states had
loft the diet, sentence was pronounced against Luttier and all his adherents,
and permission was given to any one to assault their persons and seize upon
their property, (f) But Luther's heroic confession had won the hearts of the
people more than ever to himself, and the very members of the diet who
condemned him in compliance with the requirements of law, presented to
the same assembly 101 articles of complaint against the Roman See. (cl)
§ 319. The Warthurg, and the Tumxilt at Wittenberg, 1521, 1522.
De Wette vol. I. I-IZI. —Attgustini Antonil Ds. de Patmo Luth. HaL ICDC. and often. C.
KHhUr, Lnth. a. d. "Wartburg. Eisen. 1793. 4.
On the 4tli of May, while Lnther was on his journey homewards, he was
seized by a company of horsemen, who, according to a previous understand-
ing with the elector, conveyed him to the fortress of the Warthurg. Here
he lived under the name of Yonker George, often sick, depressed in spirits,
and lamented in all parts of Germany as lost. The bold publications, how-
ever, which he sent forth from his retreat until after the middle of summer,
against the necessity of auricular confession, masses for the dead, monastic
vows, and the new idol of the archbishop of Mentz, gave unequivocal evi-
dence that Luther was still alive. The Elector Albert of Mentz humbled
himself under the severe reproof administered by the condemned monk, (a)
Meanwhile, the brethren of his order connected with a monastery in "Witten-
berg, shut up their convent and abolished the practice of private masses. A
few of the priests renounced celibacy and were married, (b) On Christmas
day the Lord's Supper was administered by Carhtadt in both kinds and in
the German Language. These proceedings were approved by Luther and
tolerated by the elector, who only required that no innovations should be
introduced until all had become united and satisfied with respect to them by
means of written and oral discussions and sermons, (c) But when Carlstadt
proceeded so far as to disturb public worship, demolish the images of the
saints, and commit other wild acts of violence, and when prophets came
from Ziciclau with menaces according to their caprice against Church, and
State, and Science, Luther could no longer be restrained by his friends. In
the beginning of March, 1522, he left the Wartburg, amused himself in the
course of his journey with his knightly incognito, (d) and in the sublime
b) Eler. Tehm, ü. b. Yerhandl. m. Luther, ed. by Seidemann. (ZeiUch. t hist Th. 1S51. H. 1.)
c) Goldast, Constt Imp. vol. IL p. 143ss. Walch vol. XY. p. 22Ws. Dated back to May S.
d) Walch vol. SV. p. 2058.
o) De Wette vol. II. p. 112ss. Walch vol. XIX. p. 656ss.
i) J. G. Walter, prima gloria Clerogamiae restitutae Luthero vindicata. Xeost ad. O. 1767. 4
Vteeenmeyer in Stud. u. Krit 1S31. II. I.
c) Corp. Ref. vol. I. p. 550.
d) Helv. Alman. 1S08. p. Il9sa. Bernet, Jo. Kessler, genannt Ahenarlus. S. GalL 1S26. p. 27sa
CHAP. L EEFOKMATION. § 8S0. MEL. LOCI. LUTH. BIBLE. 373
calmness of one who felt that he was acting by divine direction, (e) -n rote an
heroic letter to the elector from Borne. He then preached daily during a
•whole week in Wittenhcrg^ in behalf of the supreine power and liberty of
the spirit, in those immortal words of Christian mildness by which he won
the hearts of his hearers in favor of a peaceable development of a reforma-
tion founded upon voluntary conviction and the evident letter of the sacred
Scriptures. (/)
§ 820, System of Doctrines and the Scriptures.
The scientific representation of the religious principles of the Reformation
was furnished by Melancthon in his Theology^ (a) a work wliicli grow out of his
Lectures upon the Epistle to the Romans. It had its origin in that deep con-
Bciousness of human impotence on account of sin, which is exhibited in the
Augustinian doctrine of original sin. For this sin of the human race Christ has
made complete satisfaction to divine justice. Hence salvation is to be found in
faith alone, /. c. in the surrender of the whole spirit to Christ, and the ordi-
nances of the Church and all kinds of works are profitable only so far as they
proceed from faith. If tliis grand but simple system of faith was sufficient
to vindicate the reformation in the opinion of literary men, tjie opposition
of the Roman Church to the word of God in the Scriptures was its most suc-
cessful plea in the minds of the common people. In his solitude in the
Wartburg, Litther had translated the New Testament jjrincipally from the
original text into the German language. After revising it in company with
Melancthon, he published this work in 1522. A translation of each of the
books of the Old Testament afterwards appeared, in composing which ho
was assisted by the counsel of his friends. It displays a strong prejudice ia
favor of that which had before been regarded as the true rendering, but it is
no less distinguished for its extreme conscientiousness. They thus succeeded,
in 1534, in printing the whole Sacred Scriptures, a master-piece of the Ger-
man language and heart, and forming the basis on which Avere established
the Scriptural phraseology and spirit of the peojjle fur many generations, (h)
§ 321. The Diet at Xitrcmhcrg, 1522, 1523.
rrulch vol. XV. p. 2504SS. JiiiijtialJ. 8<1 aun. 1522.
The emperor was bnsy in Spain with his war against France, his brother,
the Archduke Ferdinand, was threatened by the Turks, and at the head of
the empire stood a regency chosen by the states. The execution of the edict
of Woi-ms was therefore left to the will of each state. Leo was succeeded
by Hadrian TY., an honest native of the Netherlands, who had been edu-
cated in the scholastic manner, and was as thoroughly convinced of the ne-
e) De TTt«/« vol. II. p. ISTss.
/) ^Y^a^•h vol. XX. p. «SS.
a) Loci coinimincs rcrum tliool. Wit, 1.'21. and often. Slrobel, Vre. e. Llfcraturgescli. von MeL
Loci. Altd. M. Kürnb. (1770.) 17S2.
h) Iji-stcdit with Luther's correction«, 154il— /-mW. Senilbr. t. Dollmctschen dor II. 9. (^r,ihh
vol. XXI. p. SlCs-o.) ,V,i</«i.«ii(Ä, l.'Jtli VrM.—P,in:fi\ Oc'cli. d. Bibel übers. L. Nilrnb. (17S3.) 1791.
MarheincK-e, d. rcl. Worth d. Blbelubers. L. Brl. 1S15. ff. Scfiotf, Gesoh. d. BibelQbers. L. Lpt
1S35. G. W. Ilopf, Würdig, d. Luth, Bibelverdeutscli. Nttrnb. ISlT.
371 MftDEUN CIIUIJC« niSTOHY. I'ICR. V. A. D. l.MT-iCl?.
coasity of a reformntion ns of tlio licretical nature of Luther's doftrinc!. (a)
llonco liis lepite C/iirrcjati, at tlie Diet of Niircmherrj, on tlie one hand de-
manded that the edict against Luther should be executed as though it were
against a second Mohammed, and suggested that the insurrection now
directed against the spiritual, would soon be turned against the civil rulers;
and on the other, acknowledged the necessity of a reformation, and promised
that it should bo etiected in a lawful manner in tlie head and members of the
Church. The estates fastened upon the eecond part of this communica-
tion, and hastened to bring forward a hundred articles of complaint against
the papal see. {J>) It was owing to these abuses tliey declared that Luther
possessed such power, and a general rebellion would therefore be the probable
consequence of any violent measures for his destruction. Tliey therefore urged
that a free Christian coimcil for the removal of these grievances should be
held within a year in some German city, and argued that until it might be
assembled nothing should bo taught but the pure gospel, with mildness and
according to the explanation generally received by the Church. Hadrian
had nothing to offer at this turn of affairs except lamentations, yet be was
really zealous for a reformation, and actually commenced it in his own court.
But a pope "who was obliged to regard the rights and wrongs on which his
own power was based, was necessarily more inefficient in this matter than a
professor who had nothing to think of but eternal truth and public opinion.
§ 322. Introduction of tlie Reformation.
The divine power which attended Luther received the co-operation of the
Humanists with all their worldly wisdom, and the Preformation was looked
upon as a struggle for the liberty of Germany. Its opponents were ridiculed
as blockheads or threatened as traitors. Even the imitative arts came to the
assistance of the struggling Church. (<i) The Wittenberg ITightingale also
now announced the opening of spring, (5) and all the liberal-minded youth
gave in their adherence to the new party, which, however, professed to be
merely returning to the God of ancient times. (<•) From the success of the
movement the princes expected the forfeited property of the Church, the
priests expected wives, and the people freedom. (</) It was, however, the
pure enthusiasm of Luther and the introduction of a new form of the Chris-
tian spirit, which drew these favorable influences into his triumphal march,
a) J. F. BudtJeus, do Pontiff. R. qui ref. frnstra tentarnnt Jen. 1718. 4. p. 29s5. C. Burmann,
Hadr. YI. Traj. ad Rli. 1T2T. 4. J. T. L. Banz, Analecta crit. do Adr. YI. Jen. ISlSs. 2 P. 4.
h) Dio 100 Beschwerden d. Deutsclien Nation, m. Aum. v. G. JA Welter, Frkf. IMD. comp.
Banke vol. II. p. 40ss.
a) Walch\o\. XIY. p. 210ss. vol. XY. p. 930ss. German Litany: Walch \o\. XY. p. 2175*5.
Caricatures: SleidA. XYI. p. 2C1. Ballavic. I, 25. Spieker, p. 657. Carnival plays: Be VTetta
vol. I. p. 5til. Mute comedy : Majus, Yita EcuchL Durl. 1GS7. p. 546s. Papal ass and Munich calf:
Wakh vol. XIX. p. 2403. J. Voigt, Pasquille, Spotüieder, n. Sehmälischr. a. d. 1. Hälfte <L
IG. Jalirli. {Baumer's hist. Taschenbuch. 1S3S. p. S20ss.) Bij^er, Mythol. d. chr. KunsL vol. L
p. 816s.
I) Bans Sac7is : Wittcnb. Nachtigall. 1523. Disputacion zw. c. Chorherm u. c. Schuhmacher
>524. 4. — jE J. Kimmel, de J. Sacbsio, quantum ad reuipubl. clirist. valuerit restaurandam. Gel
1S87.
c) Yom alten u. nüen Gott, Glauben u. Ler. 1521. 4.
d) J. Marx, Ursachen d. schnellen Yerbreit d. Ecf. Mainz 1SS4.
CHAP. L REFORMATION. § 822. SAXOXT. HESSE. 375
and whicli was alone al>le to shake tlie vet colossal power of Catholicism,
withont exhausting in the struggle the strength to form a new ecclesiastical
establishment. The introduction of the Eeformation in particular localities
generally took place in the following manner : 8ome individuals in the con-
gregation, by means of Luther's writings, were led to perceive the inconsis-
tency of the existing state of the Church with genuine Christianity; then
some preacher, probably an Augustinian, possibly a Franciscan monk of the
same view.s, would draw the multitude after him ; tlion the sacrifice of the
mass would be discontinued in spite of much opposition from the spiritual or
the secular authorities, and finally, divine worship in the language of the
people would be commenced, with a strange confusion, at first, of various
nsages. The people were seized with a horror of the papacy, and in almost
every place where the popular will prevailed, as in the imperial cities, the
Reformation was triumphant. Instead of guiding these great popidar move-
ments, the princes were rather borne along by them. Frederic the Wise died
(May 5, 1525) trusting to the grace of God through the righteousness of
Christ. Ilis brother and successor, John the Constant, a mild and sincere
ruler, was devoted with all his heart both to the cause and to the person of
Luther. Philip, the youtliful Landgrave of Hesse, after the Diet of Worm.«,
joined the party of the Reformation, became a personal friend of iielanc-
thon, and declared (152-3) that he would rather part Avith his lands and sub-
jects than to aljandou the word of God. As a leader of his party he was
':rafty but at the same time upright, fond of novelties, a pious Christian, and
a firm friend of the Bible, but either independent of the theologian.?, or with
a singular scrupulosity bringing them to his terms, full of confidence not only
in divine aid, but in the worldly means by which a spiritual revolution was
to be effected, intelligent, and in his best days powerful, (e) In rrussia,
where the German order was already despised, the gosjjcl entered under the
most favorable circumstances. Gcorije of I'ohntz, Bishop of Samland, hav-
ing conducted himself at an earlier period of life as became a pious priest of
noble blood, now placed himself at the head of the reforming party, and on
Christmas day, 1523, in the cathedral at Königsberg, proclaimed with great
joy that the Saviour had been once more born for his people. The Grand
Master, Albert of JJrandenhvrfj, gave to all princes and bi.>hops the example
of a successful secession from the Church and the empire, by receiving the
hereditary dukedom of Prussia as a fief from the Polish crown (_1525). (/) In
the South, the Dukes of Bavaria, in consequence of the spirit which prevailed
in their university at Ingolstadt, and the favor of the pope, enjoyed nearl}' all
the political advantages of the Reformation, and formed a wall of defence
for the old faith, (jr) In the North, GcorgCy Duke of Saxony ^ was personally
t) Ch. V. liommel, Plilllpp. d. Oros.«m. (Hessen. IS-IO. H vols. Nouo Bcltrr. t. GomIi. Phil. od. by
Puller, Daniisf. 1S42. H'. Münscfier, Ocwli. d. lies.«. Tvt. K. Co-v«. ISSO. /'. IP. /fiiniifuk-itmp, licss.
KGescli. ini Zilta. d. Rcf. Mnrb. 1S52. vol. I. Coinp. Tlicol. Hrlofwcclisel zw. Plill. v. II. ii. Ouorg v.
Sachsen. (Zoitsoli. f. liist Th. 1S4». II. 2.)
/) Concioncs sacrno O. Polcntts cd. A. 7?. Gelmer, Rcpiom. 1S43. 4. J. Voigt, Brlofw. d. bt»
rdhmt. Gelehrton m. Albrecht v. Pr. Kunlpsb. 1S4I.— ///«"«(f, do prlnds sarror. refonnatorlbiis ip
Prussia. Regioni. 2 P. 182.5 et 1S2T. A. Lamhgcl; Oo^ch. d. Hcf. In Westpr. Thorn. IS^.O.
ff) r. -1. Winter, Gesch. d. cv. Lebro in IL durch Balorn. MQnch. ISOOs. 3 vols.
376 MODEKN CIIUKCri IIISTOKV. TKl'.. V. A. I). 1517-1648.
anxious for n riforniation, but ono which shouhl bo foundofi uixm old catlio«
lie grmiiKls, iiii«! coiidiicted by the legitimate authorities, and not by a cloi.--
torcd monk. (/() The complete accomi)lisIiment of the Keformation some-
times occasioned much inconvenience to those who adhered to the ancient
Church, and such as resided in convents especially were driven forth upon
tiio wide world; but in general the Reformation neccs.sari]y triumphed by
tiie power of an unbiassed conviction. Tiie Catholic Church, on the other
liand, i)roteoted all its established po.sse.ssions not only by calunmies upon
Luther's doctrines, but by a rigorous censorship, by restraints upon literary
investigations, imprisonment, banishment, and other violent measures. Some
were even deprived of life. Luther praised the Lord that even this glory of
the apostolic Church was now restored to the world. (/)
§ 323, Commencement of the Division in Germany^ 1524-1526.
Clement VII. perceived the impending danger and made every exertion
to avert it. At the Diet of Nuremberg (1524) his legate, Campeggio, de-
clared that the list of grievances which had been presented was regarded at
Rome as the Avork of a few evil-minded persons, but the utmost that he could
obtain was the promise that the edict of Worms should be executed as far
as was practicable for each state of the empire. It was at the same time
decided that the empire itself would soon after at a diet appointed at Speyer
(Spire) undertake the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs, (a) The legate also
succeeded in forming at Ratishon an alliance between Ferdinand of Austria,
the Dukes of Bavaria and most of the bi-shops in the south of Germany, by
the terms of Avhich an apparent reformation was accepted of under hLs
sanction, and they 'agreed not only to abolish some of the grossest ecclesias-
tical abuses, but, by a decree of July 6th, 1524, to exclude the "Wittenberg
innovations from their respective countries, and sustain each other in every
danger which might result from such a course. (V) The emperor Avrote letters
threatening all who would not execute the edict of Worms, and forbade the
assembly at Speyer. At a diet held at Dessau (June 26, 1525), the opponents
of the Reformation among the princes of Northern Germany also consulted
about the attitude which they could most properly assume in opposition to
the Lutheran heresy, but the extent of the danger from this meeting was
much exaggerated, (c) In consequence of these proceedings the Landgrave
of Uesse and the Elector of Saxony met together at Gotha and pledged them-
selves to assist each other with all their power against every assault on ac-
count of the word of God. The original document was ratified at Torgau,
h) A. J/". Scftiiltze, Georg u. Luth. Lps. 1S34. Z. Fischer, H. Georg, Luth. u. d. verjagten Leip-
Blger. Lps. 1S39. SeUlemann, d. Ref. Zeit in Sachsen, 151T-39. Dresd. 1S46.
Witlch vol. XXI. p. Sflss. 94ss. 173ss. Jiulixs, llist d. Ueiligen, Auserwälilton Gottes Zeugen
zu diesen unsern letzten zeytten. Strassb. 1554. venu. 1571. 2 vols. f. Acta martyruni. qui hoc saec
in Gallia, Genn. Angl. Flandria et Italia constans dcJerunt nomen Ev. Gen. 1556. JTeckel, die M.:r-
tyrer d. ev. K. Kürnb. 1S2S.
a) PaUaric. II. 10. Walch, vol. XV. p. 2GÜ6ss. nanü-e, vol. IL p. Ills.
l) HWcA, vol. XV. p. 2699SS. Strobel, msc. St. II. p. 109ss. Golda^t. Conslitt. Imp. vol. IIL
p. 4J7s6.
c) De WttU, vol. III. p. 22. Seidemann d. Pess. Bündn. (Zeitsch. f. liisL Tli. 1>47. 11. 4."
CHAP. I. EEFORMATION. § 823. TOBGAÜ. § 324. HENRY VI IL 377
(March 4, 1526.) (d) Tins confederation was soon after strengthened by the
accefision of Lüneburg, Anlinlt, Mansfcldt, Prussia, and Magdeburg, but it
always remained ratlier vacillating and undetermined, for Luther was exceed-
ingly displeasetl that any one should set himself in opposition to the emperor,
or think of defending the almiglity word and providence of God by carnal
Aveapons and worldly policy, (e)
§ 324. 7'/ic Ki?iy and the Theologian.
Henry VIII. of England, wlio coveted the reputation of a tlicologian and
an ecclesiastical kniglit, eitlier wrote or cau.'jed to bo written in his name, a
defence of tlie seven sacraments, {<i) in the course of which lie even impeached
Luther's sincerity. So highly was tliis royal production extolled at Rome
that it was declared that no one could have composed it without the assist-
ance of the Holy Spirit, and it was placed in the same rank with the writings
of St. Augustine. But Luther, conscious that he was contending for a Mon-
arch in whose presence all earthly sovereigns must stand ct>nfounded, hurled
his words of wrath at the King of England, and hesitated not to call the
royal disputant a liar and a knave, {l) In the midst of such a storm the king
soon found that he was never intended for a theologian. Some years after-
wards, through the influence of the Danish king, Luther became elated with
the hope that Henry might be induced to decide in favor of the Reforma-
tion. He therefore became so regai-dless of his manly dignity while seeking
only the interest of his cause, that he wrote an humble apology to the king,
and offered to recall his offensive language. Henry made use of this letter
publicly to mortify Luther, who found it difhcult to regain the lofty tone
which ho had first used with respect to the scandalous lampoon of the King
of England, (c)
§ 325. The Pcamnt^' War. 1524, 1525.
I. Llteratare of the orig. Documents: ir. v. AuirneM, Anz. t Kunde d. dt. Mittelalt 1838. p. 801s.
Collections: Wal<:h, vol. XVI. p. öss. vol. XXI. p. UitK TenUel, vol. IL p. »JIss. Kiipp, Naelil.
vol. IV. p. SGls-s.
IL SartoriM, Gcwli. <1. dt BK. Brl. 1795. J. (Vt. t^fmivl, BK. (Hall. Encjkl. vol. YII.)
I'fchreibar, Bundschuh. Freib. 1SJ5. Oi-rhnle Boltr. z. Gosch. d. BK. in d. »chwi'ib. frfink. Orfinrl.
llellhr. 1S30. WadttmuUt, d. dt BK. Lpz. 18iM. W. Zimmermann, allg. Gisch. d. grossen BK.
Btntt«. 1841-8. 8 vols. C. lletjd, i. Gosch. u. lioiirtb. d. dt BK. (.Ml;;. Monnlr(h. f. Wis-, u. Lit ls62.
July ».)
Tlie conspiracy of the nobility against the spiritual and secuhir princes,
which had sought to strengthen and vindicate itself by the principles of the
Reformation, had finally been put down by the overthrow of Sickingen. (a)
But the long cherished discontent of the oppressed peasantry which had al-
ready broken forth on dill'ercnt occtusions, {b) took occa.sion from a inisundc-r-
d) nortUder, VIII, 2-6. " t) Kupp. vol. IL p. 671ss. Dt Wrtt«, vol. IIL p. AM». (»Cm.
a) Adsertlo VH. Sacrr. adv. I.nth. I^nd. 1.V21. Walch, vol. XIX. p lÄ*«.
h) Contra Hcnr. KL-irom Martlnus Luth. 1.V.'2. "Walch, vol. XIX. p. 29.'>.
c) De Jlt«c, vol. Ill p. 23-«. Walch, vol. XIX. p. 46Ss».
o) Ilomnifi. vol. III. Ablh. L p. 2>24». Ranhe, vol. II. p. Slsa. Hist pol. HI. 1S39. 7ol. IV
K. 9-12.
h) Witchsmut/i, Aut'st.iiulo u. Kriege J. U. lin MA. (Kauiiicrs lii>t Taschenb. 1534.)
37S Mi»i)r.i:N cinrucii hihtokv. ricit. v. a. d. vat-icah.
Bt.indinp of Rotno sermons oa Christian liberty find tlic jiowerfiil popiilai
niovenicnts connected witli tlio Reformation, to rise in open rebellion against
the secular and si)iritual nobility, that they might secure their rights as Chris-
tians and as men. Tins took place, too, at a time in -which an evangelical
preacher condemned not only all loans upon interest, and the possession of
wealth, but the owning of any permanent property as inconsistent with Chris-
tianity and the word of God. (c) Its first appearance was in Snabia (1524),
but soon extended to Franconia, and along the Rhine to Thüringen (1525).
These peasants in justification of their course appealed to their 12 Articles, ('/)
the Scriptures, and the writings of Dr. Luther. In the opinion which Me-
lanctlion expressed, the articles of the peasantry were condemned witliout
reserve, and the people were enjoined unconditionally to obey, and to submit
to their grievances without resistance, {e) But Luther had a heart which
pympathized with the sufferings of the people. In his exhortations to peace
he acknowledges that most of their articles were reasonable, and admonishes
the princes as well as the peasants to concede whatever was equitable. (/)
But when the latter maintained their cause with fire and slaughter, proceeded
to the bold design of completely remodelling the government of the empire,
received as their leaders enthusiastic persons like Thomas Munzer^ who in the
character of a prophet with the sword of Gideon, and in the terrific language
of the Old Testament proclaimed universal equality ; when they introduced a
community of goods and published abusive libels upon what they called the
unspiritual and luxurious carnality of the people of "Wittenberg, (r/) Luther's
wrath was inflamed, and fearing that the purity of his cause might be pol-
luted and confounded with the abominations of this rebellion, he enjoined, in
his pamphlet against the plundering and murderous peasants, Qi) that they
should be slaughtered like so many mad dogs. The advice was literally fol-
lowed by the princes of both the Catholic and the Protestant parties. But
even this did not j)revent the enemies of spiritual liberty from ascribing to
it those abuses which were committed in its name, and the people imagined
that they saw in Luther's exhortation to engage in this crusade against the
peasants more of the courtier than of the popular reformer. {() It was at
this time that an element which had sprung up in Luther's mind after his
return from the Wartburg became decided, and gave a character to the whole
future progress of the Reformation. In connection with the importance of
the inner life and of faith, was introduced the necessity of an external
Church, the bold process of demolition was modified by a regard for history,
and amid the ruins scattered around them, the reformers now commenced the
work of forming a new ecclesiastical estabUshment.
c) Stra'.iss, llauptst. n. Art chr. Lehr, wider d. nnchr. Wnchor gepredigt za Eisenach 152a 4
Strotjel, Miscell. vol. III. p. 8ss. d) Walch, vol. XVI. p. 24ss.
<) /ft. p. 32as. /)/6. p.53.
O) Förshmatm, neues Urkundenb. vol L p. 22Sss. Melancthon, Hist. Tli. MTinz. (liot'iö vol I
p. 203. WiiMi, vol. XVI. p. 199.)—Slrobel, Leben, Schrr. u. Lehren Tli. M. ^'arnb. 1790. Seid»-
vmnn, Th. M. Dresd. 1S42.
A) Wak-h, vol. XVI. p. Olse. i) lb. p. 99ss.
CHAP. L REFORMATION. § 326. ERASMUS. 379
§326. Erasmus and Lather. Coiit. from ^ 28S.
E. Lieherkühn, de Erasmi ingonio et doctr. quid valuorint ad instaur. sacroriim. Jen. 1536. (7/ii>
lu.% Er. u. Lu^ (Zeita-lir. f. Hist. Tb. 1S45. P. 2.)
Although Luther always discovered in the writings of Erasmus more of
tlic human than of the divine element, nu^re argument for error than revela-
tion of truth, and more love for peace than for the cross, with an humble
admiration of his talents he had still sought (1519) his friendship, (a) In
pleasant but serious terms Erasmus commended Luther's cause to Frederic the
"Wise, for he could not but see its justice even from the faults of its oppo-
nents, (h) lie also proposed terms of compromise in wliich the papacy was
treated simply as an equal party, (c) But in consistency with his character
he disapproved of carrying a controversy which miglit arouse any amount of
passion among the people so far as to threaten a division in the Church and
the empire, and he trembled for his literary world and for his learned leisure.
But for these very reasons, as Avell as from his regard for higlier intellectual
affinities, he maintained silence in spite of tlie solicitations of prelates and
kings. (^7) It was finally the friends of the Reformation themselves, who
sometimes boasted that he belonged to their party, and sometimes reproached
him for what they called his cowardly silence, that compelled him to speak, (e)
In writing, however, against Luther, he did not attempt to defend the super-
stitions of the mendicant friars, nor the absolute power of the pope, but to
adduce the proof which Luther had demanded from the Scriptures of the
freedom of the moral will. (/) The great champion of intellectual freedom,
in consistency with the logical requirements of Ids system, did not hesitate
in a passionate reply to contend for the innate bondage of the will, (g) for he
disposes of those Scriptural passages which imply the freedom of the will by
asserting that God secretly intends the reverse of what he expresses in his
revealed will, and that the apostles spoke of such a freedom only by way of
irony. Erasmus showed that such an assertion was arbitrary, and contrary
to all scientific rules. (Ä) But while Erasmus, dreading the reproach of senu-
pelagianism to which he was justly obnoxious, concealed and anxiously guarded
his own views, his opponent avowed and defended what he regarded as infal-
lible truth with bold confidence. Luther therefore appeared to the literary
men of his own party triumphant, and to the people the whole controversy
was completely unintelligible. After this dispute Luther committed Enxsmus
to the judgment of Christ as an epicurean, an atheist, and an enemy to all
religion. (/)
a) De Wette vol. I. p. SOss. p. 52. vol. 11. p. 49s.— Vol. I. p. Ulas.
I) Spalatln, Ann. p. 2'^s. Jf>ecken(J. Addltt 1. I. p. Ilia».
c) Krasmi Epp. (od. Cleric.) XIII, 80. Buriymj vol. I. p. 3SGiA
(?) Corp. He/, vol. I. p. 6SS. 092.
e) Erasmi Epp. XVIII, 23. Corp. lief. vol. I. p. (nX.— Vlrici ah JTutten E.xpostulatio cum Eras
nio. Ardent. 1522.— />« ^S'elte vol. II. p. 4'^'J. Unschuld. Nachr. 1725. p. 545.
/) Eraffin. do libcro nrbitrio Dlatr. 1524. Walch vol. XVIII. p. 1902.
g) Luth. de sitvo nrbitrio nd Era^m. 1525. AValch vol, XVIII. p. 2050.
/() llypcraspistes Di.itr. adv. scrvum arb. Luth. P. II. 1520«. (0pp. vol. X. p. 1249. 1335.) ComiL
Epp. XXI, 2S.
i) Do Wette vol. III. p. 427. vc.l. IV. \>. 497. W:ilch vol. XXII. p. 1012ss.
880 MODERN CllüßCU HISTOnV. PKR. V. A. P. Iöl7-lfrl9.
§ 327. Luther^» Domestic Life arid his Colleague».
Lnther remnincd longer tlmn any of his companions with tlie prior of the
ilcscrti'd inonftstcry, and did not lay nsido his monk's habit until Ä^me time in
Deo. 1524. His marriage with Catharine von Bora (.Jnne 13, 1535), a nun
hclonpinff to the disbanded Cistercian convent of Nimptsch, was neither tlie
result of an ardent passion, nor a part of his policy as a reformer, but it be-
longed rather to his private lite, and in view of the disturbed state of the
times was entered upon with some hesitation, but with little consultation. It
proceeded from a general inclination, encouraged by the wishes of the parents,
for the happiness of donjestic life, the joys and the sorrows of which he after-
wards experienced. («) Indeed about this time he was frequently oppressed
by sickness, and prepared for a sudden death by reports of consjiiracies
against his life, but as a general thing he sat very pleasantly in the circle of
his friends, enjoying with a keen relish not only the holier and higher pleasures
of religion, but the innocent amusements of music, song, and many a bold
jest, (h) His extreme kindness and honesty of heart fitted him to be the
comforter and assistant of all who were distressed. His moderate circum-
stances were precisely such as his disposition and position rendered suitable, (c)
Stavpitz^ who was in 1519 in the service of the Cardinal of Salzburg, and in
1522 Abbot of tlie Benedictines (d. 1524), about 1521 withdrew himself from
Luther, being alarmed at the storm raised around the reformer. Luther
looked upon Staupitz as cold and pusillanimous, but the man wlio first kin-
dled in his bosom a love for the gospel was never forgotten. QI) His colleagues
faithfully assisted him in his labors : Nicolas of Amsdorf (d. at Eisenach,
1565), who adhered to Luther's words with Luther's own vehemence ; (e)
Justus Jonas (d. at Eissfeld, 1555), who had been a jurist, and was therefore
appointed provost of the Castle Church at Wittenberg, an eloquent and
skilful man, (/) and the gentle Bugenhagen (d, at Wittenberg, 1558), who, ia
spite of his Pomeranian dialect and prolixity, was in the highest degree dig-
nified, adapted to govern a church, disinterested, and a comforter to Luther
in evil times, but entirely under his influence, {g) These were all frequently
engaged in various ways in ecclesiastical aftairs beyond the limits of Saxony,
and were scattered in the time of the German war. Carlstadt for a long
time persevered in advocating a destructive process as the only proper method
of reform, and was anxious to introduce into ecclesiastical and civil afltairs an
a) De Wette vol II. p. &46. vol. III. p. Iss. lOss. yet p. 21. Corp. Ref. vol. I. p- '54s. Walcb
vol. XXIV. p. 182ss. S'2()S9. Veesenmayer, ü. gleichzeit Schrr. gegen L. Verheir. (KHist Arch. 1SÜ5.
vol. III. P. 2.) F. Walch, Cadi. v. B. IlaL 1751ss. 2 voL«. W. Beste, Oescb. C. v. B. Hal. 1S4-3. F
O. Ifo/mann, K. v. B. 1S45.
I) Luth. Tischreden. (Memoirs of his friends,) collected by Aurifaber. Eisl. 1566. t & ffeqnently
In zweif. Redaction s. Walch vol. XXIL ed. by Forstetnann & Bindseil. Lps. lSi4-8. [Luther's Ta-
blc-Talk, LoniL 12mo. & with Life by BtirMiardt, Lond. Svo.] Michelet, Memoires de L. cents pai
.ui-mi-me. Par. 15:35. 4 vols.
c) Palliiric. IV, 14. 12. De Wttte vol. III. p. 495a vol. V. p. 767. Walch vol XXL p. 270. vol
XXIV. p. 579. 19SSS.— Coto de panpcrtate L. Lub. 1719. 4 Ukert vol. L p. 347ss.
rf) $ 30i nt. h. e) G. Bergner, do Nie. d. Amsd. Maijd. 171Sss. 2 Pgg. 4.
/) Knapp, Xarr. de Justo Jona. H.il 1S17.
g) Zittz, J. Bu;:enb. Lps. 1S29. Krafl, de J. Bug. In res eon. nierttis. Hmo. 1S31. 4.
CHAP. I. REFORMATION. § 82S. PROTESTATION. 38 1
:inconditional adherence to the obvious and literal construction of the Scrip-
tures. By such a course he necessarily came into collision with the Reforma-
tion, and approached very near the brink of spiritual apostasy, but at last he
found peace and moderation for his a;,'itated spirit in Switzerland (d. at Basle,
1541). (/() "SVith the jurists also Luther had some misunderstanding for a
while, on account of his burning of the canon law. But as he could not pre-
vent others from studying it, and finally commenced the study of it himself, (i)
we find that even at "Worms Dr. Schürf came forward as his faithful advo-
cate.
§ 328. Religious Liberty and the Protestation.
The emperor finally succeeded in destroying the French army near Pavia,
and in taking their king a prisoner. The latter at the peace of Madrid (Jan. 14,
1526) purchased his liberty, though on difficult terms, which he never intended
to fulfil. Clement VII. soon after absolved him from his oath, and became the
prime mover of a confederacy against the exorbitant power of the emperor.
This made the emperor willing to suspend the execution of the edict of
"Worms, but his brother in Germany was reluctant at such a time to embitter
the feelings of the members of the Catholic league by such a step, and ac-
cordingly the diet at Speyer (Aug., 152G) was unanimous in the decree, that
until the meeting of a general council, every state should act with respect to
the edict of Worms as it might venture to answer to God and his imperial
majesty. («) The vile notification by Otho von Pack, that the Catholic princes
had combined together for the overthrow of the Protestant powers (1528),
was the occasion not only of bringing out the warlike spirit of Hesse and of
Electoral Saxony, but of showing how t;ir the peace of Germany itself was
endangered by the controversies with respect to religion. Qi) The army of
the emperor, urged on by the zeal of the Lutheran foot soldiers, stormed and
plundered the city of Rome (May 6, 1527). After many vicissitudes in the
fortune of the war, the sovereignty of Italy was secured to Charles in the
spring of 1529, and the pope himself acquiesced in the arrangement. Charles
v., however, was obliged to pay some deference to the feelings of his Catho-
lic subjects in his hereditary dominions. A Catholic majority was therefore
obtained at the Diet of Speyer, which enacted that the edict of Worms
should continue to be enforced in those states which had hitherto acknowl-
edged its authority, but that no innovations should be required in the remain-
ing provinces, that none should be obstructed in celebrating the mass, and
that the privileges of every spiritual estate should be respected. Against
this Recess of the imperial diet, by wliich the Reformation would huve been
condemned by its own friends to a fatal stagnation, Electoral Saxony, Hesse.
Lüneburg, Anhalt, the ^Margrave of Brandenburg, and fourteen imperial
cities, presented a Protestation (April 19, 1529) and an appeal (April 25)
h) FicJ<Hli, Lebenegesc'h. A. Bodenst. v. Karlst Frkf. u. L. 1776. M. Göhel, A. B. v. Karlst (Stud,
n. Krit 1841. P. 1.)
i) De WMe vol. III. p. 4M.
o) Tlio orlj. df>cumeiit8 lu Jiucholtz, Ford. I. toU HI. \\ 371s». ^yalch vol. XVI. p. 248s«
Ranke vol. II. p. 27Sss.
h) Uortleder vol. I. Book If. n<inke vol. III. j). 29s3.
382 MODERN CIMKCir IIISTOUV. I'KR. V. A. I). 1517-1048.
to the eiiijicror, to a general or German couiKil, and to all impartial Ciiris-
tian ju<lgeH, not only on the ground of the prior and clear decision at Speyer,
but on tiic princi|)lo that in matters which relate to the honor of God and
the salvation of souls, the authority of a majority was not to he regarded.
This was done not only in behalf of themselves, but also of their people, and
of all wlio then or afterwards might Ijelicvc in the word of God. ('•)
§ 321». Si/)iod of Ilomlerr/, 152G. Saxon Church Visitation^ 1527-1520.
Tiie Reformation had been introduced in various forms according to the
circunistanccs of the different places where it prevailed. The jurisdiction of
the bishops had been in fact abolished, and yet no other government had
been substituted for it. A synod was therefore convened b}' the Landgrave
at Ilomherg^ composed of all who could be considered according to the old
or the new views the proper representatives of the Church in Hesse. Monks
and prelates were silent under the glowing eloquence of the exiled Minorite,
Lambert of Avignon (d. 1530), and a synodal constitution based upon demo-
cratic principles was adopted, according to which every congregation was
competent to the whole duty of ecclesiastical discipline, (a) The Elector of
Saxony, on the urgent solicitation of the pastors in his dominions that he
would take up the same subject for their churches, appointed ecclesiastical
and lay commissioners, who formed a directory for divine worship and popu-
lar instruction on the basis of Melancthon's Book of Visitation, Qi) the first
Confession of the evangelical faith. This had the effect of harmonizing the
practice of all the churches, evangelical preachers were appointed by these
commissioners in all places, and arrangements were made with those who
possessed the titles to spiritual endowments by which these were abolished.
Superintendents were appointed to exercise ecclesiastical supervision, and
decide cases relating to marriage, (c) The ignorance of the people and of
their teachers which Luther discovered during this visitation aflected him
very deeply, and reflecting that intellectual fi-eedom can be endured only by aa
intelligent people, and that children are the true sovereigns of the future, he
composed (1529) two Catechisms^ in which divine mysteries are presented in
simple popular language, and in a form suitable for children. {J) The eccle-
siastical Constitution which was the result of this Saxon visitation, became
the common model to which the other German churches in the country were
conformed.
c) J. J. Midler, Hist. v. d. ev. Stände Trot. u. App. Jonn. 1705. 4. J. A. IT. Tittmann, d. Prot,
d. ev. Stände ni. hist, Erläut. Lps. 1S29. A. Jung, Gesch. d. lleicbst zu Sp. 1529. (Beitrr. z. Gesch. d.
Eef. 1S30. vol. I. Abth. 1.) For the oiig. documents tlicre quoted: Corp. lief. vol. I. p. 1067s.
a) lief. Ecci. Ilassiae. (Schminke, >Ionn. Hass. Th. II. p. 6SS.) Lamh. Ep. ad Colon, ed. Druud,
aiess. 1730. 4.—Jf,irtin, Nachr. r. d. Syn. zu Homb. Cass. 1S04. Bommel vol. III. Abth. I. p. .32'.)ss.
ÄicA, Gesch. d. Kurbcss. KVerf. Marb. 1S32. J. W. Baum, Fr. Lamb. Strasb. 1S40. P/iilipj/s
Hess. KUef. Ordnung, ed. hj- Ä'. A. Credner, Giess. 1S52.
I) Unterricht d. Visitatoren an die Pfarh. (Lalx 1527.) M. Luth. Torr. Vuitt. 152S. 4. edit, in Latin Ä
German by Strohel, Altd. 1777.
c) Kapp, Naclilese. vol. I. p. 173s.s. Rosenherg, .'. d. ersten Kirchenvis. Brsl. 1754. 4.
d) H'd/c/i vol. X. p. 2sä. .4i/£7!/6(;, hist kritEinl. in beide Haupt-KatElbrf. 1524. IU{jen,yi«.
moria ntr. Cat Luth. Lps. 1S25S!S. 4 P. 4.
CHAP. L KEFORMATION. § 330. DIET OF AUGSBURG. 383
§ 330. The Diet of Angsburg, 1530.
I. Pro rel. chr. res gestae in comitiis Au?. a. 1530. (Cyprian, Ilist p. S7ss.) On the othe» side:
Brück, Gesch. d. religlonshandl. zu Augsb. {Förstemann, Archiv. Hal. 1S31. vol. I. P. 1.) A report
which was presented at Angsb. 15311, contributed by Jfoeiler. (Stud. a. Krit 1S50. II. 3. before in
LnUi. Werke by Watch vol. XVI. p. S73. 912ss. as if from Spalatin, comp. Giender, Stud. u. Krit.
1S51. 11. 2. Walch vol. XVI. p. 734*3. Föisteuuinn, Urkundenbncli z. Gesch. d. Keichst. zu A. Hal.
1S33-5. 2 vols. Corp. Ref. vol. II. p. 50ss.— CTy^raei«, II. d. A. C. Post. 157 G. 4. Lat. Frcf. 1575. 4.
and often. Coelentini Hist. Comitior. Ang. celebr. FrcC ad V. (1577.) 1597. C Veexenmai/er,]^].
Beitrr. z. Gesch. d. K. zu A. Numb. 1S30. 16.
II. Cijprian, Hist. d. A. C. Goth. (1730.) 1736. liotennund, Gesch. d. zu A. überg. Bekenntn.
ITann. 1S29. Jf. FuciuK, Gesch. d. Reich< zu A. Lpz. 1S30. Fikenacher, Gesch. d. Reichst zn A.
Nurnb. 1S30. C. P/aff, Gescb. d. Reichst, zu \. Slultg. 1S30.— (7. G. Weber, Gesch. d. A. C. Frkf.
ITSSs. 2 vols.
A peace had been concluded by the victorious Charles V. Avith France
and Rome. In the spring of the year 1530 he crossed tlie Alps, resolved
either to lead back to the Cliurch those who had wandered from it, or to
avenge the ignominy heaped upon Christ. At his i-equest the protesting
states drew up a statement of their faith and of the abuses discarded by
tliem. This Con fens ion., composed by Melancthon, approved by Luther, and
signed by the States, presented the ultimate points to which they could go in
the way of concession for the sake of peace. On the 25tli of June, it was
read in German by the Chancellor of Saxony before the Diet at Augsburg,
and afterwards committed to the hands of the emperor in Latin and German.
As the object of this paper was religious, practical and political, the peculiar
development of Protestantism is not made so prominent in it as the points
in which that system agreed with the ancient Catholic faith, and the opposi-
tion to abuses which were generally acknowledged by all intelligent persons
of that period. A few of the prelates avowed themselves ready to dip their
pens in their own blood to answer it, but some of the princes and lords were
brought by it to perceive that they had hitherto been incorrectly informed
respecting the new doctrine, and the Protestants themselves attained by it
an established centre for their own unity. By the command of the emperor,
a Confutation was composed by Eck, Fabcr, Cochlaeus, and AVimpina, and
read (Aug. 3) in the diet, but it was so pitiful an atTair that it only raised the
courage of tlic Protestants. On the 22d of Sept., however, when the States
presented their Apology, tlie emperor refused to receive it, and had a decree
passed which asserted that the Confession was opposed to the unquestionable
principles of the Sacred Scriptures. Melancthon, otlended at such abuse,
once more revised his Ajiology, and published it even during the session of
the diet as an appeal to the age in wliich he lived, as Avell as to subsequent
times. The recess of the diet, passed Xov. 10th, thrcatoned after a brief pe-
riod of indulgence utterly to exterminate the new .sect. The protesting
princes, esteeming the favor of Christ far more than the displeasure of tho
emperor, after presenting their Protest, took their leave of the city.
§ 331. League of Sinalkald and Peace of Kurenihcrg.
The danger of the Protestants became evident at Aug.sburg. The impe-
rial council, to wiiich was committed tlio task of executing the recess of the
diet, next coinmenced a legal process against the Protestant States for hav-
884 .m(>i>ki:n ciicncn iiistout. per. v. a. d. 1517-1049.
ing confiscated tlio property of the Churcli. When, therefore, tlie divines
of "Wittenberg; Imd acknowledged that the imperial states were justified as
mapiHtrnto» in i)rotectinp tlieir subjects from unjust apgression.s, (a) these
Protostaiit jiowor.s ns.scnibled together at Smallald on Chrisimas, 1530, and
formed a well-organized league in 1531, for mutual defence by force of arms,
embracing tlio princes and the mo.st powerful cities of Uj»per and Lower Ger-
many, with the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave as the leaders of the
confederacy, (h) All those who were dissatisfied with the imperial govern-
ment, among whom was Bavaria itself on account of its displeasure at the
appointment of Ferdinand to be king of the Pwomans, placed themselves
under the protection of this formidable power. As the Sultan Solyman was
threatening to invade Germany, and especially Austria, the emperor was
obliged to pnr(^hase internal peace and eflScient aid against the Turks at any
price. Even his confessor advised him to give up the vain fancy of saving
men's souls, and content himself with winning back his obedient subjects, (r)
A religious peace was therefore concluded at Nuremlcrg (July 23, 1532) ((7)
through the mediation of the Elector of Mentz and the Elector Palatine, by
the terms of which botb parties agreed to abstain from mutual hostilities
until the meeting of a general council. This could be regarded only as an
acknowledgment on the part of the Catholics that they were yet unprepared
to become assailants, and on the part of the Protestants that they were re-
strained by conscientious scruples. This peace embraced only those who had
already professed adherence to the Confession of Augsburg. The emperor
pledged himself that the suits in religious matters should in the mean time bo
suspended.
n. Establishment of the Reformed Chtjboh ttntil 1531.
J. V. MQUer's u. E. Glutz-Blotzlieim's Geschch. Sebweizer. Eidgcn. (5 vols.) cont hy J. J. HoU
linger, 6. 7. vol. till 1531. Zur. 1S25-9.
§ 332. Youth and Doctrine of Zwinfjle.
I. 0pp. 0(1. Gualther, (Tig. 545s.) 5S1. 4 vols. £ iL Schid-er et J. Schtilthess, Tig. 1S23-42. 8 vols.
(1st and 2d vols, the German, vols. 3-S. the Lat. original, and the former in a L.it transl.) Ausz. v. L.
U&terl Ja Vügelin. Zur. lS19s. 2 vols. Selections from the pract Works (and translations in the
Germ.) V. R. Chfiatoffel, Zur. lS4Ss. S vols. Oecolampadii et Zicinglii Epp. I. IV. Bas. (1536. f.)
1592. 4. Before this edition : Osic. Myconii Ep. de Vita et obitu Z. Kespecting the Letters of Z. :
Arch. f. KGeseh. 1S15. vol. III. St. S.
II. (^Nicicheler) Z. Lebensgesch. Zur. 1776. J. C. ITess, vie d'U. Z. Par. et Gen. Transl. into
Germ, with obs. by L. L'gteri, Zur. ISll. Suppl. in Archiv, f. KG. 1S13. vol. I. St 2. II, 8. H. W.
Jiotermiitid, Leben Z. m. Abriss d. schw. Eef. Brm. 1S18. J. M. Schüler, Z. Gescb. sr. Bildung z.
Refonuator. Zur. 1S19. Sal. J/ess, Ursprung, Gang. u. Folgen d. durch Z. in Zur. bewirkten Eef.
Zur. 1S20. 4. J. J. Hottinger, H. Z. n. s. Zeit. Zur. 1&43. [Lifo of Zwingle, transl. from Germ, of J.
II. Iless, by Lucy Aiken, Svo. Lond. 1S12. In Blackwood's Mag. for 1S23. and Littell's Eel. Mag.
voL II. for 1S2S. MiscelU of Tract. Soc. vol 8. p. 2S9-S20. Life of U. Z. and Sketch of OecoL publ.
by Pres. B. of Publ. Philad. IS. £. Zelter has announced a work on the theoL system of Zwingle.]
Euldrkh Zwingli, the son of the amman of Wildhaus (h. Jan. 1, 11S4),
fl) VTalch vol. X. p. 660SS. comp. 656.
b) W,tUh vol. XVI. pi 2142SS. Horileder vol. I. L VIII, Tss.
c) Briefe an K. Karl V. v. s. Beichtr. Mitgeth. (ftom the Span. Imp. Archives, by G. Heine,
Brl. 1S49.
<f) IFu^cA vol. XVL p. 21S2SS. HortUder yoV I. \,^Q.
CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. § 882. ZWINGLE. 385
became versed in classical learning, and received a liberal theological edu-
cation in the city of Basle. lie was for some time no stranger to the pleasures
of the world, and was especially skilful in playing upon the lute, but he
gradually became (after 1513) deeply interested in the study of tlie original
text of the New Testament, that he might learn the will of God from the divine
,word itself. After spending ten years as the pastor of a church in Glarus, he
was appointed preacher in the convent of Einsiedlin (1516), where he took
occasion, from the crowds Avhich thronged as pilgi-ims to the miraciilous
image of Mary, to preach tliat prayer sliould be otl'ered not to Mary, the pure
handmaid of the Lord, hut to Christ the only mediator. In consequence of
his evangelical preaching he was invited to become a chaplain at Zurich^
where on New Year's morning, 1519, his powers of popular eloquence were
exerted in the cathedral itself in defence of the reformation both in Church
and in common life. The Swiss Confederacy was in legal form still a mem-
ber of the German empire, and at that time the recollection of those glori-
ous deeds by which liberty had been restored to their mountains was by no
means lost in the hearts of the people, but the honesty and unanimity of the
olden times had already become much impaired by numerous enlistments of
the people as mercenaries in the wars of foreign nations. As an earnest re-
publican, Zwingle was zealously opposed to the oligarchy, to their annuities
from foreign princes, and to their trade in Christian blood, (a) Conscious of
their own independence, the people had set bounds to the exorbitant claims
of the spiritual courts (p. 288). But the idle and warlike youth fought the
battles of the pope for his money, and Avhen this could not be obtained,
Julius II. paid them with ecclesiastical gifts and preferments. In the fidelity
of his Swiss guards the vicar of Christ found a security for his body against
the fickle spirit of the Roman people. From a papal nuncio residing at
Zurich, Zwingle annually received fifty florins, with which ho purchased
books. Bernardin Samson^ a Franciscan from Milan, opened a traffic in
indulgences among the inhabitants of the Alps (1518). Zwingle preached
against him, but the Bishop of Constance himself persuaded the city of
Zurich to close its gates against him, and when complaint was made to the
pope respecting the mischief caused by the traffic, Leo X. promised to call
the trader to an account. Zwingle was acquainted with some of Luther's
Avritings, but although very unlike that great reformer in religious profund-
ity and genius, in consequence of his demand that every thing should be set
aside which could not be proved from the Scriptures, he was induced by the
independent study of those Scriptures nmch more suddenly and uncondition-
ally to break loose from the ancient Church, (ft) It was for this reason also,
that although nothing was dearer to him than truth, many errors which had
long been i)crccived, were not distinctly condemned. (<•) His faith mounted
upward in bobl speculations, though it always returned to the path which an
intelligent judgment approved, and wldch was favorable to spiritual im-
provement. In opposition to a righteousness by mere external works, ha
a) BulUnger, Kefonnallonspcsch. vol. I. p. 41s. 4Ss. 61.
I) Proofö In KüscMer p. ISTss. Schüler, p. 119. 883.
c) E. g. Ilottingei', 11. ccc p. XVI. P. II. p. 207.
25
886 MoDKriN ClItlRCII IIISTOKY. I'KR. V. A. D. ISIT-ICIS.
also Brtw tliat jiistific.'itioM was to be obtained entirely through the merits of
C'lirist. I'.iit ori^riiial sin was in lils estimation a mere disease, the moral will
was siil>Jrct only to Providence, and be looked npon Hercules, Socrates, and
the CatoH, as bfli)n;,'iii,£? to the communion of the blesscJ, tbougli they could
bo saved only tiirongli Christ, ('/j
§ 333, Introduction of the Reformation.
Throufrb Zwingle's influence the great Council of Zurich gave orders that
all preachers should confine themselves to what was contained in the divine
Scriptures, but maintain silence with respect to non-essential innovations and
institutions (1520), (") For the sake of those who were opposed, and that the
truth might bo more publicly known, he determined to defend in the muni-
cipal hall at Zurich sixty-seven propositions which he had formed against
the whole external polity of the Catholic Church, When, however, he pub-
licly announced them (Jan. 29, 1523), only a few objections were presented
by Faler of Constance, (fi) In a second disputation (Oct. 2G-2S), a decision
was given against the use of images and the sacrifice of the mass, (c) An
easy victory was obtained for the Reformation when the principle was once
adopted, that every thing must be proved by the Scriptures, interpreted only
by the Scriptures themselves. Leo Juda, Zwingle's colleague in office, in the
spirit of the Eeformed Church translated Luther's New Testament into the
Swiss-German dialect (1525), and the Old Testament from the original text
(till 1529). Zwingle looked upon every local church, in proportion as its
opinions were based upon the Holy Scriptures, as completely justified in con-
tending against the whole hierarchy. The Great Council, regardless of the
protests of the Bishop of Constance, but sustained by public opinion, intro-
duced the new constitution into the Church (152-4s). The established church
of A2>penscU, beyond the Ehone, resolved that preachers who taught what
could not be proved from the Sacred Scriptures should be denied support
and protection, (d) BerthoJd Ealler (d. 1536) preached, though with cau-
tion, in behalf of the Reformation in Berne, (e) and Manuel.^ in a Carnival
play, exposed to public derision the avarice of the clergy and their fear of
the gosi)el. (/) Oecolampadius (d. Nov. 23, 1531), the learned friend of
Erasmus, and in ordinary matters a timid and peaceable man, but kept in
perpetual agitation in such stormy times for his advocacy of the cause of his
Lord, was the principal instrument in directing the minds of the people of
Basle into the path of the Reformation, although a knowledge of its elements
had been previously acquii'ed from the general perusal of Luther's writ-
d) Com. de vera et falsa rel. Tig. 1525. Fiilci ratio ad Car. Imp. Tig. 1530. 4 Chr. fidci brevU
et Clara exp. ad Regem ehr. (ed. Bullinger.) Tig. 1530. De Providentia, (vol I.)— Zeller, de theoL
System Zw. (Th. Jahrb. 1S53. H. Is.)
«) Füfidi, Beitrr. Vol. II. p. 237. Bullinger vol. I. p. 32.
l) Conclusiones. (Opp. vol. I. p. Is.) E.'iplanatio. (/i. p. Sss.) Acta disput (vol. II. p. COTssO
Bullinger vol. I. p. S4s«. 9Tss.
c) Acts in Zwingle's Works, vol. I. p. 5.^9ss. Bullinger vol. I. p. 126ss.
d) KUtarer'» account in Simlcr, vol. I. Part III. p. SÜSss.
e) Kirvhlutf^r, B. Haller u. d. Ref. v. Birn. Zur. lv2S.
f) C. Grüneinen. Xiclaus Manuel, Leben u. Werke. Stuttg. 153T.
CHAP. L EEFOEMATIOX. § 333. BADEN. BERNE. BASLE. 387
ings. (.■?) The inhabitants of those places which were favorable to the Catho-
lic Church, hoping to overcome their opponents by their fovorite weapon?,
and relying upon the talents and skill of Dr, Eck, appointed a day for a pub-
lic disputation at Baden (May, 152G). As Zwingle had reason to fear for his
safety should he venture to be present in that city, Oecolampadins was the
principal opponent of Eck in this disputation. The subjects which engaged
their attention Avere the presence of Christ's sacred body in the sacrament,
the sacrifice of the mass, the worship of saints, the use of images, and the
doctrine of purgatory. On the part of Eck there was great blustering,
while Occolanipadius contended only by arguments, but both claimed the
credit of a victory, (/<) Berne endeavored to keep aloof from the agitations
of the controversy, and its council gave orders that some of the more obvi-
ous and serious abuses should be removed, and that preaching should be con-
formed both to the Scriptures and to the ancient faith. (/) But such partial
measures were by no means adequate to the exigencies of the times. No
sooner had the great council once more assumed the supreme power, than
both parties were invited to a public discussion, which was attended by all
the leaders of the Reformation in the country (Jan., 1528). The result was
so decisive, that soon after a public decree was issued by the council, in which
the jurisdiction of the bishops was entirely renounced, and the idolatrous
vror.ship of Rome was abolished. (/.•) In Basle, the Reformation became vic-
torious in consequence of the triumph of the municipal guilds (1529). (I)
The city of St. Gall embraced the evangelical doctrine (152S), the abbot
fled, and the friends of religion became organized into a community under
the protection of Zurich and Glarus. (?») For in Giants, where it was de-
cided after a severe contest that every congregation should choose for itself,
the majority were in favor of the Reformation. Schaffhaxisen, after consid-
erable hesitation, gave in its adhesion to it (1529), and in Soleure neither
party obtained the ascendency. In every place where the new doctrines pre-
vailed, every thing opposed to them was rigorously put down. The altars
were destroyed and the idols were burned. In the Gray Lca<juc alone (the
Orisons), after the disputation at Ilantz (1526), the law allowed every one to
take his choice between the old and the new faith. And yet when Schlegel,
the abbot of St. Luke, contrived a treasonable conspiracy Avith the Castellan
of Musso for the overthrow of the heretics of Coire, he was beheaded
(1529). (/i) The popes, who stood in need of Swiss soldiers, and could do
nothing against the will of a republican people, preserved for a long time
little more than the semblance of peace. {<>)
g) Gninafuit et Capito, de vita ct obltn Oce. before his nn<l Zwinslc's Epp.— .<J. TTeux, Lebcns-
gesch. .T. Otk. Zur. 1793. J. J. Ihr:o'j, il. Leben J. <\'k. w. d. lief, zu V,i\s^c\. Has. 1S43. 2 voK
h) BitUiiigfir vol. L p. 331ss. Edit, of the .\cts of the Reformer.«, by Manier, (Luccrue. 1527. 4.)
Incorrectly regarded by tlie Reformers ns Inaccurnte. i) Butlingfir vol. L p. llOss.
;t) lb. vol. L p. 805ss. 42C.«. Wtihh vol. XVII. p. 2009.— ff. Fischer, Gesch. d. DIsp. n. Eef In
Bern. Bern. 1S2S. Kuhn, d. Reforinaloren Berns. Bern. 1S2S. Respecting the other Jubilee pnbli-
cations: Stud. ii. Krit. 1828. P. 4. p. OOlss. {C. L. v. //aller, Gesch. d. kirchl. Rev. o. prot. Rcf. d.
Kantons B. u. d. iimliog. Gegend Luc. 1S3C. /) Butlinger vol. IL \\ S-V-^s. Sis?.
m) /b. vol. II. p. 25USS. Simler vol. I. p. 115^. W-rtut, Kes.sler. (§ 319. nt. (/.)
n) After Katiipell and do Porta: L. Truog, Gesch. d. Ref. v. Graub. Coire. 1S19. p. 29ss. .39. Birl
linger vol. II. p. 3 Is. o) E. g. BiiUinger vol. L p. f3?.
388 MODKKN ClltnCII mSTOUV. TER. v. a. v. 1MT-1W9.
§ 334. iJivision of the Swiss Confederacy.
TIio evangelical doctrines of the Keformation agitated all the cantons of thi
ponfedcTHcv, but tlio rural population of the mountainous districts being dis-
pleased under the inlluonco of the priests, Avith the political demands of Zwingle,
were especially distinguished for their adherence to the ancient faith. Uri,
Schwytz, Unterwaldcn, Zug, and Lucerne, jjledged their faith to each other in a
diet at Lucerne (1524), that they would defend the faith of their fathers, but
they availed themselves of the opportunity to forbid the sale of indulgences, to
improve the manners of the clergy, to limit the revenues of the Church, and
to extend the jurisdiction of the courts in ecclesiastical affairs. («) In those
places which were under the direct government of the whole confederacy, it
was impossible to avoid the clashing of parties. The burning of images, and
sometimes even of monasteries, was of course exceedingly painful to the
Catholic authorities, especially when it occurred in places subject to their
control. They therefore took an oath, that every one who treated the saints
or the mass in a contemptuous manner should be punished. It soon became
evident, from the maimings and public executions they inflicted, that their
oath was no idle threat. iV) A Christian compact was now formed among
the Reformed cities, into which even Strasburg and Constance were admit-
ted. The five Catholic cantons also formed an alliance with Ferdinand of
Austria for the protection of the faith. An irruption was made by the inhab-
itants of Unterwaiden, to sustain an insurrection of the people in the npper
part of Berne against the Refonnation which had been forced upon them, (c)
Zwingle now demanded war ; the cities brought into the field a powerful
army, and the five cantons purchased peace (June 24, 1529) by conceding :
that each party should be permitted to adopt what faith it pleased, all slan-
derous speeches should be punished, and in every congregation under the
government of the general confederacy, a majority of votes should decide
upon religious matters. The articles of compact with Austria were then torn
in pieces, and with respect to free preaching, general promises were sufficient
to give satisfaction, (J) But it was never the intention of the Catholics to
fulfil these promises in the sense in which they were understood by the
people of Zurich, as the calumnies alluded to were nothing but the expres-
sion of a universal feeling. "When the authors of these calumnies were there-
fore allowed to remain unpunished, the cities next forbade all supphes and
intercourse with the mountainous districts. {/) To save themselves from
starvation, the five cantons now betook themselves to the sword. Against
this the cities were not prepared, and the Cathohc host fell upon an advanced
outpost of the army of Zurich at Cappel (Oct. 11, 1531). Zicingle, who, during
the last years of his life, had been threatened in various ways, was fuU of
melancholy, and had singular presentiments of his approaching end. With
the least possible confidence in man, and the highest in God and in his cause,
he accompanied the standard of the city as the pastor of his people. Zurich
lost the battle, and Zwingle was left on the field, surrounded by the bodies
a) BulUnger yoL I. p. 142ss. 21Sss. &) It. vol. I. p. ]45ss. lS2ss.
c) lb. vol. II. p. 21ss. 48sa. (J) Jh. vol. 11. p. 168ss. 155.^
«) Jb. vol. 11. p. SSSss.
CHAP. I. EEFOKMATION. § 335. SACRA.MENTAEIAN CONTEOVEEST. 389
of the choicest portion of the friends of the Reformation in the city. (/)
The superior strength of the cities was indeed soon after brought into action,
but the confidence of victory and unity "was on the side of the Cathohc
array. The religious peace whicli was soon afterwards concluded (Nov. IG),
recognized the right of each canton freely to make its own arrangements
respecting its religious affairs, but in those portions which were under the
general government, and in those cantons which were hitherto undecided, the
old Church was almost universally restored by violence. (^)
§ 335. The Sacramentarlan Controccrxy.
Walch y(^. SVII. p. ISSOs.». vol. XX. {Selnecker and Chemniiz.) IHst. d. Sacramcntsstr. Lpz.
1591. 4 Lon^im', complete Hist motuum, between Luth. and the Ecf. Frkf. and Lelp. 2 cd. 1723.
3 vols.— Z.WC/. Lavater, II. controv. facramcntariae. Tig. (1563.) 1672. Zur. 1564. I/oipimani II. sa-
crani. Tig. (159S.) 1602. 2 Th. f. Zur. 1611. i.—A. Ebrard, d. D. v. h. Abeudm. FrkC 1S46. voL II. p.
1-358.
In the spirit of Erasmus, and with a proper sense of his own indepen-
dence, Zwingle always protested against being numbered among the adhe-
rents of Luther. («) He could discover nothing in the Lord's Supper but a
sign of commemoration and fellowship. Even Luther was obliged to reject
the doctrine of transubstantiation together with the priesthood, (h) but the
depth of his sensuous mysticism needed a spiritual presence of Christ's body
in the sacred ordinance. Carhtadt, during his iconoclastic fury, had put
forth the assei-tion that Christ pointed to his living body when he instituted
the supper. In consequence of this, a controversy, embittered by the per-
sonal relations of the parties, sprung up (after lo2-i) between him and Lu-
ther, (c) The Swiss, respecting whose position the divines at Wittenberg
were for a long time indistinctly informed, undertook in their own way (after
1525) the defence of the severely-persecuted Carlstadt. Zwingle translated
" this is " by the words " this signifies," and Oecolampadius regarded the
bread when called the bodj^, simply as the symbol of the body. These dif-
ferent views led to a dispute between Luther and Zwingle at the head of
their respective parties. ((/) The Swiss Confederacy adhered to Zwingle, and
the imperial cities of Upper Germany were disposed to do so, but the doc-
trine of Luther found a trusty and influential advocate in Suabia in the per-
son of Brentz, a man who would listen neither to the fathers nor to Aristotle,
but to Christ alone, (e) Luther appealed with absolute confidence to the
letter, Zwingle to the sense of the word of God. The first was boisterous
and sometimes ludicrous, while the latter was more polished but bitter.
When Zwingle referred to the nature of a body, Luther endeavored to show
/) Kur/e Besclir. d. 5 katli. Orto Kriojr^. {Balthamr, Helvetia. voL II. p. lS6ss.) BtMinger voL
III. p. llös?.— (yZ Other) Die Schlaclit il. Knppel. Zur. 1S31.
g) Bullinger vol. III. p. 247. UuUinger vul. II. Commencement.
rt) Explanation of the IStli article. 1523. (vol. I. p. 255.)
I) De ire«<3 vol. II. p. 577.
c) Wtdch vol. XV. p. 2422SS. vol. XX. p. ISCss. Comp. Gölel in Stud. u. Krlt 1842. H. i
1S43. II. 3.
cf) Zw. Arnica exegesis. TIsr. 1527. 4. LntK Dass die Worte Christi : das ist m. Leib., noch fcst>
Stelin. Weder die Sclnvanngeister. Wit, 1527. and others.
e) Syntagma Snevicuni. 1525. Comp. J. Ilartmann and K. Jäger, J. Brentz. Ilainb. 1840. vol
. p. 189S8.
390 MODKRN ClIÜECn 1II9T0UT. I'P:U. V. A. D. 1517-1C4S.
tli.'it tlio l)«i(ly of Christ "wns oiiiriipresent in consequence of its inseparable
union with tht' Deity, and the assertion of his ojiponent seemed to him
eiiuivalent to n denial of Christ, Tiiis controversy, therefore, inasmuch as it
had its orifdn in the peculiar mental character of these f,'rcat leaders, and yet
was not of much importance to the interests of piety itself, became finally so
I)romincnt as to produce a complete misunderstanding between the dispu-
tants. In vain did the Landgrave endeavor to effect a reconciliation, re-
minding them that their common danger should keep them united. (/) At
the meeting which took place between them at 2Iiirliirg (Oct., 1529),
Zwinglo was induced by the strength of his convictions with tears to olTer
Luther his fraternal hand, even if the principal point of difference should
remain undecided, but this was rejected, (f/) The principal points of their
common faith were, however, arranged in fourteen articles on the basis of
the Confession of Augsburg. With regard to the memorable fifteenth arti-
cle, which asserts that Christ's body and blood are corporally present in the
Lord's Supper, both parties promised to exercise Christian charity so far as
the conscience of each would periait. The Landgrave now became a mem-
ber of the league of the reformed cities (April, 1530). Although Strass-
burg, Constance, Meiningen, and Lindau presented their separate confession
at Augsburg (July 11, 1530), (A) they acknowledged in it that the souls of
believers were nourished by the true body of Christ. The pliant Martin
Bucer reconciled matters by introducing the acknowledgment of a presence
of Christ also for the hand and the mouth, {t) By this means the cities of
Upper Germany were induced to adopt the Confession of Augsburg, and
enter into the League of Smalkald. (1531).
III. EsTABLISmiENT OF THE LuTHEEAN CnUECH rXTIL 1555.
§ 336. Articles of SmaUald.
As the only method by which peace could be secured, the emperor now-
demanded that the pope should call a general council. It was, however,
feared at Rome that the complaints of the several nations might in a general
assembly of the Church unite with the voices of the Protestants, or that the
latter might be so used by others as to compel the papacy to make some
general concessions. Clement VII. held out promises which were intended
only to prevent the calling of a national council in Germany, and Faul III.
sent forth a call for a council in May, 1537, to assemble at Mantua, at a time
Avhen such a council was hardly possible in Lombardy on account of the war
with France. A confession was laid before the league at Smalkald, signed
(Feb. 15, 1537) by the theologians there present, and intended to be pre-
Bented to thp general council, or otherwise to remain a new monument of their
/) De Wette vol. III. p. 465s,
O) Acts in Wdlch vol XVII. p. 236is5. Corp. lief. vol. I, p, 1095ss, BuUinger vol. 11. p.
828ss.-Die 15 Marb. Artikel nach d. Orijr. verOffentl. v. H. Hfppe, Mnrb. 1S4S. 4. (Zeitsch. £ hisi
Tb. 1S4S. II. 1.)—/.. J. K. Schmitt, d. Kolisionsgespr. zu Marb. Marb. 1540.
h) Conf. Tctrnpolitana. Arg. 1531. 4. {yiemej/er, Col. ConfE Lps. ISIO. p. LXXXIII. ITiOsi
VTiitch vol. XVII. p. 2491SS.
CHAP. I. REFORMATION. § 3.36. ARTICLES OF SMALKALD. 391
ananimity. (n) These Articles of SmalJcald were composed by Luther when
violence was no longer to he apprehended, and reconciliation Avas impossible,
and they present the doctrines opposed to the Romish Church in the .strong-
est terms. lu addition to this, by request of the League, a tract was ])re-
pared in Latin by Mclancthon^ in whicli it was proved from historical facts
that neither the primacy of the pope nor the jurisdiction of the bishops had
been instituted by divine authority. This treatise was designed to be the
first formal attempt to justify those who solemnly renounced all papal and
prelatical sway. But its author had the courage to subscribe Luther's arti-
cles, with the remark that fur the sake of general peace, a superiority over
tliose bishops who had been created by human authority might be volunta-
rily conceded to the pope if he allowed the gospel to be preached in its purity.
Luther, overwhelmed by sulferings caused by the gravel, left Smalkald with
these parting words : " May God fill you with hatred for the pope 1 He
knows his people, and feels like them ! " The confederates were unanimous
in the conclusion that they were bound to decline a council which met in
Italy, and which contained a condemnation of their cause in the very terras
in Avhicli it was culled together, {h)
§ 337- Progress and Political Poircr of the Reformation.
In Electoral Saxony, e7b7(?i Frederic the M((ffnanimoit.\ a. conscientious, sin-
cere, and truly pious prince, with a mind somewhat contracted, but heroic in
purpose and in endurance, succeeded his father (1532). Philip of Hesse, on
his own responsibility, but sustained by the power of the Protestant League,
in a sudden expedition reinstated (153-i) Ulrich, Duke of Wurtemberg, who
had been driven from his pos.sessions, which had been given to Austria b}- tlie
Suabian League. Ulrich's refractory spirit had in misfortune found conso-
lation in the gospel, and the Reformation which had for a long time been kept
down by violence, after a little vacillation suddenly became victorious in
Wurtemierff under the direction of Brentz, a man who possessed the same
views as Luther, (a) A Holy League was formed (1538) at Nuremberg, com-
posed of the Archbishops of Mentz and of Salzburg, the Duke of Bavaria,
George of Saxony, and Henry of Brunswick, But the j)Ower of the emperor
continued to be nmch restrained by his foreign wars. A considerable sup-
port was obtained for the Protestant League in the Northern kingdoms, and
splendid promises were held out to it by Henry of England and Francis of
France. George of Saxony, whose spirit became every year more and more
embittered tuward Luther and the age in which he lived, struggled in vain
against what seemed to be his destiny, for ho was obliged to leave his pos-
sessions to a Protestant heir. Ills brother Henry already belonged to the
a) Sr. Meurer, d. Tag. zu Smalk. u. d. Schm. Artikel. Lps. 188T.
I) Wulch vol. XVI. p. 21'2Css. Corp. Uef. vol. II. p. 902ss. 9S2»s. Aonii Palcarii de Cone,
iniv. et libero Ep. cd. ill. lügen, Lps. 18-'i'.'. J.
a) Schiiurrer, Erhiut. d. Würt. K. Rcf. u. Gol.'Iirton-r.osch. Tub. 1799. J. C. Schmidt & F. E
Pfiiter, Denkw. d. wärt u. scliwiib. Kef. Ge.scli. Tub. 1S17. {Griineinfn) Doukblatt d. Ref. in Stiittj:
Btiittg. 1S.35. J. Jliirttiiann, Gesell, d. Ref. in Wiirt Ptuttjr. 1S.35. llartmann u. Jäger, J. 15rents
Uainb. 1842. vi'l. 11. L. F. HojU, Ulr. H. zu Wiirt. Tub. IS-ll-l. 3 vols.
302 MOOKKN CIIÜKCII iriSTOUV. TKi:. V. A. 1>. 1517-104"».
Lengne of SmalkaM, and on tho festival of Pentecost, 1539, Lutlier and tbi
Reformation entered the city of Leipsic in triumph, (b) The Elector oi Bran-
ilenburif <()ini)elle(l his wife to fly from his residence that slie might live iu
tho enjovnieiit of lier fnitli, and exacted an oath from his sons that they would
cleave to tho ancient faith in opposition to modern innovations. But Joa-
chim II. (1535) allowed the word of God to have free toleration in his do-
minions, and in 1539 partook of the Lord's Supper according to the forms of
tlie Evangelical Church, although he preserved an independent position
unconnected with the League. That body, however, was soon after (after
1545) strengthened by the accession of tho Electoral Palatinate, (c) When
tho bishoi)ric of Naumhiirg became vacant, Julius ton Pßug, the provost of
the cathedra], a learned and at the same time a mild divine, {d) was elected
by tho chapter, but the elector could not resist tho temptation to provide for
it an apostolic bishop. Nicolas von Amsdorf, by an act of arbitrary power
was invested with the oflBce of a bishop, but with the salary of a pastor, and
Luther boasted that he and his friends had been guilty of the sin of conse-
crating a bishop without chrism, and even without suet, lard, tar, grease, in-
cense, or coals, (e) An electoral officer was appointed to administer the secu-
lar affairs of the diocese. JJenry of Brunswick and the Protestant princes,
assisted by Luther, assailed each other by pamphlets, in which all the pro-
prieties not only of princely dignity but of human life were violated, and when
Henry threatened Goslar, he was attacked by Saxony and Hesse with a pow-
erful army, driven from his dominions (1542), and finally made a prisoner
(1545). (/) Among the secular princes Bavaria was the only power which
continued to support the papacy, and even there much difficulty was expe-
rienced iu resisting the opposition of the people and the states, (g) Herman.,
the Elector of Cologne., commenced with a Catholic reform, but he finally
assumed a Protestant position, and the archbishop Avas informed of his plan
of reformation according to a form drawn up by Bucer and Melancthon
(1543). (Ä) Cardinal Albert of Mentz allowed the Reformation to go for-
ward in his Chapters of Magdeburg and Halberstadt as long as the states
were willing to assume the payment of his debts (1541). All bishops were
tempted to go over to the Protestant side by tho prospect of becoming here-
ditary princes. King Ferdinand himself, influenced by the writings of Lu-
ther, and by a father confessor, who, on his deathbed, repented of his whole
ecclesiastical life and actions as a deception, now promised to compromise
I) Xohhe, Ileinr. d. Fromme, Lps. 1S39. G. B. Winer, de Facult. theol. ev. in Univ. Lips, origi-
nlb. Lps. 1S.39. 4. K. W. Ileriiuj, Gesch. der im Markg. Meissen u. d. dazu geliür. tliür. Kreise erf.
Kef. Grossenbain. 1S39. // G. Hasse, Abriss d meissneisch-albcrt, siiscli. KGescb. Lps. 1S47. vol. IL
e) Ad. MiUl'r, Gesell, d. Eef. in d. Mark Brandenb. Brl. 1S39. J. Schtadthach, d. Uebertr. d.
Kur£ Joach. z. luth. K. Lps. 1840.—//. Allmg, II. Ecc. Palatinae. (Monn. piet et lit Fret 1701. 4.)
B. G. Sti-uve, Ber. v. d. l'ßlz. K. Hist. Frk£ 1721. 4. A'. F. Yierordt, Gesch. d. Kef. im Grossh. Ba-
den. Karlsr. 1S47.
rf) C. G. .Vüller, de meritls Julii Mugii. Lps. ISli
e) Witlch vol. XVII. p. Slss. esjiecially 12'2.-;s. Fürstemann,'Sexie 'MHth. hist antiq. Forsch. Hal
.905. vol. n. P. 2. (Lepsiu^) Bericht u. d. Wahl u. EinfTihr. Nie v. A. Nordh. 1S35.
/) Wiilch vol. XVII. p. 154SS3. ITorU-cd,'r Buch. IV. TH Sl«Ur, Charakteristik Heinr. d. Jiing
Marb. 1S45. g) Wint<^r (§ 823. nt. g.)
/i) M. VecK-ers, Herni. v. Wied. Er/.b. v. K«",ln. Colojne. 1S40.
CHAP. I. REFORMATION. § G3S. NP:G0TIATI0XS. MAURICE. 393
matters with respect to religion, with the states at an imperial diet, and in
accordance with Luther's counsel, (i) Aside from personal inclinations nothing
but the necessity of adhering to Catholicism under which the House of Ilaps-
Iturg was placed on account of its connection with Spain, Belgium, and Italy,
was sufficient at that time to upliold that religion in an}' part of Germany.
§ 338. Xegotiations for Peace and Preparations for War,
Once more was presented some prospect of preserving the Church from a
division. Divines of both parties were appointed by the emperor at the Diet
of Eatiisbon (15-il) to adjust measures for a peaceful accommodation. The
pious Contarini^ who was favorable to the fundamental doctrines of Protes-
tantism as they were then maintained, had been appointed legate. («) With
his approbation a compromise was proposed by GrareUa, in which it was
asserted that salvation was founded upon faitli in the merits of Christ alone,
and not upon our own works or deserts. The divines were tiierefore agreed
with respect to the four Articles of Original Righteousness, Original Sin, Hu-
man Liberty, and Justification, which Luther had always maintained as the
fundamental principles of Christianity. With reference to other subjects on
which no agreement was yet attained, and with respect to which the proposed
scheme conceded every thing which could be given up by the Catholics of
that period without renouncing their distinctive character, the emperor re-
quired that until the decision of a general council could be obtained, all should
exercise fraternal forbearance toward each otiier. The Landgrave and the
Elector of Brandenburg were entirely agreed, and Julius Pßug and Melancthon
were just on tlie point of extending to each other the hand of reconciliation.
But Luther and the Elector of Saxony saw nothing in all these concessions
but a snare; the King of France, alarmed at the prospect of a reconciliation
in Germany, complained of treachery to the Ciiurch ; and the legate, threat-
ened from Rome for having transcended his powers, made a retrograde move-
ment. (5) This result was only the manifestation of opposing principles in
the person of their advocates, and in this failure of a reconciliation which
seemed so near, all became distinctly conscious that the scliism was irrecon-
cilable. The emperor concluded at Cres])y (1544) an honorable peace with
France, and the Roman King a live years' armistice with tlie Turks. In the
League of Smalkald the cities began to complain of the princes, and unkind
feelings were produced in various ways. Maurice^ a keen ambitious young
man, had succeeded (15-il) his father in the dukedom of Saxony. Although
ho regarded the Reformation in the light of an historical necessity he felt no
enthusiasm in its behalf, and while personally disputing with the elector ho
i) Ferd. an Loth. 1. Febr. 1537. in Walch vol. XVL p. 2424
a) CVM?artfnf Tr. dcjustlflciilionc. Tiir. 1571. BcccateUn, Vita del C. Cont. Willi his Letters
In: Epp. Rcgin. Poll, wl. Qnirini. vol. Ill — A'itsliiiff, nd Qulr. Ep. do Cont. purloris doctr. deJustiC
ieste et confi-ssoro. Lps. 1749.
I) Acta Colloquii in Comlliis lintUponao h.ibitl. (od. Bttcer.) Argent 1541. 4. Act,'» in Convcntu
Ratlsb. (od. Melanvthon.) Wit. 1541. 4. C(inip. irorUeder vol. I. I, 87. M'ulcli vol. XVII. p. C95-.S.
Corp. lief. vol. IV. p. llilss. In oppo.'ition to Hiicer: Eclii Apol. pro Trincipibus oath. Injiolst.
1.'j42.— /?(;ynrtW. ad ann. 1541. ä-oX-chi/. Ill, 23. y?(«;jX;<s, IMpsto. vol. I p. l.').V>.s. BreUschnekler,
i d. K. Gespr. angef. zu Worms, fortg. zu Reg. (Zcltscbr. f. lilsU Th. vol. II. V. I.)
394 MiHir.KN (IMT.CII IIISTOUV. I'KU. V. A. I). iMT-1048.
iihaiwluiii.l the lA'ii/ruü or Smalkald (1542), and secretly pledged himself tc
the einpcTor tliat -wliatever iiiiglit ho the issue of the war, the imperial au-
thority Hlmiild ill no respect ho impaired, (r) The Council which was opened
at Trent (1545) was rejected hy tlie Protestants. Lepal proceedings hy order
of the erniteror, and on complaint of the Chapter of Cologne, Avere instituted
against the archhisliop of that see. It was soon evident from the execution
of some evangelical preachers in the Netherlands that he was in earnest. lie,
however, persuaded himself that his conduct sprung more from a reference to
lil)erty than to Lutheranisra, and to the property than to the doctrine of the
Church. Indeed, the complicated condition in which the material interests
of all i)arties were placed, stood very much in the way of an amicahle adjust-
ment of other things. But Avhen it had hecorae apparent that the position
of the respective parties at the diet rendered the adoption of any general
measures almost impossihle, and when the decision of the imperial council
which treated the proceedings respecting ecclesiastical property as a mere
juatter of spoils, had been rejected by the Protestants, it was evident that
the empire was indeed divided, and tliat the peace of the country was de-
stroyed.
§ 339. Luther s Death and Public Character.
The last years of Luther's life were spent in great exhaustion and pro-
tracted sickness. He was so much offended at the immorality and luxury
which prevailed at Wittenberg, that he left that city (1545) and returned only
on the urgent request of the Univei'sity and the elector. lie foresaw that
troublous times were approaching his native country, and he longed to depart
in peace. His last days, however, Avere illuminated by some beams of his
former power, and he stiU indulged in bold, childlike pleasantries, even in the
midst of sublime conceptions, {a) Having been invited to Eisleben to act as
umpire between the Counts of Mansfeld, he gently and devoutly fell asleep
on the night of the 18th of February, 1546. (J) The sudden changes which
took place during his career, and in Avhich he was obliged to act as a leader,
produced marked contrasts between different periods of his life. The pope
was regarded by him at one time as the most saintly, and at another as the
most fiendish father. "When he was excited with passion his feelings changed
in the most boisterous manner. His Avhole life was devoted to the promo-
tion of intellectual freedom, and yet he was zealous in behalf of the letter.
Relying wholly upon spiritual influences Avhile giving laws to the most turbu-
lent storms of revolution, he nevertheless occasionally advised that the pope
with all his menials should be cast into the Tyrrhene Sea. (c) His opinions
were always expressed with absolute sincerity, and he Avas an utter stranger
<^) G. Ai-nolJ, A'itaMaur. (Jfenl-en. vol. IL) Brandt, Vindiciae Mauritianae. Jen. 1617. 4 F
A. c. Langenn, Moritz, Ilerzoj: n. Kurf. zu Saclis. Lps. 1S41. 2 vols. // R Brandes, Deitrr. z. Char
»kler. »1. 11. n. Chnrf. M. Lps. 1S53.
a) Kspcclally his Letters to Catharine : Do tVctte voL A', pp. TS3. 757. 789.
V) J. Jona u. JA Oi<lU Bericht v. Luther! Absterben. Besides other records of his death in Wa!c>
vol. XXI. p. 274SS. J. Jonas. Sclir. an Joh. Fr. ü. Luth. Lebensende, lirsg. v. Kret/ssij, Meiss. 1S47.
—J/bAniiv, L. Lebensende. Slrals. 1S17. K. -1. Credncr, L. Tod u. Bedcntung. FrkC 1S4Ö.
c) Waleh vol. XVII. p. 1396ss.
CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. § 339. LUTIIEß'3 DEATH AND ClIARACTEn. 395
to every form of earthly interest. By a vigorous sensuousness of disposition
iie stood firialy rooted in tlie e:irtli, wliile his head readied into the heavens.
No one of his age equalled him in creative power, his style was frequently
rougher than even that rough period seemed to have allowed, but in popular
eloquence he had no superior in all Germany. The eagerness and paasion
which ho always felt in the midst of his conflicts, supplied him with the en-
jovinent which ho needed in them. "Wherever he discovered injustice he saw
nothing but hell itself. His service.'^, however, did not consist so much in his
destroying and breaking loose from what was wrong, — fur many others extri-
cated themselves from the ancient Church with much more facility and deci-
sion, —as in his constructive power, and in the exuberance of his warm faith
and love. And yet there wore some periods of great trial in his life, when
the temptations of the devil made him fear that he should bo bereft of God
and Christ, and every thing dear. {(T) lie had no hesitation even in the pres-
ence of his opponents freely to avow the deliberate conviction of his heart,
that he was Avell known in heaven, earth, and hell, as the chosen instrument
of God for the accomplishment of the divine purposes, and yet this seemed
to have nothing to do with his individual person. He never wished to hear of
Lutheran doctrines, (e) and his sublime confidence in God never appeared to
assure him of his own deliverance from danger, but simply to convince him
that God was able to raise up every day ten such men as Br. Mart inns. (/)
The time in wliich such a man sliould be vilified by absurd reproache«, or
defended by illiberal vindications, has now passed away, and he should be re-
garded, not as the property of an individual party, but of the German nation
and of Christianity.
§ 340. The SmaUaldic War. 1540, 1547.
Ifortleder vol. II. book III. nml paf;o 101Ss.s. Watch vol. XVII. p. ISlTfS. Oimerarii Comm.
belli Smale. graece scr. (Freher Tli. III. p. 457.) Litomry bist of tbo accounts of tho war in Ukert
Tol. II. p. 19Ö.— t/! G. Jahn, Ocscli. il. sclimalk. Kriegs. Lps. 1S:37.
An edict was proclaimed by tho diet (July 20, 154G), in whicli the Elector
of Saxony and tho Landgrave of IIo-sso were declared guilty of high treason
against the emperor and the empire. Although the emperor was very care-
ful not to give his expedition tho name of a religious war, Paul IIL openly
])roclaimed a crusade for tlio extermination of heretics, and called for oftcr-
ings from the Cliurch for this i)uri)ose. An army was hastily assembled by
tlie Protestants en tho borders of Suabia and Bavaria, Avhich Avas much
superior to that of the emperor posted at first near Katisbon, and afterwards
occupying a strong position near Landshut. But as many persons had an
equal right to command, and many things were presented for consideration,
the hour for successful action was allowed to pass, and time was aflbrded for
the emperor to collect around hira his forces from Spain, Italy, and the Neth-
erlands. Even then, however, tho forces were nearly equal, but tho Protes-
tant princes shrunk from tho blow wliich was to decide their fate. Just at
that time news was received that Duke Maurice had taken possession of the
<D Walch vol. XII. p. 2270!«. .Viitlh^xiun, 12. Predigt p. 133».
e) W.ilch vol. X. !■. 4-.'('. vol. XV. \>. 19>0. /) De Wette vol. V. p.
396 MODEUN CUURCII III.SToi:Y. I'KIi. V. A. D. ISK-lftB.
Electornto of Saxony under tho protenco of preventing a similar act by tho
Kinjf of tho Romans. TJiis induced tlio elector to hasten hack to Saxony ;
lute in tho fall tlio allied army was disbanded, and one city after anotiier im-
plored [xirdon from tlio emperor, or purchased it with various offerings, until
tho victory on ]m side was by no means difJicult. Tho Elector of Cologne,
excommunicated by tlie pope, menaced by tho emperor, and abandoned by hia
estates, laid aside his office (Feb. 25, 1547). (a) By the commencement of
tho succeeding spring the whole of Southern Germany had been reduced to
submission without a single blow, John Frederic had in the mean time taken
possession of liis own dominions as well as those of his cousin with the ex-
ception of Dresden and Leipsic, but he was not blind to the fate impending
over him. And yet even in this extremity the princes did not tliink of tho
only means of deliverance now remaining to them, which was an appeal to
the people to rise in defence of their faith, (b) While the elector was sur-
rounded only by the vassals and mercenaries which composed his ordinary
army ho was surprised by the emperor in the forest of Lochau near MuTilherg
(Apr. 24, 1547), and compelled to run the chance of a battle. His army was
comi)letely destroyed, and he himself was taken prisoner. Ilis life was pur-
chased l)y the surrender of Wittenberg and the abdication of his croAvn. The
electorate and a part of the dominions of Ernest were bestowed upon Mau-
rice. The landgrave surrendered at discretion (June 19), and contrary to his
own expectation, and in spite of the security given by his son-in-law, he was
retained in close confinement, (c) The other members of the League, with
the exception of a few cities of Lower Germany, now also submitted.
§ 341. The Interim.
Biel; d. dreifache Interim. Lps. 1721. J. Schmiil, Ilist. intcriniistiea. Illmst, 1730. Spieker,
Beitrr. z. Gesch. d. Augsb. Int (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1851. H. 3.)
The emperor allowed of no interruption of the forms of worsliip adopted
in the several countries w^hich he had conquered, {a) and appeared anxious to
make good his previous assurance that he had no design to interfere in matters
of faith. This policy may have originated either in his desire to force the
pope to enter upon a general reform, or in his conviction that such subjectn
were beyond his jurisdiction. The only thing which he demanded Avas that
all should agree to submit to the authority of a general council at which he
engaged that all should receive reasonable and Christian treatment. But
with the view of re-establishing by his own authority the unity of the West
ern Church, he published at Augsburg (March 15, 1548) an imperial edict, in
which directions were prescribed respecting the way in which all mat
ters relating to religion should be arranged until the decision of the council. [I'')
n) Deckers, Herrn, v. Wied. p. 14Sss.
^) Comp. liommel, riiilipp. Urkundenb. p. 225.
0) For evidence of deception : L. O. Mögen, II. Captivitatis Ph. Frcf. 17G6. Rommel vol. IV'. p.
83iis3. In favor of a misunderstanding: Ratnner \o\. I. p. 547ss. Gesch. Eur. Lps. 1*32. vol. I. p
647s3. For an intentional deception : Rcntke vol. IV. p. 40Sss. Comp. Rommel in d. Moiiatbl. /.
Allg. Zeitung, April, 1S4G.
«) Comp. Biifjenhngen, "Wie es vns zn Wittenberg gegangoii ist in d. vergangnen Krieg. 1.MT. 4
l^ BUk, p. 2Ö6SS. Fonii sacror. emend, a J. Pflugio propo.'.ita, od. (7. G. Müller, Lj«. 1S03.
CHAP. L i:kfoi:mation. § an. interim. § g4-'. Maurice. 397
This Interim, which had been composed by Julius von Pflug, with the assistance
of Agricola, the court preacher of Brandenburg, and was originally intended
by the emperor tor the Catholic as well as for the Protestant states, conceded
the marriage of the clergy, the use of the cup in the sacrament, and some
iudeönite constructions of particular doctrines of the Catholic Church. Such
concessions were regarded by the emperor as of vital importance, and yet
their value was much impaired by the condition that the property of the
Church was not to be restored until the terms were agreed upon in an amica-
ble settlement. Only two of the inferior princes ventured openly to oppose
this proceeding in the diet itself, and John, Margrave of Brandenburg, with a
lofty earnestness and a bitter raillery, avowed his disgust at the noxious com-
pound thus prepared for them, (c) In many of the cities of Upper Germany
the Interim was carried into etfect by violence and threats, but its general
execution would have required another war, and one too in direct opposition
to the people. Those who had formerly preached the reformed doctrines were
now compelled to wander abroad, and in some instances they were perse-
cuted. ((/) John Frederic, who now displayed a heroic constancy and devo-
tion in his continement, rejected not only the authority of the Interim, but
that of the council also. The answer of Maurice, so far as it related to his
subjects was evasive, but he exhorted his states and the divines to concede all
that could be given up with a good conscience. It was principally in conse-
quence of this advice that the Leijmc Interim was drawn up under the di-
rection of Molancthon, in which everything decidedly contrary to evangelical
doctrine was declined, but the greater j)art of the Catholic ritual was con-
ceded, on the ground of its being indifterent (Adiaphoron). The power of
the pope and of the bishops was to bo acknowledged so long as they used it
for the edification, and not for the destruction of the Church, (e) This form
was accepted by many of the states, and was generally executed in the midst
of strenuous opposition on the part of many congrogatii)ns and pastors, and
at the expense of the expulsion or inij)risonincnt of the latter. Both Inter-
ims, however, were despised by both Catholics and Protestants.
§ 342. Maurice. 1552.
I/ortlerler vol. II. book V. Ciimerarit Or. in inemor. Maur. {Jfeiiken, Scrr. rer. Gerui. vol. 11.)
BartennUin, do bello Imperator! a Maur. lUato. Arg. 1710. 4. Langeini. (p. 894.)
Tlie German cities still remained in the possession of the foreign merce-
naries, the consciences of the people were disturbed by the ojjoration of the
Interim, or were threatened by the action of the general council, to which
the Elector of Brandenburg had already professed his submission, (a) Ger-
many appeared about to become a mere province of Spain by the accession
of the imperial prince Philip Avhich the emperor now demimded, and the
word which the young elector had pledged for the liberation of the land-
c) Wegener, Lebensgosch. d. Markg. Johannes v. Br. BrI. 1827. Ill« "Kleiner Catechlsnius " is
gfven by SjjiA'er, p. 38Cs3.
(/) E. <;. JAt)iiiiiin>i, ,T. Brontz, vol. II. p. 137js. JiiinUe vol V. p. Slaa.
e) liiek, p. 105ss. SGlss.
a) liaynald. ad a. 1&51. N. 41s.
398 mohekn cnuucn irisTonv. vvai. v. a. d. i.mi-khs.
gravo wns entirely disrcpnrded. Äfaiirice perceived tliat nothing could ro
store 111« honor in the estimation of the German people but some bold and
decisive stop. He therefore resolved that he would achieve the freedom of
the eiii|)iro and of tlic Cliurch by one bold stroke. A secret treaty wa'i
fiirinod by him with Mccklciibiirfr, tlic Mar^'rave Albert of Brandenburpr, and
the sons of tlie landgrave, and an alliance was formed, in opposition to
the advice of Melancthon, with France, by which he lost the possession of
Mentz, Toul, and Verdun. (J) An occasion was afforded for the collection
of an army by tlie pretence of executing tlie decree of outlawry which had
been issued against Magdeburg, then the home of Protestant opposition.
The susj)icions of the emperor were allayed with consummate skill. On the
20th of ^farcli, 1552, he left Tluiringin, overthrew one after another the gar-
risons of the emperor in the several cities, and on the 22d of May presented
himself before Innspruck. The emperor, though at that time enfeebled by
sickness, was obliged to escape by night, and the council fled with precipita-
tion before him. By the courage exhibited in this martial expedition, it Avas
shown that the existing religious innovations could never be put down by
force. In July (16. 29), the treaty of Passau was formed under the guaran-
ty of the empire, (r) by the terms of Avhich the landgrave was set at lib-
erty, the imperial council was to be open to those who professed the new
creed, and a diet was promised in a short time for the removal of the griev-
ances with respect to violations of the laws of the empire, and for the settle-
ment of religious differences. Only one clause in these articles, providing for
a permanent peace at least for all those who sympathized witli the Augsburg
Confession, or at all events for all who were not connected with sects con-
demned by the recess of the imperial diet, was seriously resisted by the em-
peror. The two illustrious martyrs were received by their people with great
joy and many tears. Maurice now turned his attention to an expedition
against the Turks.
§ 343. Religions Peace. Sept. 25, 1555.
I. Lehmann, Acta publ. de pace rel. d. i. Eeichsbandl. u. Protocolle d. TS. Frkf. (1631. 4.) 1707.
Suppl. 1709. f.
II. G. I.ikel. Gcsch. d. EF. Frkf. 1755. As to the spirit of the VS. {Uenkes Mag. vol. III. p.
ÜWJss.) Hatike vol. V. p. 276ss.
Maurice, while young and victorious, fell in battle (July 11th, 1553) for
the peace of Germany. After numerous hindrances, the promised diet assem-
bled üi Augslnirg. Both parties were now convinced by bitter experience
that no peace could be maintained in the empire without mutual forbearance.
The imperial council was composed of an equal number of members belong-
ing to the old and to the new fliith, all of whom were to take their oath only
'.ipon the luAv of the empire and the word of God. The right to reform the
Church was conceded to the imperial states, in spite of the continual protests
of the pap.al court in opposition to it, and it was agreed that they should
never bo oppres.sed, molested, or contemned on account of the fiuth, ecclesi-
^0 mnUiUr vol. II. p. lOOSss. c) ITortUder vol II. p. lOoTss.
CHAP. I. KEFOEMATION. § 544. CONCOEDIUM OF -WITTENBEKr,. 399
astical usages, or regulations which they had established, or niiglit afterwards
establish. It was conceded that the ntutes of the empire had a right to
retbrm tlic Church, although Rome never ceased to protest against it. The
only condition conceded to subjects was, that when they were oppressed on
account of religion, they had the right without obstruction to leave the
country, {n) "With respect to indWulual countries to which the Catholic
party were unwilling to concede religious liberty, the King of the Romans
promised to see that none of those states which had already professed adhe-
rence to the Augsburg Confession should sutler oppression on account of it.
But while it was acknowledged that the actual possession of any church or
of any ecclesiastical property, whether by spiritual or lay persons at the pre-
cise time of the treaty of Passau was valid, the Catholics demanded that all
spiritual states of the empire which should subsequently go over to the Augs-
burg Confession should by that very act forfeit all their oflices and posses-
sions. All parties perceived that the very existence of the Catholic Church
in Germany depended upon this. This article, which w;\s called the Ecclesi-
astical lUsirreition, because the states could come to no agreement respecting
it, was proclaimed by the Roman king as an actual ordinance of the diet, (//)
and became the germ of future sanguinary contests. The peace was regarded
as applicable only to those who adhered to the Confession of Augsburg and
to the votaries of the old religion, but it was looked upon as absolute until
the several parties in religion finally came to an understanding. The empe-
ror Charles took no further part in these negotiations, and was already pre-
paring to lay aside his crown and to withdraw from the world,
IV. ESTABLISnMEXT OF THE REFORMED CllUUCn FNTIL loGi.
§ 344. The Concordium of Wittenberg. Cont. from § 335.
The doctrine which had been especially established at Strasburg, afhrm-
iug a true though a spiritual participation in the body of Christ, appeared to
be consistent with all the formulae Luther had used, and could be distin-
guished from them only by the assertion that such a participation could bo
enjoyed by none but believers. On the basis of this a plan was formed by
Bucer and Cajiito, by wliich they hoped to ell'ect a union of the Swiss and
tlio "Wittenberg divines. They went personally to Wittenberg, and there
sußered tlieir orthodoxy to bo severely tersted. They finally subscribed a
Concordium composed by Mclancthon (May 25, 153Ü), the phraseology of
which was so strictly Lutheran that it could bo reconciled with their own
faith only by some peculiar and private explanalitm, {ei) which sometimes con-
founded together and sometimes distinguislied between the unworthy and tho
unbelieving. But as Luther did not object to these explanations, the Con-
cordium was accepted by most of the Swiss, and the different parties were
a) Rudoljihi, Oe cmigr. subditoruin ct expiiK ErI. 175G. 4.
V) Frirk (pr. //tieherlitio), do rcservnto eca e.K ineiite Pods rcl. rjus<{iiü ctloctibiis ac feUs.
Hhnst. 1755. 4.
(/) Corp. Hf/. vo!. III. p. 758S. E brard yo\. II. p. 8S2ss. .A'»te«c/i, Urkiinleiib. d. Ev. Union.
Bonn. 1>5:5. p. COs.
40U MnMKKN CUUUCII IIISTOKY. VIA'.. V. A. I). 1M7-1Ö1S.
repordcd as iiiiifod. (/<) But Lutlicr was convinced that there wan no real
Tiiiioii, and as lio lelt utterly nvcrse to the whole Zwinglian «chool, and hus-
pecti'd Mi'hitictliDii Iiimself, (r) ho once more renewed the controversy in tlie
Tnost violent manner. He was now fast tending to the grave, and he wag
thorc'tbre anxious tliat his testimony against these fanatics and soul-destroyers
might ho left unimpaired. ('/) In this manner the schism between the.se two
great parties of the Keformation was restored, (e) There is no apparent foun-
dation for the common report, that in his last days he felt any ai)prehen3ions
tliat lie had been too violent in his opposition to the people of Zurich. {/)
§ 345. Italian Switzerland,
J. Stnnehier, II. lit de Genive. Gen. 17S0. SUiudlin im KIIisL Arcli. 1824. vol. II. V. II.
Kirchhofer, Leben Willi. Farels. Zur. ISSls. 2 vols. CA. Schmidt, Etudes sur Farel. Strasb. 18*4. 4.
Ch. Cheneviere, Farel, Froment, Virct Reformatcurs religieux. Gen. 15-35. Jarjuemot, Viret, Eo-
formateur de Lausanne. Strasb. 1836. 4. Ituchat and Merle d'Auhiyne. [Hist of the lief, in Switz.
and France. New York. 1S47. 12. (p. 860.) /. Spoji, Hist of tlie City and State of Geneva, &c coll.
froui Mas. &.C. Loud. 16S7. f.J
Tiie reformed faith had been preached after 1527 on the borders of Savoy
and France. The people of Geneva regarded the bishops appointed over
them by the Dukes of Savoy as the uniform and stanch enemies of their
municipal rights. After many severe disturbances, however, the influence
of Savoy was finally overthrown by means of an alliance with Berne, the
Reformation was triumphantly successful, and Geneva became a member of
the Swiss Confederation (1535). After the victory of the people of Berne
in the Canton de Vaud, the Keformation triumphed there also, and subse-
quently to a religious conference at Lausanne (Oct. 1536) was formally intro-
duced. At the head of this religious movement stood larel (d. 15G5), a
native of Dauphine. He had been educated in liberal studies, but to only a
limited extent, under the instruction of Faber, and had taken part in all the
controversies respecting the Keformation in the surrounding country. In
word and in deed he may be said to have been an Elias, who, though often
in danger of death, overthrew an ecclesiastical system which he regarded as
idolatry. In comparison with his style of speaking, the vigorous eloquence
of Vii'et had the appearance of only a mild persuasion. The constitution of
Geneva, however, still continued unsettled, the morals of the people disso-
lute, the people themselves uncultivated, and even the higher degrees of edu-
cation corrupt.
§ 346. John Calvin. July 10, 1509-J/f/?/ 27, 1564.
L Epp. et responsa. Gen. 1576. f. Opera. (Gen. 1617. 12 vols, f ) Amst 1671. (1667.) 9 vols. C
Calvini, Bezae, I/eiir. IV. aliorumqne literao qu-iedam. ed. BreUchneider, Lps. 15.35. L'bist de la
vie et mort d. J. Calv. par Theod. de Bese, Gen. 1564. 4. 1565. Lat in tbe Epp. and often. Epi-
grams: Bol«ec, Hist de la vie de Calv. Tar. 1577. and often. Gen. 1S35. [Beza's Life of C. transL
by F. Gibaon, and notes by an Am. Ed. Pbilad. 1S36. 12.]
I) De VTette vol. V. p. 83ss. c) U'a^cÄ vol. XVIL p. 2520ss. p. 2627s8.
d) Kurzes Bek. v. h. Sacr. Witt 1544. 4. ( Walch vol. XX. p. lOOlss.)
*) Corp. Rff. vol. V. p. 475.
/) At first in the Responslo sd narrat 'Würtembni^ensium de coUoq. Maulbrnn. Hdlb. 1565.
On the other side: A'. Ströbel, die Legende v. Lutb. Uebertritt z. Calvinism. (Zeitsch. £ Luth. Tbeoi
u. K. 1S40. IL 2.)
CHAP. I. REFORMATION. § 846. CALVIN. BEZA. 40 J
II. BrtUchneider, Bildiine a. Geist C. u. d. Genfer K. (Ucf. Aim. 1S21.) P. Henry, Leben G
Ilamb. 1S35-1-1. 3 vols. [Life of Ciilvin, traiisl. from tlie Germ, of P. Henry by // Stehhing, Lond.
.852. 2 vois. S.] ,/ A. Jfirjnft, d. Einf. d. Ref. u. d. Verf. d. Calvinism in Genf. A. d. Fr. v. Stolz,
Lpz. 1848. [J. Mackenzie, Life of C. Lond. ISSl. 12. T. Smi/tA, Obsk«. on the Life and Cliar. of C.
Philad. 1835. la Art in Kitto's Jourual of Bibl. Lit. vol. IIL and VII.]
■Calvin (Cauvin) was a native of Noyon in Picardy, and was always
ardently attached to France. He was originally educated for the Church,
and even when a hoy had the charge of a congregation. At a later period
he acquired some distinction as a jurist, and tinally, under the influence of
the Reformation, became a theologian. In consequence of a bold declaration
in behalf of the Reformation, which he made through the Rector of Paris,
he was obliged to become a fugitive (1533), and published at Basle his Insti-
tutes of the Christian Religion, in which his object was to vindicate the
Reformation from the aspersions cast upon it in France. Tliis work was
even then complete with respect to Cliristian doctrine, but by subsequent
revisions it became the noblest scientific vindication of evangelical Augustin-
ism which has ever been given to the world, and is full of profound religious
sentiments in connection with a bold, relentless carrying out of his principles
to their utmost logical consequences, (a) From the very fact of the abso-
lute omnipotence uf God and the ab.solute dependence of men, he inferred
that God had by an eternal decree created some for salvation and others only
equally guilty for destruction. "With respect to the Lord's Supper, he struck
out an intermediate scheme, according to which believers spiritually though
really partake of the very body of Christ which was exalted to the right
hand of God. His representation of the controversy was mild, and the posi-
tion which he gave to Luther was far superior to that which he assigned to
Zwingle. (h) Having wandered for some time witliout any fixed residence in
various parts of Italy and France, Calvin was authoritatively stopped by
Farel in the name of God as ho was passing through Geneva (1536). As ho
believed himself by nature too much inclined to tenderness and timidity, he
fortified his powerful mind by a faith as severe against others as himself. Ho
gradually became more and more austere toward those who opposed him, and
shrunk not from making use of even the most formidable measures against
them, (e) He was not destitute of profound sensibilities, but ho was averse
to all earthly enjoyments, indifferent to popular favor, and exercised a com-
I»lete control over the minds of others by the awe inspired by the simple
power of a firm will, and after a tliree years' banishment (1538ss.) by the
terrors of an ecclesiastical discipline. His opponent«, the Libcrtim^, were
partly those who had succeeded the Fraternity of tlie Free Spirit (Spirituels),
and had embraced all the practica consequences of the doctrine of a sole
universal Spirit, to wliom all things and events were to be a.scribed, ('/) and
partly of those who, Avith various degrees of moral character, were anxious
to avoid the heavy yoke of the Reformation. (<■) By the theocratic power
a) Instltutio clir. rcligionis ad Reg. Franc. Ba.i. 15.36. Argent 15.19. Gen. l.V>9. f. and oft. den. ed,
Thohick, Ber. IS-Ms. 2 P. [Transl. Into Engl. 2 vol». 8. Pliliad. K41. and olUn.]
b) De 8. Coena. 1545. at first in Fr. 1540. Comp. Henry vol. I. p. 270.S
c) Henry vol. II. p. 425ss. 485.ss. 489.-«.
d) Ciilv. Instriictio adv. fanutlcam sectam LibiTtlnoriim 544.
«) Henry vol. I. p. 431.'S.
20
402 MoDKUN cnui:cii iiisToitv. ri:ii. v. a. d. 1017-1019.
wliicli Calvin establislicd over tlio state, but which sometimes wavered ; by
tlio [»iiblic. interest Aviiicli lie awakened in ecclesiastical afTairs, and by the
estal)lishMK'nt of a representative constitution intimately connected with the
civil power, he gave to his ecclesiastical system a strictly regulated freedom.
By his jiublislied writings, by his personal counsels, by his public services,
and by the theologians whom he educated, his influence tnumphed over tho
Zwinglian school, extended itself far beyond tho limits of Switzerland, and
subjected even the people of Zurich to its power. (/) Through his influence
Geneva became a republic, firmly established, governed by an oligarchy, i)er-
vadcd by an ecclesiastical spirit, and renowned in the history of the world.
Thither resorted all who during that age were persecuted for their faith, and
it became tho acknowledged centre of a Ilrformcd Church. ((/) His work
was faithfully carried out by Theodore Beza (1519-1005), who had risen to
maturity in tho most brilliant circumstances in France, and as a promising
Humanist had like Abelard enjoyed at ono period the highest pleasures of
science and of social life, but had at last found safety in the Reformed
Church. He there became the faithful colleague of Calvin, but he was more
beloved. With his reformatory views he combined his former humanistic
culture, (Ä) and finally attained an extensive literary and ecclesiastical influ-
ence, which made him the patriarch of the Reformation to the succeeding
generation. (/)
Mli'^'f
CHAP. II.— ESTABLISHMENT OF A PROTESTANT ORTHODOXY.
I. LrTDERAXISM.
ScJilitsselburff, Catalog! Ilaeroticor. Frcf. 1597-9. 13 1. (7 vols.) J. Jfusaei Pradl. in Epit F.
Cone. Jen. 1701. 4. Löscher, (§ 335.) fortges. v. Kieding, (till 1601.) Schwab. 1770. 4. J. G. Walch,
hist n. ttieol. Eiul. in d. R. Streitigkeiten. 2 ed. Jen. 177.3. 3 vols. Planck : prot. Lchrbeg. 4-6 vols.
Biid Gescb. d. piot. Th. v. d. Concordienf. b. Mitte d. IS. Jahrh. Gott 1S81. U. Ileppe, Gesch. d.
deutschen Protest I555-S1. Marb. lS52s. (till 1574.) 2 vols.
§ 347. Antinomian and Oslandrian Controversies.
I. Wulch vol. XX. p. 2014SS. Corp. Ref. vol. I. p. 915ss. Rateberger, p. 965s. Förstemann'
noueä Urliundcnb. vol. L p. 29Iss.— C L. Kitzsck, de antinoinismo Agr. 2 Pgir. Vit 1S04. 4 (De
(iL^T. revelat Vit. 1S31. Fsc. II. N. 9s.) A. WeiieUer, de antin. Agr. Strals, Is-'O. 4. K. J. Kitssch,
Ü. Gesetz u. Ev. (Deutsche Zeitschr. 1S51. N. 10.) E. Ehcert, do antinomia Agr. Tur. liSl.—R
KordeSy Agr. Sclirr. möglichst vollständig verzeichnet Alton.-u 1S17.
IL \cU Osiandristica. Königsb. 1553. 4. F. Funccii, wahrh. Bericht, wie d. Sp.alt v. d. Ge-
rechtlgk. d. Gl. sich Im L. Preussen erhoben. Koen. 1653. 4. J. Moerlin, llist d. Os. Schwermerey.
(Rruschw. 1554.) i.—Ilartknoch, Preuss. KGesch. Frk£ 16S6. 4. p. 809ss. F. C. Raur, Inq. in Os.
do juslif. doctr. Tub. 1S31. 4. J. C. LeIinercU, de Os. vita et doctr. Ber. 1S35. Jlid. Cmtt de Os.
1S35SS. 4 Pgg. U. Wilken, Os. Leben, Lehre u. Sclirr. Abth. 1. Strals. 1S44. 4.
Luther's fundamental doctrine of justification by faith alone was quite as
much opposed to moral levity as to ascetic self-torture. It caused the mind to
/) Consensus T'^rinns. 1549. Kiemeyer, Col. Conf. p. 191ss. cf. XLIss. Comp. JTundeshageii.
i. Conflicte d. Zwinglianismiis, Luthcrth. u. Calvinism in d. Bernischen Landesk. Bern. 1S42.
ff) Ilenkf, 12 Beil. zu Villers.
h) E. g. Bt^za, Icones, i. e. imagines vlrorum doctrina simul et pictate illustr. Gen. 1S50. 4.
j) Fiijits, de Vila et obitu Th. B. Gen. \(,i)(>.— Schlosser, Leben des Th. de Beza n. P. Martyi.
Ddlb. 1*U9. J. W. B.utm, Tli. Beza. Lpz. 18*3-51. 2 vols.
CHAP. II. LÜTUEKAXISM. § S47. AGEICOLA. OSIANDER. 403
penetrate deeper into its own nature, and conveyed in it^■elt' the highest
moral earnestness and the most cheerful energy of a new life in Christ. By
its very nature, however, it was liable to be misunderstood by its friends as
well as its enemies. Agricola of Eisleben, after 1536 a professor at Witten-
berg, and after 1540 a court preacher in Berlin (d. 15CG), contended, in
opposition to Melaucthon in 1527, and to Luther in 1537, that in the sphere
of Christianity the law of God had no jdace, and hence that the gospel,
which killed as well as quickened, should be the only theme of preaching. («)
lie had reference to the Catholic doctrine of justification by works, and to
the Mosaic law, which he confounded with the moral law, while Luther had
reference to the law expressed in the Decalogue, and in the conscience as a
perpetual schoolmaster to bring us to Christ. Agricola was probably influ-
enced by an idle vanity as well as by this obscurity of views, but with all his
talents, his cheerfulness and popularity, lie humbled himself (/<) when in an
independent position before even the unjust re[>roachcs of Luther, Avho con-
tended that such an onset upon the divine law was dangerous to all moral
seriousness. (<) In this controversy, however, was involved the deeper prin-
ciple, that man still possessed sufficient moral goodness to apprehetid what is
best for him out of love to Christ, without the fear of the law or of hell. In
this we may discover its affinity with various disputes respecting human works
and divine co-operation, which have been several times renewed since 1556,
but always with tlie same obscurity of views. — To guard against the danger-
ous error that Christ's merits merely cover our sinl'ul nature, and are im-
puted to the believer in an external way, Andreas Otiiandcr, the reformer of
Nureraburg, and a man remarkable for his Scriptural knowledge, maintained
that Christ becomes our righteousness in his divine nature and by dwelling
essentially in the believer, and in general, that if man had never fallen, the
incarnation would still have taken place to complete the divine imago in
human nature. (</) He even succeeded in jiroducing some kindred expres-
.sions of Luther, which had been written in the sjärit of the old mysticism, (f)
and Luther, who was aware of his morbid sensibility, declined any contro-
versy with him. (/) But when he was by the operation of the Interim
driven from Nuremburg, and was placed by his friend Albert, Duke of Bran-
denbui-g, at the head of ecclesiastical atlairs in Prussia ; above all when he
proclaimed his doctrine in its boldest contrast witli the theological sentiments
of Luthci" and tlie other reformers, in which justitication an as always repre-
sented as a judicial sentence of God with respect to the believer, (;/) nearly
every Lutheran divine denounced his positiitn as a relapse to the Catbolio
amalgamation of divine grace witli human merit. In Prussia, Oslander tri-
umphed by driving his opponents into banishment. After his death (1562),
a) IS Pcsitlone». {Förxtemann vol. 1. p. 313-s.)
6) Föi-sUmann vol. I. p. 849.
c) 6 Disputiitiiincs. 15.'JS. 40. (Lnth. 0pp. Jen. vol. I. p. SlTss.)
d) Ileherle, Os. Lehre in Hirer früliefttn Gestalt. (Stuil. u. Krit 1544. H. 2.)
«) Etliche schiino Sprüche v. d. Kechlf. <1. 01. il. Ehrw. Luther, vertlulinctsclit v. Ostanil Kiin.
651. 4. /) De yVette vol. IV. p. 4S6.
g) Disputt. II. una do lege cc cvang., altera do Justif. Hog. 1550. 4. Von d. einigen Mittler a
Kcclitf. Bfkenntnuss. KOn. 1551. 4.
104 MODEBN CUUKOn HISTORY. VKU. V. A. I>. 1517-164S
his soii-iii-l.'iw FiiKc/,; at tlio head of a party, sought and obtained reconcilia-
tion with ihoso who belonged to Melancthon'a school. But as all invasions
of tlio civil as well as the ecclesiastical constitution were imputed to liim
who controlled the duke's conscience, a i)olitical party favored by the Polish
feudal sovereign, coobined with his theological enemies against him. The
controversy was terminated by th« execution of Funck (1560), and the con-
domnatiou of Osiander's doctrines as an essential heresy. (A)
§ 348. Lutherans and Philippists. General Affairs.
The controversy respecting the Lord's Supper had given to the Refonna-
tion a tendency toward the letter of the creeds. Luther had foreseen that
this would become a pernicious source of theological quarrels, and yet he
was among the first to commence them. Melancthon was the personal friend
of Calvin, on whose breast he had often reclined his weary head, (a) A con-
ciliatory impression had also been made upon Luther's mind by Calvin's doc-
trine of the Lord's Supper, and both of these reformers had a high esteem for
one another, (h) But in the exasperation which Luther felt in his last days
toward the divines of Zurich, all who would not recognize the natural body of
Christ in the sacred Supper were looked upon as belonging to the same gene-
ral batch. In the later editions of the Confession of Augsburg, Melancthon
unconsciously made some alterations in accordance with his own gradual de-
velopment. These were confined principally to the tenth article, in which
every thing inconsistent with the views prevalent in Upper Germany was
obliterated. This " explanatory, and in some respects enlarged Confession ''
of 1540, (c) which even Calvin subscribed as the deputy from Strasbourg,
became henceforth the general banner of the Reformation. TTithout noticing
any essential change, men generally regarded it in the same light as the ori-
ginal confession, until an express ratification of it was called for at an assem-
bly of princes at Naumlurg in 1561. Here a declaration in favor of the
'Unchanged Confession of Augsburg met with opposition from the Duke of
Saxony, and gave occasion to the reproach that internal divisions prevailed
among the Protestants. A new generation of princes therefore nnited to-
gether and put their seals to the old confession. (J) Although the path into
which Melancthon was led by Luther was more elevated than what he would
have followed if he had been left to himself, it was in some respects also
uncongenial with his peculiar temperament. But even during Luther's last
years, when he frequently expected to be sent from the University, and some-
times felt himself subjected by Luther's stubborn and imperious spirit to a
rather dishonorable servitude, (t) he was actually exerting a supreme author ■
h) Historie t. Funk ex actis publ. (Acta Borussica. Kön. 1732. vol. IIL p. 217. 811. 471ss.)— Corpus
ioctr. Prutenicum. 1567.
a) Henry, Calv. vol. I. p. 244ss. 86S. 3T5.
l) C. IT. Pezel, Erzähl, r. Sacramentstr. Brcm. 1600. p. 137ss. "WTiat lias been cited in ITenri/,
Calv. vol. I. p. 2C5S3. and in Ebrard, Abendm. vol. IL p. 474äS. is more to be relied upon.
c) Libri Sj-mb. s. Concordia. eiL ITust, ed. 8. p. IX. XIIss.
rf) G. P. Iloenn, d. v. d. ev. Ständen zu Jfaumb. geh. Convents. Frkt 17i4. X R Gelhke, d
S'arstenUg zu N. Lps. 1793. Heppe vol. I. p. 86438.
Corp. lie/, vol. V. p. 471 476s. 49S.— vol. VL p. SSO.
Cn.vr. II. LUTÜEEANISM. § 34S. PHILIPPISM. § 349. STNEEGISM. 405
ify at "Wittenberg. The hearts of these excellent men, however, always
affectionately returned to each other. (/) "When the storm of war had
passed away, the University was re-established under the auspices of Melanc-
thon, and the system of doctrines which he had fonned, referring every
thing to man's moral and religious wants, was generally adopted. But so
deep was the impression which Luther had left upon the spirit of the age,
that many could find salvation only in the words and forms which he had
sanctioned. Hence, when Melancthon was induced by his attachment to the
new elector, and .sometimes by his forgetful ne.'^s of his relations to the world
at large in his extreme love of literary tranquillity, to seek for an easy
method of establishing peace with tlie ancient Church by means of the Inter-
im, Flacius resigned his professorship at "Wittenberg (lö-iS), and in Magde-
burg invoked the spirit of Luther against Melancthon's perfidy to the Church.
This proscribed city was then an asylum for tho.?e divines who felt o[)pressed
by the weight of Melancthon's autJiority, and who entertained apprehensions
for the purity of the Lutheran faith. Even when the adiaphoristic contro-
versy had lost all practical importance, its agitation still hngered in the dis-
cussion of the question Avhether any but iuditierent points were surrendered
in the Interim, and whether even inditferent things may be surrendered to
the enemies of the gospel, (g) To maintain an intellectual contest with the
new electoral house and with "Wittenberg, then suspected of being possessed
by a Calvinistic devil, and to constitute a fortress for genuine Lutheranism in
general, the L^niversity of Jena, with a charter from the emperor and the bless-
ing of heaven, was founded (1548-58) by the .sons of John Frederic, who
in troublous times confided in the future, (h) Filled with anxieties for the
harmony of the Church, Melancthon was finally delivered from this sophistic
iaecidum^ and from the wrath of the theologians (April 19, 1560). •
§ 349. Synergistic Controversy.
Luther opposed to the requirement of merely external works made by
the Roman Church, and to the Pelagian notion of the merit of human acts,
the doctrine that good works were not iudisjjcnsable to salvation. To pre-
vent the abuse which might be made of this a.«sertion, Melancthon asserted
in his revised Confession of 1535, that good works were truly necessar}-, but
in no respect meritorious. Such an expression had been disapproved of by
Luther, and when it was afterwards incorporated in the Interim, it was capa-
ble of an interjiretation favoralde to the necessity of good works in the
Catholic sense. Hence, in opposition at first to Major, who used it to sup-
/) Luther In the Praof. to the 1st vol. of the Witt. Ojip. and In h's last Letters, Mel. In bis Tcst«-
ineut of 1540. (Corp. /.V/ vol. III. p. S25.) and In his Funiral Disc,
O) Wieder d. sehniiden Teiifi-1, d. I. wider des Interim durch Carolurn .Vzarlam. 1540. 4. FlacU
Serf. c. Interim ct adiaphora edlta. Magdb. 1050. Comp. IJluk and Schinld. (§ 341.) — On Luther's
side: RaUeherger, Ilist arcana, piven l>y Arnold In his KGescli., and last by Str.bol, .\lld. 1774, a
falsification of the genuine work of the Physician to the Elector of Saxony. On the Phllipplst .»Ide :
J. Jfiijor, Synodus avium. (Scripta publ. Acad. Witt vol I IL Eidt. by C. £. Schtcarz, In Zeltsch.)
t unirte K. 1536.^^'. 18.
/() Melancth. Brief w. ü, d. Gründung d. Univ. Jen«, zusammengeht, v. /f. ]Veisiifnhoi-n, Jens.
1S4S.
lOG m(»i>ei:n ciiri:cii iiistout. ri:n. v. a. d. 1517-1049.
l>f>rt thi' Iiitoriin, Aimdorf maintained that justification by mere graco was
ill tliis way dt-iiiücl, and as long as the nature of good works, and the kind of
coniioc'tiou wliic.h tlicy must necessarily have to salvation, was not defined,
he succeeded in j)roving witli Paul tiiat good works wore pernicious to salva-
tion, ('/) just as lie afterwards asserts the same thing of human learning, (i)
This obscurity of thought and bitterness of feeling was only increased at a
religious conference at Altenlurg (1508). (c) Luther had at one time boasted
much of the absolute omnipotence of God, and did not shrink from absolute
l>rodestination as the necessary inference from the Augustinian doctrine of
original sin. But Mclancthon^ that he might avoid at the same time the ter-
rors of tliis doctrine and those of Polagianism, began to maintain in 1535, in
more and more decided terms, that in conversion the will of man consented
and conspired with the grace of God. Luther had been silent upon this
subject, for his own heart was a witness to him against his system, and in
behalf of the universality of divine mercy. In the Interim, this Synergism
was incorporated as a concession to the Catholic Semi-Pelagianism. A work
having been published at Leipsic by P/effinger in favor of this synergistic
doctrine, Amsdorf publicly opposed it. ('/) The professors at Wittenberg
were obliged to defend Pfeffinger's party. On the other hand, those at Jena,
led on by Flacii/s, took up the controversy and endeavored to prove that the
natural man could never co-operate with the divine influence in the heart,
but was always in opposition to it. In accordance with the sentiments of
this party, a confutation of all the heresies Avhich then survived, and espe-
cially of Synergism, was sent forth for the acceptance of the evangelical
states, with the authority of the ducal court, (c) But even at Jena there was
a party fiivorable to this Synergism, and Victorine Strlgclim^ its leader, was
violently -thrown into prison. (/) By various solicitations, however, the
court was induced to allow a disputation to be held at Weimar between
Strigelius and Flacius (1560). (y) In opposition to the inquisitorial tribunal
of Flacius at Jena, a ducal consistory was established at "Weimar, to which
was committed the censorship of the press and the exclusive right of excom-
munication, ^hen the party of Flacius in the name of Christ complained
of this subjugation of the Church, demanded that the liberty of the press as
a divine right should be restored, and in their appeals to the people opposed
with increasing violence this papacy of the princes, (Ji) they were banished from
a) Dass die Propositio : gute Werke sind z. Seligk. schädlich, eine rechte ehr. Prop, sei, durch d.
h. Paulhim n. Lutherum gepredigt Without place. 15D9. 4.
li) Wie christlich u. treulich Hesshus. ni. d. II. Schrift u. mir handelt Mngdeb. 1564. 4.
c) Acta colloquii Altenb. Lp?. 1570. t.—Löber, ad II. coli. Altenb. animadvv. Alt 1776. 4. J/n-
jorU Opp. 1569. 3 vols. f. with autobiog. in the 1st vol.
d) Pfeffinger, Propos. de üb. arbitrio. Lps. 1556. Ämsdorf, öffentL Eck. d. reinen L. d. Ev. ii.
Confutatio d. jetzigen Schwärmer. Jen. 155S.
e) Solida ex verbo Dci suinta confutatio et condemnatio praecip. corruptelarnm, sectarum et erro-
rum. Jen. 1559. 1 (Corpus doct Thuring.)
/) IL Erdmann (I'r. J. Gerluvdo) de Strigelianismo. Jen. 1G5S. Ilan. 1675. 4 Merz^(VT. Weis-
manno) II. vitao et controv. Strig. Tub. 1732. 4. J. C. T. Otto, de Strig. liberioris mentis in Ecc.
lutli. vindice. Jen. 1S43.
g) {Sim. Mumem) Disp. inter Flae. et Vict Tinnriae habita. Brem. 1563. 4. (Unsch. Kach. 1740. p.
Vm.) (Flacius) Ereälil. wie d. Streit Tictoriui endlich geschlichtet worden. AVithout ptice. 1563. 4.
/i) Resp. pro prclorum übertäte; Jen. 1501. and others.— Sii/<V vol. III. p. CSOss. Planck vol IV
p. 61'.2»s.
CHAP. II. LUTHERANISM. § 350. CKYPTO-CALVINISM. 407
the country (Dec. 1561), and the theological faculty was filled by the advic«
of llie party at Wittenberg. But -when the unfortunate Duke John Frederic
was overthrown (1507), the opponents of the school of Melancthon Avere
once more triumphant. The friends of Flacius were recalled, though ho
liimself remained in exile. In the disputation which he had held in "Weimar,
lie had been urged to the assertion that original sin was the very essence of
man. But when he attempted to establish this extravagant assertion, which
\^ as at the time but slightly considered, and as an indefinite expression of
I'ocling was by no means unprecedented, it was supposed to imply that either
(j«)d was the author of sin, or that man was created by the devil. Hence
even the former friends of Flacius became his bitter opponents, (j) Avoided
as this man seems to have been by the society of his day, be was the inti-
mate friend of Luther, and possessed the very spuüt of a Gregory. lie
opened the path to every kind of knowledge then regarded as indispensable
to Pro,testant science, but expended his talents upon the smallest trifles and
the most useless controversies, and died at last in extreme poverty. (/•)
§350. Crypto- Call- iimm. Cont. f/wn ^ SH.
Lüicher and others, before § 335. — Peuceri Hist carcerum et llberationis <iiv. cil. Pezel, Tig.
1605. — Frimel, Wittebcrga a Calv. divesata et divinitiis libcrata d. i. Ver. wie der sacrain. Teufel in
Sacbsenland eingedrungen. Witt, 1G46. 4 — irt//t7(, Bibl. Theol. vol. II. p. SSSss. Eidintadii Nar. do
C Peuc. Jen. 1S41. 4. £. A. //. Ileimhurg, de C. Peuc. Jen. 1S41.
Altliougli by continual conflicts with himself, ÜJolancthon finally suc-
ceeded in believing that the actual body of Christ was present in the Lord's
Supper, (a) he decidedly refused all fellowship with Zwingle's imaginary
Christ, {b) By the suggestion at first of Bucer (153-i), he regarded it as suf-
ficient to believe that the whole Christ was present, and was imparted in the
sacred ordinance, and yet ho did not hesitate to call this, in the language
ordinarily used in the Roman Church, a communication of the flesh and
blood of Christ, (c) lie accordingly maintained fellowship with the divines
of Zurich, {>[) even when Luther ha<l once mure renounced it ; and as he was
convinced that neither Li'.ther's nor Calvin's doctrine of the sacrament was
an insuperable bar to a savmg communion with Christ, ho thought ho might
comply with the suggestions of his own timidity and inclination, and allow
both of them to continue in the Church. Hence, when Westphal of Ham-
burg furiously assailed Calvin with the assertion that the real incarnate body
of Ciirist was present in the bread, — when he saw the noble John of Lcisl-i,
who believod iu>t only in the symbol but in the mystery of the sacrament,
with his foreign congregation, driven from England, and refused an asylum in
all parts of Protestant Gcrnuiny as robbers, poisoners, and martyrs of the
devil, — and wiien Calvin himself solemnly agi'eeJ with the Confession of Augs-
»■) Literary history In Wttlcli, Bibl. Theol. vol. II. p. öüTssl
I) C. IMdclin, elir. Predljit u. d. Leiche Hn. FI. Märtyrers J. Ch. Frkf. 1575. 4.— C // LCher,
(Pr. J. Oerkanio) de I'liiclnnismo. Jen. 1(m\ 4. J. li. JtilU'i; Fl. Li'ben u. Tod. Frkf. u. Lps
(1723.) nae. £. a. ll. Ueimhurg, de Fl. lllyr. Jen. l'*4i. Tuentfn, Fl. Illyr. mit. Bell. v. I/. /iV»
lel, Brl. 1S44. E. Schmid, Fl. Erbs. Streit lil>t. lit, (Zeltsch. C hist Th. 1S49. II. Is.)
(() Corp. liff. vol. I. p. HOC. V) Und. p. IOC«. luCS. 1070. 1077. 1ÜS4.
c) Jbid. vol. HI. p. 514.— vol. IX. p. 491». </) Ibid. vol. V. p. 342s.
403 MODKKN (•IIIKCII IIl.STOIiV. VFAl. V. A. T). ISlT-lftl.S.
bnr^? m it was explained by its own author, (e) Melancthon avoided a distinct
dcclnrntion of Iiis sentiments on this sulyect ; (/) and it was not until the doc-
trine of the omnipresence of Christ's body (ubiquity), which had been hastily
nicntiotiod by Luther, was proposed as the only saving basis of the Holy Sup»
per, and made by Brentz the law of the Church in "Würtembcrfr, (y) that ho
expressed his disapprobation that such novel articles in such provincial Latin
phould be introduced into the symbols of faith. (/() ]}ut the theolog-ical school
which he left behind him thought that salvation could bo obtained only in a
Calvinistic sacrament, and was opposed to another which looked npon Cal-
vinism as only a bridge to Mohammedanism, and supposed that their eternal
salvation might be eaten, and that a personal violence Avas inflicted upon tho
God-man when the consecrated bread or wine was accidentally injured. (;')
Those belonging to the former school were sufficiently numerous in Electoral
Saxony to form a powerful party in the court under the direction of Peucn\
a learned physician and a member of the elector's privy council. The eftects
of this controversy in Lower Saxony and in the Rhenish Palatinate were per-
ceptible not merely in the theological schism which it produced there, but iu
all ecclesiastical and political relations. The Elector Augustus avowed his
faith in Luther's sentiments, even when he knew not precisely what they
were. The Philippists therefore found it necessary to preserve the sem-
blance of Lutheran orthodoxy, that they might avoid the complaints of their
opponents. Through their influence the elector was induced to bestow legal
authority upon a collection of Melancthon's writings, X^-) and as soon as he
had attained a guardian power over Jena, to expel the zealots "Wigand and
Ilesshusius from their professorships and from his territories (1573). In an
anonymous pamphlet, which appeared without the co-operation but with the
recommendation of the Philippist professors, Melancthon's doctrine of the
Lord's Supper was shown to be the only true one, the various views of the
Lutherans were opposed as papistic, and the remarkable prosperity which
was visible in the Reformed churches in and around Germany was pointed
out as an evidence of the divine favor and agreement with them. (/) The
suspicions of the elector were awakened by the denunciations of the princes
on account of this book, and some intercepted letters showed that the object
of the Philippists was to draw him over to the Calvinistic faith. The re-
ward which the divines received for this proceeding, was the banishment or
imprisonment of themselves and all who favored them at court. Prayers
were offered up in all the Saxon churches for the extermination of the Cal-
vinistic heresy, and a medal was struck in commemoration of this triumph
of Christ over human reason and the devil.
f) Hist and Lit. in Ebrard, Abendm. vol. 11. p. 582?«.
/) Corp. nef. vol. VIII. p. 8G2. vol. IX. p. 874.
I/) Confc«sio et doctr. in Dnc. Wirt do vera praes^ntia corp. J. C. (Acta publ. Ecc. Wirt cd.
rji-fff. Tub. 1720. 4. p. 8348.) Brenz de personali unione, duarum natur. in Ch. 1061. 4.
h) Corp. r.ef. vol. IX. p. 1034. Opinions in Fred. III. : Judicium de C. Dom. Heidelb. 1560.
Comp. Ileppf, Protest vol. II. p. 8S5s. Spitker, Job. Musculus. (Zeitscli. f. hist Tb. 1S49. U. 3.;)
*) Corp. doctr. Pliilippicnm s. Misnicum. Lps, IMO. f. and often.
t) Exegesis perspicua ct ferme Integra controversiao do s. coena. Without place or ye.ir. (Ed. bj
Ibe publblier Vügelein at I.eips. 1574. with tlie marks of a Genevan printer, but composed by the ^i
lealaji physician Joachim Curaeus, a piipll of Mclar.c'.hon.) Comp. Ilepi^e vol. II. p. 103. 4G7ss.
CHAP. IL LUTHEEANISM. § a"Jl. AXDEEAE FOKM OF CONCORD. 400
§ 351. Efforts at Concord.
ITospiniani Cone, dlscors. Ti?. IfinT. Gen. 1C7?. C ITutteri, Cone Concors. Vit 1614. f. Lp».
690. 4. Anton, Gesch. d. C. F. Lps. 1779. 2 vol?.
The Lutherans were now victorious, but it was no very difficult thing for
their opponents to recover themselves. In the form of the Eucharist which
had been forced upon the churches, the sentiments of Melancthon Avere
represented as identical with those of Luther, {a) and the spirit of iifelanc-
thon still reigned in the churches of other countries. The shamo which
many felt on account of these internal dissensions, Avas increased by tho
reproach of tho Catholics. But the only Avay by Avhich the dogmatic spirit
of that age could think of attaining unanimity, Avas by a confession of faith
constructed on the most scientific principles, and deciding by the highest
authority the controversies then agitating the Church, and all others of infe-
rior importance. Jacob Andrcae, the indefatigable and pliant but tenacious
chancellor of Tubingen, endeavored to obtain the honor of completing tho
Eeformation by composing such a Avork. In the accomplishment of hie pur-
pose he turned his attention especially to the princes of the several coun-
tries, (b) He was, however, repelled by both Lutherans and Philippists,
until, after the overthroAv of the latter, the Elector Augustus became a leader
iu the affair. After various assemblies of clergymen, much preparation (c)
and many corrections, a number of distinguished divines were convened
from the established churches of different provinces in a monastery at Berg.
In the last revision, performed entirely by Andrcae, with the assistance of
Selnecker and Chemnitz, who had been educated under Philippistic influ-
ences, every thing Avhich looked like Philipjiism Avas stricken out. (</) In
this manner, Avith the utmost caution and fear of exaggeration, tho Form of
Concord Avas completed on the 28th of May, 1577. The Scriptures are recog-
nized in it as the only rule of faith, but their entire agreement Avith Luther
is presupposed. Not only should the gospel be preached as tho only means
of salvation, but the laAv should be proclaimed as a terror to evil-doers, for
the di.scoA'ery of sin, and for the discipline and instruction of believers. It
concedes that there are indifferent tilings (Adiaphora) in religion, but it con-
tends that in times of persecution even they may be connected Avith impor-
tant consequences. An appropriate distinction is drawn between justitioatiou
by faith alone and the subsequent gradual sanctification. Good Avorks are
not represented as indis])ensable to salvation, but as tho necessary conse-
quences of true faith. All co-operation on the part of man in the work of
moral improvement is denied, but the Augustinian doctrine of original sin is
set forth after a rejection of tho offensive errors of riacius, in immediate
sonneotion Avith that of the universality of divine gi\icc, Avith no attempt to
a) Articles of Torsrati: Kui-z Bek. u. Art v. li. Abcndin. AVitt 1574. 4.
V) Jo. Viil. Andrene, Fnina Amlrenna roflorosccn.s. Arg. 1070. 12. /,<? Bret, de .1. ,\. vltn ct mis-
«ionibus pro reformanda Ecc. Lutli. Tub. 17'.>9. 4. J. C. O. Johannsen, J. A. concordisL Thiitigk.
(Zeit'ch. f. hist Tli. 1S53. H. 8.)
c) Scliwäbiscli-sücli.i. Concorilic. (Acta ct scr. Ecc. AVQrt. p. 881.ss.) Manlbr. Formel, Torglschcs
Buch (cd. by Semlcr, Hal. 17G(i.) J. Jl. Bulthasar, Hist d. Torjr. B. Grclfsw. 1741-4. 6th pL
d) Chi/tniei Epp. llonnov. 1014. p. 417. Torg. Buch, Semler, p. 7Sss.— <;. Queck, de M.nrt
Chemnitio. Jen. 1S40.
410 MODKUN cm K( M IIISTOKV. VKK. V. A. D. 1517-lClS,
roconcilo their u]>i)arcnt inconsistency. Calvin's liideous doctrines of tho
Eucharist and of Trcdcstination are condemned, and the Lutheran doctrine
of tlie Lord's Supper, involving the omnipresence of Christ's body by virtue
of a mutual comuuinication of the attributes of his two natures from the
time of his conception, was sustained. A general synod for deciding upon
the new creed had been promised, but it was now looked upon as dangerou?,
and was finally avoided. The Form of Concord was adopted by the imperial
Diet, and all Avho held office in the several schools or churches under it were
required to subscribe it. (e) It was, however, rejected by Hesse, Nassau,
Anhalt, (/) Pomerania, Holstein, {g) Bremen, Nuremberg, Strasbourg, and
others, on the ground that in some respects it was too rigid, especially when
it separated two much-beloved heroes, by canonizing the one and making
tho very name of the other offensive, and yet many pastors despised it be-
cause they regarded it as too lenient and too fluctuating in its meaning. (/()
Its original object was therefore never completely attained, and it became to
the Calvinists and the Catholics a convenient object of ridicule, under the
title of the Form of Discord. Even Julius, Duke of Brunswick, had taken
a deep interest in this affair through Chemnitz, whose administration was
characterized by so many prelatical tendencies, and through his own treasu-
rer. But his secular and his religious interests were not quite identical, and
he felt himself painfully wounded by some of the friends of the Form of
Concord. He therefore withdrew from the support of that Confession, and
neither in Helmstadt nor in any part of Brunswick could it stand by its own
power. ((■) But besides this Form of Concord, other pieces were agreed upon
that they might together constitute a general code of ecclesiastical faith,
viz. : The oecumenical symbols of the ancient Church, the original unchanged
Confession of Augsburg together with the Apology, the Articles of Smal-
kald, and Luther's Catechisms. This Book of Concord, with a prefiice, and
subscribed with the names of as many of the imperial states as were of the
same mind, was sent forth in the German language from Dresden ou June
25, 1580, and ever since in its isolation has constituted the mag7ia charta of
German Lutherauism.
§ 352. Reaction of Saxon Calvinism.
Besclir. d calv. Eotte, die sich in Sachsen eingeschlichen. Jena. 1591. Samml. \crinlschL Nachrr.
r. siiclis. Gesch. Chemn. 1767ss. vol. IV. V. Kiesling, (before § S47.)
The Philippists in Electoral Saxony were neither annihilated nor convinced
that they Avere wrong, and it is therefore not surprising that they soon ob-
tained another brief victory by means of the same arbitrary princely power
which had overthrown them. Christian J. (after 1586) was induced by his
brother-in-law, tho Elector Palatine, to attempt a compromise with them.
e) Comp. Johanmen, d. IJnterschr. d. C. F. in Sachsen. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1547. 11. 1.)
/) Johannsen, d. freie Protestantism, im Fürst Anhalt (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1S46. U. 2.)
fJ^ J bid. Schlesw. Holst Stellung z. C. F. im 16. Jhh. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1S50. U. 4.)
A) E. g. comp. J. Wiggerg, KGesch. Mccklenb. Farchim. 1S40. p. 170ss.
i) E. L T. ITenlf, d. Univ. Helmst H.hI. 1S38. p. 12äs. C. G. II. Lenk, d. C. F. im Herzogt
Braunschw. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1545. II. 2.)
CHAl'. II. LUTHEEANISM. § 352. CHELL. § 353. IIESHUSIUS. KEPLER. 411
His chancellor, Nichola.s Crcll, ■who then directed public affairs Avithout the
counsel of the nobles, and wished to be called neither a Lutheran nor a Cal-
vinist, managed in such a way as gradually to effect a union with the Re-
formed Church. AU controversial quarrels iu the jjulpit were forbidden, the
principal offices in the parisbes and in the scbools were filled with Pliilippists,
exorcism in baptism was abolished in spite of the raurnmrs of the people, no
more subscriptions to the Book of Concord were obtained, and an edition of
the Bible was commenced with comments in the spirit of Melancthon. In
the midst of these proceedings, however, the young prince died (1591), and
no sooner was Duke Frederic "William I., the guardian of his successor, es-
tablished in the regency, than rigid Lutheranism Avas again restored. Arti-
cles of Visitation, expressing the most decided opi)Osition to Calvinism and
the doctrine of predestination, were proclaimed (1592), and all officers in
Church and state were required to adopt them under oath, (n) A spirit of re-
venge induced the nobles to offer their swords as instruments of the rage of
the divines, and after an imprisonment of ten year.«, Crell was beheaded for
high treason. (J>)
§ 353. Spirit and Result of the Doctrinal Controversy.
During these theological controversies, the idea became generally preva-
lent that the principal fruit of the Reformation was a clearly defined system
of doctrines, for the purity of which every pastor and congregation felt respon-
sible to God. Every other feeling and right was obliged either to yield to
this, or to identify itself with it. Undismayed by misfortunes, and hurling his
treatises, sermons, and excommunications against his enemies at home and
abroad, Tileman Ilcshusius was seven times deposed from eminent stations in
the Church, and exiled from his country. But the literal sense for which lio
zealously contended was finally turned against himseh*. Wigand, who had
been his companion in controversy and excommunication for Christ's s;ike,
and was now like him, and by his assistance a Prussian bishop, denounced
him as a heretic, and overtlirew him on account of a subtle scholastic fornmla.
lie, however, still maintained a calm and dignified consciousness that ho was
struggling in the service of his Lord, and in his last will expressed no regret,
except that he had not punished sinners with greater severity, and had not
contended against factious persons with an intenser zeal (d. 1588). («) Kep-
ler (d. 1G31), who, while listening to the harmonies of the universe, investi-
gated the laws of the planetary motions that ho might with devout joy make
knuwn to others the miracles of divine wi.sdom, and would rather starve than
apostatize from the Confession of Augsburg, was driven from the Lord's fold
as an unsound sheep, because lie would not subscribe the articles in which the
Calvinists were condenmed, and doubted whether the body of Christ wa?
truly omnipresent. Ilis mother also died iu fetters under the accusation ot
a) Lil.rl Symb. 3 cd. by Ifasf, p. CXXVII.s.«. S.')7ss.
h) Bluvif, Li'iclionpr. ü. d. cusUdirton u. onllmiii>tot<>n Dr. N. Or. Lp.i. 1601. 4. Ills controv.
writings in Wiilrh vol. II. p. Ml.—/Ciigelck;'ii, d. N. Cr. Kost, 1721. 4. //. G. I/iis»e, d. Bedeut.
d. (."roH'schen rrooesst'.«, a arcliiv. I'.eilrr. (Ziitsoli. f. hist. Th. 1S4?. II. 2.)— Chr. Gundennani
»u Lcijizis Kla^o I'ein u. Delientdnis. (satyr. Gclidit.) 1532. 4.
a) J. G. Leuckfeld, Hist. lIcshusianiL Cjiicdiinb. 1710. 4.
412 MODERN CllUnClI HISTOÜV. PKH. V. A. !>. 1&1T-1643.
boiiiff ft witcli. (//) Tlio oi)positi()n to tlio Form of Conconl gradually disap-
j)eart'(l wlicn it« most decided opponents went over to the Kelbrined Church,
but tho Hchism between the two churches became permanent, in consequence
of tiio food whioli was then so plentifully supplied to tho relipious passions
of tlio people. Tlio writings of Chemnitz and Ilutter, composed in the spirit
of the strictest Lutheranism, were then generally cöteenied, and supplied tho
place formerly occupied by the theological works of Melancthon. (c) Their
ascendency was also sustained by the independent authority of the literature
of that period. John Gerhard (d. at Jena, 1037) attained the dignity of a
Protestant ecclesiastical Father, in consequence of a happy combination of
polemic learning and quiet devotion. The sphere of his literary and official
activity was very extensive, and when almost every thing seemed to be in
ruins around him, his talents were devoted to the work of preserving and au-
thenticating what he esteemed useful and true. ('/) But the youthful energies
of Protestantism were much impaired even in the midst of its victories by these
controversies, and Melancthon's condemnation as a heretic was felt to be a dark
shadow upon the original principles and type of the Reformation.
11. Calvinism.
LöscJier, (§ 335.) J. G. Walch, hist u. theol. Einl. in d. Streitig, sonderlich ansser d. luth. K. 8
cd. Jen. 1733SS. 5 vols. Jleppe, (before § 317.) [Jferle d'Auhigyie, Spirit of the Eef. Church, Mi3
cell. Writings. New York. 1S46. p. 245ss.]
§ 354. German Reformed Church.
After the violent rejection of Philippism, a German Reformed Church
sprung up in the midst of the established churches where it had prevailed,
by the side of the Reformed Church of Switzerland. Although it originally
did not expressly adopt the doctrine of predestination, and never received the
peculiar stamp of Calvin's character, it wore a Calvinistic aspect, in conse-
quence of its special fellowship with Calvinistic churches, and its reception of
a large number of Calvinistic refugees, through whom its institutions became
based upon the exclusive authority of the Scriptures, {a) In the Palatinate^
where the Reformation received its original character also from the influence
of !Melancthon, the sovereignty was exercised by Frederic III^ who desired
in the Eucharist to partake of nothing but an entire Christ, with all his bene-
fits. After the disorders excited by Heshusius' eflorts to establish Lutheran-
ism, he deposed every clergyman (Aug. 1560) who would not accommodate
his views to those of Melancthon (§ 350. nt. Ä.), and after the diet of princes
at Naumburg he still adhered to the amended Confession of Augsburg, and
V) J. V. Breitschicert, Job. Keppler's Leben n. "Wirken. Stuttg. 1831. Comp. Tholuck, verin.
Bcbrr. vol. 11. p. 3S4sa. [Life of Keppler, in Lib. of Us. Know. Lond. 1S33.]
c) Ilutterus redivlvus, bv K. Ilase, 7 ed. Lps. 1S4S. p. SSs.
«0 Moditationes sacrae, 1C06. 12. and often. Uebers. \. IT. A. ScJtmidt, Brl (15-27.) 1SS7. Loci
th. Jon. 1610-2-2. 9 vols. 4. den. ed. CoUa, Tub. 17G2ss. 20 vols. 4 Methodus studii th. Jen. 1617. ed.
4. 1654. Schola pict.itis d. i. chr. Unterrichtung, was vor Ursachen z. GottseeL bewogen sollen. Jena.
1623. 6 cd. Nürnb. 1663. Confessio cath. Jon. 1633-7. 4 vol?. 4. Frcf. 1679. f. Dispp. quibus dogmni.
Calvinianor. exper.duntur. Jen. 163S. 4— £". J Fischer, Tita J. G. Lps. 17-23. Hist ecc. p. XVIL Ic
vlu J. O. illnstr. Lps. 1727.
fl) tf''PP«, d. Charakter d. deutsch.-Ref. K. u. d. Verb. drs. z. Lutbertb. u. Calv. (Stul. u. Kri(
1S50. IL 3.)
CHAP. II. CALVINISM. J 354. PALATINATE. HESSE. 413
introduced into the clinrches the simplicity and chilliness of Switzerland
(1562). By his authority, Ursinus and Olevianus composed the Uddelherg
Catecliism^ wliich was soon after not only received as the Creed of the Ger-
man Reformed Church, but has been highly esteemed in many foreign coun-
tries. The devotional spirit of this Confession gives prominence to the doc-
trine of divine Predestination only so far as it seemed needful to console the
Christian Avith the certainty of redemption, and to that of the Eucharist only
to impart an assurance of communion with Christ, (h) At the religious con-
ference held for the reconciliation or for the conversion of parties at MauU
Irunn (1564), the theology of "Wurtemberg was found to be in striking con-
trast with that of the Palatinate, and the doctrine of the Eucharist based
upon that of the ubiquity of Christ's body exhihited sufficient power to divide
the Church, (c) Under Ix)uis VI. (1576) LutheranLsm was established, but
after his death (1583), the Calvinistic tendency became predominant. The
latter also triumphed in the midst of violent popular commotions in Bremen
(1561-81), although the cathedral was finally opened (1638) to the Lutherans,
Avho could not be entirely exterminated there. (»/) In Anhalt^ the ecclesias-
tical establishment of the Palatinate was adopted from attachment to Melanc-
thon (1596). (c) Under a similar influence, Xussau^ protesting against the
monster ubiquity in the Form of Concord, was induced to adopt the lleidel-
berg Catechism (1582), and in consequence of its relation to the house of
Orange, it was brought to accept of the ecclesiastical system which prer\'ailed
in the Netherlands (1586). (/) Maurice, the learned Landgrave of IIchsc-
CasscI, after many fruitless eftbrts to reconcile the two Churches, compelled
the Lutheran Church to adopt such improvements (1605) as ultimately brought
them into the Calvinistic communion ; but in Upper llesse Lutheranisiu still
prevailed. ((/) Notwithstanding many disturbances, the established churches
generally followed the form of reformation adopted by their respective princes,
for no alternative was allowed their ministers but cither to preach the doc-
trines embraced by the civil authorities, or to leave the country. John Sigis-
mund, Üie Elector of Brandenburg, once gave his oath to his father that he
■would never forsake the doctrines of Luther, but on Christmas 1613, ho re-
ceived tl)o sacrament of the Lord's Supper in the court church in Berlin, ac-
cording to the Calvinistic ritual. In the confession of faith which he made
(1614), he declares that in professing himself of the Reformed Evangelical
Church, he acted without regard to the authority of human names, under
the direction of the Holy Spirit through the Scriptures, that his object w.-is to
«ast away all remnants of papal superstition, (//) and that in God's cause he
I) First impression In Qennan and Latin, Hcidclb. 15<53. Niemeyer, Col. Confess, p. LVII,
SOOss.— Ä V. Alpeii, Ocsili. u. Lit d. lUld. Cut Erl. 1S()0. Augunti (411.) p. 9Gs8.
c) (Ursinus) Protocull d. 1. Acta d. Qcsjir. zii Maulb. Ildlb. 10<J5. 4. Jfej'J'f, Oescli. d. dt Prot
Tol. XL p. 71ss.
d) Genies, IMst. niotuum ecc. In ctv. nretiicnsi tcuip. Ilnrdcnbergll. Gron. 1750. J. 11. Duntz«,
Gesch. d. fr. Stadt. Hr. Itreiii. 1S4'?. vol. IlL p. 859ss.
e) Ilepctltlo Anlinltln«. 1579. Niemeyer, Col. p. Cl'iss. Jkckmann, Illst. d. Fürst Anhalt
Zcrbst 1710s?. vol. VI. p. I'ilw.
f) J. IT. Stellhing. K. u. Kef. Gcsch. d. Oranlcn-Xa,s». I.ando, Iladain. 1S04.
0) Jleppe, d. Kiiifülir. d. Verbcssorungspunkte In Hessen. löiH-lO. Cass. 1S49.
A) Nienxeyer \\ LXXVII, Wiss.
414 MODERN CIIUECII IIISTOKV. I'KU. V. A. I). 1517-1C4S.
wju ,iot. boiiml by liis previous covenant. Althouf,'h lio souglit to iinluco
oth^fs to follow him, divested the University of Frankfort of its Lutheran
character, and abolished the legal authority of the Foi-m of Concord, he only
dcniandod Christian toleration from his own country ; and yet so great Avas
tho dissatisfaction of the Lutheran i)eoplc of the Marquisate and of Prussia,
that however beneficial such a change of faith may have been to his foreign
relations, it could not on the Avhole have been recommended on the score of
mere expediency. (/) The feelings of those connected with the Reformed
I>arty were much more decided, and those Lutherans who went over to it
never looked upon themselves as apostates, inasmuch as they still firmly ad-
liercd to tho Confession of Augsburg (of 15i0). In the Religious Peace no
Micntioii had been made of the Reformed Church, but its members claimed
the privileges of those professing a faith kindred with that of the Augsburg
Confession. Accordingly, in the negotiations on this subject at the Diet of
Augsburg (1576), and under the influence of the evangelical spirit of Fred-
eric IIL, the Lutherans did not venture in the presence of the Catholic impe-
rial party to repel these powerful allies, (k)
§ 355. 17ie Ketherlands.
G. Brandt. Hist. dor. Eeformatie de Nedorl.inden. Amst (I663ss.) 1C77. 4 vols. 4 Engl. Lond.
1720. 4 vols. French, Abstnict Amst. 1730. 3 vols. 12. D. Gerdes, H. Ref. vol. III. Tpey en. Der-
tnont. Geschiedenissen der Nederkndsclie hervormde Kerk. Breda. 1S19-27. 4 vols. — Correspondance
Je Philippe II. sur les affaires des Paysbas, publice par Gachard, Par. 1S4S-51. 2 vols. [SchiUer,
Kovolt of the Netherlands. New York. 1S47. 12. T. C. G-'iUan, Hist, of the Netherl. Philad.
1S81. 12.]
The Netherlands were inhabited by an industrious and thriving people,
especially jealous of their municipal and provincial rights, and according to
tho most ancient laws were regarded as a fief of the empire. But in conse-
quence of a connection by marriage between the house of ITapsburg and the
royal family of Spain, it became subject to the Spanish crown. Such a
peojilo were sure to welcome the principles of the Reformation, and the way
had long been prepared for their promulgation. The first step was taken by
the general diffusion of Luther's writings, but as the people were more con-
nected with Switzerland and France, the Reformed faith made the greatest
progress among them. Here in his patrimonial dominions, Charles Y.
evinced the strength of his attachment to the Church, by a complete enforce-
ment of the edict of Worms. Hundreds died in prison or on the scaffold.
"When the emperor had become fatigued with the cares of sovereignty and
of life, his son Philip 11.^ to whom he surrendered the Netherlands, and to
whom all civil and religious liberty was equally odious, sent thither the in-
quisition for the extirpation of both. The heroes of the nation fell beneath
the axe of the executioner or the knife of the assassin. After enduring in-
credible hardships, the people, witli their swords in their hands, ventured to
demand their rights. The struggle for their faith was in some respects difler-
t) D IT. ITeHng. hist Nacbr. t. d. Anfang, d. ev. ref. K. in Brandenb. n. Preussen. Hal. i;7?.
A. Müller, (§ 3:i7. nt c.) p. 826ss. E. 2/elicing, Gesch. d. Prenss. Staats. Lemgo. 1S34. vol. I. p
'.Xt'ss.
i'i Slruve, pmir. KUist Cap. 5. p. ISOs.
CHAP. II. CALVINISM. § 356. DORT. ARMIXIUS. GROTIU^. 415
ent from the civil war in which they contended for their ancient rights, but
both were carried on under the skilful direction of the heroic prince of
Orange. The ornaments found in the ancient churches were entirely de-
stroyed. The seven northern provinces in which German manners and an
evangelical faith jirevailed, formed (1570) a confederation called the Union
of Utrecht. The civil and religious freedom of these provinces was not,
however, acknowledged by Spain until it became so completely exhausted
tliat it was obliged to conclude an armistice (1609).
§ 356. Synod of Dort. Xov. 13, l(jl3-cnd of .!/<///, 1019.
Acta Synodi n.itlonalis Dordrechti liab. Lngil. B. 1020, f Ilan. 1620. 4. Acta et scr. synofialia Ee-
monstrantium. Harder. 1020. 4. Ualesil Hist Cone. Dordraccnl, ed. Jfoshem. limb. 1T24. Epp.
pracstant. et erud. viroruni ccc. et tlieol. Amst, (1660. 16S4.) 1704. f. Lltterae delegatorura Ilassiacor
ad Landgrav. niiss.ae. ed. ab // Ueppe, (Zeitsch. f. hist. Tli. 1SÖ3. II. i.)-J. üerjtnhooff, Hist. d. De-
monstranten. Amst. 1774. 3 vols. a. d. IIolI. (v. Cramer.) Lemgo. 17S1. 2 vols. JA Gm/, Bcitrr. z.
Gesch. d. Syn. v. Dord. Bas. 1S25. [Artt. of the Syn. of I), with the Hist. &c. by the States-Gen.
from the Lat. by T. Scott, Utica. 1831. 12. X. Chuttluin, Hist d. Syn. d. Dordrecht Par. 1S41. 8.]
In the University of Lcydon, established under the influence of the Re-
formation, the spirit of Zwinglo came into open conflict witl» the victorious
spirit of Calvin. Arminim (d. 1G09) having become pcriilcxed with respect
to the doctrine of unconditional predestination, Gomnrua defended it against
him. {it) Both became leaders of opposite parties, and when Armiuius at-
tempted to establish an ecclesiastical peace among those congregations whicli
had abandoned the papacy on the basis of a few simple articles selected from
the Scriptures, and regarded as essential to salvation, the effect was to tlireat-
cn the young Church and republic of the Netherlands with an open division.
A justification of their creed, called the Ju' monstrance^ was presented (IGIO)
by the party of Armiuius to tlie assembled states of Ilolland and "West Fries-
Lind. {h) But as most of the ministers had been educated at Geneva, Calvin-
ism had the ascendency among the clergy, and tlirough tlieir influence among
the common people, to whom the merits of the controversy were unknown.
But the venerable Oldenharneveld and Hugo Grotius, who as a humanist
and a statesman had paid some attention to tlieology, were at that time
political leaders in the republican party, and were the protectors of the Iic-
moiistnoits. {(■) This was sufKcieut to induce Maurice, rrinco of Orange^ the
StadthoUler and the General of tlio Republic, then striving to attain the
supreme jjower, to form a connection with tlio Calvinists. A synod was
called by the States-General for the determination of the controversy.
Although all the Reformed churches except that of Anhalt were invited to
take part in its delil>eration.<(, the number of foreign deputies actually i)resent
was very small in comparison with tliat of the members from the Netlicr-
laud.s. Even before the synod was opened, the Prince of Orange by an act
a) Annin ii 0pp. tliool. L. B. 1629. 4. and often. [Works of J. Arm. cd. by J. Xicftnlii, Lond. 9
vols. S.] G. ßronilt, Hist. Vitao .\riiiiiill. ed. Monhi'm. Ilrtinsv. 172.'>. [»V. Biinga, Life of ArmiQ-ua,
Now York. 1S44. 12. Life and Works of A publ. In Auburn, 1SÖ2. 2 vols, S.]
V) In Lat in the Kpp. i>raest ct erud. Vlroruin, cd. 2. p. 14.">.
e) If. Luiten, Hu?o Grotiu« nach Schicks, u. Schrr. Brl. IS'JS. [J/.Z)« ßuiijuy. Life of IL Qro-
Uus, tran.-I. fiMin Fr. Lum.I. 1754. S.]
416 MODKKN CHURCH III.STOUY. VIM. V. A. i). 151T-10IS.
of exori)itant power expolk-d all who belonged to the republican party. TLo
members of tlio synod, therefore, consisting of thirty -six pastors, twenty
ciders, and five jirofessors, were selected with some degree of arbitrariness,
and it was obvious tliat tlic fate of the Remonstrants was decided upon be-
fore the oi)fnin^' of the meeting. Their s])iritufd leaders, imder the conduct
of Episc()piu.s, the eloquent and inflexible successor of Arminius, (il) were
suiunioned before the sj'nod merely as accused persons. They there protest-
ed against an unconditional submission of themselves, but notwithstanding
the milder views of the foreign deputies, they were declared by a majority
of votes, and by the authority of the word of God, incapable of any ecclesi-
astical or academic functions until they should penitently return to the fel-
lowship of the Church. In most of the provinces of the Union, those
preachers and teachers belonging to the Remonstrant party wlio Avould not
innnediately resign every spiritual office were expelled from the country.
But after the death of Maurice (1625), when the Republican party again
obtained the ascendency, the Arminians were tolerated, and their churches
became numerous and flourishing on account of their liberal exegetical litera-
ture, (e) The Articles of the Synod of Dort were confirmed by the States-
General, and although they received legal authority in no foreign country
but France, Calvinism became henceforth the orthodox doctrine of the Re-
formed Church. Calvin's twofold doctrine of predestination, based upon
that of original sin, was in some degree modified in them, and all who pro-
perly used the means of grace were told that they need have no doubt of
their final salvation. (/) But even the tendency which proceeded from
Zwingle and Melancthon was fostered, and occupied a subordinate position in
the churches. Its most important original record, after the Ileidelberg Cate-
chism, is the creed left by Bullinger, and adopted through the influence of
the Elector Palatine by the Swiss Confederacy under the name of the Second
Helvetic Confession (1566). According to it the promises of God are general
for all believers, {(j)
CHAP. III.— PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION THROUGH
EUROPE.
§ 357. Urdted Aiistrian States, until 1609.
Eaupack, ev. Oest Hmb, 1782ss. 3 vols. 4. Waldav, Gcsch. d. Prot, in Ocst. Ansp. 17S3. 2
vols.—.;: £urii. Hist. dipl. do statu reL ev. in Hung. s. 1. 1710. f. (P. Emher) Hist. Ecc ref. in
Ilung. et Transsylvania, ed. Lampe, Traj. 172S. 4. J. Jiibini, Memor. Aug. Conf. in Ilung. Poson.
17S7SS. 2 vols. Die wichtigsten Schicksale d. ev. K. Augs. Bt-k. in L'ng. 1520- 160S. Lps. 1?0S.
[Miinj/ay) Hist, ecc. cv. A. C. addictorum in Ilung. Halb. 1S30. Corpus Synodonim Aug. Conf. in
Hung. ed. J. Szeherinyi, Pe«th. 1S48. O. Uaner, Hist Ecc. Transylvanicar. Frcf. et Lps. 1694.
"^I—Pontani a Braiteiiherg, Bok. pia. Frcf. 160S. f.—BucholU. (p. 85S.) /ia7ile, ü. d. Zeiten
Ferd. I. u. Max. II. iu s. Zeitsch. vol. L p. 223.
German Protestantism was extensively diffused at an early period among
d) P/ua LimhorcK Vita Episc. Amst 1701. J. Konynenhurg, Landes Ep. Ibid. 1791. 4
<) Adr. a Cattenhurgh, Bibl. Scrr. Kemonstr. AmsL 1728. G. S. I'rancke, de Hist dogniatam
Arminianorum. Kil. 1S14. D. de Bray, Essai sor I'Hist de I'eglise Arminlenne. Strasb. 1S35. 4
/) Xifmeyer, Col. p. 690ss.
g) Ed. 0. P. PritMchf, Tur. 1SS9. in Niemeyer p. 462s3.
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN EEFOEM. § 357. AUSTRIA. HUNGARY. 417
the higher classes in Austria. Ferdinand /., during the last years of his
reign, stood aloof from the strife of parties. Alaxbnilian II. (1564—76),
Avhom the Protestants regarded as a secret believer in their principles, and
the Eomans as an apostate, endeavored to reconcile both sides, and to pro-
mote a general reform consistently "with the laws, hy giving to the knights
and to tlie jirincely cities the privilege of forming an ecclesiastical system
according to the Confession of Augsburg. Hungarian students "who studied
at Wittenberg and returned to their native country imbued with Lutheran
sentiments, "Waldenses, Ilussite.s, and Humanists, "were all instrumental in
carrying the principles of the Reformation in every direction. The most
sanguinary laws were insufficient to impede the progress of these agencies.
All laws were silent during the storm which followed tlie battle of Mohacs
(1526). No greater severity against the Protestants was exercised by the
house of Ilapsburg when its hold upon Hungary was so precarious, than "was
indispensable to its OAvn security; and wherever the Turks held sway, a form
of worship in which no images were used might be extended without ob-
struction. Ferdinand I. conceded to a few magnates and towns in his domin-
ions the enjnyment of a free religious toleration, "which was still further
increased under Maximilian. The Reformed churches became equally numer-
ous, and soon began to be disturbed by controversies. The writings of Luther
were also carried into Transylvania by some merchants of Ilermanstadt. on
their return from the fair at Leipsic (1521). After enduring many persecu-
tions, all the Saxon churches declared themselves adherents of the Augsburg
Confession (1544), the Magyars connected themselves with the Reformed
Church, and the Wallachians continued to worship according to the Greek
ritual. During the civil "wars which took place in Hungary for the posses-
sion of the throne, complete religious freedom was granted to Transylvania
at the Diet of Clausenhurg (1556). In an election of a king of Bohemia
(1526), Ferdinand was chosen instead of the Duke of Bavaria, principally on
account of the favor which he showed to the Utraqukts. In the commence-
ment of the Smalkaldic war tlie Electors of Saxony were invested with the
power to command the army furnished by the Bohemian states in any way
which might promote tlie common cause. These, in consequence of Luther'i
success, had regained their former spirit and power, had become reconciled
with the Bohemian brethren, and now combined their Hussite sentiments
partly with Lutheran and partly with Reformed doctrines. (</) Budolph II.
(after 1576) permitted evangelical persons in all parts of his dominions to be
oppressed, freedom of opinion was confined to the nobility, and divine wor-
ship (after 1004) was entirely suppres.'^ed by puldic violence. Stephen Bot-
skai,, Prince of Transylvania, "whose power was coit'^iderablo on account of
his alliance with the Turks, no-v took up arms for the establishment of po-
litical and religious liberty. He succeeded in obtaining the Peace of Vienna
(160G), by which Hungary and Transylvania were allowed freely to receive
either the Augsburg or the Helvetic Confession, {h) In the latter province
a) Confession of 1535 ic 1575 In Lat In Nifmeyer, Col. p. 771. 619s8. With many origin»!
documents: Die andcro Apologia der Stünde d. K. Bub el mb, a. d. bulim. Spr. in die teutfche ver-
tetrt a, 1610. 4.
h) Pacificatio Vionncnsls In Enibfr- Lampe, p. 3'2.'5ss.
'^7
418 Ml II )KKN CHURCH niSTORT. PKR. V. A. D. 1,M7-1C48.
popery liiiil lioiii cntiroly renounced, and in Hungary .a innjority of the
people and nearly all tlio nobles had done the same. AVhilc the members of
the honse of llapsbnrg were contending with one another, the evangeli«il
states of Anstrin, with arms in their hands, obtained from the Archduke
Matthias the restoration of all the privileges they had acquired under Maxi-
milian. The Bohemians at the same time received from the Emperor Ru-
dolph an imperial charter, (<•) by -whicli they were placed on the same ground
with the Catholics, and the supreme power was conceded to the states (1609)
§ 358. Sicedcn.
J. Biuu, InvcntJirium Eec. Suco-Gothor. Lincop. 1042. 4. P. E. Thyselius, Ilandlinfrar. til
Bverces Retorinations-och Kyrkohistoria under Gustaf. I. Stockli. lSll-5. 2 vols. (Comp. Zeitsch. f.
bist. Th. 1541;. H. 2. 1S47. II. 2.)— 7?. C. Römer, du Gust. I. rcrum sacr. instauratore. Traj. ad Rli.
1S40. Geijer, Gesch. Scliw. (p. 246. nt &.) 1834. vol. W.—Schinmeier, Leb. d. drei schwcd. Keff. Lor.
Anderson, Oluf u. Lor. Peterson. Lub. 17S3. 4. — A. ThHner, Schw. u. s. Stellung z. h. Stuhl, unter
Job., Sig. and Karl IX. Aumb. 1838. f. 2 vols. \_Vertot, Rev. In S^v. on account of the change in
Religion, from the French by J. Mitchel, Lond. 1723. 8.]
Sweden had been delivered from the sanguinary hands of the Danes by
Gustavus Vasa (after 1521). The Reformation was preached there by the
brothers Olaf and Laicrcnce Peterson^ who had studied at Wittenberg, and
were so constituted by nature that the one possessed those intellectual quali-
ties in which the other was deficient. The bishops, who held in their hands
the princii)al wealth of the country, were connected with the Dani.-Qi inter-
est, and the new government, anxious to relieve the people of their taxes
and to pay off their Hanseatic mercenaries, longed to obtain possession of the
property of the Church. A public discussion was held under the royal pro-
tection at Upsala (1526), and a translation of the New Testament was made
by the Chancellor Anderson. The king, sustained by the nobility and peas-
antry, humbled the bishops at the Diet of Westcras (1527), and took posses-
sion of tlie property of the Church. The Reformation was introduced
in accordance with the advice of Luther, although the greater portion of the
people for a long time received only its external form, and scarcely noticed
the change, and even the king had cause to deny that any change had taken
place in the national religion. Those bishops who acknowledged the new
order of things remained members of the diet and superintendents of the
Church, but they were made dependent upon the royal favor, and their pow-
ers were circumscribed by the authority of consistories. A reconciliation
with Catholicism was sought for under John III. (after 15C8), whose wife
was a Polish princess, and belonged to the Catholic Church ; but in conse-
quence of the refusal of the Romish court to concede the demands of the
king, and the opposition of the people to the Catholic ritual, the etibrt proved
unsuccessful, (a) Sigismund, King of Poland and (after 1592) of Sweden,
atoned for his attempt to oppress tlio evangelical Church by the loss of the
Swedish crown, which was won (1599, 1604) by his uncle, Charles IX., the
champion of Protestantism. At first nothing but the word of God contained
c) A. e. bi.hm. Urk. übers, m. Anm. v. Boroft, Gorl. 1803.
a) Hie Jesuiten als Vermittler e. prot Kirchenagende. Brl. Monatschr. 1794. lately ed. by
Bohr, Neust. 1825.
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN r.EFORM. g 359. DENMARK. 419
in the Holy Scriptures was aclinowledged as the creed of tlie Church. But
finally the clergy, that they might meet the calumnies of their Catholic op-
ponents, and that the whole Swedish nation might have but one God, aud
might worship him as one man, proclaimed their adherence to the Augsburg
Confession in 1.593, and to the Form of Concord in 1CG3, (h) and a law was
enacted wliieh provided that al] who sliould apostatize to popery should be
Danished from the country.
§ 359. Denmark with Noncay and Iceland.
Pontoppidan, (p. 246. nt a.) vol. IL p. 754ss. vol. III. Munter, Danske Ref. Historie. Kjübenh.
2 vols. n. KGesch. v. Dun. u. Nor. Lpz. 1834. vol. III. Stemmer fra don Danske Kirkes Rcf. Tid.
Odense. 1S36. 4 — Müleriz, de causis propagatae oeleriter In Dan. ref. Haf. ISIT. 4.
The whole power of the Danish state was shared betweeu the bishops
and the barons. Chrhtiern II. was elected king in 1513, and proved to be a
tyrant under the tyranny of the mother of his paramour. Under him the
nobility were degraded, the people were exalted, and the Reformation was
favored that he might obtain the mastery of the bishops. («) On his expul-
sion by the united power of the barons and prelates, his undo Frederic I. of
Holstein (1523— 33 \ Avho was connected by marriage with the house of Sax-
ony, and a firm friend of the gospel, was raised to the throne. But in the
stipulations made before his election, he pledged himself to maintain the
privileges and rights of the bishops, and to punish those who preached
against the God of heaven and the holy Father by fines and bodily chastise-
ments. The Reformation continued still to spread among the people until
the king obtained a law at the Diet of Odense (1527), by whicli Protestants
and Catholics were i>ut in possession of equal civil privileges, the marriage
of priests was tolerated, and the election of bishops was rendered indepen-
dent of Rome. The bishops protested against the succession of his oldest
son, with whom Luther was known to be on terms of intimacy. Christ icni
III, however, succeeded in gaining over to his party the lay members of the
diet, when all the bishops were suddenly attacked on the 20t]i Aug., 153G,
and their freedom was obtained only by the renunciation of their dignities.
Ii'oennoic^ Bishop of Roeskild, alone would yield nothing to tlie injury of liis
Church, and died the death of a martyr in ])rison (1544). At a diet lield at
Copcnhiiffcn (Oct., 1530), from which the clergy were entirely excluded, the
political privileges of the Church were completely destroyed, and its posses-
sions were shared by the king and the nobles. The king was crowned by
Bugcnhofjcn^ and an ecclesiastical constitution was adopted by which a few
titular bishops were appointed, and the Church was made entirely dependent
upon the court. ('') The Form of Concord was cast into the tlanies by
Frederic II. (1581), (') but during the 17th century it possessed great au-
thority among the people. The new Church was established without oppo-
h) Ev. K. Zc-ltun?. 1*35. N. 56.
a) Diihlmdun, Gesch. v. Diinnemark. vol. III. p. 850ss.
V) ^fl'h)lU■e, Kn^nung Chr. u. s. Oomalilln durch Bug. Strals. 1S35. Hunter, Synibb. ad ill. ^^-
genlia^rii in Dania conimorationein. Hufn. 1^86.
c) J. If. (lb Elmcic/i, de V. C. tmni in Danla sit combusta? "Wit 1710. 4. Gegen s. Zweifel die
Urkunde: Genie«, 11. Rcf. vol. III. pracf.
420 MODKUN CIII'IICII III.STOUV. I'KIt. V. A. I). UlZ-lßia.
Bition in Norway^ not, however, until tlio Archbishop of Drontheim had fled
M-ifli nil the oeclcf^iasticnl treasures (1537). In Iceland the Episcopal party
were destroyed while struggling with arms in their hands (1550).
§ 360. Poland., Livonia, and Koorland.
Ailr. Jifgenrolneii ( WetigierKki), Syst. lilst. ehron. E«cl. Slavonlcaniin. Ultraj. 16.52. 4. Jura et
llbortt, DisMilentiiim in regno Pol. Uer. 1707. f. Sclilcksalo d. pol. Disaid. limb. 17CS5S. 3 voK C.
<!. r. Friese, lief. Gesch. v. Polilen u. Litth. Brsl. 17SG. 3 vols. G. W. 0. Lochner, Fata et rationes
fiiniilLinim clir. in Pol. quae ab Ece. catli. allenae fuerunt, nsquo ad consen.sns Sendom. tcinp. (Acta
Soc. Jablonovianac. Lps. 1S32. Th. IV. Fsc. 2.) C. V. Krasiniki, llistor. Sketch of the i:i?e, Pro-
gress, r.nd Decline of the Ref. in Poland. Lend. ISSSss. 2 vols. 8vo. bearb. v. Lindau. Lpz. 1S41.— A'.
L. Tetsch, knrl. Kllist Riga u. L. 1767ss. 3 vols. J. Lukaazeicicz, Gesch. d. Ret Kirchen in Lith.
Lpz. 1349-50. 2 vols. 8. [Ac Account of Livonia and the Marian Ten. Ord. Lond. 1701. S.]
^fany persons expelled from various countries on account of their religion,
found an asylum in Poland under the protection of particular nobles.
Churches had therefore been formed which were composed of Bohemian
brethren, of the Reformed, and of Lutherans. After some warm controver-
sies these became united at the Synod of Scndomir (1570), nnder one gene-
ral confession, whose indefinite articles afforded room for minor differences
of opinion. («) As the power of the waiwodes was almost nnlimited in their
respective domains, the kings and bishops had very little power to inflict
persecution. By these inferior governors a religious peace was concluded
during the interregnum (^Pax Dissidcntium, 1573), which had the force of a
law of the empire to secure equal privileges to Catholics and Protestants.
But as early as the time of Sigismund III. (after 1587), the Catholic party
had acquired much strength by means of the inducements which the king
and the Church could present to the higher nobility, while many of the Dis-
sidents had become dissatisfied with the general confession of faith, and had
renewed the former controversies in the body to which they belonged.
Vladislaus IV. sought in vain to effect a general reconciliation, or at least a
mutual understanding of the contending parties, by means of a religious dis-
cussion held at Thorn (1644). (i^) — The Grand Master of Livonia could not
refrain from following the example of Prussia, although the archbishop
arrayed himself in defence of prescriptive rights and the ancient faith,
Riga decided in favor of the Reformation (1523), and conscious of its inde-
pendence as an imperial city, it became a member of the League of Smal-
kald (1538). ISTearly all the population had embraced the cause of the
Reformation when the Grand Master, Conrad Kctthr., assumed the title of
Duke of Koorland and Semigallia (1561). That portion of Livonia, how-
ever, which was situated on the other side of the Dwina, and which he
could not defend against the power of Russia, was ceded to Poland on con-
dition that it should be permitted to profess the Augsburg Confession.
«) Consensus Scndomiriensls Ficf. ad V. nOi.—J<tllonski, Hist Cons. Sendoni. Ber. 1731. 4
b) Scripta facientia ad Coiloq. Thoruu. llelmst 1645. 4. Acta Conv. Thor. Varsav. 1G4Ö. 4.
CHAP. (IL EUROPEAN EEFOEM. § 361. ENGLAND. 4-21
Great Beitain and Ireland.
Wilkinx. Cone. Brit. vol. III. Kef. Ecc. Anglic Lond. 1C0.3. t—G. Burnet, H. of tlic Ret of the
Cburcii of Engl. Lond. (1C79S8. 2 vols, f ) [New Yorlc. 3 and 4 vols. 8.] E. Cardwell, Documentary
Annals of the ReC Church of Engl. 1546-ni6. Oxt. 18.39. 2 vol«. J. Strype, Ecc. Memorials under
Henry VIIL, Edw. and Mary. Lond. 17'21. 3 vols. f. and Annals of the Rcf. during the reign of Q.
Eliz. Lond. (1709s6.) 17255.«. 4 vols. f. // Soamea, II. of the Ref. of the Church of Engl. Lond.
1S26SS. 4 vols. J. V. Gvmpach, Gesch. d. Trennung d. engl. K. v. Rom. Darmst 1S45. Weher,
(g 297.) vol. II. : Der construct. Tlieil. d. Rcf. u. d. purit Sectenbildung. ISRJ. [./ A'. Worgan,
Si)eculum Eccl. Anglicanae, or Rcf. in Engl. Lond. 18.30. Zurich Letters, ed. by // Itohinson, Lorn!.
1846. 8. T. Fuller, Church Hist, of G. B. Lond. 1^37. 3 vols. 8. C. Mnitluml, The Ref. in Engl.
Lond. 1&49. 8. Dod'H Church Hist of Engl, from 1500-168S. Lond. 1839. 5 vols. 8. T. V. Short,
Hist of the Church of Engl, till 1688. Lond. ISIO. s.]_PrimordIa Ref. Hibernicae. (Oerdes, MUcell.
Groning. vol. VII. P. I.) Ji. Mant, II. of the Church of Irel. from the Rcf. to the Eevol. Lond.
1839. As a curiosity : Cobhett, II. of the Prot Ref. in Engl, and Irel. Lond. 1828. 2 vols.—/). Hume :
Hist of Great Brit {Stuart.) Edinb. Lond. 1754ss. 2 vols. 4. Hist of Engl. {Tudor.) Lond. 1759. 2
vols. 4. and often. Lingard, Hist of Engl, till 1638. Lond. 1849. 13 vols. 12.
§ 361. Establishment of the Anfjlican Church.
A party favorable to the Reformation bad been prepared in England by
the influence of WyclifFe, and it was now revived by the circulation of the
writings of Luther. An English translation of the N"ew Testament by Fryth
and Tindal was printed at Antwerp (152Gj, and went like a Phoenix from its
ashes across the channel. But Henry VIII. defended the religion of St. Tho-
mas with his pen and his sword. Subsequently, however, his deadly love was
fixed upon Anna Boleyn, and he entertained doubts of the lawfulness of his
marriage with Catharine of Aragon, his brother's widow. Clement VII.
could not consent to annul this marriiigo with the aunt of the emperor. By
the advice of Cranmer the king obtained a decision of a body of learned men,
who declared that the marriage of a brother's widow was null and void. lie
then married Anna and fell under the papal ban. A Parliament, in which
servility rather than a love of reform prevailed, sundered all connection be-
tween England and the pope, and the king, who ruled in God's stead both
in Church and state, probably according to his lusts, was recognized as the
sole head of the Church (after 1532). An immense property belonging to the
monasteries now fell into the hands of tiie king, and a still greater treasure
of art and antiquity was squandered. Cranmer, who had been exalted to the
archiepiscopal see of Canterbury and secretly married to a German lady, now
endeavored to involve the king in the Reformation, even contrary to the royal
wishes. Tiie superstition of the times was exposed in the most unsj)aring
manner, Becket's sepulchre was dishonored, and the Holy Scrijjtures were
distributed among the peoide. The venerable bishop, Jolm I'Uhcr., died in
defence of the liberties of the Cliurcii, and tlie Ciiancellor Thomas More was
beheaded pleading for such a reformation as no royal or popular violence
could effect, and clinging fondly to his ideal of a future commonwealth, in
which all might have room to labor ccjually for the common weal in a life of
happiness conformed to natural laws, {a) But the Catholics sometimes re-
minded the king of his celebrated defence of the faith, and of the law of 1539, in
a) De optimo reipnbl. statu deque nova Insula Utopia 15IC. — G. Th. liudUavt., Thouijis Moru*
Numb. 1829. W.J. ir««<?r, Sir Thos. More. Lond. 13;J0. [./ J/acjn/o«/(, Life of Sir Thomits .Moie.
Lond. 12 I
422 MODKKN CIUJRCII HISTORY. VIM. V. A. I). 1517-10«.
^^lli.•Il trnnsubstnntiation, celibacy, masses for the dead, and auricnlar confes-
Hioii had been i)lacod under the protection of the common hangman, (h) The
followers of Luther and of the pope were frequently executed on the same
gibbet. It was not till the time of tlie regency during the minority of Ed-
ward VI. (after 1547), that Cranmer was able, by means of the Parliament,
to enter tlioroughly upon the work of reform, and by calling Bucer to Cam-
])ridge, to form an alliance with the German divines. Edward, however, died
in early youth (1553), and Manj, the daughter of Catharine, inherited the
crown. She had been educated in the Catholic Church, had endured in her
youth many sacrifices in its behalf, and now became animated with extreme
enthu.'iiasm to see it victorious. With hands full of blood and violence she
now gave back England to the pope, and Cranmer died at the stake far more
heroically than ho had lived (1556). (c) In early life Mary sunk under the
weight of her ovm melancholy and the hatred of her peofjle (1558). Eliza-
leth, the daughter of Anna, then ascended the throne. Her birth was,
according to the decision of the Romish Church, illegitimate, and she had
been educated in the evangelical faith of her mother, as well as in the school
of misfortune. During the long, rigid, and prosperous reign (till 1G03) of this
virgin queen, the Reformation was established in spite of internal and external
enemies, with a good degree of circumspection and moderation. But even she
sometimes found occasion for the axe of the executioner against Anglo-Ro-
man missionaries and assassins. Many Catholic ceremonies were still retained
in the book of Common Prayer. A confession of faith was formed under
Edward, and afterwards reduced to 39 Articles, which was accepted by a
convocation of the clergy at London (1562), and Avas made by Parliament the
rule of faith for all the clergy (1571). In this it is declared that the Scrip-
tures contain every thing necessary to salvation, that justification is through
faith alone, but that works acceptable to God are the necessary fruit of this
faith, that in the Lord's Supper there is a communion of the body of Christ,
which is spiritually received by faith, and predestination is apprehended only
as it is a source of consolation, (d) Supreme power over the Church is vested
in the English crown, but it is limited by statutes. Bishops continued to be
the highest ecclesiastical officers, and the first barons of the realni. "Whatever
was done by the kings of England against the papacy and in behalf of the
Reformation, was enforced also as the law for Ireland. But the Irish obsti-
nately resisted every effort of their tyrannical oppressors to compel them to
embrace the new faith. The English, however, proved from the Old Testa-
ment that as a conquered territory Ireland belonged to them as Canaan onco
belonged to the Israelites. The free and common territory of the confeder-
ated and kindred tribes was converted into royal fiefs, and when the principal
chiefs were goaded on by continual oppressions to rise in rebellion, their lands
were given to Englishmen, until the native inhabitants were almost com-
l) n'ilk-ins, vol. III. p. S4Ss.
c) Sinjpe, Th. Cr. Lond. (1694.) ITll. f. GUpin, Th. Cr. Lond. 17S4. Samml. merkw. Lebens-
beschrr. a. d. brit Bio-r. Hal. 17&4ss. vol. II. IT. J. Todd, Lifo of Cr. Lond. ISSl. [Lives of Or. b>
C. W. Lebag, &, Mrs. Lee & Vind. of Cr. by Toddr^
d) Xiemeijer, Col. p. 601s3.
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN EEFOEMATIÜN. § 3C2. TURITASS. 423
pletely destitute of property. The entire revenues and property of the Church
were gradually taken possession of by a foreign Protestant hierarchy, by the
6jde of which the Irish were obliged to sustain their own bishops and pastors
from their own scanty resources.
§ 302. Origin of the Puritans and Imlependents.
{Bradnhaw.) The English Puritane. Loud. 1G05. Lat : Puritanismus angl. Frcf. 1610. ß. Xeal, II. of
the Puritans. Loud. (ITSlss. 4 vols.) 1793-7. 1S22. 5 vols. [With notes by J. 0. Choules. New York. 1844.
2 vols. 8.] J. B. Marsden, Hist, of the early Puritans (till IG4'2.) Lond. ISöO. [ IV. II. Stowell & I). Wilson,
IL of the Puritans in Engl. & of the Pllg. Fathers. Lond. 1S2G. 12. li. Brooks, Lives of the Puritans.
Jyond. 1813. 3 vols. S.]—I?obinson, Apol. pro exulibus Anglis, qui Brownistae appellantur. Lugd. 1619.
4. f. Widker, II. of Independency. Lond. (16t8ss.) 1661. 3 vols. 4. B. Ilanhury, Hist Memorials,
relating to the Independents or Congrcgationalists. LoniL 1839. 3 vols, \liogue & Bennett, Ilist of the
Dissenters. Lond. lSOS-12. 4 vols. 8.]— IK Chlebus, die Dissenters, (Zc.Uch. f. hist Th. 1S4S. IL 1.)
A party consisting principally of those strict Calvinists who had suffered
persecution under the reign of Mary, and now had returned as confessors, took
offence at the dependence of the Clmrch upon tlie state, at the high preroga-
tives of the bishops, and at the splendid ritual of Avorsliip, whose indifferent
forms not being exi)ressly authorized by Scripture, were looked upon as rem-
nants of Antichrist. These Puritans demanded a Presbyterian form of
Church government, a simple spiritual form of worship, and a strict disci-
pline. Elizabeth endeavored to overcome their opposition, but this was found
rather to increase with their Sabbatical festivals on Sunday, and their Calvin-
istic doctrine of predestination. By the Art of Uniformity (lüSfi) all Xon-
conformists were threatened with fines and imprisonment, and their ministers
with deposition and banishment. But those ministers who had resigned theii
congregations, or been deposed, established new congregations in connection
with Presbyteries (after 1572), and the most vigorous portion of the estab-
lished Church itself exhibited an inclination toward Puritanism. A separa-
tion from a church which was regarded as a persecutor of Christians was now
effected on conscientious principles by Robert Brown (after 1580), and after
Ills return by John Rohinson (after 1010), wlio preached that according to
apostolic example every congregation should be an independent church, that
every man was justified in worshipping God according to his own conscience,
and that ministers were dependent only on their congregations. These Inde-
pendents., when they were compelled to leave their own country formed con-
gregations in the Netherlands and in America, but tliey were still firmlv
rooted in England, Avhero the Puritans under continual persecutions became
daily more violent and gloomy, and gradually a dangerous and powerful party.
In their morals and manners they were eminently pious, they looked upon al.
earthly pleasures as sinful, their own fancies were regarded as divine inspira
tions, and they thought that the state itself should be subject to their demo
cratic hierarchy.
i24 MODERN CHURCH HISTOFIY. PKH. V. A. D. IS'.T-IC«.
303. Scotland.
./. A"/i«r, H. of tlic Rof. of Pcot?. (till 15C7.) I»n(l. 16C4. f. A oflcn. D. CuldertcooiJ, H. of tli«
Kirk i)f So. Lnnil. Ifl''^. f IMInb. 1S45. 7 vols. Gil. Stuart, 11. of the Kef. In «c. Lond. 1780. G. Cook,
H. «f ttio Cliiircli «t Sc. fl-i>m the Rof Edlnb. 1915. 3 vols. K. U. Suck, <i. K. v. S<;h. Helrllb. 1*44.
2 AMlu K. G. r. Ritdlof, Oescli. <1. Kof In Scli. Brl. 1=47-9. 2 vol«. [./ Skinner, Eccl. Ulst of Sc.
I»n<l. I'^IS. 2 vols. ?. Analccta Scot'.a, llliistr. the civil, eccl. tc lit 11. of Sc. E<L 1434-7. 2 vols. S.
W. JA. JMIieHiigton, II. of tho Church of Sc. till 1S43. 4 ed. Edinb. 1S53. 8. 3 ed. New York. 1844. 8]
—Robertmn, II. of Sc. Edinb. 1750. 2 vols. 4. & often. [New York. 1936. 8. P. F. Tytler, H. of Sc.
Lend. 1842-44. 9 vols. 8. & 1S45. 7 vols. 8. Sir W. ScoU, II. of 8c. new ed. Lond. 1837. 2 vols. 12 ]
The first martyr for the Reformation in Scotland (1528) was FatricJc
Hamilton, a youth belonging to the royal family, but favorable to the Refor-
mation in Gonsequence of his studies in Germany. Cardinal Bentoun continued
to burn persons at the stake until a martyr predicted from the midst of the
llamcs his own violent death (1546). Such martyrdoms were the most im-
pressive kind of preaching for a rude and sensuous, but true-hearted people.
Under the unsettled regency which bore sway during the minority of Queen
Mary Stuart the reform party had opportunity to gain strength. The leader
and the impetuous but eloquent preacher of this party was John Knox
(d. 1572), whose vigor hud been acquired amid the flames of persecution and
tlie toils of the galleys, and who had learned to despise the terrors as well as
the pleasures of the world, {a) After the marriage of Mary with the Dau-
phin of France the regency attempted, with the aid of French troops to over-
throw the Reformation, and to enforce, the hereditary claims of the queen
upon the English crown. The Reformed party then collected together and
formed themselves into a Congregation of Christ at Edinburgh (1557), and
with Elizabeth's assistance obtained an act of Parliament (1560) by which the
people received a Calvinistic Reformation, (b) and the nobles the greater part
of the property of the Chui-ch. But in the season of its triumph Protestant-
ism sought to persecute its enemies ; it sometimes cost a person his property,
and even his life, to attend a mass, and a pious vandalism wreaked its fury
upon the monuments of the Church. After the death of her husband Mary
returned to her own hereditary dominions (1561). The frivolous manners of
this beautiful queen's court were an abomination to the stern Calvinists, anc.
Knox went to meet her as the ancient prophet did the idolatrous queen, and
remained unmoved by her tears. Finally she awoke the flames of civil war,
not so much by her secret machinations against the Reformation as by her
criminal passions. Failing to accomplish her purposes by such means she
now cast herself into the fatal arms of Elizabeth, (c) The crown was placed
upon the head of her son, James VI. (1567), the leaders of the Reformation
were made regents during his minority, and a Presbyterian form of ecclesias-
tical government was every where adopted (1592).
a) Smetoniux, Vita Kn. Edinb. 1579. 4. Tli. JfcCrie. Life of J. Kn. E.linb. ISll. 2 vols. & often,
[ancinnart. (in Calv. Lib. vol. III.) 1S3S. S.] Im Ausz. v. Planck, Gott 1817. G. Weber, J. Kn. u.
d. schott K. (Stud. u. Krit 1S42. H. 4.)
I) Cont Scoticana I. in yiewei/er p Lis. 340ss. & First Book of Discipline.
o) F. V. Raumer, E.izabeth u. M.via Stuart Lps. 1S36. [IT. G. Bell, Lifo of Marj, Queen of
Scots. Lond. 1540. 3 ed. S. P. F. Tytler, Inquiry into the Evidence, ic. Lond. 1790. 2 .,'s. Vfhita-
Ic^'e Vind. & Miss Binger'a Life]
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN REFOPvM. § SU. JAMES I. CHARLES L 425
§ 304. Great Britain under the Stuarts.
Rushtcorth, Hist. Collections. lClS-44. Lond. 1T82. 6 vols. JTarris, H. of James I. Lond. 1754. 4
and H. of Charles I. Lond. ITS?. 4. Guizot, H. de larcvol. d'Angleterre. [Hist of tlie Eng. Rev. of
lG-10, from the Fr. of Giiizot. Lond. 1S45. S.] Par. 1826. 3 ed. 1S41. 2 vols. & Collection des Mcmoires
relatifi ä la Rev. Par. 1S23. 2 vols. Mamuhuj, H. of Engl. vol. L cap. 1. [J. JL Jewe, Court of Engl
under the Stuarts. Lond. 1S4C. 4 vols. S. II. Vaughan, H. of Engl, under the Stu.-irts & Common-
wealth. 1C03-SS. Lond. 1S40. 2 vols.]
Mary's son was also Elizabetli's lieir, James I. of England. Utterly disap-
pointing the hopes he had raised among the Presbyterians, he appointed bish-
ops as the instruments of an arbitrary monarchy in Scotland, was increasingly
bitter even to the last toward the riule strictness of the Puritans, but was mild
in his opposition to the Catholics, in proportion as they swore that the pope
had no power to depose princes, nor absolve subjects from their allegiance.
The discovery of a plot formed by some Catholics for blowing up the Parlia-
ment (1G05}, filled the people with consternation and hatred. Charles I. in-
herited his father's inclinations and aversions. The opposition of the Puritans
which had already been increased by persecution, and been directed to the
inferior regard shown in the Old Testament to worldly monarchy, was aroused
to the highest extreme by prelatical sermons upon the superiority of a mon-
arch to all laws, and upon the duty of unconditional submission to his au-
thority. The king made an effort to govern Avithout his Parliament, married
a Catholic princess, who imagined herself a modern Esther, and gave to the
Scottish Church a liturgy which the people abhorred as they would have done
a service to Banl. The Scots now formed a league in behalf of the true re-
ligion and the freedom of the kingdom (Covenant, 1G38). The king was
obliged to convene the Parliament (1040) to obtain money for the war against
them, but the representatives of an enraged people, exasperated by still fur-
ther thoughtless oppo.sition, impeached the royal counsellors, entered into the
Solemn League of the Scots, and when threatened by the king raised an
army, which, in spite of many defeats, soon became irresistible in consequence
of its religious enthusiasm and moral discipline. The Irish Catholics, relying
upon the reputed inclinations of the king, made preparations for a general mas-
sacre of the Protestants among them (IG-il). The Puritans, with their Old
Testament style of preaching, maintained their ascendency in Parliament,
while the Independents were most numerous in the army, but both were
agreed in their opposition to all papal abominations, and in their derivation
of all power from God and his people. A select number of pious and intel-
ligent clergymen were assembled by the Parliament to consult with a smaller
number from its own body with resjiect to a new ecclesiastical organization.
This Westminster Sijnod (IG-iG— i9) in connection with a few conmiissioners
from the Scottish Church, after long debates between Presbyterians, Inde-
pendents, and those who would have the Church governed by the civil pow-
ers (Erastians), finally adopted a Puritanic order of worship, a Presbyterian
form of Church government, and a Calvinistic Confession of Faith with two
Catechisms. The seats of tlie bishops in the House of Lords had been va-
cated, and their othce was now abolished, the revenues of the Church prop-
erty were consumed in these difficult times, principally for political purposes,
and with a few alterations in favor of the civil powers the acts of the Svnod
42G MdKKUN CllfUCIl IIISTOIIV. I'lOIt. v. a. D. I.'i.MCJS.
wero prodainu-(l ns laws. Only in the Scottish Church, however, have Iha
■\Vestminstur Standards hccn thoroughly received, for in England their enforce-
ment was oi>i)osed hy the growing ascendency of the army, (a) Archbishop
Laud who had refused all connection with the pope as long as liome re-
mained as it was, but who had been unable to recognize him as Antichrist,
now iusccndod the scaflbld (10-45), and was soon followed by his sovereign,
with a fortitude and divine resignation which has since given him the name
of a martyr king (Jan. 30, 1649). Cromwell, an Independent, though as a
ruler favorable to a Presbyterian constitution, in the mean time obtained the
mastery of the revolution which had b«rne him into power, and gradually
advanced from the fanaticism of faith and freedom to the cunning selüshnes?
of a tyrant, (i)
Feaxce.
I. (Seiranns) Cinintr. de statu rel. et roip. in regno Gal. Gen. 1570-80. 5 vols. (Beza) II. ecc. des
L'gl. K-f. 1521-03. Antv. 1530. 3 vols. Ueijnier de la Planche, II. de Tfistat do France, sous Franr. II.
publ. p. Mennechet, Par. 1S36. 2 vols. Davila, II. delle guerre civ. di Franci.x 1559 -9S. Yen. 1630. 4.
& often. (Benoist) U. de I'^diL de Nantes. Delft. 1693s. 5 vols. 4. De Thou (p. 853).— Eecueil do
Lcttres missives de Henri IV., publie par Berger de Xivrey, vol. I. (1502-84.) Par. 1S43. [6^. P. R.
James, Life of Henry IV. Lond. 1847. 3 vols. 8. Lord Mahon, Lifo of Louis Pr. of Conde, New
Yorlc. 1843. 12. Anon. Life of Louis of Bourbon, Pr. of Conde, from the French. Lond. 1093. 2 vols.
8. Maimbourg, II. of the League, from the Fr. by Drijden, Lond. 1084. 8. Ranke, Civil wars and
Monarchy in France in the 10th & 17th centt Lond. 1852. 2 vols. 8. J/. Cantelnau, Mom. of Fran-
cis II. & Charles IX. from the Fr. Lond. 1724. f. R. de Bouille, A. des Dues de Guise, Par. 1549. 2
voK 8. Blackwood's Mag. Apr. 1S50. (Eclec. M.ig. Dec. 1S50.) ]
II. Lacretelle, II. de France, pendant les guerres de rel. Par. ISlSss. 4 vols. A. L. ITernnann,
Fr. Eel. u. Bürgerkriege im IG Jahrh. Lps. 1823. .ff/'o?CHiH£;, II. of the Huguenots. Lond. 1829. 2 vols.
Capefgue, H. de la Ref. de la ligue et du regne de Henri IV. Pav. lS34s. 8 vols. L. Ranke, franz.
Gessh. im 10. u. 17. Jhh. Stuttg. 1852. vol. L {Mrs. Marsh, H. of the Prot. Eef. in France, Philad.
1351. 2 vols. 12. JS. Smedley, II. of the Eef. in France, New York. 3 vols. 12. Ch. Weiss. U. of the
Prot Eef. in France. Lond. 1854 2 vols. 12. & with an Append, by IT. W. Ilerhert, New York. 1SÖ4.
2 vols. 12. G. de Feiice, II. of the Protestmts of France, from the Fr. Lond. 1353. 2 vols. S.]
§ 3G5. Night of St. Bartholomew.
The rise and fall of the sects in the Southern provinces, a liberal adminis-
tration of ecclesiastical laws, and an extensive cultivation of polite literature,
had prepared the "way for the entrance of Protestantism into France. The
hearts of the first converts to it were gained by Luther's writings, but the first
churches in France were established by her own sons, Calvin and Beza. The
appropriate business of the Sorbonne was not neglected, and Luther's seditious
writings were condemned in due season. («) Francis I. sometimes thought
of eflfecting a peaceable reformation, and even invited Melancthon to come
to him for that purpose. But the policy of the French court at that period
a) Pnrltanorura Librl Symb. ed. Nieraeyer. Lps. 1840. Sack. (p. 424.) vol. II. p. Olss. K. G. v.
Riullof, d. Westminster Syn. (Zeitsch. C hist Th. 1S50. H. 2.) [W. Jf. HeÜierington, Hist of the
Westm. iVssom. New York. 1843. 12.]
I) Oliver CromiceU's Life, Letters & Speeches, by T. Carlyle, Lond. 1S45. 2 vols. [J. JT. M
D'Auhigne, The Protector, a Vindication, New York. 1848. 12. Harris, Life of O. C. Lond. 1762. S
J. T. Ueadley, Life of 0. C. New York. 1848. 'i'i.'\—Yillemain, Gesch. Cromw. A. d. Fr. v. BerK
Lps. ISSO.
a) Determin. Theol. Faa P.iris. super doctr. Luth. d. 15. Apr. 1521. [Gerdes, II. Eof. Monumna
p. lOss ] MttancVi. Apol. adv. furios P.aris theologastror. deer. Vit 1521.
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN EEFOEM. § 365. FRANCE. BEZA. 427
inilnced it to favor the Protestants in Germany, and to burn tliem, especially
the "Wahlenses, in great numbers (1545) in France, (b) Besides, although
Melancthon freely consented to the king's proposal, Luther was suspicious of
it, and would have nothing to do with a reformation in which the spirit of
Erasmus, and not a love of the gospel prevailed, (c) The French court was
also influenced, not merely by its zeal for religion, but by its political fears
and hatred of a sect whicli denounced as capital olTences crimes unblushingly
practised in the royal palace. But in spite of persecutions, sometimes proba-
bly produced by enthusiastic violations of Cathclic feelings, the Huguenots
increased, especially in the south, and united themselves together at a Gene
ral Synod in Paris (1559). The Confession of Faith which they there adopted
was Calvinistic, and their ecclesiastical constituti(m was representative, com-
bining independent congregations and a united general Church, (d) !Many of
the nobility of the kingdom, the Bourbons, with the title of King of Navarre,
and the noble Chatillons, ranged themselves at the head of this party, and its
political power became formidable. During the reigns of two successive
kings, whose intellectual inferiority rendered a regency always indispensable
(after 1559), their mother, Catharine de Medici^ held the actual reins of au-
thority, while the Dukes of Guise supported by the Catholics, and the princes
of Bourbon b}- the Huguenots, contended for the regency. In the strife of
these leaders the queen-mother found the necessary condition of her supre-
macy. At the religious conference of Poissy (15G1), in the presence of the
assembled court, Beza succeeded in truly and brilliantly defending the new
faith against the whole prelatic strength of France, {e) In the edict of Janu-
ary (1562) the Huguenots obtained the right to hold public worship any where
except in the principal cities. (/) But this privilege was regarded as an
abomination by the city of Paris and the Catholic population generally, and
was derided with sanguinary violence by the Duke of Guise. During the
same year, therefore, hostilities were commenced with all the aggravations of
a civil and religious war, and were three times renewed after as many treaties
of pence. The Catholic governmental party were assisted by Spanish and papal
troops, and the Reformed by English gold and German blood, {g) Finally, at
the peace of St. Germain (1570) the Huguenots were guaranteed the posses-
sion of freedom of conscience, a degree of publicity in religious worship, equal
political privileges, and a few fortified towns as securities for the future. In
token of a complete reconciliation the king's sister was given in marriage to
Henry of Kararre. All the Protestant leaders were invited to Paris to cele-
brate the nui)tials. Tliere, on the night of St. Bartholomew, 1572, the queen-
mother gave the signal lor a massacre which had long been the subject of
conversation, but was then resolved upon under the imi)ulse of the moment.
During this fatal night twenty thou.saud Huguenots, with the brave General
h) Corp. Rff. vol. II. p. 741. 855. 879. 904«. Strohd M.-l. Ruf nach Frankr. NOrnb. 1794. C
Sdimidt, (1. Unions-Versftclio Frnnz I. (ZoltHili. f. lilsu Th. 1350. II. I.)
c) II. de la persecution ct .saccngenient du pouplo de Mörlndul et de CabriCres et autres clrcoa-
»olsiiis appelt« Vaudols. 1550. Beza, I, 853S.
d) üiemeyer, Col. p. 311s9. e) JBatim, Beza vol. II. p. 145ss.
/) Bt'iioht vol. I. : Recuell d'E'Ilta p. Isä«
p) F. II'. BiH-thvUI, DeutÄclil. u. d. Ilugon. lS4<ä. voL L
428 MODEBN CIIÜKCH IIISTOlir. riCK. V. A. n. IS'.T-lfrJS.
CoJi<j/nj were iminlorcfl, jjrescnting a horrid earnest of tlio future revolution
A To Douin was sung nt Komo by the order of Gregory XIII. in honor of
this extormiuation of Christ's enemies. (A)
§ 360. Edict of Nantes.
Tlioso wlio had escaped the massacre now armed themselves for vengeance
with the courage of despair, and once more conquered from their enemies a
recognition of their rights (ISTG). Ilenry of Navarre, who had been spared,
and compelled to deny his faith, assumed the position which naturally be-
longed to him, and became the leader of the Huguenots. But the Guises, in
alliance with Philip II., now formed a Holy Leaijue, in which a majority of
the nobles and people swore that they would exterminate the heretics.
Charles IX. died under the torture of terrible dreams (1574). Henry III. was
compelled to violate the treaty of peace, but fimxlly, disgusted with the tyranny
of the Holy League, he had Ilenry ^ Duke of Guise, the Gideon of Catholic
France, assassinated, and the Cardinal of Guise executed, fled before the fury
of the Catholic populace to the camp of the King of Navarre, was excom-
municated by the pope, and was at last assassinated by the Dominican, Clem
ent (1589), By this death of the last of the house of Valois the throne de-
scended by inheritance to Henry of Navarre, whose title had been declared
invalid by the pope and the league. After many severe struggles to gain pos-
session of his royal rights, and finding that he could never hope to give peace
to his subjects so long as the greater portion of them regarded liim as a here-
tic, Ilenry IV. concluded that France was worth the offering of a mass (1593).
As soon, however, as his kingdom became settled, he secured to his real com-
panions in faith by the irrevocable Edict of Nantes (1598) freedom of reli-
gious faith, the public worship of God with only a few trifling restrictions, all
their rights as citizens, and great privileges as an organized political corpora-
tion, {a) They Avere indeed to pay tithes to the established Church, but were
to be free from all kinds of episcopal jurisdiction. Although these conces-
sions did not completely satisfy even the Huguenots, it required the whole
royal power to enforce compliance with the edict among the magistrates, and
in the provinces opposed to it. But just as France had begun to enjoy the
highest prosperity under his administration, just as he was about to execute
the most enlightened schemes for the permanent pacification of Europe,
Henry fell beneath the dagger of Ravaillac (May 14, 1610). The peaceful
sons of the old Huguenot heroes were finally driven to insurrection by a
series of violations of tbeir rights, and Cardinal EicTielieii by the power of
his intellect overthrew all opposition, and disarmed them as a political party.
At the same time, by an act of amnesty at Nismcs (1C29), he secured to them
all those ecclesiastical rights which had been guaranteed in the Edict of
Nantes ; but by various persecutions and frequent apostasies the reformed
h) Audin^ n. de la S. BarthÄlemy. Par. 1S26. Wachler. d. Blnthoclizeit Lps. (1326.) lS2a
Asainst CspeHgue: Iianl:e: hist polit Zeitsch. 1S;35. vol. II. St. 3. & Franz. Gesch. vol. I. p. 2G9äs
ir G. &>lil,iii, Frankr. il d. Banliolomäasnaclit. (Eaumer's hist. Tascheub. 1S54.)
a) JBenoM, Monn. p. 62ss. *
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN EEFOEM. § 3C7. SPAXIAED3. ITALIANS. 429
Church was reduced to not more tlian half the strength which it possessed
before the night of St. Bartholomew, (b)
§ 3G7. Spain and Italy.
M. Geddes, Martjrologlum eor. qui in Ilisp. etc. {3£oiittem. Dss. ail H. ecc. Alt. 1738. p. 663.)
/?. Conaalvi, Eelat. de inartL Prot in Hisp. {Gerden, Serin, vol. IV. P. II.) M'Crie. H. of the pro-
eress & suppression of the Eeform. in Spain. Edinb. 1S29. Adolfo de Castro, II. de los Protes-
tantes Espanolos. Cadiz. 1S51. [Tlio Spanish Protestants and tlieir persecution under Pliilip II., from
the Spanish of Pe Castro, by T. Parker. Lon<L 1S.V2. 8. R. WaUon, Philip II. of Spain. New York.
ISIS. S ]—Gerdesii, Spec Ital. rcforinatae. L. B. 17C5. 4. M'Crie, IL of the progress ic sui>pr. of the
Eef. in Italy. Edinb. 1S27. C. F. Leopold, ü. d. Ursachen d. Euf. u. deren Verfall in Ital. (Zeitsch.
t hist Th. 1S43. 11. 2.)
In the train of the emperor the seeds of the Reformation were conveyed
to Spain, where they were cherished perhaps even by some who surrounded
his dying bed, (n) and certainly were received with the highest enthusiasm, in
some instances from a patriotic resistance to the inquisition, but in others
from a profound religious feeling, which found sati.sfaction in the reformed
doctrine of justification. But Catholicism, espepially the worship of the
saints, is deeply rooted in the obstinate spirit of the Spanish people. Purity
of faith is as highly valued by a Spaniard as purity of blood, and he would
not scruple to imbrue his hands in the blood of a brother who had apostatiied
from the faith, {h) Martyrdom therefore had no terrors, and when Philip
had exhausted the immense resources of his empire in endeavoring to put down
the religious revolution among other nations, the inquisition effectually silenced
the arguments of Protestantism by throwing into prison and there putting to
death all persons suspected of heresy, or by the popular pageantry of an auto
da fe. In Italy, the contempt into whicli the clergy had fallen, and the ex-
clusive engagement of worldly men in the studies of polite literature, had
produced a spirit which hailed the movement in Germany with great joy. Bv
means of literary societies of Protestants connected with the foreign armies
in their midst, and of translations of the writings of the Reformers generally
under assumed names, individual friends or congregations were gained in
nearly all the principal towns, and especially in Ferrara, under the protection
of the heroic Duchess of Este, a daughter of the King of France, {c) Oppor-
tunities, however, were found for the indulgence of evangelical /<;<//« j7« in the
Old Church, {d) or they were divided among themselves by controversies re-
specting the Lord's Supper, and by the conduct of those who were hostile to
all ecclesiastical systems, and therefore wished to destroy or at least encroach
upon that portion of the Catholio faith which was retained by the reformers.
Moreover none but the middle classes in Italy were ever sincerely devoted to
the cause of liberty, and tlio spirituality of the German and French Protes-
tants could never be very püi)ular among a people so fond of those arts which
h) TzscJUrner, de causls linpcdltao In Franco2;.iI. .«acrorum publ. emendstionls. (0pp. Lps. 1329.
p. 81S.)
[ii) TTm. Stirling, Cloister life of Charles V. Lond. 1S52. S.]
h) Claude Senarde, Illst vera do morte Jo. Dlazli. 1546. (Gerdesii Serin. anUquar. vol. VIIL
IM.) Corp. Eef. vol. VI. p. 1189.
c) KHlstor. Archiv. 1S24. P. 4. p. Is. E. Munch, K. v Est«. Aach. ISSlss. 2 vols.
d) Del beueflclo di Cristo about 1540. A often, niederer, Nachrr. vol. IV. p. 121. 235s3.
430 MODERN CIIORCH IIISTOUV. I'EU. V. A. I). ir.lT-1649.
are ndilrosscd (.'xclnsively to tlio outward sense. "When tlierefore tho dangoi
was jiercoived at Konie, and an inriiiisitorial tribunal with formidablo powers
was apitointed tlicro (1542), many fled beyond tbe Alj)«, and others recanted
and rehipsed into tlioiigjitlessncss, inditForence, or even insanity. (/) Dreading
tho olo(]uence of martyrdom, the inquisition struck terror into tho hearts of
the peoi)le rather by imprisonment, by consignment to the galleys, and by
Bccrct executions. It was only in Calabria that the members of a few churches
of tiie Waldenscs were hunted to death like wild beasts (loGOj. Near the end
of the sixteenth century all vestiges of Protestant communities in Italy were
completely ohlitcratod. Among those who fled to foreign countries were some
highly honored divines and prelates, who, with few exceptions, spent their
lives in great unhappiness. (/)
CIIAr. IV.— FANATICS AND ULTRAISTS OF TIIE REFORMATION.
Schlmselbiirg (p. 402.) H. TT Erhknm, Gesch. d. prot. Sekton im Zeita. d. Ref. Ilainb. 1*4S.—
iTaffen(p. 360.) vol. III.
§ 368. General Relations of the Eeformation.
While some who anticipated and co-operated in effecting the Reformation
finally shrunk from its results, in the midst of the general commotions which
then took place, and the liberty which aU enjoyed, many individuals of difter-
ent dispositions wished to share in the privileges of the new Church who
exceeded either the true limits of Protestantism, or at least those which the
popular mind could then tolerate. These extreme characters tlie reformed
churches with one common spirit violently rejected. What Calvin sanctioned
by a dark deed, Melancthon praised. («) Luther remarked that the most
deadly acts of the inquisition might thus be justified, and that after all, the
hangmen were the most learned doctors. (5) In this way the maxim was
gradually formed, that errorists should be silenced, and that obstinate here-
tics should not indeed be put to death, but confined, and sent out of the coun-
try. Philip alone, among the princes, was disposed to recognize the right of
all men to liberty of conscience, and that persons of another faith may pos-
sess the essentials of true piety, (c)
e) C. L. Rcth, Fr. Spieras Lebensende, Nürnb. 1829.
/) E. g. Schlosser (p. 402. nt. t.) C. Schmidt, Tie de Pierre M.irtyr Terniigli. Strasb. lS:i5. 4. F
Meyer, die ev. Gemeinde in Locarno, ihre Auswand, nach Zürich u. weitere Schicks. Zur. lS36s. 2 vols.
«) Ciilcini Defcnslo orth. fidei e. errores Serueti, ubi ostenditur, haereticos jure gladii coercendos
esse. s. 1. 1554 Corp. Ref. vol. YIII. p. 362. [Stelling, Ilist. of the Church, vol. II. p. 12S. Spirit
of the Pilgrims, vol. III. p. 615. Bib. Ecpertory, vol. VIII. p. ST. B'fza, Life of Calv. eiL by Sihson,
note c Henry, Life of C. vol. II. p. 219.]
h) De Weite vol. II. p. 622. Walch vol. lY. p. 759. X. 374. XV. IGSo. XVI. 64. Yet see Di
Wette vol. III. p. 49S. Y. 95. Walch vol. XIII. p. 442s.
<•■) Brief an .Joh. Friedrich d. Mittlern v. 7. Marz. 1D59. (^Salig. vol. III. p. 4S6ss. WetzIarscUe
Beltrr. vol. XI. p. 304ss.
CHAr. IT. ULTRAISTS. § 369. ANABAPTISTS. 43 1
§ 309. Anabaptists as Fanatics.
I Justus Jfenius: d. 'WloilcrteufriT Lcro vnd jreholmn. a. II. S. wiiiitflogt. M. Vorr. Luth. "Witt
1Ö80. and Ton d. Geist d. WT. Witt. l.'>44. 4. If. Bullinger, d. WT. vrsprung, furganp:, Sectcn. Zur.
l.'jßii. 4. — Newe Zeitung v. d. WT. zu Münssti-r. (Mit Luth. Torr. a. Melanditli. Proiiosltiones.) Numb.
I5S5. 4. Ordn. d. WT. zu M. 1535. 4. If. Dorpius, wartiafftigd bist, wio das Ev. zu M. angefangen
vnd durch d. WT. verst'iret wider Ruff;rehört bat, (Witt.) 1530. 4. M.igdeb. 1S47. IT. a Kerssen-
t/'oec^-, anabapt. fiiroris bist narralio. 1504-73. (defective: J/e/iCite«, Scrr. Germ. vol. III. a poor
trans. : Gesell d. WT. zu M. 1771. 4.)
II. ir. J. IT. OiU, .\nn. anabaptistici. Bas. 1072. 4. T. Krohn, WT. vorn, in Niederdcntscb. (Ilof-
nianniancr.) Lps. 17.'xS. V. A. ^YinUr, Goscb. d. bai. WT. Munch. ISuD. // Jochmus, Gesch. d.
KRcform zu M. u. ihres Unterganges durch d. WT. Münst 1S25. J. Ifuxt, Ge.'Jcb. d. WT.
Münst lS3fi. O. A. Corneliux, i\o fontib. quibus in Hist, Beditionis Mon. viri doetl usi sunt Mon
1S50. K. Ilase, d. Keich d. WT. (Ner.o Propheten.)
"Wliilc the Reformers justified their opposition to the papacy bj' appealing
to the Scriptures, or to clear ami manifest reasons, it was not surprising that
other.«, on tho contrary, decidedly arrogated to themselves as individuals
Avhat the Church claimed for herself in general, and that fanatical persons
mistook their own passionate impulses for divine inspirations. Their rejec-
tion of infiint baptism, in consistency with the Protestant doctrine of faith,
and on account of its want of Scrii)tural authority, together with their con-
sequent repetition of the baptism of adult believers, became the distinctive
badge of their party. These Anabaptists, who made their first appearance at
Zwichau and Wittenberg (1521), were nearly all put to death in the Peasants'
war, but in almost every part of the country, a class of enthusiasts resem-
bling them, but very unlike each other in moral and religious character, be-
came the pioneers and freebooters of the Reformation. Some of them were
persons who had renounced the world, and otliers Avere the slaves of their
own lusts ; to some of them marriage was only an ideal religious communion
of spirit, to otliers it was resolved into a general community of wives ; some
did not difler from the reformers with respect to doctrine, but others rejected
original sin and the natural bondage of the will, denied that we are to be
justified by the merits of Christ alone, or that we can partake of his flesh,
and maintained that our Lord's body was from heaven, and not begotten by
tho virgin. As they acknowledged no call but that Avhich came directly
from God within them, they despised tho ministerial ofiico in tho Church,
and though they denounced all historical record-s, they justilied themselves by
isolated passages of tho Bible for overthrowing all existing relations in social
life, la their assumed character of men moved by the Holy Ghost, they
were of course exalted above all law, and frequently exhibited a spirit of
rebellion against every kind of government. Hence, among both Catholics
and Protestants it was tliought right to punish tliem even witli death. In
Mäiis(e)\ where the Preformation and civic liberty had obtained the ascend-
ency by rather violent measures (153'2), some Anabaptists from the Nether-
lands having driven out all who opposed them, formed a theocratic Democra-
cy (Feb., 1534), which was to be tho commencement of Christ's promised
kingdom on earth. Matthiescn was regarded by them as the i)rophet Enoch,
and nflcr his heroic deatli, Bockelson was received by them as tiie king of the
world. Prophets were sent abroad in cver^- direction, a kind of community
of goods and [)olygamy were introduct'd among them, and the most sau
432 Mt'DKKN ciiurxii iii.'^Top.v. rKi:. v. a. d. isir-ieis.
guinnr}' proceedings Avcro enacted under a pretended divine inspiration, until,
after a courageous defence, Munster was conquered by the neighboring
princes (Juno *24th, 1525). Their disorderly conduct was then arrested by
the sword, find flic mithority of the hierarchy and of the nobility was re-
established.
g 370. The Atmhfqjtlsts as an Onlerhj Community. Collegianta.
Menno Sinu FundainentHm, together with some otlicr unimportant small works. 1575. 0pp.
Amst. 1C40. Comp. Archiv, f. KGosch. 1S14. vol. II. li. K. lioosen, Menno S. Lps. 1S4S. J. C.
Jehring, gründl. II. v. den Taufgcs. b. 1C15.) from the Dutch by £. voti Gent.) Jena. 1720.— /T!
.Sc7(y>», 11. Christianorum, qui Menaonitao appellantur. Amst 1723. and II. Menn. plenior dcductio.
lb. 1729. O. L. V. Ueüstcilz and F. Wuilzeck; ßeitrr. z. Kenntn. d. taufges. Gemeinden. Brsl. 182158.
2 vols. A. Iluminger, das Rel. K. u. Schulwesen d. Menn. Speyer. 1S31.— t/i Wiggera, d. Taufgea.
in d. rfalz. (Zeitsch. f. hist Tb. 1S4S. II. Z.—Iiues, gegenw. Zust. d. Menn. u. Colleg. Jen. 1743. Ar-
chiv, f. KG. 1S14 vol. I. Part S.
The misfortunes and extravagances of the Anabaptists of Munster com-
pelled those who survived either partially to distrust their chtinis to infallibil-
ity and their hopes of a secular kingdom, or to throw themselves upon the ex-
pectation of an advent of Christ in the future. These scattered, divided and
dispirited communities were collected into small congregations in various
parts of the Netherlands and on the German sea-coasts, by the pious dili-
gence of Menno Simon, who had formerly been a priest (d. 1561). Under
the name of Assemblies of the Saints, they adopted a rigid discipline, re-
jected all oaths, war, lawsuits, and divorce except for adultery, and prac-
tised the washing of feet as a sacred ordinance ; and though they obeyed
the authorities, they contended that it did not become a successor of Christ
to exercise worldly jurisdiction. Public toleration was conceded to them in
the Netherlands when the liberty of those provinces was obtained, and grad-
ually it was allowed them in England and Germany, But even during
Menno's life they became divided on the subject of the rigidity of excommu-
nication into the Pure and the Gross, or on the doctrine of election into
Calvinists and Arrainians. "With the latter class the Collcgiants became
united more particularly in Ehynsburg. This sect sprung up about 1G20,
when the Arminian clergy were excommunicated, and three brothers of the
name of Kodde, ruling elders of more than ordinary proficiency in the Scrip-
tures, collected such as were of the same fliith with themselves into assem-
blies for prayer (Collegia). They rejected all ecclesiastical offices for religious
instruction, and demanded a severity of morals such as prevailed in the
primitive Church, but they were almost indifferent with respect to ecclesias-
tical articles of faith. Hence persons of very different sentiments were to be
found among them, but the association by which their congregations were
united was not dissolved until some time in the nineteenth century.
§ 371. Antitrinitarians.
Ch. Sand, Bibl. Antitrr. Freist (Amst) 16S4. F. S. Bock, Hist Antitrr. Socinianor. Lps. et Ee-
giom 1774SS. 2 vols. F. TrechseC, M. Servet u. s. Vorgänger. Ileidelb. 1S39.
The fellowship of the Reformers with the Church was shown by their
inviolable attachment to the ancient Catholic symbols. But those in various
CHAP. IV. ULTRAIST9. § 371. ANTITRINITABIÄN8. SERVETL'S. 43S
sonntrics, and esi)ecially in Italy, who were secretly opposed to all ecclesias-
tical creeds, indulged the hope that they would find an asylum in countries
possessing the Reformation. Some of these, therefore, in the name of the
Scriptures or of intellectual freedom, claimed the right to reject any ecclesi-
astical doctrines, and especially the doctrine of the Trinity as it had been
taught in the Church, or in an Anabaptist spirit uttered opinions respecting
this right from a professed divine inspiration. The reformers, howevei, has-
tened as specdil}^ as possible to deny all fcllowshij» with such heretics, by a
sentence which adjudged such persons to a capital punislmient. John Denck
thought he discovered in the abundant love which Christ produced by his
agency before he came into the world, and which ho typically represented, a
state of exaltation above the Scriptures and all laws, and yet led to the pre-
cise course of conduct which they required. His education in polite litera-
ture did not raise liim above the secret practice of anabaptism, in which he
thought seven evil spirits were abjured, and seven good spirits were received
by the believer. lie was opposed to the doctrine of the equality of the Son
with the Father as a real idolatry, but the principal point on which his feel-
ings were enlisted, was one in wliich he maintained tliat an eternal hell was
inconsistent with the divine mercy, lie was merely expelled from the sphere
of his activity in the cities of Upper Germany, and escaped martyrdom as a
heretic by an early death (1528). ('/) lUtzcr. a learned friend of Zwingle and
a popular poet, was, while full of expressions of repentance, beheaded at Con-
stance for his assertion of the imity of God (1529), althougli he was also
convicted of holding Anabaptist sentiments and of adulterous conduct, {h)
Servetus, a native of Aragon, and a man of extensive acquirements but of a
restless disposition, taught that the Deity was the real essence of all things ;
that the world in all its forms is actually nothing; that the Trinity is only a
revelation of the great First Cause in the form of tlio light and the word
finally completed in the incarnation ; and that the Holy Spirit is merely a
mode in which God communicates himself to created beings. He therefore
derided the Trinity held by the Church as a three-headed Cerberus, and
thought himself destined to bo the restorer of Christianity. He was burned
by tho Catholics in effigy, and by the Protestants in realitj', at Geneva
(1553). ((■) Camjjanus^ who appealed ivo\\\ the whole world to tlie apostles,
and described the Son in accordance witli Arian views, and tho Spirit as only
the influence by which man was redeemed and assimilated to God, died in
prison at Cleves (about 1578). (</) Gciiiilis, a Calabrian, completed the doc-
trine of three Gods of unequal rank, which had been advanced by Grihahlo^
a) Vom Gesetz O. (?. I. et a.) Gelstl. BlumengBrtl. (6 small Trcatifcg by Denck.) Amst. 16S0.—
Ihtgen vol. III. p. 275ss. I/eberle, J. Denck u. ^ nüclil. v. Ocsctz. (Stud. u. Krit. 1851. H. Is.)
h) J. J. Ilreitinger, Anccd. <le L. Iletzero. (Museum Ilelv. 1751. vol. VI.) Dietrich, In U. Tub.
Ztltsch. 1S34. II. 4.
c) Dliill. <le Trin. (ILipen.) 1532. Chrisllnnlsnil roslllutlo. (Vien.) 155''.— Rolatlon «lu procOs
criiiiinal intent6 il Geneve centre M. Servet, redigöo d'lipri'S Ics doouments origliiaux par A. HiUiet,
Gen. 1S44. Culrini fldelis expos, errornm Serv. s. I. 1554. — JfoH/ifim, Hist. Sorv. Illmst 1727. 4.
and Neue Nacbr. v. A Arzto Serv. lllmst 1750. 5. IMicrlf, Sirv. Trln. u. Chrlstol. (Tub. Zeitscb.
1540. II. 2.) Biiiir, luoicinisk. vol. III. p. 4C<.s. fTK /f. Vrummonil, Life of Sorvetus. Lond. 1S43.
12. n. Wright, Apol. for Sorv. Lond. ISHS. 12. Ilenrij, Life of Calv. vol. II. and as in § 368. nt. a.]
d) Sdielhorn, do Camp, (.\nioeiiltt liter, vol. XI.)
28
434 MODKP.N CllUItCII IHSTORT. PER. V. A. I). ISIT-IWS.
ft Iwinicfl jurist, \>y iimiiitnitiinf,' that tlie Son was anotlicr God of tlie sarnt
nature, Imt derived IVoni tlie Fatlicr. He saved liis life by a reeantatlon, an
occlcsinstii-al i)enancc, and an act of perjury at Geneva, but lost it at Berne,
as Iio tli()iif,'lit, in lionor of tlio Father (1560). (e) David Joris, a painter
from Delft, wIjo had before been highly esteemed as a prophet in the new
kinf^dom at Munster, taught that the Trinity was merely a revelation of
God in tliree ditferent ages of the world, and assembled together Anabap-
tists of nil kinds, with the promise that they should take possession of the
earth ns the Israelites did of Canaan in the age of the Holy Spirit, which had
made its appearance in him. He was whipped and outlawed, but found an
honorable asylum under an assumed name at Basle (d. 1556). (/) Others
took refuge in Poland, and were there at first known under the common
name of Dissidents, but were, after 15G5, expelled from the Refonaed Church
as Unitarians. They were not entirely free from persecution, but through
the favor of some powerful supporters they obtained a general centre for
their body at liacau (1509). {g) In Transylvania a pubhc recognition of the
Unitarians was obtained (1571) by the influence of the Piedmontese Blan-
drata, the private physician of the prince. Jesus was honored by this sect
simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God and exalted for
dominion over the whole world. Adoration was paid to him by most of
them, and those who refused this were persecuted. (A)
§ 3T2. Socinians.
I. Bib!. fratru:n Folcn. Irenop. (Ainst.) 165G. S vdIs. f. Ch. Ostorodt, Unterrichtung v. d
Ilauptp. (1. cbr. R. Eak. ICOi and oft. Catech. Eacov. (10(i9. 12. and oft. Poln. 1605.) ed. Oeder,
Frcf. 1739. Wissowatius, Eel. rationalis. 16S5. Amst. 1708. Stan. Lulieniecii, U. ref. Pol.
Freist 16S5.
II. Sudcleus, de orig. Socinian. Jen. 1725. 4. Ziegler. Lehrbg. d. F. Soc. (Henke, N. Mag. vol.
IV. p. 201SS.) E. Bengel. Ideen z. Erkl. d. Soc. Lehrbgr. (Tub. Mag. St. 14s«.) 0. Fock. der So-
ciniani.^mus in der Gesamiutcntw. d. cbristl. Geistes, nacb s. hist. Verl.iuf. \i. Lelirbegr. Kiel 1S47.
2 Abth.
Laelixis Socinvs, belonging to the noble family of the Sozini of Siena,
spent his time, after 1547, in reformed countries in the character of an
inquiring but sceptical man of letters, under the advice and toleration of the
reformers, and highly esteemed for his honesty and intelligence (d. 1562). (a)
It was by his nephew and heir, Faustus Sociniis (d. 1G04), that the Unitarians
in Poland, with whom he became connected, became organized as a commu-
e) B. Aretius, Val. Gentilis justo capitis supplicio affecti H. Gen. 1667. 4 Gent impietatnm ex-
plicalio exactis Senatus Genev. c. praof Th. Bezae, Gen. 1567. 4.
/) T Wonderhoek, 1542. 4. 1555. f.— Hist. Dav. Jovis d. Erzketzers, durcb d. Univ. Basel. Bas.
1ö"j9. 4. H. vitae Dav. Georgii baeresiarcbae, conscr. ab ipsius gencro, Xie. Blesdikio, ed. J. Jie-
viiis, Daventr. 1642. 12 Jetiseniun, aufgedeckte Larve Dav. Georgii. Kiel. 1670. 4.
O) Catccliesis et Conf. fldei coetus per Pol. congregati in nomine J. C. Cracov. 1574 12. known a?
tbe 1. Eacovian Catecbism.
A) Blati 1r. Conf. Antitr. c. rcfutatione Flacii, cd. Henke, Illmst 1794. (0pp. acad. p. 24.x)
lleb<frU, a. d. Lehren v. Bland. (Tub. Zeitscbr. 1S40. 11. 4.)— Summa univ. lb. cbr. sec. Unitarios
Claudlop. 17S7. (lioaenmulUr, in Stäudlin's u. Tzsch. .\rcbiv. f. KGcsch. vol. L U. 1.)
a) Ch. F. lUgen, Vita L. Socini. Lps. 1S14. Symbolae ad vit et doct L. S. ill. Lps. 3 P.
1S26-14. 4. 0;W?j. L. Soc. (Basl. wiss. Zeitscbr. IS 24. vol. II. P. 3. p llSis.) F. Trechsd, Lelic
roiinl 11. die Aniitrinitarior sr. Zeit Heideib. 1844.
CHAr. IV. ULTEAISTS. § STi. SOCINIANS. § 878. SCHWENCKFELD. 435
Dity, and received a complete system of doctrine. {1} Tbc principal article
of this was an attempt at an accommodation between different parties by tbe
doctrine, that although Jesus was born a mere man, he was nevertheless
without any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God, was
taken up into heaven, and as the reward of his life Avas deified, that he
miglit be a mediator, to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowl-
edge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in
all periods of time. As man is destitute of any natural knowledge of God,
divine revelation is made to correspond with the laws of his mind. The
Socinian explanations of the New Testament were therefore frequently of a
bold and novel character, but conformed to the prejudices of a hmited un-
derstanding, and the ethical system adopted was more of a social than of a
religious nature. Christianity was viewed on the whole as a moral redemp-
tion by our own eüurts. The connection with the Anabapti.sts, which Socinus
found already formed, was very soon broken otf. Socinianism was the extreme
of opposition to popery, and was never a true pulsation, but the feverish ex-
citement of the Protestant Church when it was sinking into a chill ortho-
doxy. Its advocates were never regarded by the Protestants as CiirLstians,
and it was only in Altorf, near the commencement of the seventeenth cen-
tury, that they .'succeeded in forming an organised party. Even this Avas
soon suppressed. A few literary men, especially among the Arminians, have
been obliged to defend themselves against tbe reproach of Socinianism. (c)
In Poland, the attack upon Protestantism was most ferocious against the So-
ciuians. In 1638 they lost possession of Racau, where the Polish nobility
had been educated, and in 1058 they were entirely exterminated under the
ostensible charge of being traitors to the government. ('/) The exiled con-
gregations found refuge under the great Elector, and individuals took up their
residence in the Xetherlands, but the proper time for Socinianism as a sect
was now past.
§ 373. Caspar Schicenchfeld of Osshig. Sebastian Francl-.
Forllis writings, see WaMi, Bibl. theol. Tli. II. p. 67ss. furze Lebensb. Sdnv. without place. 1697.
nut Naclir. v. Iscliw. samt Anzalil sr. Schrr. Trcnzl. 1744. Dio wesentl. Leliro dc." lU-rrn C. Schw.
VI. Br. Glaubenssrenosseii. Brsl. 1770. {Jahne) Dankb. Erin, an il. Schwonkfeldor zu riiilailelplii.i, Gürl.
1810. — Wigaml, de SchweiikfeUlianisino. Lps. 15SC. 4. Erhkum, p. X)1iS.—Fratnk: I'aradu.xu 2S0
d. i. Wundtrrtd. aus d. II. S. (Ulm. 15-34.) 4. IJaum d. Wiss. Gules u. Biscs. Ulm. 1M4. 4. Dio
Guldin Arch. Augsb. 153S. f. Das vcrbüllisehicrt mit tibun Sigeln verschlosfne Bucli. (Ibid.) 1630.
t—S. Th. WalJ, do vita scrlptis et syst myst S. Francl. Erl. 1798. 4. K. am Ende, kleine Nachlese
zu d. unvollst Xaclirr. v. S. Fr. NOrnb. 1790. 4. mit 2. Forts?. 179S-99. //,igen voL 111. p. 814.<s.
Erbkam, p. 2Süs3. C. T. Kuim, d. Bef. d. Beichsst Ulm. btuttg. IbSl. p. 'iC'Jss.
As the Reformation found salvation only in the Scriptures but by means
of a true and saving faitli, the latter, when it was especially ardent, some-
times rose against the narrowue-s and uncertainty of all merely external
I) Opp. Ircnop. 1G5G. 2 vols. f. (Przi/pcoviiiK) Vila F. S. 1G80. 4. before 0pp. Soc. U. Bibl. ftnt
Tolonorum. tS„ulnii)i. Mem. of the Life of V. ». Lt«nd. 1777.
c) n<i7)ib<ic/i, Einl. in d. B. Streif, d. ev. K. mit d. So;. Cub. 1753. 2 vols. 4. Ztltner, II. Crypto-
Boeinisml Altorflnaft Acad, infesti. Lpis. 1729. 2 vols. 4.
(/) I'roditiones Arianoriiiii patriae suae sub tempus belli SuecicL 1057. 4. On the other side: Lu-
lietiiecii Memoriale in causa Fratnitu L'nilar. Stetini. 10."i9.
43G MtPDKKN (Ml neu niHTor.v. tki:. v. a. d. 1517-1049.
Scripture. Tlic confidenco -which was thus produced in an immediate and
liviuf,' coininunion with Christ is well illustrated by the case of Schwenclrfeld
((!. 1561 ). in the court of the Duke of Lignitz, he formed a centre of influ-
ence in behalf of tlio Ilcformation in Sile.sia, and (even in 1525) was on
terms of personal intercourse Avith Luther. lie, however, came gradually to
the conclusion, that although Luther was correct in opposing the i)apacy, the
new kingdom proposed by the reformers was to be wholly conformed to the
outward letter, and therefore was not likely to afford much assistance in the
Christian life. On his banishment from Silesia ho betook himself to Suabia
(1528), where ho maintained a friendly intercourse with the Protestant
princes, and a violent controversy with the Protestant theologians. By the
latter he was held up as the chief of all fanatics, but he seems to have propa-
gated his principles Avithout attempting to found an independent party. The
main points of his system, in addition to all kinds of strange sentiments
respecting the deification of Christ's flesh for us, that it might be the food
of our souls in the Lord's Supper, and respecting Christ's death as a penalty
paid to Satan for man, {a) were his exclusive regard for sincere piety in the
heart by means of a gracious incarnation of Jesus Christ within us, and a con-
sequent indifl'erence to the mere letter of the Scripture or the visible Church.
A few followers and congregations, especially in North America, have pre-
served some true memorials of him untU the present time. (V) "With similar
views, but with more learning and moderation, Thamerus (d. 1569) has de-
fended the redeemed and divinely enlightened conscience in opposition to a
reliance upon the sacred letter. He was therefore obliged to fall out with
the reformers, and thereby proved that the Catholic doctrine on this subject
was more consistent with sound common sense than the Protestantism of
that period, {c) The idea that God is continually making revelations to all
believers, was not by any means incredible to enlightened human reason.
The principal champion for this doctrine was Seh. Francl; originally from
Woerd (Donauwoerth, d, at Basle about 1543), successively a priest, a Lu-
theran pi-eacher, a soap manufacturer, a learned printer, and always a popuhu'
writer. (»/) He found edification in the apparent contradictions and obscure
passages of the Scriptures, the letter of which he regarded as the sword of
Antichrist by which the Christian is slain, and yet the sacred pyx in which
the true Christ is conveyed to men. He allowed himself to believe nothing
except on the united testimony of his own heart and conscience, and he pro-
fessed subjection to no master but himself. He was acquainted with ancient
philosophy, was familiar with the mysticism of the middle ages, and de-
scribed the Deity as the everlasting essence, which needed not the existence
of any creature, and yet pervaded and acted through all created forms. The
will of man, however, being free, may either be governed by the divine
nature within him, or may pervert this nature to unhallowed objects. "When-
a) G. L. ITahn, Scbw. Sententia de Chr. persona et opere. Trat 1S17.
[li) J. Schult;, in Uist of Ilel. Denominaticns in U. S. (Harrisburg. 1S49. S.) p. 557.]
c) .4. Xeonder, T^beoh. Thamer, d. Eepraes. u. Vorgänger modemer Geistesrichtang. Brl. 1S42.
d) Vom Laster d. Trunkenh. 1531. 4. Chronica, Zejtbueb u. Geschycbtbibcl. Strassb. löSl. i
Cosmographie o. Weltbucb. 1534 f. Sprüchworter, Scbune Weisen, Herrliche Clugreden u. Hoff
sprach, yrnkf. 1541. and oft.
CnAP. IV. ULTRAISTS. § 373. FRANCE. 437
ever he passively submits to it, God becomes man ia bim. Thus in Socrates,
.n Christ, and in others, "what has been concealed, unexpressed, and even
unpossessed in many, becomes manifest, and God becomes dependent in the
flesh that man may become deified in following him on the way to the cross.
Franck was driven out of Strasbourg and Ulm, and the Landgrave and Me-
lancthon (f) uttered ■warnings against him as the deviKs special and fiivorite
blasphemer. (./") lie thouglit the papacy so worn out in the hands of the
devil, that when Satanic influences could find no concealment behind St.
Peter's chair, a new papacy had been established as speedily as possible.
The Christianity which he endeavored to promote was to be free from all
restraints, from sectarian policy, from factious strife, and indeed from all ex-
ternal things. But so completely did he fall out with the ruling spirits of
his age, that no course remained for him but with them to wait patiently for
the approaching end of this world, while within himself the shores of a new
world were rising on his view.
CHAP, v.— CONDITION AND RESULTS OF PPvOTESTANTISM.
Uundeshagen, d. dcutsclie Protestantism. Frkf. (1S4C-47.) 1850. D. Schenkel, d. Wcson d. Pro-
test a. d. QueUcn d. Ket Zeita. SchafTli. lS40ss. 3 vols.
§ 374. Protestantism as a Principle.
The object of tlie reformers was to return to the purity of the apostolic
Church, and to remove the abuses which had become almost universal dur-
ing subsequent centuries, especially on the subject of justification by works
and the deification of creatures. They therefore maintained that the word
of God was the only authority in matters of faith, and that human nature ii
so corrupt that it can attain salvation only by the merits of Christ, appropri-
ated by a faith wrought by divine power, (a) The struggle after freedom
was regarded as a subordinate matter, and as a general thing was very little
a subject of attention. But as justification by faith was a transaction which
took place entirely between Clirist and tlic heart of tlie believer himself, and
they were obliged to oppose the claim of the existing Church to infallibility
and the exclusive power of saving men, and as the new Church could claim
no such power while struggling against the positive right, it laid hold of that
which is eternal and abstract. The ideal of a perfect Cliurch was therefore
proposed, in which the ditlereut churches were variously reiireseuted in pro-
portion to their faitli, although no one of them was ever perfect. This invisi-
ble Church tlierefore embraced all true believers in all i)laces on earth. {!>)
The idea of Protestantism was in this way unconsciously developed. The
term itself was of a later origin, drawn from a prominent individual fact
<•) C. Jief. vol. III. p. 0S5ss. ivitli the subscriptions of the divines assembled at Smalcald Id 1540.
/) Lutli. in Walch vol. XIV. p. 3M.
a) A. Dorner, d. Prinoip. iinsrer Kirche nach d. Innern Vorh. sr. zwei Seiten. Kiel. lS-11. D.
eckenkel, d. Pr. d. Prot Mit bea Benichts. d. neuesten Verliandl. ScIiafTh. Is5'2.
?') The essential idea is found in : Apol. Confenn. Aug. Art IV. Watch vol. XX. p. 18S1. The
,-err words: Zicingli, brevis Expositio, art do Ecclc^ia. Calv. Inst IV, 1. 7.
438 moi)i:i:n' cmmcii iiistoky. I'kk. v. a. d. 1!;it-ic4\
nn<l nfiplied to a f.'rcat f,'onenil Mca. On tlie one liand, it imi)lics a continual
j)r(»test apiiiist tlio extravagant claims of Catholicism, and on the other an
ncknowk'dpincnt of a common nniversal Cliristianity -wherever a heart ia
found in connection with Christ. It likewise claims to he the Christianity
of the heart and of freedom. 80 far, however, were the reformers from per-
ceiving tliis in the midst of the excitement of their internal and exterHal
conflicts of foith, that from the time of the convent of Berg and the Synod
of Dordrecht, the Protestant Chtirch appears only like a purified form of
Catliolicism. In various ways it practically represented itself as infallible,
and even expressly claimed that there was no salvation ont of itself. ('•) In
its doctrinal statements respecting man's natural state, it wore the aspect of
a Christianity of bondage. In both Churches of the Reformation the Pro-
testant principle was realized at first in the highest degree, in accordance
with the type shown in the character of their respective fonnders. In the
Reformed Church it appeared in the form of the ascendency of a vigorous
understanding, requiring an unconditional return to the forms of primitive
Christianity. In the Lutheran Church it took the form of a predominant
profound feeling, and recognized an historical development in the Church.
In the first place, the disagreement respecting the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper which was determined by this diflference in original character, could
hardly fail in producing the precise disagreement which afterwards followed
with respect to the two natures of Christ. Then the different political throes
which attended the birth of the respective Churches, were evidently detei*-
mined by the ethical character of each. The Lutheran nations were disposed
to leave even their earthly affairs in the hands of the all-controlling God-
man, while the Reformed with bold activity set about the completion of the
work of their heavenly King. In these diversities we may discover the
ground for the difference of aims which is discoverable in these Churches ;
the Lutheran fixes its eye principally upon the eternal salvation of man,
while the ultimate object of the Reformed is the glory of God. This differ-
ence, however, is rapidly vanishing, (d)
§ 375. Morals.
The doctrine of salvation by faith was opposed to that of dependence
upon works, and the idea of Christian fi-eedom was in direct hostility to that
of the depression of the intellect by human enactments. The simplicity and
absolute character of the moral law was secured when evangelical counsels
were regarded as only the non-essential means by which its objects Avere to
c) Zicingl. do vera et falsa rel. (0pp. vol. II. p. 192.) On the other hand : CaJr. Instt 1. IT. c. 2.
§ \i.— Moser, Corp. jiir. ev. Lüt. 1783. vol. II. p. S95. Comp. A. K. Zeitnng. 1S31. N. ISO. 1532.
N. 122. 153-3. N. 20s. 130.
d) J. TichUr, de indole sacr. emendatlonis a Zw. institut-ie recte aestimanda. Traj. 1S2T. J/.
Gobel, rel. Eijenthuml. d, luth. u. ref. K. Bonn. 1S3T. J. P. Lange, welche Geltung gebührt d.
Eigenthüml. d. ref. K. Zur. 1S41. Eagenlach, d. ref. K. in Bez. a Vcrfiiss. u. Cult. Schaffh. 1S42.
K. Strubel, ü. d. l'ntersch. d. luth. u. ref. K. (Zeitsch. f. luth. Th. 1S42. II. 3.) Zi/ro. z Charakter d
ref K. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S4;3. 11. 3.) Merle D'Auhigne, Luther n. Calvin, [transl. in D'Aub. and.hii
writings, Kow York. 1S46.]— .1. SchtceUer, GLehre d. ref K. 1844. vol. I. p. Tss. S^luieckenh-urger
In Stud. u. KrIt. 1S47. II. 4. and TheoL Jahrbb. 1S4S. II. 1.
CHAP. V. PROTESTANTISM. § 375. MORALS. 439
oe attaineil. The reformers endeavored, by means of German and Latin
popular books and schools on an ecclesUxstical basis, to educate a people "who
could appreciate and act upon Protestant principles, (a) In consequence
of the unwonted freedom proclaimed at the Ilefurniation, it must be con-
ceded that the seeds of "wild passions already so"wn "wero made suddenly to
spring up. By the prominence given to original sin, in comparison "with
which particular temptations and sins were looked upon as of inferior im-
portance, the moral power of Protestantism certainly became much less than
we should have expected from so great a religious revolution, (fi) It must
also be remarked, that mere orthodo.xy more and more constantly took the
place of a living faith ; and in the low state of education which tlien jjre-
vailed, there was great danger tliat the high ground taken respecting works,
and the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, would lead to an easy kind of
religious practice. It is true that Luther at one time spoke of Germany as
worse than Sodom, and mourned that he spoke the German language ; Me-
lancthon deplored that all the waters of the Elbe were not enough for tears
to weep over the unfortunate dissensions of the Reformation ; and the re-
formers generally, in view of these evils, gave way to the presentiment that
the end of the world was near. It should be remembered, however, that
Luther -was at that time angry that the Reformation had just been abused to
those selfish purposes which are never wanting in tlie midst of such revolu-
tions ; that he applied to his age the same rule he was accustomed to use
with respect to his own heart, and in liis monastic conlinement looked upon
the luxury naturally springing from the increased wealtii acquired by the
middle classes on the discovery of America as a crime ; nor should we for-
get that Melancthon sometimes shrunk back from the very mental conflicts
which had been conjured up by his own power. At all events, it was not
long before the Church took upon itself the work of controlling public
morals. Among the Lutherans, it is true, this was attempted without any
thorougli system of ecclesiastical discipline, but by means of exhcjrtations,
monitory lectures, and excommunication, not unfrequently mingled Avith nmch
passion. ('■) In both Churches there was an occasional reference to the
power of punishment possessed by the civil authorities. A domestic and
ecclesiastical system of morality was thus established, of so rigid a character,
I hat when compared with the facility possessed in the Catholic Church of
alternating between sinful pleasures and penitential exercises, it appeared to
liave j)roduce(l, in connection with j)rofuund religious 8{)irituality, a severe,
sometimes a gloomy and a restless disposition. Such was particularly the
case in the French and Scotch Churches, and an extreme form of it was de-
veloped among the Puritans. The Sabbath was observed with scrupulous
exactness, and many things before regarded as discretionary or innocent were
now treated as sins. On the other hand, we have the single fact of the big-
a) De constituendis scliolis Lutli. libor, jirROcedlt i/fl. iirnofatin. Has. 1524. ( Walch vol. X. p.
582.) F. IL ikhuUi; Gcsch. d. katecli. lli-l Uiiterr. unU-r. d. I'rot Hal. 1S02. A. Schdffer, de I'ln-
fluctice de LuHi. siir I'ediication dii pcuplo. Pur. 1S.')8.
J/) K Sarceriiis, v. jlierlichcr Vbitalion. Elsl. 1555. 4. Comp. Engelhardt In Zcltscli. f. bist Th
liSO. 11. 1.
c) E. g. A. Muaculiin, v. i>ludr!c)iton Iloscntoufcl. Friikf. (,1550.) 1557.
440 MODKUN Clin:« II IIISTOKV. I'Ki:. V. A. I). 1.V.:-1WB.
lunv (if the T,;m(I;,'nivo, for tlio secret consummation of -which Luther and
his folleii^'ues ^'r!iiitü<l a dispensation. Tliis was done hy liim for tlic pur-
pose of avoidin«,' a still greater evil, and was justified by a reference to the
divine dispensation in belialf of Alirahani, and to the papal license given to
the fount of Gleichen. It was, however, done with too little care for the
interests of the Church, and proved a stumbling-block which was harshly
used against liim, and was even abused in public for justifying a barbarous
polygamy. ('/) No divorces were allowed except for adultery, and yet by
otlicial and entire separation of the parties they prepared the way for further
concessions. (<) The approbation which the reformers gave to the assassina-
tion of tyrants, proceeded in Melancthon's case from the influence of his
ecclesiastical and classical studies, and in Luther's case from the views of
right which prevailed among the ancient Germans, and a manly self-
respect. (/) The whole fanciful system of faith in magic and in Satanic
influences remained undisturbed and possibly even more distinctly prominent,
in consequence of the poetic manner in which Luther involuntarily described
his conflicts with the devil. But even before the movements connected with
the Reformation were over, important efforts were made to construct a sci-
entific system of ethics, in which the virtues were classified in the usual
ancient and theological form, but springing out of a justifying faith. The
extreme excitement against Osiander's doctrines (§ 347) was in the Lutheran
Church especially unfavorable to a further investigation of such subjects, (ff)
§ 376, Laic.
The reformers maintained merely the ordinary view of law, according to
which the power of the state was entirely separated from that of the Church,
and Luther even boasted that he had kept them from being perilously confound-
ed, (a) But with a full consciousness of the result, they went back to the posi-
tion of the apostolic Church, derived the whole authority of all ecclesiastical
officers from the local churches, and would allow no one but God, (h) and least
of all the princes, of whom Luther had a very poor opinion, (c) to have do-
minion over souls. In the constitution of the Hessian Church, an attempt
was made to form an equal balance between the independence of the particu-
lar congregations and the unity of the provincial established Church (§ 329).
Luther had doubts whether any artificial legislation could form a people
adapted to such a state of things. ('/) His favorite idea of a Church was not
one in which the popular element was highest, but one in which every indi-
vidual was looked upon as moved by the Holy Ghost, (t) But in one
d) De Wette vol. V. p. 236ss. C. liff. vol. III. p. &19. I/ej^pe, urk. Beitrr. z. Gescb. d. Doppel-
»he d. Landgr. (Zeitseh. f. hist. Th. 1S52. II. 2.)
*) Merkwürd. Khefall, initeeth. v. Selnvarz. (Zeitsch. f. thür. Gesch. 1S53. IT. 2.)
/) Ströbel. Misoell. vol. I. p. ITO. Ukett vol. II. p. 46. Walc?i vol. XXII. p. 2151s.
0) reniitoriiis, d. virt. ehr. 1. III. Nor. 1529. P. r. EiUen, Ethik. Witt. 1571. Comp. Pelt ic
Stud. u. Krit. 1S4S. H. 2. Sdncorz, Ibid. 1S50. II. 1. A. Sc/itceUer, Ibid. II. Iss.
<i) Coli/. Aug. II, 7. M\ikh vul. X. p. lOiis.—Sckeiikel, ü. d. urspr. Verh. d. K. z. S;a.ile a. d
3cblete der. ev. Prot. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S50. 11. Is.-)
1) Art. Smalc. p. 3523. De Wette vol. IV. p. 100. Wulch vol. X. p. 452. 469.
c) Ibid. p. 4611. rf) Sehr, an d. Landgrafen in Pichter, KVerf. (nt /.) p. 40s.
e) WaUh vol. X. p. 271s.
CHAP. V. PKOTESTAXTISM. § 3Td. LAW. STATE. 441
case the limits, and in another the power itself, showed that in actual
practice both views were impracticable in their full extent. In arranging
the powers of the Cliurch, however, Luther always had his eye exclusively
upon the spiritual interest. In the empire, the Church could be represented
only by the imperial states ; and in the hope that the legal bishops would at
some time become reconciled to the Church, the superior ecclesiastical oflSces
in Germany remained vacant. For the time being, therefore, the princes and
magistrates from love to the Church performed the functic^ns of the highest ec-
clesiastical offices as provisional bishops, though with the counsel of distin-
guished doctors and the aid of the provincial states. Consistories, composed
of civil officers and clergy, wore instituted (after 1539) principally for jurisdic-
tion over causes connected with marriage, excommunication, and processes in
which clergymen were concerned. The government of each provincial
Church gradually fell of itself into their hands, responsible only to the civil
authorities, so that the actual legal system became directly the reverse of the
legal principle originally proposed. (/) Even then Luther had cause to sigh
over the bishojiric of the court, without any spiritual character, and some-
times particular divines, when oppressed, reminded the princes that Christ
had not delivered his people from papal bondage merely to make them slaves
to the PoUtici. (ß) But the actual condition of things was soon justified on
legal principles by various learned men, on the ground that it was a transfer
of the episcopal power to the hands of orthodox princes by virtue of the
Keligious Peace (Episcopal system). (//) The congregations included in the
district of each imperial state constituted a distinct provincial Church. And
yet from their opposition to the Catholic imperial Church, and from their
possession of a common creed, the Protestant states even after the dissolution
of the League of Smalkald, regarded themselves especially in the general diet
as a single political ecclesiastical corporation, and the provincial churches,
although some of them might be beyond the limits of the empire, were
looked upon as constituting a single evangelical Church, joined together by
mutual sympathy in love and conflicts. The Reformed Church received a
republican constitution in consequence of the peculiar mode of its origin, and
tlie country in Avhich it was formed. Its basis consisted of a system of
synods composed of clergymen and elders, in a regular ascending series up
to the highest assembly. This system, however, was never fully carried out
except in the French and Scottish cliurches, and even in them tlio co-oi)tation
of the elders and the choice of the ministers were necessary through the
higher synods, the congregations having only the right of a rejection. In
the German Reformed churches the Presbyteries gave Avay before the Con-
sistories of the governments, (i) and in the Lutheran churches of the "Lower
/) W<ikhi>. 1900. /.. niiftter. (\. e\: KOrdnungcn des 10. Jalirli. T.rl. ISIC. 2 vols. 4. Ihid.
Gesdi. d. ev. KVerf. in Doutschl. Lps. 1S51.
i7) De )V,tf^vol III. p. 590. Kiiculty fit Jcnn, ICCl : ä(/(V vol. III. p. C-l,'. Fac. nt Wittenb.
JG3S: Consil. The..l. Vit Frof. 1G64. f. P. II. p. V.'9.
7() M. Sl<jifiii!n\ Tract, de jurisd. P.cist. (1C09.) 1C23. 4. Esp. Carpzov.
?■) Toi5s li\s synodos nali()iia\ix dos rgl. nf. do Franco, par .it/moii. Have. 1710. 2 vol.«. 4. Ebrard^
Entst u. erste Entwickl. d. Prosl>. Vcrf. d. rcf. K. Frankr. (Zoitscli. f. hist Th. 1S49. H. 2.) A. Gfn\-
lei%\ d. scliott Nationalk. nach ge^'einv. Wrt Hutnb. 1844/>. 2 vol», fkick, (p. 424.) //. c. Mühhr,
442 MOKI-.KN ClirüCII IIISTOUY. I'Ki;. V. A. I). 1M7-1M3.
Rliino n synodal (•(institution wiis iircsorvod. (/) TIkj iilan of iirescrving the
cxtoriial unity of tlio Clinrch by a representation from all ])ortion.s of it
throii"li llic »Synod of Dort, failed in consequence of the method taken for
the composition of tliat body, and tiio dissensions which prevailed among
its nicmberp. The Churches of tlio several nations were therefore only
spiritHally connected with one another. The royal supremacy in the Angli-
can Church was limited by the popular branch of the states. The legal
Hvnods of the sujjerior and inferior clergy (Convocations) were indeed inteu-
tionallv kept without much influence, and finally were entirely neglected, but
the ecclesiastical legislation was consequently transf;jrred to the Parliament.
The actual administration of ecclesiastical atlairs remained in the hands of tho
bishops, who were made dependent upon tho crown by its power to nominate
and transfer them, and by the inadequate revenues of their dioceses. (/) In
Sweden also the king remained the head of the Church, and the legisla-
tive passed from tho national council (after 1598) to the general diet, among
whose spiritual states sat not only bishops, but representative pastors. The
administration of the episcopal dioceses was performed by consistories under
the presidency of the bishops. The affairs of each congregation were admin-
istered by biennial assemblies (Sockenstämen) of all the taxable members of
the congregation under the direction of these consistories, (m) The canon
laAV, in spite of Luther's WTath against the jurists, continued to be in fact
tho basis of the ecclesiastical jurisprudence, and the most important proceed-
ings wore gradually, and often in a confused manner, conformed to it. — A
popular feeling was developed during the Reformation which at one time
threatened to subvert every form of political institutions. "When the hier-
archy had been stripped of its sacred privileges, every immunity appeared to
hang in suspense, and nothing was left as the ground of right but every indi-
vidual's independent character. Luther never hesitated to abuse those princes
who opi)Osed him, and not unfrequently reminded even the evangelical
princes that the country and the people belonged not to them, but that they
belonged to the country and the people, (n) Hence, in many of the imperial
cities the municipal corporations obtained the ascendency as soon as the
Reformation was introduced, and the republic was confirmed in the Swiss
Confederacy and commenced in the Netherlands. The nobility, the peas-
ants, and the burgesses, endeavored successively in the name of tho gospel to
overthrow the existing forms of government, (o) In France the Huguenots
contemplated the establishment of a free state, (2^) ^"^ ii England the legiti-
Gesch. d. ev. KVerf. in d. Mark Brandonb. Weim. 1S46.— IT. F. Jacobson, Grunde d. Verschiedonb.
d. luth. n. ref. KVerf. (Deutsche Ztitscli. f. clir. Wiss. 1S52. N. 49ss.)
k) K. V. Oven, d. I'resbyt. u. Synodalverf. in Berg, Jülich, Cleve. Essen. 1S29. Jacobson, Gesch.
d. Quellen d. cv. KReclits d. prov. Ebeinl. u. AVestpb. Künigsb. 1S44.
I) J. L. Funk, Organisir. d. engl. Staalsk. gcscbichll. Altona. lS-29. C. Schotll, d. Convocatioc
1 engl. K. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Tb. 1553. H. 1.)
ni) F. M'. r. Schuhert,%c\\\\: KVerf. Greifsw. 1S21. 2 vols. A. G. i'nof«, Eigcnthümücbkeitor
i. schw. KVorC Stiittg. 1S52.
n) Walch vol. X. p. 4CS. XXII, 214Cs.
o) § 825. BarthoUl, Jürgen AVollenwober v. Lübeck. {liaumer, hist Tascbcnb. 1S35.) C". F
WiiiTii, <L polit, Beziehungen Heinrichs VIII. zu M. Meyer u. J. WüIIenwever. Hanib. 1S62. 4
P) Cap'-.figuf, H. de la Hit. vol. IL p. 105. G. Weber, gescb. Darst. d. CUvinifm. im Verb, i
Sla.1t in Genf u. Frank- lUidelb. 1*30.
CHAP. V. PROTESTANTISM. § 3T6. STATE. § 377. CLEEGT. 443
male king was condemned by the Parliament in the midst of psalm-.<;inging
and prayer to mount the scalFold. On the other hand, the theological scru-
ples of the reformers led them to respect as a providential blessing the per-
gonal character of their rulers, the people were exhorted to the duty of
Christian obedience in every thing consistent Avith faith, and the practical
energies which had been developed among the people were restrained. (<?)
Tlie powers of the clergy and the rights attending the possession of the
Clnirch property, were e.xercised by the political magistrates, and dependent
ofllcers now filled jjlaces which had been occupied by an iiidejtendent corpo-
ration, llence, where the princes allowed the lleformation to have its
course, their power was almost universally increased by it. Accordingly in
Denmark the monarchy became absolute, while in Sweden, after the king
had broken the independent power of tlie bishops, the crown was endan-
gered by the aggressions of a haughty aristocracy.
§ 377. The Clerrjy and Church Property.
During tlie Reformation the principle was generally adopted that all
Christians belonged to the priestly order. Accordingly, while it was conceded
that the ministerial office was instituted by Christ, it was maintained that each
minister was individually to receive his commission from the congregation as
its servant, and that ordination was only a solemn call to this duty, (a) Lu-
ther's remark, however, that the spiritual order was nothing, and that God
was about to root out the stupid clergy, (h) belongs to the period when he
was engaged in the work of demolition. The principle generally received
was that every congregation had tlie riglit to choose its own pastor, although
in the Lutheran Church, especially, the right of patronage was respected, and
as far as it was exercised by the bishops, it passed into the hands of the con-
sistories, leaving to the congregations a right seldom of much avail, of de-
clining the person appointed. On the principle that among the ministers of
the word of God tliere could bo no hierarchical organization by divine right,
tlie priestly functions and privileges of the bishops became common to all pas-
tors, (f) except the right of excommunication, which was at first questioned,
and then gradually was assumed by the consistories. The Episcopal office, as
a supreme ecclesiastical authority, was rejected by the Reformed Church, but
in England after 1588 it was again defended as a divine institution, («Z) and
among the Lutlierans the opinion became general that this primitive regula-
tion should nut be abolislied without urgent necessity, and Mchuicthun tliought
that a tyranny more intolerable than the former domination would result from
the overthrow of the episcopal rule. (<) It has, however, been looked upon
as an evangelical sentiment that as a sjiiritual otficer a bishop should renounce
all civil jurisdiction. By the operation of various political circumstances
q) Comp. p. 877. Wrong Explnn. in Iftigen vol. III. p. 110. 151.
a) Luther: Walcli vol. X. p. 301s. 1S33. lS57s9. XIX. 1544. V. 1509.— (7. Ifarltts, K. n. Amt
aach luth. Lctire. Stullg. 1S53.
I) Do Wetto vol. II. p. 074. c) Art. Sinal,: p. 3.'523%
(0 Xiel, Gesch. (L Purit vol. I. p. 605ss. [XeaU, U. of the Pur. (Ori-. Engl. eJ.'J vol. I. p. 30Tss.]
e) Corp. lief. vol. II. pp. 334. 341.
Ml MoDKUN ciirKCii ni.sToi:v. tki:. v. a. d. imt-iws.
Episcopncy lias in fnct hecotne entirely extinct among the German churches.
In ft fi'W instftncos the prelatic office remains witli the states, for the Protes-
tant l)isli(>i)s of Lower Germany who possess sovereign powers, rest their claims
wliolly upon the fact that certain princely houses have acquired episcopal ter-
ritories under the title of hishops. (/) Superintendents in Lutheran countries
(p. 882) were regarded, after the formation of the consistories, merely as sub-
ordinate officers for the supervision, and in general for the ordination of the pas-
tors. Although the clergy are generally Avitliout political privileges, and have
sulTercd much during some of the religious dissensions from arhitrary power,
they exercise great personal influence, and they have frequently, to their own
peril, asserted their right publicly to inflict ecclesiastical punishments upon
their supreme rulers, (g) A general desire was exhibited among all classes
during this period to obtain a share of the property of the Church. Immense
wealth fell into the hands of the princes and nobility, while the people ob-
tained their portion by withholding the titlies and rents which formerly
belonged to the clergy. Even in Switzerland the sacred vessels were sent to
the mint or to the market, and Calvin himself was unable to save the property
of the Church. {K) In some countries, especially in Germany, a portion of
this wealth was used in the endowment of benevolent or literary institutions ;
but so little were the pastors and teachers of schools provided for from this
great inheritance, that Luther could not sufficiently lament their miserable
condition. (/) But even then he had occasion to remark that destitute as they
■were of real estate, they were despised and cheated by the rude rabble, and
especially by every young squire and petty tax collector in the land. (Jc)
"Whatever remnant of ecclesiastical property had been saved from this general
pillage was generally administered by the agents of the government, by whom
it was used for civil purposes whenever a pressing necessity or cupidity dic-
tated, and the real estate was frequently squandered in the payment of rents.
The convents doubtless "well deserved their fate, but with the exception of a
few foundations for the nobility, which were of no advantage to the Church,
their general dissolution was rather a destruction than a reform, and robbed
innocence or penitence of an asylum provided for them by the piety of for-
mer times.
§378. PulUc Worship and Art.
Bibl. Agendor. edit, by König, Zelle 1T26. 4. Dio ev. KOrdn. v. Kicliter (p. 441. ut./) Eisen-
»chmid, Gesch. d. KGebräucho d. Prot Lps. 1795. J. L. Funk, Geist u. Form d. v. Lutli. angeordn.
Kultus. Brl. 1S19. T. Klie/oth, d. urspr. Gottesdieustordn. in d. deut K. luth. Bekenntn. ihre De-
struct u. Eef. Kostock. 1847.— t^ Gefcken, ü. d. verscbiedne Eintb. d. Deeal. u. d. Einfluss drs. a. d,
Cultus. ilamb. 1S.3S. C. Grueneisen, de Protestantismo artibus liaud infesto. Stuttg. 1SS9. 4 [Lind-
«K.V, Sketches of the Hist of Chr. Art Lond. IS J6. .3 vols. S. C. Burnet/, Gen. Uist of Music. Lond.
17S9. 4 vols 4. J. Ifaicf-ius, Gen. Hist of the Science & Practice of Music, Lond. 1770. 5 vols. 4,
Burney & Hawkins, abridged by T. £usli/, Lond. 1S19. 2 vols. 8. Ji. North, Memoirs of Music
Lond. 1S46. 4.]
The Reformed Churches conformed strictly to the simple style of devotion
/) Walch vol. XVL p. 1664. Apol. Conf. p. 204. Henke on YlUers, p. 505ss. A. Xicoloeiu\
ilc hisch. Würde in Preussens ev. K. Künigsb. 18-34.
g) Walch vol. X. p. lS96ss. XIIL 12S3. Comp. Hutterus red. 7 ed. p. SlSs.
ft) BalUngir, vol. I. p. 122. 3S4. Einnj, Calvin, vol. IL p. 2Sss.
De Wette vol. 111. p. 13öss. 160. k) Walcli vol. IL p. 925. XI. 2532. XIII. 31s.
CHAP. V. PEOTESTANTISM. § STS. PUB. -WORSHIP. ART. 445
which prevailed in the days of the apostles. The Lutheran mode of worship
was gradnally developed from the old Roman ritual used in the mass, hut
modified by the principles and practice of the reformers. According to these,
the services of the house of God were not for God alone ; the evangelical ser-
mon ought to he the principal part of them, the native language of a people
was for them the most sacred, and the congregation should take an active
part in the exercises, (a) "When Luther published an order for divine wor-
ship (1526) he took particular care that no one should regard any part of it
:is indispensable or universally binding, so that Christian liberty should be
thereby abridged, (h) In the Lutheran Church the practice of private con-
fession even of individual sins was retained, but only as a voluntary matter
when any one needed it, and for ignorant people, (c) Instead of daily masses
and the singing of the hours, many Protestants had bible-lessons appointed,
and in Geneva meetings for free religious conference (congregations) were
held. The sacred festivals were so reduced as to commemorate none but the
most important events in sacred history, and only a few of the national
churches continued to celebrate days in honor of Mary and the apostles.
Days of fasting were occasionally ai)pointed, and an annual festival for com-
memorating the Reformation was observed first in Saxony, in 1G88. The Re-
formed Church, with a decidedly iconoclastic spirit, removed from their places
of public worship all statues, pictures, and works of art, regarding them as
inconsistent with the requirements of the word of God. Having destroyed
nearly all its organs, it received a scriptural psalmody, and the tender melodies
used to accompany it from the French, (jl) Luther had no idea that the
proper influence of the gospel was to destroy all the refinements of art. On
the other hand, he was anxious that all the arts, and particularly music, should
be enlisted in the service of Ilim who had created them, (e) Albert Durer
was still moved by Luther's spirit, and the faithful Lucas Cranach Avas the
painter of the Reformation. (/) All the monuments of art which had been
collected b^' the Catholics of earlier times in the Church of St. Lawrence in
Nuremberg, were preserved Avithout injury by tlio Protestants. As long as
Protestantism felt placed in an attitude of special hostility to Catholicism, its
influence was unquestionably adverse to the imitative arts, since it deprived
them of their legendary stores, allowed of no statues or pictures in the
churches, except such as were strictly illustrative of scriptural history, and
even when contending against the Iconoclasts Luther was willing to give up
the pictures, (j/) The more magnificent the Gothic structure, the less was it
adapted to the purpose of preaching. It is, however, to Luther that we are
principally indebted for the popular character of sacred music. The hymns of
the ancient Church were reproduced, and together with the songs which
gushed from his own heart, he sent them forth among the Gernuiu churchca
«) Wa!ch vol. X. p. 262SS. 6) Ibid. p. 266ss. Apol. Con/, p. 151.
c) Con/. Aug. art 11. Wnlch vol. XX. p. GO. XVII, 2143.
d) Bullinger, vol. I. p. 13l!>. 175. 2G5. 41S.— //«-/iri/, Calvin, vol. I. p. ICOs, u. Bell. p. C7ss. //. A.
Daniel, Code.x liliirs. ccc. unlv. in opit, reilncttis Vol. III. Lps. 1S51.
e) Walch vol. X. p. 172:3. Do Welle vol. IV. p. ISl.
/) Stark, Durcr (p. 30G.) p. 671s. cVi, Sc/iiic/ian.t. L. Cranaclid. Atlteru Leben u. Werke. Lps.
.851. 2 vols. 0) Walcli vol XX. p. 80a
446 MODKUN cnuKcn irisronv. rnn. v. a. d. isit-kws.
in II stream of sacred poetry, expressive of all the profound fecllnffs of the
Christian lienrt, and combining all the deep tones of the Christian epirit.
"When these songs were collected by a pious literary man in Kome they seemed
to liim like the pages of a great lyrical epic poem which the spirit of Chris-
tiiiu jjoitry had composed in the course of many centuries. Iluns Walter
assisted I>uther in giving a poimlar character to church music as a choral for
tlic congregation. This was a kind of music derived from the old ecclesias-
tical harmonics combined with some popular melodies, in Avhich a scientific
choir were only leaders to the assembly, and in which pieces similar to mo-
tets were interwoven. (A) Even the master-song^ as it flourished at that time,
especially in Protestant cities, was directed to biblical subjects, to which in-
deed the principal singing was expressly confined, (i)
§ 379. Humanistic Education and Holy Scriptures. Cont. from § 28-i.
G. W. Meyer, Gesch. d. Schrlfterkl. s. Wiederherst. d. Wlss. Gott 1802ss. 5 vols. E. Reusi, Oesch.
d. ir. Schrr. N. T. 2 ed. Braunschw. 1858. p. 521ss.
In every instance in which the profound feelings of an educated people
came under the power of the Reformation, an original religious literature and
a series of successful polemic writings were produced. A considerable amount
of scriptural commentary and historical investigation were indispensable for
laying a foundation for the Reformation, and to vindicate its necessity. Yet
though it was commenced when the human mind was in a process of the
liveliest development, it was not merely no assistance, but rather a restraint
apon that development, on account of the exclusively religions, and among
the Epigonoi of the Reformation, the contracted dogmatic interest which
prevailed. Luther's quarrel with Erasmus was only a prelude of the rupture
between modern orthodoxy and humanistic learning, Avhich was for a while
postponed by Melancthon and his school, but which was ultimately unavoid-
able. («) Luther, it is true, placed a high estimate upon the languages, but
it was only for the sake of their utility in the interpretation of the Scriptures.
These Scriptures being the only source of all Christian truth, it was neces-
sary first to understand them by means derived from themselves, and then to
secure them against the arbitrary methods of the allegorical interpreters, (b)
Luther lived on terms of familiar equality with the sacred writers, and on
this account their most delicate shades of meaning seem never to have es-
caped him, so that frequently we have their discourse with nothing but his
li) Luth. geistl. Lieder ncbst Singwoisen. ed. by C. v. Winterfeld, Lps. 1S40. 4. Liith. geistl. Lie-
der ni. <L zu s. Lebzeiten gebriiuchl. Slngweisen. ed. by Ph. Wackernagel, Stutts. 1&4S. ^.—{Bunsai)
Vorsuch e. allg. ev. Gcsang-u. GebeÜ)Uchs. Hamb. 1S33. G. r. Tuclter, Schutz d. ev. KGes. im
1. Jabrh. d. Ref. Lps. 1S4S. 2 vols. G. Stipp, unverfälschter Liedersegen. Brl. (ISöl.) 1S52.— ^rtwi-
liiivh, L. Verdienste um d. KGes. Ilamb. 1S13. W^wkerjuiiiel, d. deutsche KLied. v^ Luth. b. Blau-
ror. Stuttg. 1S40. 4.— C. v. Winter/elcl, d. cr. KGesang. u. s. Verb. z. Kunst d. Tonsatzes. Lps. lS4Sss.
8 vols. 4.
Gorvinus, Gesch. d. poet Nation. Lit vol. IL p. 2G5.
n) Only onesiile: De non contemncndis stndiis hunianioribus future theolo^ro max. necessariii
cltror. viror. ad Eob. Ilessum Epp. Lutheri, Mel.. P. Mose'.Iani etc. Erph. 1523. Jictitke vol. V. Cap
S. Proofs for the other view in Ilagtn vol. III. p. 2Css.
h) CarUtaJii Concl. c Ecc. 23 ct 47. Walo'.i vol. XVIIL p. 1002. XXII. p. lOS.'ss.
CnAP. V. PROTESTANTISM. § 379. SCRIPTURES. § 380. THEOSOPIIY. 447
manner, (r) In Calvin's concise exposition«, especially of the epistles of Poul,
■^ve have expressions of the most profound religions feeling, and those things
■which must be presupposed for the understanding of the inspired writers, to
gether with a wonderful skill in the natural development of thoughts. (J)
2Ielanct]ion's commentaries exhibit in a still higher degree the predominance
of the rhetorical and dogmatic over the grammatical character. Beza was
more rigid in his views, and more conversant with theological learning, but
he devoted his attention princiiiall}- to a defence of the oriental and inspired
cliaracter of the sacred volume, in opposition to the classical but superficial
objections of the blunt Zwinglian, Castellio. (e) Flacim endeavored to lay
down precise rules for the interpretation of the Scriptures. He maintained
that the divine word is to be explained by every means derived from human
science, but in subserviency to the fear of God ; that nothing must be so in-
terpreted as to become inconsistent with the analogy of faitii, i. e., the sum
of Christianity founded upon clear passages of Scripture, by which he proba-
bly means Lutheranism, and that the allegorical method is admissible onl^
when the literal sense would be immoral, unreasonable, or useless. (/) After
the bold doubts suggested by Luther and Carolstadt, respecting some parts of
the canon, there were no disputes on that subject except with the Catholics,
on' the manner of its composition. The controversies carried on with regard
to the origin of the iNIasorctic points, and the purity of the Greek language
in the New Testament, show that philological studies were obliged to contend
with powerful prejudices. But after the establishment of the Church but lit-
tle attention was bestowed upon the original basis on which it was constructed,
in consequence of a decided preference for dogmatic disputes. Grotius was
the only one who, as a pious humanist, seems to have made any attempts to
render the Scriptures intelligible to his contemporaries, (g)
§ 380. Philosophy and Theosophy. Mysticism and Practical Christianity.
Kromaijer, de Weigelianismo, Eosae-Crucianismo et Paracels. Lps. 16G9. Colherg, platon. licr-
iiiet. (,'liii^tciith. Frkf. u. Lps. 1C90. 2 vols. F. DdiUsch, d. naturiiliil. Mysltc. iniicrh. d. lutli. K.
(Zoitscli. f. lutli. Til. 1S41. II. 3.) ^^. Ctirriere, die pliil. Weltanschauung d. liiforniationszcit Stnttg.
1S4T. [//. Ilallam, II. of Lit New York. 1S47. Enßtld'g Abridgment of üruckcr's II. of Phil.
Lond. liai. 2. vols. 4.] K. F. A. ScheUing, Prot. u. Phil. Il.imb. ISIS.
Tlie reformers would have nothing to do with philosopln', and felt embit-
tered toward it on account of its connection with Scholasticism, (a) It was
only by means of Melancthon's Clas.s-Book and the academic corporation
which existed at that time, that a formal philosoi)hic science, derived from
former times and founded principally upon Aristotle, was propagated in the
Protestant schools as the handmaid of Tlioology. The speculations of Giordano
t') Especially upon Genesis, the Psalms, and the Ep to the Galatlans,
(I) Lately published by Tlwluck since ]b>:31 in 2d edit. Comp, an edit, of Miscell. writings, by
tlis same author, vol. II. p. .S3i«s.
e) FmhhUii, Sub. Ca-^tollio. Frkf. IT.').'».
/) Clavis Sc. S. IJas. 1507. Jen. 167 1. 2 vols. &. often.
g) Annott. in V. T. Par. 1G44. ed. Doede-lein, Hal. lT7.'>s. 3 vols. 4. Ar.nolL in X. T. AmsL
I641s}. 2 vols, f ed. Witidheitn, Hal. 17C0. 2 Th. 4.
a) J. <th Ehicich. do varia Arist. in .>iclioli-i Protest, fortuiia (p. 02i1. before hia rdit, of Lauuoi)
Ueercn, Fol-vn d. U'.-f f Phil. (üef. Ulm. 1>19. p. 114.) o'liip. (JMe, Melanctli. \\ 112.
448 MoDi.uN ciii-nni iiistop.y. pek. v. a. i*. isn-ici«.
Bruno Willi respect to tho all-uniting and all-embracing divinity were mis-
understood at Wittenberg, and ho liimself was burnt at Rome (1000). (^')
Manv endeavored to solve the mystery of tho divine nature and of tho
world's organization by subtle glances into tho depths of their own nature«.
J'ltracclxii.i, a Swiss physician (d. 1541), gave to these efforts a wild and tor-
tuous form of expression in images drawn from nature, and terms derived
from alchemy. "Without regard to tho personal objects which he prosecuted
in an emi)irical manner, we find that he opposed the learned traditions of that
])criod by lively exhibitions of real nature, and that his philosophy aimed to
contemidate God as he exists in tho depths of nature, as he is in himself, and
in his return to himself, (c) Valentine Weigel (d. 1588), much esteemed as a
devout pastor in Tschopau, in his posthumous theosophic writings, maintained
that all outward ecclesiastical systems are of no value when compared with
tlie internal Spirit which God gives to men, and represented the doctrines of
the Church merely as allegories by which the hidden relations of God and
the universe are made known, {d) This style of speculation became com-
pletely developed in the works of Jacob Boehme (d. 1624), the shoemaker of
Cioerlitz, as tlie tranquil, pious heart and penetrating mind of the German
philosopher endeavored to express through his uncouth language and limited
education, in a natural imagery which is sometimes quite insipid and some-
times highly poetic, or in ecclesiastical forms, his conception of the early
dawn and the most hidden qualities of things, of the process by which man
is exalted from the terrible power of nature to the bright kingdom of love,
and of the infinitely calm First Cause, by whose blessedness he was at par-
ticular moments delightfully filled. All existence, even the divine, appeared
to him an everlasting progress through various opposite forces. Being per-
secuted by the pastor of his own city, he obtained toleration from the con-
sistory in Dresden. His followers love frequently to contrast the exuberance
of his pious spirituality with the formal dependence of the Church upon the
outward letter of the Scriptures. The literary position which should be
assigned to him is one Avliich belongs to the most modern school of poetry
and philosophy, of which he may properly be regarded as the prophet, (e)
Arndt (d. at Celle, 1621), on the other hand, did much to promote internal
Christianity in the spirit of the popular mysticism of former times. (/) That
b) Jordani Bmni Scripta in unum corpus red. G/rörer, Stuttg. 1S34 [(7. Barthtimes, J. Bm-
no. Par. 1S4S. 2 vols. 8. See Brit Q. Eev. (Eel. Mag.) July, 1S19.]
c) Scbrr. Bas ir)S9s?. 11 vols. 4. Rixner u. Siler, Leben u. Lehren berühmter Physiker. 1S29.
P, 1. //. A. Prett, (1. Theol. d. Par. in Auszug. Brl. 1S49. 2L M. Lessing, Par. s. Leben u. Denken.
BrL 1S39.
d) K. u. Uauspostill. Neust (Magd.) 1611. 1618. Captnra anrea, d. guldne Griff d. i. Anl. alle
Dinge ohne Irrth. zu erkennen. IGIS. 4. comp. ll'tifcA, Eiul. in d. K. Streit d. luth. K vol. IV.
!>. 102SSS.
t) Werke durch Gechtel, Ainst (16S2. 2 vols. 4.) 1730. 6 vols, durch Schiebler, Lps. ISSlss. 6 vols.
Stuttg. lS35ss. 4 vols. Leben by A. t. Franckenherg, prefixed to the Werken. A. E. Umbreit, J.
B. lldlb. 1SS5. J. Ilamberger, d. Lehre des deutschen Phil, in syst Ausz. Munich. 1844. ir. Z.
WuUen, J. B. Leben u. Lehre. Stuttg. 1836. Tholuck, J. B. vor d. Dresd. OConsist (Deutsche
Zeltsch. t Chr. Wiss. 1852. N. 25.)
/) Vier Bücher v. wahren Chnstenth. p. 1605. 1. compl. ed. Magd. 1609. [Philad. 1842. 8.] Paradies-
GärtL voller ehr. Tugenden. 1612. and often. F. Arndt, J. Arndt Brl. 1833. A. Wildenhahji,
J. Arndt, Lps. 1847. 2 vols. IT. L. Pertz, de J. Ar. ejusquc Ubris de vero Christ Kann. 1S52. 4.
CHAP. V. PBOTESTANTISM. ARNDT. MUELLEE. ANDEEAE. 44S
he might satisfy tliose avIio were starving around him, he turned his atten-
tion to the discovery of tlie philosopher's stone. He was at one time de-
posed for tlie martyr zeal which he showed in behalf of exorcism, and from
a fear of the action of a living spirit lie was accused by the orthodox divines
of some of the current heresies. ((/) But during the dreary period of the
Thirty Years' War, and even down to our own times, he did much to promote
a mild, consoling and practical form of Christianity among the people. With
much more spirit, Umry Mueller (d. 1075), in opposition to the dumb eccle-
siastical idols of his time, proclaimed in Rostock the riches of divine love
which are found in Christianity. (/<) In ojjposition to an age which in its
zeal for Lutheranism had begun to lose sight of Christianity, Joh. Yal. An-
dreae (d. 1054), with an atfectionate spirit but with satirical humor, after
consecrating himself to Christ, took a stand against the perverse follies of the
day. (i) The first of the treatises professing to be by Christian Rosenkreuz,
an allegorical and mythical personage, respecting a secret society for the sub-
jugation of nature and the spiritual world hy magical arts, was unquestion-
ably by him, and the two others must have proceeded at least from a circle
in intimate connection with him. They were doubtless designed to be a fan-
ciful satire upon a peculiar tendency of that period, to which, however, they
have contributed assistance when read as a serious history by persons inclined
to such fully, (/i) The real object of Andreae, however, was to overthrow
the idols of literature and rehgion, and to set up the primitive Christ in their
stead, (J) and in the distant future he behold the ideal of a Christian state, a
colony of Arudt's Jerusalem, in Avhich a community of goods anfl universal
felicity based upon morality would combine an education for an earthly state
with another for heaven. (?«) The mystic theological tendency which pre-
vailed especially in Rostock and Strasbourg, originated in an attempt to adhere
to the Christianity of the heart and life, in opposition to one which had be-
come torpid in the spell of the Form of Concord, and other magical creeds.
(/) Luc. Oslander, theol. Bedenken u. clir. trenherz. Erin. Tub. 1624.
h) Goistl. Er(inickstunden, the last by liii^sicurm, K.itzeb. (IS'28.) 1S31. Iliranil. Licboskufs, last
eil. by FUdler, Lps. 1S31. and others. Comp. Arnold, vol. I. p. 9:54.
i) Andr. Vita ab ip'o conscr. ed. liheinwald, IJcr. 1849. (Uebors. In Scybold's Selbstbiogr. Win-
tortli. 1799. vol. II.) If: Ifosshach, Andr. n. s. Zcita. Brl. 1S19.— vlnrfr. Dictgn. with Pracf. by Her-
der, Lps. 17S6. J/. P. Burk, Verz. aller Schrr. Andr. Tub. 1793. Andr. entlarvter Apnp, nebst
Beltr. z. KGcsch. d. 10. u. 17. Jahrh. by C. T. Piipst, Lps. 1S27. Die Cbristenburg v. Andr. ed. by
0. Grüneinen, Lps. 1S3G.
k) Chyniischo Hochzeit Christlanl P.osenkr. a. 1459. (after 1602.) Strasb. ICIO. Fama fraternita-
tls d. liibl. O. d. Itoscnkrcuzcr. (Kilo.) Cas.s. 1614. To the 2 ed. of Cas«. 1615. is added DIo Confession
der Brüdersch. B. C. Both with the lat orig. of the Conf (ed. by J. F. r. Mfijfr.) Krkf. 1S27.— 6'. E
Guhrauer, w. d. Verf. u. urspr. Sinn d. Fama Fniternlt. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1S52. H. 2.)
I) Invitatio .id. fraternit. I. II. Arg. 1616s. Christ, societatis Idea. Tub. 1620. Vita ed. liheimc.
p. 100. Ep. ad Comenlum. {Comen. Opp. Amst 165T. \\ 2^i.)
»«) Beipubl. Chr1>tiano politanao descriptlo. Arg. 1619. 12. Guhrauer, der erste deutsche Staats-
roman. (/Vufc, deutsches Museum. 1S52. N. 2i) comp Arnold, vol. L p^ 1114s8
w'l
lüO MODKUN ( IllltCir IIISTOltV. VV.W. V. A. D. lM7-lMa
CHAP. VI.— Tin: JiOMAX catholic church.
Siir/tl, Pit/lart'-lnl, (p. '.V>9.) Vllr* ft res putno Ponllflciiin Rom. et Cardd. nnrtoribii» Cuioonio
Cabrfni Viitorello. Üoui. IftJO. f. L. liitnke, A. nan. IMpste, ihro KIrclic u. Ihr. Staat Im 16. u.
17. .lalirli. l!rl. (ISiS-Js-s.) isy".-*». 3 vols. IhfeU, ü. d. Schicksale d. K. s. d. Trldenllnum. (Tub.
QunrUlscli. 1S4C. II. 1.)
§ 381. The Popes in the J{/e of the Reformat i&n^ till 1.58.5.
Onufrio Panvini, I*Iatln.a rcstitutiis c. ndditionc. Pontt a SIxto IV. n.sqiie ad riiim IV. Yen.
15C2. 4. and often. A. du Chesne, II. des Paiics I'nr. IC-JG. f. cont. (till Paul V.) p. Fr. du Chenne,
Par. 1053. 2 vols. f. Itambach, Ilist d. Päpste, (cont. by Bower, 10th vol.) Magd. 1779s. 2
Abschn. 4. [/?. I'lntina, Lives of the Popes from the time of Christ to Sl.xtus IV. transl. and cont
till 1GS5.) by P. liycaiU, Lond. 1GS5. f. Uoicer's Lives of the Popes till 175*, cont. by S. II. Cox
till now. 2 ed. New York. 1835. 3 vols. 8.]
During the contests between France and Spain for the possession of Italy,
Leo X. forinetl an alliance with the emperor, and died exulting over their
common victory (Dec. 1st, 1521), and with the reputation of having ex-
hausted the revenues of three pontificates. Hadrian VI. (1522-23), of
Utrecht, an ardent literary man, but with no taste for art and poetry, a pre-
ceptor of tlie emperor, and twice regent of Spain, though regarding his pos-
session of sovereign authority as the most unfortunate circumstance of his
life, came to the papal chair entirely unacquainted with Roman affairs, or the
various intrigues of that period with respect to Italy, and became most pain-
fully conscious of the dependence of even the best of men upon the times in
which they live. The efforts he put forth for the deliverance of Rhodes
from the fiands of the Turks were utterly unsuccessful, and he finally died
under the burden of his official duties. (") Clement VIT. (1523-34), a natu-
ral son of Julian de Medici, made an earnest but ineffectual effort for the
independence of Italy (p. 381). Rome was once more plundered by the bar-
barians, and the vicar of Christ was obliged to pay dearly for the procession
which the emperor contrived for his liberation. He was, however, success-
ful in his policy of employing the imperial forces to secure the possession of
Florence as an inheritance of his family, and in elevating his niece to the
throne of France, (h) Faul TIT. (Farneso, 1534-49) was him-^olf acquainted
with polite literature, and honored it in others; he adorned the city of Rome
with many works of art, exhausted his resources in unfortunate schemes to
acquire principalities for his sons and grandsons, and by subsidies against the
Protestants laid the foundation for the load of debt under which the States
of the Church have since groaned. He soon, however, became alarmed at
tlie sudden success of the emperor, and subsequently, as fiir as was possible
for a pope, he acted in political concert with the Protestants. He appointed
to the office of cardinal men of profound piety, and committed to their hands
the duty of forming a plan for the reformation of the Church. They repre-
sented the papacy as the true so'arce of aU abuses, and proposed measures
against the secularization of ecclesiastical offices and endowments, and against
the incompetency and immorality of the clergy. Such a plan the cardinals
concluded should be introduced, only very gradually, and with great secrecy.
a) Bidgrapliies by Giovio »nd others in Burmann. (p. 374.)
b) ZicjUr. 11. Clem. (SchMorn, Amoenn. II. ecc. vol. I. p. 210.)
CHAP. VI. CAXn. CHURCH. § 3S1. JCLIU3 III. PAUL IV. PIUS IV. 451
The knowledge of it, liowever, was betrayed to the Protestants, -was pub-
Jished by them to sliow how much even their adversaries had conceded, and
was commented upon by Lutlier with unreasonable raillery, and the pope
found it better to introduce the inquisition instead of the Keformation. (c)
Julius HI. (Del Monte, 1550-55), with an impudent affectation of modesty,
attempted to justify his elevation of the keeper of his monkeys to the dig-
nity of a cardinal, and although abundantly competent to the duties of his
station, spent tlie whole period of his pontiticate in enjoying himself in his beau-
tiful villa. There was, liowever, a party continually becoming more power-
ful, which was convinced that the Church could never be delivered but by
piety and a rigid morality. Their first choice full upon Marcdlus IL (1555),
but ho was destined by Providence barely to make his appearance in the
papal chair. («Z) I?aul IV. (Caraffa, 1555-59) brought to the throne the
gloomy seventy of an octogenarian monk, and was inflexibly strict toward
himself, toward others, and even toward his guilty nephews, but proved him-
self a terrible enemy to heretics, and gathered around himself a .4iadow of the
ancient hierarchy. For a while his patriotic feelings obtained the ma.stery,
and induced him to form an alliance with France to effect the liberation of Icalv
fi-om the poAver of Spain. A heretic infantry defended Rome against a Catholic
army, and nothing but Philip's piety toward his Church prompted him to grant
the pope an honorable peace. On the day he died, his statue was mutilated
by the people, and the house of the inquisition was reduced to aslic.s. (e)
Pius IV. (Medici of Milan, 1559-G5), condescending and pleasant as ho wa.s
by nature, allowed all the measures adopted by his predecessor to remain in
force, established the papal authority by his moderation and conciliatory con-
duct toward the princes, conceded the use of the cup in Austria as far as the
German princes and bishops thought it needful for their country, and sus-
tained the heroic efforts of the Knights of St. John for the deliverance of
Malta. (/) The Dominican Pius V. (Ghi.'-lieri, 150<j-72), a pious judge in
all matters connected with morality and heresy, realized as much as possible
in the court and the Church generally, the ideal of the rigidly devout party,
encouraged the violent and sanguinary measures then adopted against the
Protestants, and assisted in gaining the naval victory of Lepanto against the
Turks. (.'/) Grcfjory XIII. (Buoncompagno, 1572-85) established learned eccle-
siastical scliools especially for mi>sions, corrected the book of canon law by ap-
peals to the original authorities (p. 280 j, and the ecclesi;istical and civil was
made to harmonize with the solar year. (A) In consequence of his attempt to
(■) (A. .'A. Qiiirini) imngo «pt. Pontlflcis cxpressa In geslls P. III. Eriv. 17-15. 4. On the otlier
svic: KieUino.Y.f. iXe po^tls P. Lps. 1747. 4. MifUu'iti.'Ef). II. de eiiiendanda Ecc. Tur. 174S.
M'ulih vol. XVI. p. 2394.-;.'<. cf. Bulla üifornmt. PniiH III. ad lll>t. Cone. Ttid. porllnons, concopta,
noil viilgala, ed. (V((mwjj, Ilavn. 1S.'?0. 4. [Nccojeity of Kvf. prosontecl to tlie Diot of Spcyor, Leiter
of Paul in. to CliarU-s V.. and Calvin'.s neinnrks. tran;.!. by Jieveridge, I'ldlad. 1SJ5. 15.]
d) P. I'jUdori do vita Marc. II. coiiiiiii'niar. IJoiii. 1744. 4.
e) A. Ctiraccioli, Col. lil-t. do vita P. IV. Col. 1G12. 4. /'. Jftiffii Disqq. bist de P. IV. inculpata
Vitiu Neap. 1C72. f. BioimiU>. Storia dl Paolo IV. IJoin. 174S. 2 vols. 4.
/) Lfonardi Or. do laudlb. PU IV. Pad. Isr.V
(7) //. CalMHt, Vila del P. Plo V. Koin. 15M'.. 4. J. A. Gnhutii de vit-a Pli V. Rom. 1C05. f.
(Acta SS. Muj. Th. L p. 616.) A. Bzovii P. V. Rom. 1C72. I P. A. Moffei, Vita dl S. Pio. Veil
1712. 4. Mend/iam, Lifo of S. Pius V. Lond. 1.S35.
Ä) Comp. F. Piper, Gesch. d. Osterfestes s. d. Kalenderriforni. BrI. 1845.
452 MODKIJN CIICKCII IIISTOKV. I'EK. V. A. D. 1.M7-1649.
rcliovo tlio finances of tlio state by restoring long-forgotten feudal tenurei?
which ho had no power to enforce, ho revived old x>arty diswensions, and
increa.«ed the niiinbor of tlio banditti until they openly took the field as ai
organized army. (/)
§ .382. Ignatius dc Loyola, 1491-156G.
I. Hihadenelra, (according to the nccount of Consalvus) Vita Ignat Neap. 1572. and often.
Jfiiß'i, (nccordlng to the account of rolanciis) de vita et iiioilb. Ignat. L. Roui. 15S5. 4. and often.
Cf. Acta S3. Jul. vol. VII. p. 409.
II. Btruhours, Vlo de S. Ignace. Par. (1679. 4.) 16S0. trans, by Ilaza-Eadlitz. Vien. IS.3.5. Genelli,
Leben d. h. Ign. v. L. Innspr. 1847.— //n?i«, Leben I. L. Eost. 1721. I". Koi-tüm, Entstehungs-
pesch. (L J. O. Mannli. 1S43. [/. Taylor, Loyola and Jesuitism in its Kudiments. Lond. 1S49. S. E.
Vi'. Grinßeld, Hist, of the Jesuits. Lond. 1863. 8. T. J. Buna, Gesch. d. Ordens, d. J. only Part L la
published. Lps. 1853.]
Don Inigo de Loyola, a native of the mountains in the Basque provinces
of Spain, was thrown upon a sick-bed in consequence of severe wounds re-
ceived during the heroic defence of Pampeluna (1521), and while reading
the history of the saints, became filled with a longing to acquire, like St.
Francis, a glorious crown in heaven by earthly suflTerings. Having been
betrothed as a spiritual Amadis to the Holy Virgin, he endeavored by ex-
treme self-denials and temptations to acquire an education and sphere of
activity worthy of such a knighthood. With six companions in the Church
of the Virgin Mary at Montmartre (1534), besides taking the ordinary monas-
tic TOWS, he solemnly pledged himself to take care of himself, to minister to
pilgrims, to seek the conversion of the Saracens, and to receive Avith the
most confiding obedience every command which the Holy Father might
impose with respect to any sphere of duty. After much reflection, Paul
III. (1540) granted this Society of Jesus, which at first consisted of but sixty
members, his permission to devote themselves as a community to the ad-
•\ancement of the soul in the Christian life and faith, and as a military com-
pany to the extension of Christian truth. («) Ignatius was elected the first
general of the order, and he obtained for it (1545) all the privileges of the
mendicant friars. He soon saw it extending into all parts of Europe, and
under the conduct of Xavier, developing its operations for the conversion of
the heathen beyond the ocean. The mind of Ignatius was somewhat con-
tracted, but he possessed an indomitable will, and his whole life was spent in
the relief of the sick, the instruction of chUdren, and the care of souls. He
endeavored always to keep his mind so occupied with spiritual exercises, that
his religious feelings and his imagination were in continual excitement, and
yet were firmly held in a given direction, {b)
i) Jf. A. Ciappi, Comp, delle attioni e s. vita di Gr. Eom. (1591.) 1596. 4, J. Bomj^lani IT. pon-
tif. Gr. Dill. 1685. Mafei, Ann. Gr. Koni. 1742. 2 vols. 4.
o) Litt, apost., quibus institutio, confirm, et vnria privill. continentur S. J. Antv. 1635.
h) Exercitia spiritu.ilia S. P. Ign. Loyolae Antv. 1688. and often. I ond. 1S3S. Directorium ir
exerc. spir. Antv. 1688.
CHAP. VI. CATH. CIIÜECn. § SS3. JESUITIs.M. 453
§ 383. Jesuitism.
I. Constitutiones Soc Jesu. (Rom. 1583.) Antu. 1C35. (Corpus Institutornm S.J. Antu 1T02. 2
Tols. 4.) Institufum S. J. Prag. 1757. 2 vols. 4. Hist S. J. auctore Orlandino. (Rom. 1C15.) Sac-
chino, Posntio, Juvencio, Cordava. Antu. 1620. 1750. C vols. f.
II. Ilist de la comp, de Jesus. Par. 1740. 4 vols, and often. Hist Elirentempel d. Gesell. J.
Vien. \^\.—Ii. C. Dnlli's, 11. of the Jesuits. Lend. ISIC. 2 vols. Mit ErI. (v. F. v. Kerz.) Düsseid.
IS20. 2 vols. u. Naclitr. MQnoIi. 1521.— .9. Suoenheim, Gesch. d. Jes. In Deutschl. FrW. l^S. 2 vols.—
n. Honpiniani II. Jesuitica. (Tig. 1619.) Gen. 1670. f. Ilarenherg, pragm. Gesch. d. O. d. J. Hal.
1760. 2 vols. {Adelung) Vrs. e. Gesch. d. J. Brl. u. Hal. 1769s. 2 vols. P. P. Wo'f, allg. Gesch. d. J.
(Zur. 17S9si) Lps. 1803. 4 vols. Spittler, ü. Gesch. u. Verf. d. J. O. Lps. 1S17. [Cretineau Joly, Hist
rel. pol. et lit de la Comp. d. J. Par. 1S46. 2 ed. 6 vols. 12. A. SteinmeU, Hist of J. from the Germ.
Philad. 1S40. 2 vols, liavaiffiian, Life and Inst of J. New York. 12. K Dvller, J. as they vrere
and are, fioni the Germ. Lond. 1845. 12. W. II. Pule, Celebrated Jesuits, Xa\ier, Laynez, Garnctt,
Bellarmine, Schall, .and Gruber. Lond. 1S53. S. Michelet & Qainet, The J. from the Fr. New York.
1842. 12. J. Poynder, IL of the J. Lond. 1S16. 2 vols. Svo.]
A few sagacious and enthusiastic spirits connected "with the order, -well
undei-stood the peculiar wants of the age, and by a dexterous adaptation of
it to these, even under the administration of its second General Lainez (d.
156-1), it became conscious of its general power to maintain the cause of the
hierarchy against Protestantism, whether within or beyond the limits of the
Roman Church. Before any could become members, they were required to
pass through a novitiate, in which they were severely and appropriately
tested. Of the actual members, some were called scholastics, others coadju-
tors, secular or spiritual, and only a few choice spirits reached the perfect
dignity of the Professed. From the latter were chosen the principal officers,
the Superiors, and the Provincials, constituting a well organized train of
authorities up to the General of the Order in Rome with his assistant Coun-
cil. Every individual was powerful in his appropriate sphere, but in every
act he was closely watched and guarded lest he should transcend his proper
limits. So perfect was the obedience inculcated by a long course of disci-
pline, and strengthened by every spiritual means, that with the exception of
some internal storms, a single arbitrary but inflexible will controlled every
movement of the order in all parts of the world. And yet, although each
individual possessed no more will of his own than the particular members of
the human bod}', he expected to be placed in precisely that position ia which
his talents would be best developed for the common benefit, in exercises of
monastic devotion, in literary and scientific pursuits, in the secular life of
courts, or in strange adventures and eminent offices among savage nations.
All became accustomed to regard the order as their only home, and their
superiors as their only jiroviilence. The movements of this order wore not
impeded by the clumsy machinery of ancient monasticism, for it had at ita
command all kinds of ecclesiastical dispensations, and as a third kind of
monasticism, completely restored to the various occupations of the world, it
entered into every relation of social and secular life. ('/) At the close of the
century in which it was established, by the multitude of its members engngod
in the instruction of youth, and ai)pointed to be the guardians of princes, it
had become the most imj)ortant power in the Catholic Church. The Jesuitg
also endeavored to become proficient in every kind of intellectual cultivation,
a) IL V. Orclh, d. Wesen d. Jes. Orden?, p. IsO^.
4.") 1 M()I>i:kn ciiukch iiisToijy. tei:. v. a. d. ]M7-ic43.
lis tlio only wiiy f«> <«I)t:iin nsceiidcncy in tlio -world of mind. But although
they had aiMoiiK tlicin a inultitiide of learned men in every department of lit-
erature, the curse of their strufrglo against human freedtjin rested upon
tliein, and not a single great work was given hy them to the world. Full
of pomp as their churches generally were, very little genuine taste, and
scarcely any true Avorks of art, were to be seen, and they seemed like post-
humous sons of their parent Catholicism. They gave their countenance to
every fantastic and gloomy superstition, though it must be conceded that it
was a Jesuit Avhose tender spirit moved him to be the first to arouse the
peojde by his awakening appeals against the abominations of the trials of the
witches. Qi) lu spite of the ill-will of the other orders, and the suspicions
of some governments, public sentiment in Catholic countries was in their
Itivor. But in their efforts to become all things to all men, and to make the
way of salvation easy, some of them indulged in an inconsiderate boldness of
assertion, which was not properly rebuked by their leaders, and thus their
enemies found occasion for accusing them of maintaining the hierarchical
vieAvs of former times (p. 334) respecting the inferior importance of ordinary
duties in comparison with the attainment of a supreme object, of putting
forth general maxims dangerous to the security of all laws, and of composing
a science of casuistry, in which pedantry and frivolity were equally conspicu-
ous, but Avhich seriously impaired the inviolability of the moral law. (c)
§ 384. The Council of Trent. Dec. 13, lö^^-Dec. 4, 1563.
I. Canones et doer. C. Tiid. Kom. 1564 4 and ofL ed. Jod. le Plat, Lov. 1770 4. Lps. 1SÖ2. Aca
S. Congr. Card. Cone. Trid. interpretum Eesolutiones et Congtitt Pontif. rccentiores ad jus eommnne
spect cd. Aem. L. liichter, Lps. 1SÖ3. [Canons and Decrees of the CEcumen. Council of Trent,
transl. by J. Watevworth, with Essays on the Hist, of the Council. Lond. 1S4S. S.]— (/". et J. du Puij)
Instructions et missives des Eois de France et de leurs Ambass. et autres aetes concern, le Cone, de
Tr. Par. (1007.) ed. 4 1654 4 Lett, et Memoires de Fr. de Vargas, etc. trad. p. J/, de Vagsor,
Anist. 1099. lat. fee. Schra7nm, Brunsv. 1704 4. Monn. ad Hist. C. Tr. spect anipliss. Col. op. Jvd.
le Plat, Lov. 17S1-7. 7 vols. 4 G.J. Planck, Anecdota ad II. C. Tr. Gott 1791-lSlS. 25. TtacQ. J.
Mendham, Memoirs of the Council of Trent Lond. 1S34 4 Acta C. Tr. ab a. 1562. a Galr. Car-
dinale Paleotto descr. ed. Mendham, Lond. 1S42. [The Council of Tr. and its proceedings. (Pres.
Board of Publ.) Philad. 1S35. IS.]
II. Sarjn, PaUavicini (p. 859.) {P. P. Sarpi, H. of the C. of Tr. transl. by A. Prent, Lond.
1676. f. P. S. Pallarlcini, II. du Cone, du Trente. Montrouge. 1S44. 3 vols. S.] Comp. J. A'. Prisckar,
Beurtb. d. Controversen Sarpi's u. Pall. Tub. 1S4;3. 2 vols. L. Ell. du Pin, II. du C. de Trente.
Brnx. 1721. 2 vols. 4. Sallff, vollst Hist, des Tr. Cone. Hal. 1741ss. 3 vols. 4. J. J/. Gösdd, Gesch.
rt. C. z. Tr. Eatisb. 1S40. 2 vols. Wessejiherg (p. 277.) vol. III. IV. J. T. L. Dam, Geseh. d. Tr. C.
.Ten. 1840. [Buvgener, Hist, of C. of Trent from the Germ. Lond. 1S52. & A. L. Richter, Canons
and Decrees of t!ie C. of Trent Berl. 1S53. 9.]
The general council long called for by the nations of Europe to restore
peace to the Church, and to reform its abuses by a process accordant with
legal fonns, was finally convened by Faul III. The objects expressed in the
I) (Fr. Spee) Cantio criminalis s. de process, c. sagas. Eint 1631. Fret 1032. and often.
<■) Kspecially afler T7i. Sanclies, de Sacramento matrim. Gen. 1592. 3 vols, and oft A. de E'-co-
f'«»', L, Theol. moralis, 24 S. J. Doctoribus reseratus. Lugd. 1646. and oft — Satire: Monüa x>rivata
S. J. Xotobirgae (Krakau). 1012. and oft— J/ C/ifmnltiits, Theol. Jesuvitar. praec. cipp. Lps. lioO.
Doctrinne Jcsuitar. praec. capp. confutata. Eupellae ed. 2. 15i4. {C. Scioppiiis) Anatomia S. J. lC3-\
4 (A": i^<!r/-(iii/0 LaMoraledes Jes. extraito de leurs livres. Mons. 1009. 3 vols. 12. J. Ellendur/,
d. Moral u. Politik d. J. Darmst 1S40.— Defence : J. B. Leu, Beitrr. z.Würdlg. d. J. 0. (after Mahler )
Luc. 1S40. F. J. Buss, Die Gescllsch. J. Mainz. 1S53. Abth. I.
CHAP. Tl. CATH. Clirr.Cir. § 3^ COUNCIL OF TEENT. 455
terms of the call were to exterminate heretics, and to secure definitively the
internal unity of the Church, in the Romish sense of these terms. It was
opened at Trent just as war had been declared against the Protestants, but
after the emperor's victories, tlie pope saw that the imperial influence was
greater in a council assembled in a German territory than that of tlie Holy
Spirit. The place of meeting was therefore clianged to Bologna (lo-iTj, un-
der the pretence of danger from a pestilence, and wlien the imperial bishops
still remained at Trent, it was adjourned to 1548. Julius III. so far yielded
to the threats and promises of the emperor, that he ordered the synod to
continue its sessions at Trent on May 1, 1551. Some Protestant delegates
had already arrived, and others were on their way, when for fear of Maurice
of Saxony, the assembly adjourned April 28th, 1552, for two years. It was
not, however, reassembled until by order of Pius IV., Jan. 8, 15G2. The
order of business for tlie assembly, after every thing that could produce any
recollection of Basle was set aside, was entirely under the control of the pre-
siding legates. The twenty-five sessions were merely public solemnities, at
which the decrees debated and prepared in the committees were openly pro-
claimed. The decrees were passed by a majority of the bishops and generals
of orders present at the time, of whicli tlie Italians were more numerous
than all the other nations together. The opposition, especially of the French
and Spanish bishops, became sometimes very formidable, and by these the de-
mands of the Protestant deputies were welcomed with much favor, (fi)
Even the fimdameutal doctrines of the Protestants respecting the Scriptures
and justification, or views consistent witli them, found some to advocate
them, (//) and the emperor, with the Frencli king, made important demands
for a reformation ; but when this liberal party was seen to have become
Protestant, or were frightened by finding themselves tending toward that
result, the papal party by treaties with the courts and with individual pre-
lates obtained a complete victory, (r) Decrees respecting doctrines, and de-
crees for the reformation of the Cliurcli, were after the fourth session
published alternately. Tlie former contained a revision of the previous sys-
tems of doctrine, and as far as the dogmas of the middle ages advocated by
the different theological schools could be made to harmckuize, they were
stamped with the seal of infallibility, and most of the Protestant deviations
from them were condemned. In the decrees for reformation, many salutary
rules were adopted for the government and discipline of the Church, and
many canons of tlie ancient Churcli were revived. These decrees were all
confirmed by Pius IV., who reserved to himsell' the pap;d prerogative of ex-
plaining tliem as he pleased. The Synod of Trent was accepted uncondition-
ally by most of the Italian States, by Portugal, Poland, and the emperor ; and
with a reservation of the royal i)rerogatives by Spain, Naples, and Belgium ;
with some exceptions by Switzerland and Hungary; and only so far as re-
ejjccts doctrines by France. (</)
d) Vargas, Lett et Mem. p. 46S». Weasenbero, vol. I IL p. 811 ss.
b) Sirpi 1. II. p. 249s?. 322s3. Pallaviciui VIII, 11. 4. I/onnai/r, Taschenb. f. vatcil. Gesell
,832. p. 130s.S. c) Jianke, Päpste, vol. I. p. 83-3s3.
d) Couroi/er, 11. lU- l.i reception du C. de Treiite. Amst 1756.
156 Mt)DERN CMURCII IIISTOKV. PER. V. A. D. I.MT-IMS.
§ 385. Sixtus V. April 2,1, Ibm-Aufj. 27, 1590.
Jlohnr'/l, Sl.vtl V. gcsta qiilnqiionnallii. Rom. IIJOO. 4. Lett, Vita dl Sisto V. I.osamia. 1(509. 3
Til. Inter III J! vols. nn<l often, esfi. In Kr. Par. 1702. 2 vols. Defended with a pnrtl-.in Hplrlt by C.
T^mpenti, ator\a dclla vlt« e gestc dl Sisto V. Rom. 1705. 2 vols. 4. Comp. Itnuke, Rupstc. vol.
III. p. 817.-S.
Ft'lix Porctti made Lis way from the herd to the throne by liis i)ious zeal
as a Fraiifi^icnii, a preacher, and an inquisitor, and when a cardinal under the
name of Montalto (after 1576), by an humble deportment and a complete
renunciation of his natural and impetuous love of command. The stylo in
which this contrast between his earlier and his later life is mentioned in
popular accounts, only shows by what qualities and conduct the people of that
period generally believed that the triple crown could best be won. Having
attained this highest point of his ambition, Su'tiis V. thought that nothing
was impossible for him, and while grasping with his utmost power every
thing actual and possible, he busied himself with the most fantastic and stu-
pendous plans. The utmost that human power and sagacity could do was
accompli.shed by him in maintaining the papal authority, in opposition to
princes who were either contending for the Reformation, or had already
made peace with its friends. Instead of vainly attempting to put down here-
tics, he concluded that he might profitably make use of them in firmly bind-
ing the Catholic kings to the interests of the papal see. But in the contest
between France and Spain, he saw only a contention between the milder and
the more rigid parties in the great Catholic body itself, and hence his atten
tion was distracted and his practical energy was enfeebled. Under his direc
tion the banditti were completely destroyed ; by the exercise of an inexorable
and almost barbarous severity the authority of law Avas re-established in his
territories ; a wise system was put in practice for the support of the poor ;
industry was awakened ; the Vatican library attained a magnificent size; vari
ous works in biblical literature were printed ; the printing-press in the Vati-
can for tlie publication of all that has reached us from the ancient Church,
beginning with the Scriptures, was established ; the vast works of antiquity
were rescued from their rubbish, as far at least as they could become useful
in illustrating t^e triumphs of the cross ; and, although he placed by the side
of these many new edifices not unworthy of the association, and even en-
riched his relatives, he left behind him a vast treasure in the castle of St.
Angelo, from loans and an increased sale of offices, to be used by his success-
ors only in circumstances strictly defined. Ilis government was not accord-
ing to the taste of the Roman peojde, and the Jesuits, whom he hated, did
much to curtail his reputation, if not his life. But so profound and so poetic
Avas the impression which he produced upon his contemporaries, that even in
his own age his hopes, his achievements, and his fortunes became incorpo-
rated in various forms among the legends of the people.
§ 386. Popes of the Seventeenth Century.
Clement VIII. (Aldobrandini, 1592-1605) was in the sight of God and
man a priest of exti-aordinary piety in the ecclesiastical sense of that word
In epito of the opposition of the rigidly Catholic party, with a wise ostenta-
CHAP. VI. CATir. CllüUCir. §386. CLEMENT VIII, PAUL V. GREGORY XV. 457
tion lie absolved Henry IV. from papal excommunication, and thereby formed
a needful counterbalance to the oppressive friendship of Spain. lie was
obliged to act with zeal against the Edict of Nantes, and yet toward indi-
vidual Protestants he exhibited many tokens of personal friendship. His
influence upon France, Spain, and Savoy was that of a prince of peace ; but
when the true house of Este had become extinct, he took possession of Fer-
rara as an escheated fief, by military force, preceded by the terrors of an ex-
communication. By such means a termination was given to the exercise of
arbitrary power in Ferrara, but with it also ceased the cheerful splendor of a
court adorned by knights, art, and literature, (fi) Paul V. (Borghese, 1605-21)
regarded himself as the appointed instrument of the Holy Gliost to render
the decretals of his predecessors equal in authority to divine laws, in an age
which he misunderstood. This produced many disagreements between him
and the ditierent Italian states, respecting the limits of jurisdiction possessed
by the spiritual courts. With Venice, where the power of the state was held
in the highest esteem, this controversy proceeded to an open rupture when the
pope demanded that certain clergymen who had been condemned for some
capital offences, should be delivered up to him, and that a law should be re-
pealed by which an increase of the property of the Church in real estate was
forbidden. The Venetian senate was excommunicated by the pope, and the
territories under their control were placed under an interdict (Ajiril 17, 1606).
The papal ban was declared by Venice to be unjust, and therefore void. The
Servite, Paolo Sarpi^ an intelligent and higlily educated man, and of rigid
Catholic piety with respect to his mode of life, justified tlie republic in the
eyes of foreign nations, and quieted tlie minds of the Venetian people by
strengthening a consciousness of their rights. When the pope therefore saw
that his interdict was despised, and that Ferrara was in peril, he was obliged
to avail himself of the mediation of France to effect a peace, leaving the
rights of the republic unimpaired (1607). (h) He was more successful in
laying a permanent basis for the wealth of his own family, by the destruction
of the unfortunate house of Cenci. Sarpi was included in the stipulations of
the peace, and altliough well acquainted with the ordinary practice of the
lloman curia, he continued with all tlie lawful means which history aftbrds,
to protest, like another Paul withstanding Peter, against the arbitrary aggres-
sions of the pope upon the liberties of the Church and state (d. 1G23). {<:) On
tlie other hand the pope had himself saluted as tlie Vicar of God, and the
valiant preserver of the papal omnipotence. ('/) Gregory XV. (Ludovisi,
1021-28), who always lived on the liriiik of the grave, gave a permanent
form to tlie rules by whicli tlie election and consecration of the pope should
a) Lettre» du Card. (TOssnt. Pnr. 1027. f. Ainst. 1732. 5 vols. Les ainbossades du Card, au Per-
"on. Par. 1623. f.— /".. Wadding, Vita Cleiii. VUyRoiii. 1723. 4.
h) Interdlctl Veneti II. auct. Paulo Siirpl c.vltal. Cnulabr. 1726. 4. C()nlriiv. iiUi-r P. M. et Vene-
tos acta et scrr. ex ital. In villa San Yinceiitiuna 1607.
c) Ojiere (w itli his Vita by Fiibjeuzin). Yen. 1677. T) vols. 12. Grhellini (Meniorie aneddote.
tra:isl. into Genn. by Le Bret, \'\m. 1761.) del gcnio dl Era Paolo. Ven. 17S5. {Fontaniiii, Storii'
aroana di Era Paolo. Ven. 1S03.) Bianchi-Giovini, Blogr. di Era P. Ziirli:o. Mid,. 2 vols. E. Jliincft,
Era P. Sarr)i. CarL'^r. 183S.
d) Bsovii Paulus V Bur^hesiu.';. Rom. 1624.
158 M(M)i:i:n ciidkcii iiistokv. i-ki:. v. a. }>. imt-iw^.
honcofortli bo condnctod, (e) canonized the founders of the order of the
Jesuit.M, wlioso pupil lie had l)ccri, mado a powerful effort to maintain the Ger-
man war, and rocoived tlio J'ahitiiio library as his share of the booty. (/)
Urhan VJJf. (Harbcrini, 1028-44), a]tiiouf,'li fully conscious of his eminent
difjnity and talents, Avas contented with the i)rosocution of such designs as
belonged to him in the character of an Italian prince, the construction of a
few forts, and tlio conduct of an inglorious war against the house of the Far-
nose. For a while his policy was favorable to the cause of the Protestant
powers, and the rigid Catholics complained that the pope stood as cold as ice
in the midst of the conflagration of churches and monasteries. But he pro-
tested against the compulsory concessions mado at the treaty of Prague, main-
tained the most rigid system of Catholicism, and gave the final form to the
bull In coena Domini (p. 311), in which nearly all the claims of the mediaeval
hierarchy are advanced, and not only Saracens, pirates, and princes who im-
pose arbitrary taxes, but Lutherans, Zwinglians, and Calvinists, were anathe-
matized, {g)
§ 387. Law and Politicul delations.
It was principally through the labors of some learned Jesuits that the
ideas of the middle ages were now reduced to a regular theocratic system of
policy, the fundamental principle of which was that the state is to the church
what the body is to the soul. It was contended that although this body lives
in accordance with its own laws, it should nevertheless be subservient to the
great objects of the soul, and in extreme cases should be sacrificed for the sal-
vation of the soul. It was also conceded that the royal poAver is not derived
from the pope, and is not subject to him, and yet where the salvation of the
soul demands such a sacrifice, the pope has a right to depose even kings, and
the inquisition is authorized to take away their lives, since every earthly
power loses its rights when they are abused for the injury of religion. Ac-
cording to this system the sacerdotal power was committed to a distinct order
of men by God, and the royal power Avas derived from the people, so that
the advocates of this system carried out the doctrine of the sovereignty of
the people to its extreme results. («) Not only individual Jesuits taught that
it was laAvful and even pleasing to God to slay a tyi'annical king, but even the
Sorbonne decided (1589) that the French people ought to have no scruples
of conscience in taking up arms against their king, (b) This Avas, it is true,
intended to express a decision on a particular case, and was directed only
against those kings AA'ho threatened the interests of Catholicism. But the
majesty of even Catholic kings was made to depend upon religious considera-
e) IngoU. Caeremoniale ritns olectionis Eom. Pont. Kom. 1621. Liinadoro, Eelazione delta corte
dl lioma. Eom. c<l. 5. 1S24. 2 vols. 12.
f) Aug. Theiner, Schenkung der Heldelb. Bibl. u. Hire Versend, n.-ich Rom. Munch. 1S44.
(7) r.ullar. Horn. vol. IV. p. llSss. Le Bret (p. 311.) 1. 2. vol. 2 ed. 1772.— .S Simonin, Sylvae Ui^
banianae s. gesta Urb. Antu. 1G37.
(i) J. Jlariana, de Uege et Eegis institatione 1. III. Tolet. 159S. & often. BelUirmin, de pote»
Ute Summ! Ponfif. in temporal. Eom. 1610. & often. Sut/res, Def. fidei cath. .idv. anglic. sectae er
lores. Conimb. 1C13. & often.
b) Eesponsum facult.iti- theol rarisieiisis. (Additions an Journal de Henry III. vol. I. p. 317.)
CHAP. VI. CATii. cnuRcn. § ss:. law. political kelatioks. 459
tions, and under the sway of a king whom the pope had approved, this same
Sorbonne condemned the very doctrine (1594) which had produced the vio-
lent death of two kings of France. (<•) Wherever Protestantism maintained its
existence under the government of Catholic princes, the power of the sove-
reign was limited by the states, but no sooner did Catholicism obtain the
victory than he was freed from all such restraints. In Venice a system of
])olitical science was composed without reference to religious creeds. (iT)
When Paul IV. pronounced the election of the emperor invalid, because it
had been held without his mediation, and by heretical princes, he perceived
tliat the Iworaan authority in sucli matters was despised by every one in Ger-
many, whether belonging to the new or to the old religion, (c) and the imperial
coronation has ever since been a high festival, whicli in the view of the na-
tion had no relation to Rome. The popes were well aware that their cause
could not then dispense with the favor of the ^^rinces ; and although they still
derived regular revenues from the appointment of ecclesiastical offices, in-
stead of drawing money from the princes, these princes received large sums
from the hand of the popes. By such subsidies for maintaining the contest
against the Protestants, and by immerous gifts for the establishment of rela-
tives, the debts of the Roman court finally became so enormous, that under
Ui'ban VIII. they amounted to thirty millions of scudi, and half the papal
revenues were consumed in the payment of the interest. (/) This burden,
however, by an artificial system of finance w;i3 rendered not unacceptable to
many wealthy persons, and a vast influence was acquired, since it now be-
came the interest of independent men of wealth to sustain the papacy. The
pope looked upon himself as far superior to any council, to whose decisions he
paid deference merely from his own free grace. lie maintained that even
in doubtful matters the Church was bound to regard him as infallible, that it
might not act against conscience when going against his decision, (ß) The
ai)pointment of nearly all prelates depended upon tlie will of the princes, and
the consent of the pope. It was in the German bishoprics that the influence
of the emperor was the least, but the popes generally found it expedient to
considt the wishes of the German princes in the appointment of their younger
sons. In the new form of their oath the bishops were obliged to swear obe-
dience to the papacy rather than to the Church, and that they would perse-
cute heretics to the utmost of their jjower. (7/) In most of the principal
cities ])ermanent nunciatures were formed, with high plenipotentiary powers»
that through them the influence of tiie papacy miglit become as it were uni-
versal. The Gallican Church alone kept itself aloof from these agencies. (/)
c) Argentre (p. 251.) vol. II. p. 4S4.
d) Comp. ./ C. de Junge, NoiU'rland en Vonetlo. Gravorili.ig. 1S52.
e) Dr. Sehl In Gol(l.^< pol. P.ek-lislifindl. vol. V. p. 1C7.
/) lianke, Pfipste. vol. III. p. lOss
g) PiiUttvicini, XIII, 16. Le Plat, Monn. ad 11. C. Tri 1. vul. VI. p. SOGss. BeUarm. do Row
P. int. IV, 5.
h) From the Pontißcale Rom<tnxim, Roinnc 1595. In Eichhorn, KRcclit. vol. I. p. 592s. — (Pait
UnHtrauch) Abli. ii. d. Kid, welchen dio dt. ülsohöfe abzulösen haben. Vlen. 1731.
i) (F. V. Mofter) Gesch. d. Nuntien in Deutj*chl. Frkf. ITSS. 2 vols. (Wii.lonfeld) Entwickl. d. Dis-
f.ens-ii. Nuntiaturstroitiijk. (Bonn.) 178S. 4. L. Snell, Gesch. d. Einführ. d. Nunt. in d. Schwell.
Bad. 1?I7.
inO MOPKRN CllUUCir lIISTdUV. VVAl. V. A. D. I.MT-IMS.
Tho Roman court also began now to bestow as a matter of grace, and for a
definite period (facnitatcs qninqncnnales), especially upon the German bisb-
ojjs, fho rifjlit to grant, as tho missionary interests of their present and pro-
spective dioccso!? Hcemed to require them, dispensations of marriage, and ex-
emptions from Catliolic appointments, (k)
§ 388. Great Change in the Character of Catholicism.
In the struggle then going forward new attachments for the Church began
to bo developed, and tlio hierarchy discovered that their salvation depended
I)rincipally upon religious considerations. Hence some of tho worst abuses in
the administration of tho Church were removed, indulgences were no longer
exposed for sale, {a) it was found to be useless to threaten any one with the
papal ban, and it was only in Eome that excommunication was sometimes
resorted to as an assistance to the police. By a very gradual enforcement of
the Tridentine decrees, the clergy were compelled to live respectable lives.
In the principal sees of the Church, their wovldliness was now exchanged for
a solemn and imposing splendor, piety generally took the form of a sentimen-
tal devotion, and as those who were known to possess it bad reason to expect
the blessings of fortune and ecclesiastical honors, we may suppose that selfish
views and artifice were sometimes mingled with it. That which had for-
merly been done in the Church with no thought of opposition, now fre-
quently brought upon the actors a high degree of suspicion and persecution.
The same clergy to whom Gerson had once been a leader, now refused to
tolerate Richer, who sought to find in the liberties of the GaUican Church
protection for not only the rights of the state, but also for those of the gene-
ral Church, which he claimed to be subject to the Son of God as its only
supreme monarch. He was compelled to recant his opinion by Eichelieu's
assassins, and in the midst of his persecutions died (1G31). (Ji) Galilei (d.
1G38) was obliged solemnly to retract his assertion that the earth moves
around the sun. (c) The Humanists were compelled to give way before the
inquisition, and the enthusiasm which bad sprung up in favor of antiquity
was unable to maintain its ground against the rising spirit in behalf of the
Church. The instruction of youth in the higher departments of learning
was now in the hands of the Jesuits, who regulated it by the strictest rules,
gave it almost exclusively a spiritual direction, and confined the intellect
witliin certain definite limits. From a dislike to the universities, the hier-
archy began to prefer that the clergy should be educated in episcopal semi-
naries. The control which the inquisition possessed over books made them
V) 0. Mejer, d. ri.m. Curie. (Richter u. Jacobs. Zeitsoll. f. Kecbt u. Polit. d. K. 1S47. p. 212s.)
Hid. Propaganda, vol. II. p. 210ss.
a) Comp. Pescheck; klrchongesch. Miscell. (Zeitscli. f. bist. Th. 18.59. P. 8.)
i) Dc ccc. et pol. potestate. Par. 1611. and ot^ Apologia pro Gersonio, denuo L. B. 1G70. 4.—
Baillet. la vie d'Edmond Kielier. Doct. de Sorbonne Liege. 171-1.
c) Paulus, Gal. Kampf, f. d. Uationalism. (Beitrr. z. Dogmen-, K. u. Ref. Gesch. 1S87. p. 824ss.)
UiJinU-e. z. Gesch. Gal. (Stud. u. Krit. lSo2. P. 1. p. 245.) Derb. Stuhl gegen Gal. (Hist pol. BL
1S41. vol. VIT. P. T-10.) [Life of Gal. in Lib. of Useful Knowl. pp. 53-61. Lond. 1533. 12. Life of
Gul Galilei, &c Boston. 1S;}2. 12. £>. £reicslei; Martyrs of Science. Lond. 1S41. 8. Edinb. Eer. (ir
Eclectic Mag. Oct. 1S44.) April, 1S44. Art Martyrs of Science.]
CUAr. VI. CATH. CHURCH. §3SS. FRANCIS OF SALES. BORROMEO. 4G1
more powerful in Southern Europe than they could be by any punishments
they could inflict. The censorship was rendered complete by the index of
prohibited books, the number of wliich was swelled by the well-contested
rivalry between the Roman and the Spanish inquisitions (after 1.558). The
works of Catholic and classical writers were given to the world in mutilated
editions. Personal solicitude for the faith and ignorance far exceeded the
limits which the necessities of Catholicism required. (J) This dread of intel-
lectual activity produced a passionate, servile, and malignant spirit on the
I)art of the hierarchy. The religion of tlie common people, however, still
remained sincere ; and although persons were often canonized for political rea-
sons, and for their large fees, many genuine saints were found in the humble
walks of life. Francis of Sales, Bishop of Geneva (d. 1622), by the popular
cordiality of his mysticism, which called on men to renounce their own wills
even when directed to beneficence, and by an earnestness which concerned
itself with notliing but religion, was more efficient in the edification of be-
lievers than in the conversion of heretics, (e) The Castilian Theresa (d.
1582), after passing through many temptations to worldly pleasure, and
many sufferings, had her heart pierced as it were with the arrows of divine
love, possessed inetfable enjoyments during her seasons of ecstasy, and spent
her life in bringing the female department of the Carmelite order to the
severe discipline of ancient times. (/) Carlo Borromco (d. 1587), a relative
and favorite of the pope, was elevated even when a youth to the see of St.
Ambrose, possessed great influence in the papal court, and at the Council of
Trent, was full of zeal against the .heretics on the southern declivities of the
Alps, although he relied entirely npon the power of the divine word. By his
gentleness and strictness he bestowed great blessings upon his native province,
and his lofty form appears to look down npon it even now in the act of bless-
ing and guarding it. (y) But even that older form of Catholicism which had
prevailed in the time of the Councils of Constance and Basle, could not be
entirely extinguished, for it bore a prominent part in the religious changes
which then took place, and in the reformations conducted by the partisans of
Catholicism. The former tendency was represented by Ilenry IV., and the
latter by Philip II., not on account of the accidental qualities Avhich be-
longed to the character of those individuals, but because each of them was
like the summit of a mountain, the most prominent among his people.
(T) Indi'X cxpurgatorius. Antu. 1571. Arg. 1W9. Indices librr. proliibitoruin et expurfrandor.
16G7. and others. [The Vatican Index Expurg. ed. by li. Gibbings, Dubl. 1*37. 12.] Daii. Francus,
Usq. de I'apisL indicc. libb. proh. Lp3. 1CS4. 4. Mendham, The literary pt)licy of the Church of
Rome exlilbitcd, in an account of Uer damnatory catalogues or indexes. Ed. 2. Lond. 1S30. [This
■work is also embraced in Jfendham'a Index of Proh. Books, by order of Greg. XVI. Lond. 1S40.]
e) Oeuvres de S. /V. de ^^ules, Par. 1iS4. 16 vol.s. Jinxidry, Suppl. aux ocuvres. Lyon. ISUJG. —
Leben v. C. A. Sales, 1Ö34 Maraollier, 1747. Reusing, ISIS. F. U. (Tub. theol. Quartalschr. 1S4-2.
P. 1.)
/) Schrr. d. h. Tlicr. v. Jesu, ed. by Gaüiu ScJiwah, Sulzb. ISSls. 5 vols. Act» 9. Ther. ill. a. J.
Vaiideitnoere, 1S46. f.
g) 0pp. Milan. 175S. 5 vols. f. Godeau, la vie de Ch. B. Par. 1T4T. Sailer, d. h. Karl. Austsb.
iS24. Giussavo, Leben d. h. K. B. from the Ital. v. Klitsche, Augpsb. 1836«. 8 vols. Dierenger, d. it
Borom. u. d. KVerbess. sr, Zeit, Köln. lS4ö,
4G2 MODKUN CIIIKCII IIISTdKY. I'Ki:. V. A. D. 1517-104'^.
§ 389. Fratcrniliesfor Instruction and Charity.
Auhfi-ti Miniei Kcgiiltto ot Constitt Clericorum In congregat. vlvcntlnm. Antv. 1688. 4.
TIio pniftifc of orfTjanizing public orders had been found to be of great
iriiportanco in promoting objects of general utility in the Church. A few
Iwuuiati i)relates associated themselves together to effect a reform among the
clergy (1524). They resolved to spend their time in the performance of
pious services, not for reward, nor for the collection of alms, but depending
on such voluntary offerings as might be sent them by Providence. When
one of their number, the Bishop of Theate, had become Pope Paul IV., these
Thcaiincs^ in the capacity of preachers, missionaries, and attendants on the
sick, became almost exclusively a seminary in wliich the superior clergj' were
trained, {ii) Philip of Keri^ whose peculiar inclinations led him to spend his
daj's in clmrches and hospitals, and among children, and his nights in tlie
catacombs, formed in Eome (1548) a fraternity for religious duties, and rely-
ing upon the assistance of God and of pious people, he erected a large hospi-
tal, in the oratory of which (Oratorium) books of a devotional character
were read and explained. From this establishment proceeded the Fathers of
the Oratory^ an association of clergymen for mutual edification, but not
bound by formal vows. The French Oratory of Jesus was a simihir institu-
tion established for the reformation of the clergy (1011) by Peter de BcruJIc,
a man who in an elevated earthly position sought to attain the extreme per-
fection Avhich belongs not to this world, (h) After the publication of the
decree of the Council of Trent, requiring all independent monasteries to
unite themselves into congregations for mutual supervision, a few French
monasteries formed an association (after 1618) for the restoration of the rule
of St. Benedict, and with this congregation most of the French Benedictines
became connected, in compliance with the expressed wishes of Cardinal
Richelieu. This society, which received the name of St. Maicrus, a disciple
of Benedict, devoted its efforts to the instruction of youth and the advance-
ment of solid learning. The Fathers of the Oratory soon after directed their
exertions in the same channel. Both orders, in consequence of the leisure
aitd freedom from care which they afforded to their learned men, and the
combination of various powers which they could effect, have accomplished
immense benefits for the cause of historical learning. Among their members
were found some whose names have been renowned in the literary world,
and who for their litcrar}- success and zeal have been models for all succeed-
ing ages. {(■) Among the Minorites, the popular character of a mendicant
order was revised (1528) by Matteo de Bassi, apparently for no other purpose
than to restore the genuine costume of St. Francis. Even the old spirit of
a) CaJ. Tliienaei Vita Col. 1612. (Acta SS. Auar. vol. II. p. 249.)
J») £.(/-on. Ann. ad a. 57. N. 162. Instituta Congrear. Rom. 1612. A. GallonUix.Wta P. Xcrii.
Mog. 1002. lliileit de Cerisy, Tie du Card. BeruUe. Par. 1040. 4. Taharaud, II. de P. de Birr.
Par. 1S17. 2 vols.
<•) Constitt pro directione regiminis Congr. S. M.iuri. Par. 1C46. {Ilaudiqnet) II. du vi-n. dorn.
Didier de la Cour. Kcformateur des Ben. Par. 1772.— (Ttiwüi, II. lit de la congr. de S. Maur. Pur.
.720. 4. Brux. 1770. 4. with Anra. (v. Mensel.) Frkf. u. L. 1773s. 2 vols. J. G. Ihrbst : Yerdionste
d. Mauriner um die Wiss. (Tüb. Quartalschr. 1S;3;3. P. Is.) Die liter. Leistungen d. Fr.snz. OraL
(Tub Quartalscbr. 1835. P. 8.)
CHAP. VI. c.vTir. church. § 359. capuchins, uhsulixes. 463
the Franciscans was aroused. Occhino^ the vicar-general of the order, and a
preacher of repentance in Italy, having vainly endeavored to satisfy his mind
by self-denials, Avliose austerity continually became more severe, finally -went
over to the Protestants (1542), and even beyond them in their peculiar doc-
trines. The Capuchins, liowever, continued to show a spirit, prepared for
the boldest sacrifices, for the cultivation and employment of which the Rom-
ish Church offers such facilities. They were now also furnished with a gene-
ral exclusively for their order (1G19). (iT) Angela of Brescia (d. 1540), one of
those souls which move on earth as angels of consolation, established in
honor of St. Ursula an order of virgins devoted to acts of charity and kind-
ness in the doTuestic circle. The Ursidines also became subject to a monastic
constitution (1G12), and undertook the education of children of their own
sex. Francis of Sales, by the agency of his friend Francisca of Chantal, so
remarkable for her vigorous and glowing heart, founded the order of the
Visitants (1610-18, Ordo de visitatione Mariae Virginis), which thought that
in the visitation of the Blessed Virgin might be found a type of the manner
in which all virgin souls should wait for the visit of their heavenly spouse.
The Piarists, founded by Joseph Calasauza (d. 1048), a Sjjaiiiard then resid-
ing at Rome, soon became tbe rivals of the Jesuits as the fathers of the
religious schools, (e) John di Die (d. 1550), a poor man and a native of Por-
tugal, was constrained by his sympathy for the distressed to found an order
fur the relief of such as were sick and poor, without regard to ditferences of
faith. Its members Avere known in Spain as Brethren of Hospitality, in
France as Brethren of Christian Love, and in Germany as the brethren of
Mercy. Vincent de Paula, by birth belonging to the common people, at one
time a slave in Tunis, and a man who sympathized with all the ills to which
the human soul or body is subject, founded (1G24) the congregation of the
Priests of the ^fission (Lazarists), the object of which Avas to convey Chris-
tianity with all its blessings to the neglected cla-sses of Cbristendom, and at
the same time to constitute a school friendly to the Jesuits, and for the im-
I)roveuient of the French clergj-. "While a cimfessor for the widow Le Gras,
he also instituted the society of the Sisto's of Mercy (Filles do la charite,
grises), into whose gentle hands the French people have committed the care
of their sick and poor. (/') In connection with these various societies may
also be mentioned those as.sociations of brethren and sisters to which per-
sons of all classes, especially in the Italian cities, belong, who still remained
in the ordinary walks of secular life, but according to a prescribed rule suc-
cessively and generallj' in a deep disguise, from no motive but a regard for
the will of God perform all needful offices for pilgrims, the sick and the dead.
(/) Acta SS. Mnj. vol. IV. p. 2S3sa. lioverio, Ann. Ord. MIn. qui Capuclnl, etc. Lnp.l. B. 1632s9.
3 vols. f. M. a Tiiyio. Riillar. O. Ciipp. noiii. 1740s8. 7 vols. t.—OccJdiio, Dialog XXX. 15a.«. 15CS.
Mc('ric, Hist, of K.f. in It. p. lS."a<. MOiss. Trechurl, L. Sozlnl. p. 2'?ss. 2o2ss,
e) (Sei//<-'>() Ordensrcgi-ln d. I'inristcn. Hi.l. 1TS3. 2 vols.
/) Leben il. H. Vine. \>y Ahelly, Par. IGfit. Cullft, Nancy. 174''. Stolherg,i ed. Vienna. 1^10.
Schmieder. (Kv. K. Z. 1S32. N. 778s.) Orsitti, Par. l'^42. Gobillon, Vlo do M. do Gras. Pur.
1C7G. (Clemens lirentiino) Die bnrm. Scliwestern in Pozug a. Armen- n. Krankonpf. Cobl. 1S3I.
Comp. Ev. K. Z. 1S30. N. 22ss. 1S:J8. N. 1S.S. FUmhmauH,(\. Wirken d. barinb. Scliw. In Wiea
Vienna. 1S39.
4(il m<)I»i;i:n ciirucii iiisrnuv. it.i:. v. a. d. i.'ii7-;64s.
§ .390. The Fine Arts.
l.ltorntiiro In $ 2i'iT. Kiiglfi; Oc«^li. «1. Mai. vol. II. Glareanun, Doilocachordon. Ba*. 1547.
Orrhert, do rantii ct innsloi». S. Ulaa 1774. 2 vols. 4. Itochlitz, Oriin<llini>>n zu e. Gesch. A. Go-
sanspiiiin». f. KIrohc, kc (ITir. Froundo d. Tonk. vol. IV. Lps. lb.32.) KienceUer, Gesch. d. our.
ahendl. MiislU. Lps. (IS.^^.) 1S47. 4.
It lias been tlio interest of the Catholics of modern times to favor the
ar^s. Tlie imitative arts had however, at this time, reached the highest point
to which tliey Avere destined to rise, and the unrestrained power of genius
found no motives to return to its eftbrts in tliat direction. Comggio^ with
an overflowing heart and a magic richness of coloring, and Titian, with all
the splendors of nature itself, painted also scenes from sacred history, (a)
Both of them, however, did homage without restraint at the altar of sensu-
ous beauty. The revival of art in the school of Bologna was influenced
indeed by anatomical studies and learned attempts to imitate antique models,
and yet it was pervaded by the ecclesiastical spirit. The noble Caracci with
his bold grandeur, Domenichino with his gloomy fervor, and Guido lieni
with his enthusiastic earnestness, presented to the world the conceptions and
forms of the Church, while Poussin painted not only the ancient marble
figures as saints, but even landscapes seriously and solemnly as if they had
been for a divine temple. The hardy natural simplicity of the N'etherlandic,
and the yet unbroken enthusiasm uf the Spanish national character, raised
the imitative arts of the 17th century to the brilliant eminence which they
had formerly attained : Eubens made use of sacred things to represent most
skilfully the energy of passion and an exuberant sensuous life, in his effort
to adorn the sepulchral chapel of his family ; and MurilJo, the painter of the
Catholic foith, and yet distinguished for his spirited conformity to nature,
presents even those sacred things which he adored with rapturous devotion
sometimes in the most natural attractions and sometimes in the most un-
earthly and fanatical forms. The plastic arts sought to renew their infancy
by waxlike imitations of the ungraceful forms of nature. By such means,
Bernini with astonishing skill destroyed the taste of his contemporaries, and
the Christian character of these arts. It was at such a period that a Barle-
rini, then on the papal throne, thought he could add to his reputation by dis-
figuring the Pantheon, which he despoiled of the ornaments which had
been spared by so many barbarians, that he might cast them (1632) into can-
nons and an ill-contrived high altar for the church of St. Peter. The poetry
of Italy was generally tedious and of a moralizing strain, until Torquato
Tusso (d. 1595), a genuine poet, though slightly addicted to the same style,
celebrated the great change which had recently taken place in Catholicism in
his account of the exploits of the middle ages, (h) Borne on by the medi-
aeval spirit which still survived among his people, Calderon (d. 1687), in his
sacred plays for festive seasons (p. 302), has brought forward the mysteries
of Christianity in a poetic dress, and celebrated Christian heroism and all
[a) A life of Correggio and Parmeg. Lond. 1823. 8. J. KorOicoU, Life of Titian. Lond. 1830
1 Tols. 8.]
[6) R. Jfilman, Life of Tasso. New ed. Lond. 1S82. 2 vols. S. SUmondi, H. of Lit vol L
p. 277SS.]
CHAP. VI. CATU. CnUECn. § 390. PALE3TRINA- ALLEGRI. NEEI. 4Gc
that then remained of it as in a waking dream, (c) Modern music first attained
the character of an art by which the devout lioart gives utterance to its emo-
tions, in the Church of the fourtcent.li century in the Netherlands. Its style
was at that time serious, grand, and full of expression only when taken as a
whole ; and as the Church would not renounce the few melodies which had
long been nsed, art was obliged to exert its powers on the harmonies by
wliich they were embellished. The consequence was that many imitators
adopted an artiticial, dry, and learned kind of nuisio, which derived all its
life from some secular airs mingled with them. (<!) The Synod of Trent en-
treated the pope that he would devise some jjlan by which this state of things
might be improved. Marcellus II. accordingly disclosed his views to an
enthusiastic young man, and soon after under the papacy of Paul IV., Pales-
trina presented to the world his Missa MarcelU (1555). This was the
commencement of a revolution in sacred music, wliich by his influence be-
came simple, thoughtful, aspiring, sincere, and noble, but destitute of pas-
sion and tenderness. {() The most spiritual of all arts, it raised the heart
into immediate communion with the intiuite, and while celebrating the
mystery of the divine sacrifice in the different parts of the Mass to which
it especially was set, it found opportunity to express, and to elevate by its
various combinations of sounds, every kind of Christian feeling. The centre
of this school was the papal chapel, and its last creative master was Gregorio
AUcgri (d. 1652), whose Miserere, composed for a double choir, expresses
with Avonderful simplicity all the calm and profound sufferings of a Christian
heart beneath the Saviour's cross. (/) The Opera was invented (about 1600)
by certain persons belonging to the Academy of the Medici, while attempting
in an antique style to represent the ancient drama. This secular yet serious
and dignified style of music delighted all classes. While the old ecclesiasti-
cal style was struggling in Rome to maintain its ground against this inno-
vation, the school of music founded by Xeri began to perform in the Orato-
rium pieces relating to subjects from sacred history. In this waj' came into
existence the Oratorio^ intermediate between the ancient and modern styles
of music, and more distinctly expressive of precise characters and situations,
more agreeable in its melodies, and richer in its instrumental accompani-
ments, {(j)
§ 391. The Sacred Scriptures. Cont. from § 286, 38C.
The Complutcnsian Polyglott was followed by other similar attempts of a
literary character, with the aid of a larger number of ancient versions. The
Greek text by liobert Stephens (Est.ienne), («) and after him, almost acciden-
tally, the beautiful impressions from the oftico of the Elzevirs, {?>) on the basis
of the edition of Erasmus or of the Comjilutensian Polyglott, were now
established as an article of faith in both Churches (Textus receptus). Many
[o) Ili'J. vol. II. p. 816s.] (i) Jf<insi voL XXIX. p. lOT.
<f) Bitini, Mciiiorie doUa vita Jl O. T. da I'slcst. Rom. 1S2S. 2 vol.». 1.
/) X. WiHemaii, ü. d. In d. piipsU. Kapollo übl. I.ttiirglo d. ftlllcn Woche. A. d. Kngl. v. Axtnger,
Augsb. 1840. [The Onioos of Holy Week. LomL Svo.]
£7) Fink- in Zeitscli. f. hist. Th. 1S42. H. &.
a) Par. 154C. 16. E.*pccially 1550. f. (cd, roylna.) l>) Liigd. B. 1C24. 12. and oft
80
4G0 M(H)Ki:\ CllHUCir HISTOltY. PEK. v. a. U. 1M7-164'?.
nlso att(Mii|>lc(l to (.•.xpoiiiid the Scriptures, but with iio peculiarities of theit
own thev ffenerally (lei)eü(le(l wliolly cither upon Erasmus or tlic fatliers.
Not only were tlio views of divine inspiration entertained by the ancient
Church expressly disregarded by the Jesuits of the Netlierlands Tafter 1585),
but oven the statements and ordinary intelligence of the Scriptural writers
were impeached. The shock which the Protestantism of that period received
from such expressions, encouraged many men to make known the more
recent results of the scientific studies of a liberal school, (r) Luther's Bible
was extensively circulated imder the name of his enemies. {<]) After many
animated discussions in the Synod of Trent, the object of which was to avoid
all dependence upon grammarians, and to secure themselves from the attacks
of Protestants, the Vulgate was declared to be authentic for all sermons
and expositions of Scripture. This ambiguous decision has been explained
by learned Catholics generally to mean simply that this translation was pre-
ferable to all others, {e) Such a decree, however, never became effectual,
until in an official edition the various and corrupt readings of this version
were partially removed. Sixtus V. took charge of this work (1590), and by
virtue of his plenary apostolic power pronounced it authentic and unchange-
able. From the haste, however, with which it had been accompjlished, it
soon became necessary that a new edition with important emendations should
be prepared under the authority of Clement VIII. (1592). The merit of hav-
ing perceived these, and of making improvements with regard to some other
errors in the work, was not readily acknowledged by Protestants, but all
were convinced that such measures were infallible in matters of faith. (/)
§ 392. Laics Eespecting Doctrines and Internal Theological Controversies.
The doctrinal decrees of the Synod of Trent, the partial vagueness of
which was doubtless a matter of design, were generally acknowledged to be
the standard of Catholic orthodoxy. The phraseology used in the Frofessio
Fidei Tridenti7ia, a confession published by Pius IV. (156-x), and intended to
be binding upon all candidates for the clerical ofl3ce or for academical honors,
was strictly conformed to the language used in those decrees, (a) Pius V.
published the Catechismus Eomanns (1566), not so much for popuLir instruc-
tion as for the direction of pastors while engaged in that work. Both these
creeds presented some of the doctrines of the Tridentlne articles in a more
definite form, and although they have been opposed in some quarters, they
have in practice been received as authority. The essential nature of Protes-
tantism was assailed by the Synod of Trent only so far as the interpretation
of the Scriptures was made to depend upon the decision of the Church, and
c) Rich. Simon, Hist, crit du texte du N. T. c. 23.
d) {W,ilch vol. XXI. p. 311.) N. T. by Eraser, Lps. 1527. 11. S. by Dietcnberger, Mentz. 1534
by Eck. Ingoist. 153T.— (?. W. Panzer. Gesell, d. n.in. k.itli. dt Bibeli'ibers. Numb. ITSl. 4.
<■) Scss. IV. Deer. 2. [Landoii, Man of Councils, p. CO'.]— L. v. Ess. Doctorum oath. Tridentlnj
circa Vulg. dcereti sensuni testantium Hist. Salisb. 1816. Grats, ü. d. Grunzen d. Freib. in ErkL d.
II. S. EUw. ISIT.
/) Th. Jam^, Bellum papale s. concordia discors Sixti V. et Clem. VIII. Lend. (ICOO. 4) 16SS.
[James, Ou the Corruptions of Scripture, Councils and Fathers. (Lond. 1S4S. 3 ed.) p. ITlss.]
Sclioelliorn, Amoenn. P. IV. p. 433ss.
a) G. C. F. Jfohnike, uk. Gesch. d. rrof. Fidei Trid. Greifsw. 1822.
CHAP, YL CATH. CHURCIL § 592. TQEOLOGY. CONTEOVEESIES. 467
the authority of tradition is made equivalent to tliat of the Scriptures. The
most important principle it proposed in opposition to the Protestantism of
that period, was one which referred to the doctrine of justification. Even
among the prelates themselves there was a pious and respectable party favor-
able to the views of the Protestants on this subject. (J/) Hence, after pro-
tracted debates, justification was declared to be a gracious state prepared for
by the Iluly Ghost and the co-operation of the sinner himself, and is essen-
tially advanced by works performed in obedience to the Church. Hence the
doctrine which declared that man is justified only by a foith wrouglit wholly
by God, could be condemned with much consistency. (<•) The dispute be-
tween the Thomists and the Scotists on the subject of original sin and divine
grace, was not and could not be decided at that time, since the controversy
maintained by those schools had now become a controversy between the two
orders of mendicant friars, and the deviation of the whole Church from the
principles of Angustinism rendered it indispensable that indefinite forms of
expression should be used. But when the cfTurts of Protestants had suc-
ceeded in directing the thoughts of the Church toward these delicate points,
and the Jesuits, in consistency with the moral system of their school, had
adopted the views of the Scotists, the dangerous proximity of this dispute to
the dread abyss of Protestantism could not deter men from engaging in it in
many ways. The Franciscans succeeded in obtaining a danmatory bull of
Pius V. (15G7), which was afterwards confirmed by Gregory XHI. (1579),
upon seventy-nine dangerous propositions extracted from the writings of
Bajtis, a professor of Lou vain, who had abandoned scholasticism and had
turned his attention to a scriptural and Augustinian Christianity, (cf) This de-
cree, however, never affected his personal standing in the Church. The
theological faculty of Louvain defended themselves by an aggressive move-
ment (after 1587), and condemned thirtj'-four propositions opposed to the
essential doctrines of Augustine, and to the absolute authority of the Scrip-
tures, from the writings of the Jesuits Less and Ilarncl. Sixtus V. endeavored
to allay the growing strife by an absolute command that each party should
cease agitating the subject (1588). But a general controversy between the
rival schools of the Dominicans and the Jesuits had already commenced in
Spain in consequence of a Pelagian Avork intended as conciliatory by the
Jesuit Molina. (<) Pressed by complaints from all parties, Clement VHI.
called together a congregation (1597) for tiie full decision of the question,
" In what way is the assistance of divine grace concerned in the conversion
of the sinner ? " When both parties had submitted their respective views in
the most circumstantial manner before this tribunal, Paul V. dismissed (1607)
the congregation, worn out h}' protracted labors, with the promise tliat a de-
cision should be given as soon as convenient, and commanded both jiarties to
maintain perpetual silence on the subject. (/)
h) Ranke, Papste, vol. I. p. 199s«. IGOss.
c) Sess. VI. Deer, dc Justif. [London, p. 010.]
rf) Bujl 0pp. Col. 1G96. 4. Du Chesiie, 11. du Bajnnismo. Douay, 1731. 4.
e) Liberi arb. c. gratia«» donis, div. pracsciciitia, praedest. ct reprobat, concordia. Olyssip. 1588«
. Antu. 1595. 4.
/) Aiiff. le Blanc {Serry), IF. congrogr. de aiixilii* gratiao. Ant. 1709. f.
468 MODKBX CHURCH HISTORY. PKR. V. A. D. 1517-105.
5 3!)3 EitortH lU L'econcUiation, and Controversies with the Protestant».
C. W. Uering, Gesch. d. kirctil. Unlonsvereuche. Lpz. 1836-8. 2 vol.».
Even when the popes began to despair of victory, they would admit of
110 compromise with the Protestants for fear that the whole Church might
tliercby become infected with the spirit of the Keformation. («) But as the
rr()te,«taiit Church had gone in some respects to an extreme, and as the
Catliolic Church still needed reform, and as the former appeared only another
form of tlie latter, a hope was entertained that a reconciliation might be
eüccted which would be eminently beneficial to both j^arties. With this
view Ferdinand I. requested two learned men whose feelings were friendly to
the object, to draw up articles of accommodation and agreement. Cassander,
always an apostle of peace, conceded that the Scriptures were the only au-
thority for proving any doctrine, and thought that he might find a point of
agreement for the one-sided views of both parties in the doctrine of justifi-
cation by faith and works. He was anxious to preserve the hierarchy, but
was willing to give up its abuses, together with a multitude of evils which
had grown up in a long course of time, or things which, like celibacy, had
once been beneficial, but were now antiquated. Wizel, Avhen a youth, had
been a zealous preacher of the Lutheran gospel, which, however, he re-
nounced (1531), because he regarded its doctrine of justification as injurious
to Christian practice, and he was anxious to preach nothing but the gospel
of Christ. He afterwards preached as a priest, though married, in the for-
saken Church at Eisleben, in behalf of the Catholic cause, and with many
complaints against Luther. At a still later period he sat in a council of
Catholic prelates, in which he still clung firmly to the hope that by follow-
ing the path which Erasmus had pursued, renouncing all scholastic subtleties
and papal abuses, by purifying the Church and returning to the Scriptures,
all Christendom might once more become united around its common Lord
Christ. (&) But although at these rehgious conferences an agreement often
seemed just at hand, and failed only because of the obstinacy of some individ-
uals, it was evident from the peculiar nature and historical necessity of such a
religion as Protestantism, that all these negotiations must fail. In the Ger-
man conferences the principal topics of discussion were original sin and jus-
tification, though after the Synod of Trent the subject of the sole authority
of the Scriptures was most prominent. The Protestants reproached the
Catholics with having departed from the Scriptures and from Christ, and the
Catholics, on the other hand, reproached the Protestants with having de-
l)arted from the Church, Avith being revolutionary in their tendencies, and
yet contending that the will was not free, and Avith being afraid of good
works. Catholicism was assailed in the most earnest manner by Chemnitz^
and Protestantism by Bellarmine, (c) The principal subjects debated by
ii) Comp. VTegsenherg, Kirchenwers. vol. III. p. lOSss. p. 295.
V) G. Cass, de artic. rel. inter CathoUcos et Trotestantes controversls ad Ferd. I. et Max. II. Con
sultatto. Col. 156G. ed. K Grotius, Lugd. 1642. G. Vic. Via regia. CoL (about) 1564. ed. Conring
HolmsL 1650. 4. Both : ed. Conring, Helnist, 1C69. A.—StroheU Beitrr. vol. II. St Is. A. Xeander
do G. Vicello. Ber. 1S39. 4. Also his Das Eine u. Mannichf. d. chr. Leben. Brl. 1S40. p. 16I.ss.
c) Ch^mnitii Examen Concilii Trid. 15653S. 4 vols. ed. G. C. Joannis. Frcf. 1707. f. and often
Bellannini Dsp. de controv chr. fidei adv. hujus temp, haereticos. Rom. 15Slss. S vols. f. and often
CUAP. VI. CAXn. CIIÜECII. I 393. ATTEMPTS AT UNION. 469
these able disputants, however, were particular doctrines and usages. The
authorities to which the Protestant appealed were generally the literal mean-
ing of the Scriptures and facts in the past history of the Church, to which
the Catholic usually replied by appealing to the reasonable fitness of things
and primitive usage. Flacius and Gerhard delighted in pointing out traces
of Protestantism in former times, that so they might overcome the Catholic
Church with its own weapons. (</) Zealous partisans, like Xihus, soon dis-
posed of the whole subject by contending that the pai'ty which could show
a prescriptive right of possession should bo victorious. (') The doctrine of
the Lord's Supper, as it was maintained in both Churches, gave much occasion
on account of its supernatural sensuousnes.«, on the one side to ridicule for
the scholastic subtilty of its form, (/) and on the other to a rude kind of poetry
for its strange figurative language, (y) But this controversy with Scriptural
weapons, especially on the part of the Catholics, was nothing but a faint
reflection of the extremely animated personal exertions made for the same
general object. With the restoration of the Catholic Church sprung up the
hoi)e that it was about to recover all it had lost. The liberal party in that
Church, as it had not yet entirely discarded the Protestant spirit, might
easily have tolerated that spirit in a more distinct form by its side. The
more zealous party, on the other hand, from its very nature could allow of
no terms in its opposition, and although its efforts were at that time directed
not so much to the persecution as to the conversion of their opponents, its
adherents were resolved to go to any extremes, and to demand every thing.
Vast plans were formed for future action. Once more the papacy felt that
it was destined to conquer the world. Intellect and eloquence, craft and
force, were put in requisition. The first object was to win those who were
still undecided, and the next was to overthrow Protestantism in countries
where Catholicism was in the ascendant, or at least where tbe govern-
ment still remained in the hands of Catholics. In both these objects they
were to a considerable extent successful, in consequence of the prodigious
activity of the Jesuits. But not only were large masses of people induced
to change their connections, but many individuals passed over from one side
to the other, and as long as the lines of separation continued indistinct, and
when hopes previously formed were disappointed, conversions were not
infrequent on either side, (h) Verger his, the papal legate in Germany, when
he attemi)ted to combat Lutlier's spirit, was himself carried away by it. (i)
To act upon Protestant communities, young men were selected from their
midst and imbued with all the enthusiasm of Catholic proselytism, and other
(l) Flacius (p. 388) Gerhard (§ 85.3). e) Are nova. Ilildesh. 1632. 4.
/) (C G. IMder) Mus c.vcntcratiis, per frntrcm Wilh. do Stullg., OrJ. Minoriitn. Tub. 1593. 4.
Lps. 1677. 12.
g) Forer, Bellum iibiquisticuin. Dill. 1627. 12. (Alter n. neuer Katzenkrieg v. d. Ubiquität
Ingnlst. 1629. 12.) Nothw. Vertlield. d. h. nini. P.eiclis cv. Cliurff. u. Stände Aug.-ipfels,durch d. hierzu
verordn. Tlicdlosen. Lpz. 162S. 4. Brill a. d. ev. Augapf. 1629. 4. Ev. Brilleiiputzer. Lps. 1C29. 4.
(Andreae) Wer li.it das Kal. in's Aug gesclilagen ? 1)111. 1629. 4.
h) F. W. Ph. V. Amvxoii, Gallerio d. denkwQrd. Personen, welche im IC. IT. u. 13. Jnlirh. v. d
(•=. zur kath. Kirche übergetreten eiiid. Erl. 1*33.
«) E. T. Ptrthcl, Or. pri) P. P. Vergerio. Jen. 1«42. F. IT. Süiönhuth, V. Bischof v. Capo d"Istrin.
(Stui d. ev. Geistl. WwrL 1S12. vol. XIV. P. 1.)
470 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PKIi. V. A. I). 151T-1C43.
principloti wliidi were fi»im(l in tho Catholic system. But the most strcnuoui
efforts ^vl TO iniulo tc iniUience tho Protestant princes, TV'ho were assailed öo
tho Olio hand by all tho arts of seduction, and on tho other by the weapons
of assassination and of insurrection. (/)
§ 394. I'he rvopuganda.
I. Ercctlo S. Consrcgatlonis dcSdp cnth. propaganda. (Bullar. Hum. Th. III. p. 42]5.s.)— Eullarium
Pnntlf. Ö. Con?r. de prop. fide. Roin. 1S39-41. 5 vols. 4— II. Jiayeri II. Con-.T. de prop. fide, licgiom.
lT-21. 4. Otto Mejer, d. Prop., ihre Provinzen u. ihr Recht. Mit bes. Ifücks. a. Deutschl. Gott
13023. 2 vols.
I. Lett, cdifiantes et cnrienses ecrites des Missions etrangtres. Par. (1717-76. 84 vols.) 17S0-3. 26
vol.s. — Brown, II. of the prop, of Chr. among the heathen since the Ref. Lond. 1814. 2 vols. P. Witt-
mann. d. llorrlichk. d. K. in ihren Miss. s. d. Glaubensspalt. Augsb. lS41s9. 2 vols. Ilenrion, IL
giin. des Miss. cath. Par. lS4Gs. 2 vols. 4.
There was no Church but the Koman which had means, opportunity, and
willing instruments in the monks for establishing churches beyond the ocean.
All efibrts to extend religion among unbelievers, or to recover apostates who
were looked upon as for ever belonging by right of baptism to the papacy, («)
Avere directed and sustained by the Congregation de propaganda fide (1622)
in Eome. "With this was connected the College of the Propaganda (1C27), an
institution admirably fitted by the gradual addition of a number of endow-
ments, for training the children of the Catholic Church to be missionaries to
all nations. The idea of this institution had been already realized by Ignatius
in the organization of his Collegium Germanicum (1552) for the education
of a priesthood favorable to Eome, and to act upon the German nation. (5)
After its model colleges have been established at Rome for other nations, so
that on the festival of the Three Kings the praise of God is there sung by
the Church as it was on the primitive Pentecost, in the languages of many
nations.
§ 395. East Indies.
The communication and investigation of original authorities was commenced by Jones, Cote-
brooke, A. W. Schlegel, Bopp, Rammohnn-Roy, Rosen, Lassen, and Brockhaus. For general views :
P. V. Bohlen, d. alte Indien m. Rucks, auf Aegypten. Königsb. 1S.30. 2 vols. Th. Benfey, Indien in
d. Hall. Encykl. II. vol. XVIL Both in Zeller's Jahrb. 1S46. P. Z.—J. P. Jfofei, Historiae Indie.
1. XII. (Flor. 15SS. f.) Antu. 1605. La Croze, U. du Christ des Indes. Haye. 1724. 2 vols, with Ann»,
v. Bohnstedt, Hal. u. L. 1737gs. 2 vols. Korhert, Mem. hist, sur les miss, des Jesuites aux Indes
orient, ed. 8. Besanf. 1747. 2 vols. Paulini a S. Barihol. India or. chr. Rom. 1794. 4. [A Voyage
to tho E. I. with an account, &c. with add. by Förster, and transl. by Johnston, Lond. ISOO.] Jf.
Müllbauer, Gesch. d. kath. Miss, in Ostind. b. Mitte d. 18. Jhh. Munich. lSö2.— Th. Yeates, Indian
Church's History. Lond. ISIS. J. Hough, Hist, of Christ, in India. Lond. 1*39. 2 vols. [W. ^Vard,
View of the Hist. Lit. and Rel. of the Hindoos. Hartf. 1S24. 12. II. H. Wilson, Vishnu Purana, or
Hindu Myth, and Trad. Lond. 1840. 4. C. Coleman, Myth, of the Hindoos. Lond. 1S32. 4 Bjorn-
sterna, Theogony of the Hindoos, &c. Lond. 1345. S. IL li. IMsington, Hindu Philosophy, from
the Tamil, with notes, &c. New Haven. 1S54. S.]
In India the gospel met with a mild, imaginative, and visionary people,
with minds conversant with the infinite, though actually existing among the
X-) E. g. lianke H. of the Popes, vol. II. p. 105s. comp. 452.
a) Mejer vol. I. p. lOes.
V) J. Cordara, YoU. Germanici et Huiij. Hist Rom. 1770. f. Das deutsche Collegium In Rom.
Lp& 1S43.
CHAP. TL CATII. CHURCH. § 395. EAST INDIES. BEAILMANISM. 471
ruins of primitive civilization. For nearly a thousand years they had been
the victims of servitude, first under Mohammedan despots, and afterwards
under a company of Christian merchants, during which they had become
cowardly, fawning, and indolent in thoir natures. They however remained
remarkable for their powers of endurance, fearless and stubborn in matters
connected with their religion, and filled with recollections of their former
glory. The Brahmins were probably a foreign race, who at some former
period had descended from the Himalayan mountains, and being superior
to the natives, had introduced among them the refinements of religion. Ac-
commodating themselves to an organization which they found among the
people, they secured enormous privileges for themselves by an unequal appor-
tionment of the intellectual advantages they brought among the graduated
castes. In their own and in the people's estimation, they were equal to the
gods, Avhile the Parias were regarded as beneath the brutes. The limits of
caste, by which the fate of every individual was almost unalterably fixed
according to his merits, were supposed to have been assigned by the Creator,
so that what was lawful in one caste was a capital offence in another. All
the laws, the literature, and the arts, which existed among the people, were
traced back originally to the sacred writings (Vedas), which were said to
have been reduced to writing long before the time of Christ, as they flowed
from the lips of Brahma. Brahmanisin Avas originally a benignant deifica-
tion of nature. In a philosophical sense, Brahma is the essence of all exist-
ence, his only attribute is infinity, and every thing possessing individuality
and a finite nature springs from Maya^ Appearance, or Illusion. The incon-
sistency between this original sense and its i)hilosophical meaning may be
seen in the delicate recou which is felt by the people from all contact with
nature. The higher castes therefore eat no flesh, but the intercourse of the
sexes is looked upon as pure, and the services of the temples are connected
with the indulgence of the vilest lust, and yet the perfection of human wis-
dom is supposed to be an escape from the illusion of the finite, and an utter
loss of all personal consciousness. By contemjjlation and self-denials, carried
sometimes to the extreme of suicidal self-tortures, man is elevated until he
becomes a god. Their system of religion, perhaps a combination of several
different national religions, when fully developed, teaches that the original
Brahm manifests himself as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — in other words, as
the Creation, the Development, and the Reabsorption of all things. Hence
sometimes one and sometimes another of this Trimurti is regarded as su-
preme. According to their epic legend, Yinlinu'^s Deity, regarded as the
divine life of nature, has frequently become incarnate, at one time as a beast,
at another as a man born of a virgin, in the fonn of Rama contending witli
giants, in that of Krishna as a prince of peace crowned as a victor, and
finally he will yet appear in that of IuiUi\ on a white steed, for the removal
of all sin. But at the close of the Avorld, Jüihi, the great destroyer, will ap-
pear and swallow up every thing, and last of all even the three supreme gods
themselves, so that the essence of Brahma will exist once more alone. The
ppace between the chief gods aTid men is filled, as it were symbolically, with
a kingdom of inferior and fanciful divinities. The popular faith has regarded
172 MODERN CIIL-UCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. IKK-IMS.
all tlioso as notiinl persons, and tlie dinputc between diflerent parties with
respect to the claims of Vishnu or Siva to the supreme power has been
aggravatc<l by tho explanations of the sages and the embellishments of the
poets, until the spiritual world has become peopled with a wonderfully van-
oua and confused race of beings, which have been divided into numerous
sects. Tiio greatest contrasts were here exhibited. A monkey was some-
times deilied by the side of a god who was so spiritualized and so great, that
thought itself was too insignificant to conceive of him, and yet some many-
limbed monster was supposed to contain and to represent him. This faith,
which at one time converted the rocky mountains into temples, had so
thoroughly pervaded every relation of the popular life, and was so firmly
incorporated with the prejudices even of the Parias, that although the Chri»
tian preachers presented many points of doctrine which corresponded with
it, no great results could for a long time bo expected from their labors. Bishops
were appointed by the Portuguese to take the charge of their possessions in
the East, but no congregations were collected there until Francis Xatier
(after 1542), with all the enthusiasm which his great success inspired, per-
formed extraordinary acts of piety among them, and baptized probably <i
humh-ed thousand Parias and outcasts, {a) To preserve'thesc in the faith,
however, it was found necessary to use the labors of the inquisition (1560).
The first labor of this court was directed to the extirpation of a few congre-
gations of the Christiana of St. Thomas^ which had maintained an existence
there in the same condition in which they had been formed as a part of the
Syrian Church of the fifth century. These Christians, however, in the popu-
lar organization of the Hindoo people, had been embraced in the warrior
caste. The name of Nestorius was also once more solemnly anathematized
in India. The Jesuit Nohili (after 1606), in the character of a Christian
Brahmin, was not altogether without success in his appeals to the higher
castes, {b) The Islam of the early conquerors was too simple and powerful
to be overcome without a desperate struggle. Still the efi'orts of the Great
Mogul Älhar to establish a religion of reason (after 1578), produced a much
greater approximation to the religion of the Jesuits. In IGIO, three imperial
princes mounted on white elephants rode to the place where they were bap-
tized. Victory, however, stiU remained on the side of Mohammed.
§ 396. Japan.
After the researches of Joinville, Buchanan, Klaproth, Mackenzie, Colebrooke, and Ritter : Gt"u-
Ver, Art. Japan in d. Hall. Encykl. II. vol. XIII. p. 830ss. comp. Benfey, Ibid. vol. XVII. p. 194ss
P. de Bohlen, de Buddhaisml orig. et aetate. Regiom. 1S27. J. J. Schmidt, (Memoires do I'Acad.
imperiale de Pctersb. 1830. vol. II. Liv. 2. 8. 1S;32. vol. II. Liv. 1.) Keumann, Tilgerfohrten Buddb.
Priester. (Zeitscli. f. hist. Th. 1S38. SL 2.) A. Wuttke, de Buddhalstar. disciplinar. Vrat. 1S4S.—
Kiiempfer, Beschr. v. Japan, hrsq. v. Dohm. Lemg. 17T7. 2 vols. 4. [II. of J.ipan, Anc. and Pr. State
of tlie Gov. &e, transl. by Schenchzer, from tlie Germ, of Kaemp/er, Lond. 17-27. 2 vols, f.] P. de
Charl^cuix, II. du Christ dans I'Emp. du Japon. Rom. 1712ss. 8 vols, par M. D. L. G. Par. 1S36. 2
a) Fr. Xaverii Epp. 1. IV. Par. 1631. 12. Briifo d. li. F. v. X. übers, u. erkl. v. J. Burg, Neu-
•wled 18-36. Ilor. Tiireelini, de vita Xav. Rom. 1594. and often. [Duboh, Letters on Chr. in Ind
Lond. S. witli ToicnUi/s (I.ond. 1S24. S.) and Ifough'» (Lond. 1S25. 12.) Replies to Dubois.]
h) PlaM {Xorbert), Mi-m. hist. s\ir les affiiir. de.s Jus. Lisb. 176G. 7 vols. 4.
CHAP. VI. CA.TIL CnUPXir. §396. JAPAN. BUDDHISM. 473
rols. Crasaet, H. de Tegl. de Japan. Par. 1715. 4. Augsb. 173S. t—Stäudlin, ü. d. Verwandlfch. d.
Lamalschcn Kel. m. d. clir. (Archiv, t KGescli. ISli vol. L St 3.) [C. McFarlane, Geog. and Uist
Ace. of Japan. New York. 1S52. 8. T. Wells, J. and the Japanese. New York. 1S52. P. F. v. Sie-
lold. Manners and Customs <if the Japanese. New York, 1S40. 12. Goloicnin, Mem. of Captivity in
J. Lend. 1S52. 2 vols. 8. 2 ed.]
When Xatier reached Japan, he found that the Christian Church had
been imitated by the devil, for already bells, rosaries, celibacy, monasticism,
a hierarchy, and apparently a spiritual monarch were there. The primitive
religion of the country was a mythical worship of nature, prompted by a
lively glow of sensuous pleasure. But for a long time the predominant reli-
gion had been a Buddhism which had been introduced from abroad. About
six hundred years before Christ, in Magadha, a province of India, arose Gau
tama surnamed Buddha^ i. c, the Wise, who enlisted with much zeal in the
work of reforming his countrymen. By his wisdom and self-denials he be-
came an incarnation of the Deity, according to the sacred legends, the eighth
incarnation of Vishnu by Mnya in the form of a pure virgin. In this incar-
nation, the system of the world attained a self-consciousness. As he pro-
claimed the universal brotherhood of man, the system of caste was discarded
by him, but in its stead was gradually introduced a hierarchy, the existing
head of which was always honored as an incarnate divinity. The spirit
inculcated by Buddhism is mild and humane, since it requires that its fol-
lowers should sympathize with the sufferings of every living thing, and
instead of demanding bloody sacrifices, it calls upon them to sacrifice them-
selves for the good of others. Still the fundamental principle of this religion,
that the higher life can be attained only by a liberation of ourselves from all
the illusion of a personal existence, imposes the necessity of severe and cruel
struggles. The natural development, therefore, of this principle, is a lifeless
and haughty system of religion, in which the highest merit is attached to
human efforts, {n^ About a hundred years after Christ, Buddhism was per-
secuted by the Brahmans, and after a protracted struggle was expelled from
its native country. It soon, however, became the religion of nearly all the
neighboring nations, from whose peculiar characters it received many modi-
fications. In Japan, Xavier adopted, though in a higher and modified sense,
every thing in Buddhism which was considered holy, as a part of the faith
which he preached, and consequently soon succeeded in establishing a church.
But in his eagerness to penetrate still farther into heathen countries, this
Apostle of the Indies died foon after on his way to China (1552). Under
the discction of the Jesuits, a most splendid ecclesiastical establishment was
formed in Japan, and hopes Avere entertained that the whole nation would
soon become subject to its sway. But in consequence of some immoralities
on the part of the European residents, and the suspicion that Christianity was
only the precursor of foreign dominion, a series of 8;inguinary jiorsecutions
(after 1587) was commenced. Thousands even of the native inliabitants died
as martyrs for the new faith. About the middle of the seventeenth century
[<7) E. Bunion/, Introd. a Vlllst. dii Huddlilsme Indien. Par. ISJ."). vol. I. 4. 7?. Ä iriirdt/, Man-
»1.11 of Buddhism, itr. I.oiul. IsVj. S. A'. Cji/kdii, Mi^-t and Dort, of Bniliihl<m. I-ond. 1S20. f. C.
F. yeiimann, Catechism of tlie Shanmns, or Ij»ws of the Bud. Prle.sts. (Orient. Transl. Fund.)
Lond. 1S32. S.]
474 Mnl.KKN CHUliCH IIISTOIIY. I'KK. V. A. J). ISIT-IC^S.
every vcstifjc of Cliristianity was obliterated from the country, and all intc
course with forul^uers in Jajian was strictly prohibited.
§ 397. China.
jV, Trii/iiut, (le clir. cxpcd. opud. Sinas ex comm. Kiccii. Au;;. 1C15. 4. anil ofusn. J. A. Schall^
Kolnllo do Initio et prof;, inissionis Soc. J. npud Cliincnscs. Vien. 1G6S. Kat. Iü72. Mit Aniii. v. Mmi
>'V0> Vlon. IS.'U. Du //tilile, Desc. do rEirij). de la Chine. Par. 1730. 3 vols. 4 Uebers. m. Moslieim's
Vorr. Kost. 1743. 4 vols. 4.— For the recent investigations, see Journal Asiatique. Abel-Ilemusat,
MC'lanBos asiat. Par. 1S258. 2 vols. Nouv. Melanges. Par. 1S29». 2 vols. Sttihr, chia. P.ei(disrcl. Brl.
1S35. u. rel. Systeme d. Or. p. 9ss. Neumann, d. Natur- u. P.el. Phil. d. Chin. Nach d. W. d.
Tschuhi. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1S37. P. 1.) [Histories and Accounts of China by T. Tliorntwi, (Lond.
1S44. 2 V. S.) C. Guklaff, (New York. 1S3S. 1 v. 8.) II. ßfurraij, (Edinb. 3 v. 12. Iä86.) J. I'. Daviis,
(New York. 1S34. 2 v. 12.) J. Kidd, (Lond. 1841. 8.) and K Williams, (New York. 1S4S. 8.)]
In the extreme East, the Europeans found an innumerable people, whoso
historical accounts went as far back as those of the Jews, and who regarded
themselves as the centre of the world. Nearly all the mechanical arts which
had recently been discovered in Europe, were found to have been in exist»
ence among them from a remote antiquity, in connection with a rigid system
of civilization which had for thousands of years successively overcome all
their conquerors. The state was organized strictly as a single great family,
and all power was in the hands of the emperor, though limited by an inviola-
ble usage and an aristocracy of learning. The consciousness of individual
freedom with respect to moral conduct had never yet been awakened among
the people. Three forms of religion existed there side by side in peace. The
first was the primitive religion of the empire, of which Confucius (Kong-fu-
Dsü) was honored as the founder. This was a simple adoration and worship
of the heavens regarded as a power of nature, and of certain genii supposed
to be subject to the emperor, together with a devout and well-arranged sys-
tem of moral conduct. («) The second was the doctrine of Tao, a system
which directed men to adore the original source of reason, revealed and
incarnate on earth, {b) but degenerated into a system of idolatry and magic.
The third was the worship of Buddha (Fo-tho), a religion which hpd been
more recently introduced among the people, but unsustained especially in the
interior provinces by a powerful hierarchy. The account of divine things
which these religions gave was intelligent and candid, but without religious
enthusiasm, and bore no traces of fanaticism except with reference to the
customary rules of civility towards the gods and the dead, and with respect
to the etiquette of social life. As the natives regarded every thing foreign with
extreme contempt, the Christian missionaries who followed in the Ift&m of
commerce were at first totally unsuccessful in every attempt to convert them.
The respect of the people was however finally secured when they discovered
the superiority of the missionaries in mathematical science, the principles of
which were immediately appreciated. The Jesuit Iiicci (1582-1610) obtained
high distinction among the people as an astronomer, and the favor of the im-
a) Schott, Werke d. chin. Welsen Kong-fü-Dsü. Hal. 1826. 6 vols. Con/ucii Chi King, ed,
Mohl, Stuttg. li.SO.
h) Le Tao-te-Kinsr, ou le livro do la raison supröme, par T.antne^t, tradnit aveo une version latina
•t lo te.^te oliinois, par O. GauViier, Par. 1838. [-4. Ljungatedt, Port Settl. and Missions in Cbin^
Boston, 1S30. 8.]
CHAP. VI. CATII. CUCRCH. § 89S. WEST INDIES. PARAGUAY. 475
perial court, (c) After this the Jesuits established numerous congregation?,
built churches, and translated the Scriptures, and even the Suiuma of St.
Tlioina«, but with a careful accommodation to the religious customs and
manners of the people. When reproached for this by the Dominicans at
Home, they defended themselves on tlio ground that it was indispensable to
their success, and was as innocent as the apostles' conformity to the Jewish
1.1W. Q7)
§ 398. West IiicUes. Cord, from § 290.
Gonzalez cTAvila, Tlieatro ecc. do las iglesias do las Indias. Madr. IWDss. 2 vols. Bourgoing,
Vertus des missionairs ou II. des miss. d'Anier. Par. 1G54. 2 vols. G. £uluß, I'Anicrica un tempo
Bpagnuola sotto Taspetto religioso (till 1843). Ancon. 1S45. 3 vols. Comp. Puppig, Indien in d. Hall.
Eucykl. II. vol. XVII. esp. p. 3Slss. — L. A. Muratori, Christianesimo fclice nolle missionc nel Para-
guai. Ven. 1743. 2 vols. 4. (Abstract: Relat des miss, du P. Par. 1754.) Chailermje, H. du P. Par.
1756. 3 vols. 4. Nurem. 17GS. Pauke'a Reise in d. Miss, nach P. edit by Frost, Vien. 1S29. In an
unfriendly spirit: Ibagnez, Regno Giesuitlco del P. Lissab. 1770. Uebers. v. Le Bret, Kiiln. (Lps.)
1774. {R. Suutheij, Tale of Pf.r.iguay. Lond. r2iiio. Ibid. II. of Brazil. Lond. Isl0.-19. 3 vols. 4.
Ahhe Raynal, Phil, and Pol. Hist of the Settl. and Trade of Europeans in the W. I. from the French
by J. JuBtamond, Lond. 17S7. 12. Views of the Planting of Colonies and Missions In Me.\ioo and
Peru may be found in the works of Preseott, Bemal Diaz, (transl. by. M. Keatinge, Lond. ISOO. 4.)
De Solis, (transl. by Turcnsend, Lond. 1724.) Jiobertaon'a America, and other works.]
In Brazil, baptism was administered to prisoners while dying, and
wherever it could be performed under the protection of the Portuguese
arms. A splendid ecclesiastical establishment was immediately formed in
every country conquered by the Spaniards. But although the natives were
generally protected by the laws and defended against the colonists by the
monks, they were hastening rapidly to extinction. Even where they were
subjugated to the Spanish yoke and Christianized (Indios aldeidados), they
did not renounce, but continued at the same time the Avorship of their an-
cient gods. The inquisition, however, took care that the outward semblance
of Ciiristianity was maintained. AVith an heroic courage, the Jesuits and Ca-
puchins pressed forward into the ojien primitive forests of the country, and
along with the gospel, carried in their most simple and cheerful form the
blessings of civilization. But when the Jesuits urged at Madrid, that the
great obstacle to the progress of Christianity among the nations, was the
cruelties and evil examples of the Spaniards, they obtained permission to
establish Christian colonies among the Indians who were as yet independent,
and which no Spaniard was to enter without their permission. Such was
the origin of the republic of I'araijitaij (after 1610), governed by the Jesuits
in a patriarchal style. The converted savages were treated as children, but
as pious and happy children, and although much wealth was derived by tho
order from the country under its subjection, tho prosperity and happiness of
the people was entirely tho fruit of its exertions.
c) WerthHm, Ricci. (Pletz, neue theol. Zeitech. 1S33. P. 3.)
d) Platel, (p. 472.) La moral pratiijue des Jos. lG69s«. vols. II. VI. VII.
476 MODKUN ciiuncii msToitv. teu. v. a. d. isu-iws.
CHAP. VII.— THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
The orl^,'. niithorltleg for tho Hist it tlie 80 yrs. War. (Monetibl. d. Allg. Zollg. ISi'Ss. Dec Jaa
Jimo.)— /^"(/«/y, fl. K. Mnj. ii. d. h. Eelclis Acta puU. (Frkf. 1C2K».) Tub. HSÜss. 17 vols, t
(Pttppu*) K|itt. ror. OtTin. 1(;17-13. c. anlmndvv. J. G. Boehm, Lps. 1760. Tlieatruin Kurop. Krkt
17.Sßss. vol. I. -IV. K hevenhiUer, (p. S(>S.)—SchiUer, Oesch. d. drelss. Kr. Lps. 17Ü1. 2 vols and oft.
FortKi'S- V. WoUmann, Lps. 1809. 2 vols. [Thirty Years' War, from tho Germ, of Sclilllcr by A. J.
IK Jforrisnn, New York. 1S47. 12.] A'. A. Menzel, Gesch. d. drel-s. Kr. (Gesch. d. Deutsch, vol.
Vlt-g.) IJrsl. 1S35-0. 3 vols. SiJHl, d. Rel. Kr. in Deutschl. Ilamb. lS40s. 2 vols. /'. W. BartholiJ,
Oesch. d. deutschen Kr. v. Tode G. Ad. an. Stuttg. 18428S. 2 vols. [Jfenzel'a Hist of Germany Las
been transl. by 3frs. G. Jforrocke, Lond. 1848. 3 vols. 12. See also KoMrauadCa Hist of Germ,
and Col. MitcheWs Life of Wallcnstein.]
§ 399. Occasions.
The Catholic and Protestant parties in Germany continued to stand in an
antagonistic and threatening attitude with respect to each otlier. The house
of Ilapsburg, the head of the Catholic party, by the vast extent of territory
which it had acquired, became, in fact, dangerous to the liberties of Europe,
but its power was thus far restrained by its divisions at home and its intel-
lectual inferiority. In Bavaria, and in most of the prelatical countries, Pro-
testantism, which had been in the ascendant about the middle, was nearly
suppressed at the close of the sixteenth century. That which had been
found impossible to be accomplished among the people, the Jesuits attempted
among the princes. Jacob.^ Margrave of Baden (1590), and Wolßjang "Wil-
liam, Count Palatine of Neuburg (1614), proclaimed themselves converts to
tho Catholic Church. («) In consequence of tho early deatli of the Mar-
gravine, the conversion of the former was attended by no important results
among his subjects, and the Count Palatine's own confessor was stiU a de-
fender of Protestantism. Political reasons were doubtless the reason for the
conversion of the count himself, but by means of it a country previously sup-
posed to be lost became open to the eftbrts of the papacy. The ecclesiastical
reservation was respected according to the will of those who for the time
had possession of tho government. Hence nearly all the property of the
Clmrch in Northern Germany and Suabia fell gradually into the hands of
the Protestant princes, or was administered by Protestant bishops as electoral
princes. But when the Elector GehharJ, High Steward of Cologne (after
1577), who had always been unfriendly to the Catholic party, gave himseh
up to his passion for Agnes of Mansfeld, and sought to legalize his forced
marriage with her in the Reformed Church, he was deposed by the pope, the
Bishop of Liege, a Bavarian prince, Avas elected by the chapter in his place,
and he was abandoned even by the Lutherans (1583). (I) Sentence of pro-
scription was pronounced by the imperial aulic council upon Donaincijrt?i, for
improper treatment of a Catholic procession, and not only was the decree
enforced by Bavaria, but Protestantism itself was violently oppressed, and
the liberty of the imperial cities was impaired (1607). In view of the dan-
n) Unsere .Jacobs, M. v. B. christl. erhebl. u. -wohlfundirte Motiven, warum wir a. Trieb uns.
Gewiss, d. luth. Lehre verlassen, durch Jo. PUtoritnn, Cüln. I59I. 4. Eeihiinj, Muri argillati civit
sanctae h. e. rel. cath. fundamenta, quibus insistcns Wolf|i. C. Pal. in civit sanctam faustum pede»
intulit Col. 1615. 4. l'ebers. v. Vetter, Col. 1G15. 4.
t) J. D. Koeler, de actis et fatis Gebb. Tr. Altorf. 1723. 4. F. W. Barthold, G. Tr. v. Waldbur?
lEaunier's bist. Taschonb. 1840.)
CHAP. YII. THIRTY TEARS' -WAR. § 390. CAUSES. § 400. BOHEM. WAR. 477
ger, the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate induced a few Protestant states
to form a Union (1608). In opposition to this, Maximilian of Bavaria, a man
of a powertnl and practical intellect, whose interest was identified with the
success of the Catholic cause, placed himself at the head of a league com-
posed of the ecclesiastical princes, {c) Saxony, as the representative of
Lutheranism, took sides with the emperor. As long as the Jesuits kept the
question of the religious peace in a state of suspense, the Union refused at
the Diet of liatisbon (1613) to submit to the decision of the majority in all
matters connected with religion, and when their comjilaints were not attend-
ed to, the members of it withdrew entirely from the diet.
§ 400. The Bohemian War. Cont. from § 357.
Müller, fünf Bücher v. Böhm. Kr. Drsd. 1840. HicIUer, v. Bühmen-Auft-uhrs o. d. dreiss. Kr.
Ursachen u. Beginn. Erf. 1844.— C. A. Peacheck, Gesch. d. Gegenref. In Bubonen. Drsd. 1844. 2 vols.
Under the influence of the heir-apparent to his throne, the Emperor
Matthias ventured to oppress individuals among the Bohemians, or allowed
the Catholic land proprietors to do so. A petition was therefore presented
to the emperor on this subject, by the Utraquists. Uis answer, however, was
of a threatening character. Two imperial counsellors, supposed to be the
authors of this, were thrown from a window of the castle in Prague, and
the members of the diet favorable to the Utraquists seized the reins of gov-
ernment. Ferdinand IL, a pupil of the Jesuits, and resolved to venture
every thing to bring about the triumph of Catholicism, had already sup-
pressed by a quiet exercise of power the Protestantism which liad been pre-
dominant in his patrimonial inheritance of Carinthia and Styria, when on the
death of Matthias he was crowned emperor at Frankfort. ('/) The Bohe-
mians pronounced him an enemy to the liberties and religion of their country,
and declared that he had forfeited the throne (Aug. 17, 1619). They then
chose Frederic V. of the Palatinate for their king. The League took up
arms in behalf of Ferdinand, while the Union and Saxony, from motives of
prudence and from a rigid adherence to tlie strict principles of Lutheranism,
remained inactive. Frederic knew nothing of royalty except how to enjoy
its pleasures ; whatever j)0wer he possessed in Bohemia was destroyed at the
battle of the White Mountain near Prague (Nov. 8, 1620), and the conversion
of Bohemia was effected by the Jesuits and the soldiers from Lichtenstein.
The Bohemian literature was committed to the flames by the commission for
the reformation of the people. John of Xepomul; who had once been the
archbishop's vicar and confidant in a hierarchical controversy with King
Wenccslaus, and had been thrown during a fit of passion by that king into
the river from the bridge of the Muldau (13113), now became the national
saint of the new Catholic kingdom of Bohemia, The legend of his death
was intentionally enlarged, and ho was looked upon as the martyr foi
the seal of confession. The qualities and incidents which history has
attributed to John IIuss were now transferred to this saint of tlio bridge, that
e) K. M. V. Arethi, Gescli. Maxim. I. I'(i.<sau 1S42. f. 2 vols.
a) F. Harter, Gesch. K. Perd. II. u. sr. Eltern b. z. Krunuug in Fr.-4nkf. Scbaffh. 1850. 4 vols.
478 MoDKUN ciiUKCn iiisTOKV. ri:i:. v. a. d. im7-icis.
tlio iiii'Miorv lit" the ixf'DriiRT (>[iisti r Juiij might be cITaccd Iroiii the iniudä
of I hi- people. (/')
§ 401. The German War.
Tiio ciiipcror was resolved to destroy Frederic V. even as a prince of the
eini)ire, and it was principally for this reason that he now kept up and
strengthened his army. The otRce of elector in the Palatinate was given to
Bavaria (1 023). In all his patrimonial Austrian possessions the Protestant
religion was entirely suppressed. The Duke of Savoy had long since (1C02)
consumed the revenues from the sale of the Jubilee indulgences, in maintain-
ing free companies for surprising the army of the Peformed Church, and the
people of Geneva merely instituted an annual thanksgiving in commemora-
tion of his fiiilure (rescalade). But in the Valteline, on the Italian border,
the Catholics murdered their reformed fellow-countrymen (July, 1G20), and
Spanish and Austrian troops took possession of the country, as well as of some
parts of the Gray League, (a) "When all opposition in Germany had been put
down by AVallenstein, the emperor proclaimed the Fdict of Ji'estit'itio», (h)
that it might be an authentic explanation of the Religious Peace. According
to this, all those foundations belonging to the Catholic Church Avhich had
been confiscated since the Treaty of Passau were to be restored, the Calvin-
ists were excluded from the privileges granted in the Religious Peace, and
Catholic states were not to be impeded in their ettorts to convert their sub-
jects. The violent proceedings which ensued during the execution of tliis
edict "were followed by others of still greater violence, until Protestantism
appeared once more on the point of utter extinction, (c) But just at this
critical moment the Catholic powers began to contend among themselves.
France and Rome became alarmed at the formidable power of the house of
Hapsburg. Wallensteiu reminded the pope that Rome had not been plun-
dered for more than a hundred years, and a passage into Germany Avas opened
by France for Gustavus Adolphus (June 2-i, 1630), who both from policy and
religion espoused the cause of Protestantism, and re-established it by his
bold military exploits, (d) After his heroic death (Nov. 6, 1032) the war was
maintained by the Swedish generals, who were secretly supported by Riche-
lieu. They, however, held out with great difficulty, since by the treaty of
Prague (1035) the Elector of Saxony once more forsook not only the com-
mon cause, but even the foreign policy of Protestantism, until France openly
came to their support. Neither party can be said to have been successful,
and Germany was desolated by a civil and religious war, by no means na-
6) Tlie first Altar in 1621. Canonization in 1629. Life In Jo. Nop. by the Jesuit Balbi about
16T0. (Acta SS. Maj. vol. III. p. 667.) The history: Prhel, Gesch. "Wenzels, vol. I. p. 266. Urktin-
donb. p. loo. ISlss. The exjjedient of two persons called Jo. of :s'ep. was resorted to even in Acta
SS. p. G70. 673.
a) {Cp. Waser.) Veltlinisch Blutbad. Zur. 1621. 4. De Porta, Uist. ref. Ecc. Rhact II. p. SSOss.
h) Londorp. Th. III. p. 1047.
c) Ciiriiffa de Germ, sacra rcstaurata. Col. 1639.
rf) Erinnerungen nn G. A. Eigenhäudige Einl. z. Gesch. s. Lcb. ed. by niihs, Hal. 1S06. Ptifen.
dor/, Ciniiitr. dc rcb. Sncc. ab exped.L G. .\. Ultraj. 16S6. Frcf. 1707. f. J. F. Gfrdrer. Gesch. G. A.
o. sr. Zeit. Stnttg. (1S:}7-JS.) 1S53. Geijer, Gesch. v. Schw. vol. III. ITeising. G. A. in Deutschi. Brl
1<46. r T Il.irU, Lifo of G. A. Loml 1759. 2 vols. A. J. F. Ilollings, Life of G. A. Lend. 1S3S. 12.]
CHAP. VII. THIRTY YEARS' WAR. § 402. PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 479
tional in its objects, but equivocal ia its nature and prosecuted by the leader.^
for various subordinate ends.
§ 402. The Peace of Westphalia.
I. Instnimcntnin P. W. ed. Beminger, Monast, 164S. Jfeiern., Gott. \'At.—A. Adami Arcana
P. "\V. Frcf. KiOS. 4. ed. Meiern, Gott 173T. 4. Memolres de M. D. {CI. du Jf-sme d'Araur.) Col.
Gren. 1674. J. G. v. Meiern, Acta P. W. publica. Ilann. ITiMss. 6 vols. f. ni. Registtr. G.itt 1740. f—
II. Putter, Geist d. W. F. Gott 179.5. Senkenherg, Darst d. W. F. Frkf. 1SC4. WuHmann, Gcscli.
d. W. F. Lpz. ISOSs. 2 vols.
Those wbo had commenced the war did not live to witness its concliLsion.
Austria was compelled to acknowledge tliat Protestantism and Germany
■were not to be overcome by violence. With a formidable desperation the
people of the different nations demanded peace. After many tedious and in-
tricate negotiations at Munster and Osnabrück, a peace was concluded in
October, 1048, to be henceforth a fundamental law of the German nation.
Under the guarantee of France and Sweden, Bavaria retained, besides the
electoral dignity, the Upper Palatinate, and an eighth electorate was formed
for the Lower Palatinate, which was now restored. France and Sweden were
recompensed for their trouble by certain territories of the empire. All dam-
ages were compensated by means of the secularized property of the Church.
The right of each state of the empire to form alliances with foreign powers,
provided it was not in opposition to the emperor and the empire, was fonnally
acknowledged. With respect to the controversy between the twochurches,
the five articles of the Deed of Osnaburg were adopted, in which the jirinci-
ple of a complete legal equality of both parties witli respect to each other,
was assumed, and all ecclesiastical and political protests were rejected : '• Tlic
Religious Peace of Augsburg shall be inviolably kept by each. In all impe-
rial courts and deputations the number of members from each religious party
sliall be equal. In the Imperial Diet, if the two religious parties differ from
each other, nothing shall be decided by a majority of votes but by com-
promise. With respect to ecclesiastical property the possessions of all i)ar-
ties shall be decided by the state of affairs, on the 1st of January, 1624.
Wherever a free exercise of religion Avas publicly tolerated in that normal
year it shall be continued, but where this was not tlie case liberty of domes-
tic worship shall be permitted. The relations of the Reformed Church to-
ward the Catholics are established on pnmiids similar to tliose of the churches
professing tlie Augsburg Confession. Put tlie legal relations of tlie two Pro-
testant parties toward each otlier to continue precisely as they were at that
time, whether settled by treaty or by usage. A prince who may go over
from one Protestant party to the other, may grant religious toleration to those
who belong to the same creed with hinjself, but ho shall allow tlie established
Ciiurch to remain unmolested." The evangelical Hungarians had received
support from Rakoczy of Transylvania, and in the treaty of Linz (1G43) had
secured the restoration of their ecclesiastical rights. The Silesian princijali-
ties, but none of the other Austrian patrimonial state.«, were included in the
provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. Through the mediation of Venice
and France, at the treaty of Milan (1630_) the Gray League recovered its
Italian possessions, but with the stipulation that the Protestants should bo
480 MiiItKIiN CnUECH inSTOKY. I'Ki:. V. A. D. 15:7-lC4a
o.Tclnded. A pcnoo wifliont a ^^'""ine reconciliation was thus concluded for
ovcrv piirt of Kuropc, and tlio balance of power between the Catholic and
Trotostant Churc-hcs was secured by the imperial constitution, but the cm-
I)irc was divided and sacrificed to foreign influences.
CHAP. VIII. THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
Criisiiiti. (p. 356 ) Leo All. (p. 355.) li. Simon, II. crit. des dograes et controv. des chretleiis or.
Trevou.t. 1711. I/eineccius, Abbild d. iiltern u. neuern gr. K. Lps. 1711. 4. M.le Quien, Oriens chr.
Par. 1740. 3 vols. f. Llbri symb. Ecc. or. ed. J. Kimmel, Jen. 1843. Appendix LL. symb. ed. Weiss-
enborn, Jen. 1850. [J. M. Neale, II. of the Holy Eastern Church. Lend. 1850. 2 vols. 8. T. SinilK,
Greek Church, its Docc. & Kites. Lond. 1680. 8. John Covill, Some Account of the Greelc Church.
Lond. 1722. f ]
§ 403. Connections with Protestants.
A Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession (a) and a letter of salu-
tation to JoasapTi II. (b) the Patriarch of Constantinople, was sent by Me-
lancthon, by the hands of a Greek, but no reply was ever received. By
means of a preacher connected with an embassy at Constantinople, the theo-
logian of Tubingen was induced to send another translation to the Patriarch
Jeremias II. (1574). The answer of that prelate was written in accordance
with the very strictest forms of Greek orthodoxy, and as it expressed a desire
that the correspondence, if agreeable to them, should have no further dis-
cussion of doctrines, but be confined to an exchange of friendly civilities, the
intercourse was broken off (1581). (c) Cyrilliis Lucaris, a native of Candia,
who had been educated at Padua, formed connections when in Lithuania
with reformed clergymen, which were continued by means of Dutch and
English ambassadors after he became Patriarch of Alexandria (1602) and sub-
sequently of Constantinople (1621). To prevent the further progress of the
Roman Church, and to infuse new life into the formal worship of his own
Church, he formed an alliance with the young Church of the West, and even
transmitted to Geneva the form of a Calvinistic Confession of Faith, (d)
This was enough, without the subsequent efforts of the Jesuits, to excite the
Greek bishops against him. On the ordinary accusation of high treason he
was strangled (1638), {e) and the Oriental patriarchs execrated his memory. (/)
a) 'E|o/io\o7Tj(Tiv TTjj op^o^o^ov irlffrews. Basil. 1559.
I) Corp. lief. vol. IX. p. 921.
c) Acta et scrr. TlicoU. Wirt et Patr. Const Tit 15S4. 4 f. Schnurrer, de actis inter Tub. TheoU.
et Patrr. Const (Orr. acaiL ed. Paulas. Tub. 1828.)
d) 'AvaTo\iKri diJLo\oyla rrjs XP- iriirTfws. Gen. (lat 1629. Kimmel p 24.) 16-33.
e) Aymon, Monumcns authent de la rel. des Grecs. Ilaye. 1703. 4. Th. Smith, Collect de Cyr.
Luc Loud. 1707. BohnsUdt, de Cyr. Luc IlaL 1729. 4. Mohnike, Cyr. Luc (Stud. xi. Krit. 1SS2. P.
8.) TiceiiUn Cyr. Luc. (Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. W. 1850. N. 39äs.)
/) Kimmel, p. 39S. 403. 825.
CHAP. Vlir. ORIENTAL CnURCn. §404. RUSSIA. 4SI
§ 404. TTie Russian Church.
For Lit see § 232. Strahl, Beitrr. z. rii*«!. KGesch. Hal. 1827. vol. I. Ullmann i. Strahl. (Stud.
n. Krit, 1S31. P. 2.) If. J. Schmitt, krlt Gesch. d. neujr. u. d. ra.=a. K. Mayence lS4n. A. X -V«.
raicieff, H. of the Cliurch of Eus.sia, transl. (in Russian. Petersb. 1833.) by Blackmore, 0.xf. 1S42.
[P. Rycaut, The present State of the Arm. & Greek Churches. Lond. 1679. 8.]
In the course of political development the Russian Church necessarily
became independent of the see of Constantinople. As the Patriarch Jere-
mias was much embarrassed for want of funds, it was not difficult to obtain
his consent that a patriarch should bo appointed for Moscow, as the third
Rome (1580). (a) The Russian patriarchs were however obliged, until the
middle of the seventeenth century, to obtain confirmation at Constantinople.
The Roman Church, ever since the time of Gregory, has had its eye upon a
union with the Russian Church. A hope of such a union was encouraged by
the Tzar Iwan Wasiljeiciisch, as he was anxious to obtain the assistance of
the emperor and the mediation of the pope in an unsuccessful war which ho
was carrying on against the Poles (1581). But in spite of the artful policy
of the Jesuit Fosxcvino, (l) the hope became extinguished in proportion as the
necessities of the Tzar diminished. The efforts of that emissary were, how-
ever, more successful in some Russian province^, which fell with Lithuania
into the hands of the Poles. Michael Jiahosa, the Metropolitan of Kiew, to-
gether with a portion of the clergy, at the Synod of Brzesc (1590), saomitted
to the pope, hoping they might share the advantages of the Catholic clergy,
and save the orthodox Church from the apostasy which had commenced
among the nobility. The Union was effected in conformity with the agree-
ment which had been formed at Florence, with a great respect at first for old
ancestral usages, (c) But gradually the forms of worship became latinized
through the influence of the Roman monks, who entered the convents be-
longing to the Union, while all those churches which did not enter that con-
nection sunk under the temptations and persecutions to which they were sub-
jected. To confirm the views and feelings of the Oriental Church in
opposition to the encroachments of Roman and Protestant elements, a Rus-
sian catechism was conipo.sod (lG-12) by Petrus Mogilas the orthodox Metro-
politan of Kiew, and was confirmed by all the associated patriarchs of the
Greek Church, as the confession of the Oriental Catholic Church. In this,
the doctrines of the Church are simply presented in the manner and stylo of
the ancient Church ; but in accordance also with the latest developments they
had gradually attained, and as the reception of it was ranked among the three
cardinal theological virtues, it has become prominent in the practical system
of the Clnirch. ('/) The accession of the fal.-<o Demetrius to the throne of the
Tzars was favored by the Poles on the ground of its being a Catholic enter-
prise, and failed at Moscow (1006) principally for the same reason. (<•) Ger-
a) Karamiin vol. IX. p. ISl. h) AnL Poasfvini Mosoovla. (Vllri. 15S6.) Antu. 15S7.
f) Jura ct i)rivilcgia genti Ruthcnao catli. a M. Pontiflcibus Poloiiiaeiiuo Ro? Ibus cooccssa. Leml>
17S7.
d) 'OpSo5o|oj S/jLoKoyta .Tijs jriVrtoiy rrj? «od. Kai airoor. ikkX. ttJs acaro^ Krjs.
(Kitnmel p. 56.)
e) Cilli, U. di Moscovia. p. llss. G. F. MueUfr, Saminl. russ. Gosclilcliten. Petersb 1732ss. vol. Y.
Karamsin vol. X. p. lOOss. [M. Moriinco, The Russ. Impostors or The False Demetrius. Lond. 1S52. S.]
n
482 MODEUN CÜUUCII HISTORY PER. V. A. I>. 1517-1049.
mftn colonists, Protestant as well as Catliolic, .sometimes gntorcd Russia, and
enjoyed full liberty with respect to private religion, but seldom possessed the
privilege of holding public worship. (/)
§ 405. Äbyssinians and Maronitcs.
Job. Lu'lnlfl ir. aetliloplca. Frcf. ICSI. f. & Cint. ad 11. aeth. Frcf. 1C91. f. VeynHere de la Croce,
IT. (lu Chr. «rKthiople et d'Arrnenle. Ilaye. 173S. Danz. 1740. Comp. C. IK Inenherg, Abess. n. d. er.
Mission, bcarb. v. C. J. Mtzsch, Bonn. 1S44. 2 voii.— Schnurrer, de Ecc. Maronitica. Tub. ISlOs. 2
P. 4. (Archiv, f. KOeseh. vol. I. sect. 1.) N. Marad, Notice bi.st. sur I'origine de la nation Mar. ft
sur ses rapports avoc la France. Par. 134^1. [J. Ludolphus, II. of Ethiopia. Lond. 1C30. f.]
The attempt made by the Roman Church to make up for its losses in the
"West by a reconciliation with the Oriental churches, was encouraged for only
transitory and selfish purposes, or was used to conceal real designs. The only
country which appeared to come up to a sincere union with the Roman
Cliurch was Abyssinia. As a Christian land, this country had been almost
forgotten by European nations, and the Jnd.aizing Christianity which once
prevailed there had now sunk so low as to be nothing more than a system of
magic. The Emperor Seltam Seghecl was induced, by his peculiar relations to
the Portuguese, to break off the connection of the Abyssinian Church with
the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria (1621), and to accept of a Jesuit from
Rome as the patriarch of that Church. But the displeasure created by this
movement was so much increased by the influence of the hermits and monks
that it soon amounted to an insurrection, during which the Jesuits were ban-
ished, and all connection with Rome was broken off (163-4). The Maronites
Btill remained in connection with the Roman Church, as the possession of
their own patriarch, the use of their sacred language, the marriage of their
priests, the reception of the cup in the Lord's Supper, and their other sacred
usages, had been conceded to them. Their college at Rome (after 1584) be-
came an emporium for all kinds of Syrian and Western learning.
/) J. C. Grot, Beraerkungou ii. d. Eel. Freih. d. Ausländer im russ, Reich. Petersb. u. Lpz. 1797»
//;
//
SIXTH PERIOD.
FKOM THE TE.VCE OF WEäTni.VLI.V TO THE PRESENT TIME.
I. Acta lii*torico-ecc. Wcim. 1736-58. 24 vols. Ndv.i Acta hist ecc W. 1T5S-73. 12 toIs. Act«
hl5t. ecc. nostri temp. W. UT-i-ST. 12 vols. Rep. d. nst. KGcsch. (Inde-t to all the preceding.) W.
1790. Acten, Urkunden n Nachr. z. nst KGesch. W. 17S9-93. 5 vols. Neueste Rol. Gesch. cd. by
Walch, Lemg. 1771-S:3. 9 vols. Fortge?. v. Plunck, L. 17S7-93. 3 vols. Le Bret, Mag. d. Staaten-u.
KGesch. Ulm. 1771-S3. 10 vols. (KOster.) Die nst. Rel. Bogebenheiten. Giess. 177S-95. IS vols. Uenke :
Archiv, f. d. nst. KGesch. ■Wciui. 1794-9. 6 vols. Rel. Annal. Brnschw. 1800-2. 6 St ii. Beitrr. z. nst
Gesch. d. Rel. Brl. 180G. 2 vols. Archiv, f alte n. neue KGesch. ed. by Stdudlin. w. Tz^ichirner L.
1813-22. 5 vols. Vater, Anbau z. nst. KG. Brl. lS20ss. 2 vols. Sldudlin, Tzschirner u, Vater, Kllist.
Archiv. Hal. 1S23-6. 4 vols. Acta hist ecc. Saec XIX. (1835. 86. 37.) ed. by RhHmcnld. Hamb.
1S3S-40.— Archives du ChrHianisme. Gen. et Par. since 1817. Allg. KZeitung, Darinst ed. by E. Zim-
mermann since 1822, by A'. Zimmermann u. BreUchneider since 1833, by Palmer since 18Ö0, and
by Schenkel since 1853. Ev. KZeitnng. Brl. ed. by Ifengstenherg ixacc 1827. Zeitsclir. f. hist. Theol.
Lpz. ed. by Illgen .«^inco 1832. v. J^iedner since 1846. Berliner allg. KZeitung, ed. by liheinicald
since 1839. v. Brun-«. 1840. — June 1853. Among the polit journals, especially the Augsb. allg. and the
Lelp.sic, more recently Deutsche, allg. Zeitung.
IL J. Ä. V. Einem, KGesch. d. IS. Jahrh. Lps. (177Css.) 1782ss. 3 vols. J. R. Schlegel, KGesch.
d. 18. Jhh. Ileilb. 1784ss. 2 vols, a v. Fraas. 3 vols. 1 Abth. (Both as Uebcrs. u. Forts, v. of Moshcim.)
/'. J. V. Ilutli, KGesch. d. 18 Jhh. Augsb. lS07ss. 2 vols. Unparth. KGesch. A. u. N. T. v. TTeinsiits
& oth. Jen. 1735-60, 2-4 vols. ITagenhach : Wesen u. Gesch. d. Ref. 4 vols. Lps. 1839, Die KGesch.
d. 18. lu 19. Jahrh. Lps. (1842s.) lS43s. 2 xo\s>.—nuhiano. Continuation de I'llist de IVgl. de Berault-
Bercastel, 1721-1830. Par. 1836. 4 vols. Neueste Gesch. d. IC Chr. 18li0-33. from the Ital. 8 ed. Augsb.
(1382SS. 1836 ) 1841. 6 vols. F. A. Scharpf, Vorless. ü. neueste KGesch. (since 1789.) Freib. 1852.—
Gregoire, 11. de Sectes religieuses depuis le commencement du Steele dernier. Par. (1810. 2 vols.)
lS28ss. 5 vols. In tlie abstract by Tsschirner (.\rcliiv. f. KGesch. 1813. vol. I. St Is.) Stüudlin.
Wiggers. (p. 5.)— K O. Schlosser, Gesch. d. 18 Jahrh. u. d. 19. b. z. Sturz d. franz. Kaiserr. .lleiillb.
1836-44. 5 vols, till 1797. (The general view of 1823 is nnised In the 1st & 2d vol. of the 3d ed. 1S43.)
[Sclilonser's Hist of the IStli and a part of the 19th centt has been transl. by D. Davidson, Lend.
1840. 6 vols. 8. Wm. Russell, Alison, De Koch, Lord John Russell, ami Raumer, have written His-
tories of Europe diiring this period.]
§ 40G. General Vieic.
As the violence of the struggles occasioned by the Reformation wa:^ now
much abated, tlic secular tendency of the public life wliicli had already be-
come prominent in the departments of art and literature, now extended its
influence wherever it could properly find place. The efforts of public men
were at first confined to the enterprises of the princes to maintain tlie balance
of power, i. e., each state gained as largo conquests as the power and jealousy
of other states would permit. The result of those contests was tlie division
of the Southern States of Europe between the two Ilou.ses of JIapsburg and
Bourbon, the violent interference of Russia in all the national .'isserablies of
"Western Europe, the intellectual and military elevation of Prussia, the naval
supremacy of Great Britain, and tiie partition of Poland. But the struggle
4S4 MODKiiN cniKni iiisTout van. vi. a. d. io»s-1858.
for iintional liln-rticH which liiid commencod in England and tlie Netherland»
Hiuinltanoously witli tiio liulonnation, became, tliroiigh the influence of tho
North American Kovolution, the grand idea of the age, and by means of the
French liovohition the central point of all public affairs. The Church waa
dee])ly aflectcd by these convulsions, no longer, however, as the first, but only
as the second of those powers which were involved in these popular move-
ments. Its work now was to assist the people, sympathize with them, and
administer consolation. Indeed, within its own pale was completed the same
struggle which was reserved for the whole world, a conflict between religious
independence and ancestral usages. Three great periods are distinctly
marked out by tho great crisis of this struggle ; tho supplanting of ancient
usages until near the middle of the eighteenth century, the overthrow of
t(.e existing state of things until 1814, and the renewal of the struggle in its
most earnest form and tho commeueeraent of an adjustment of aftairs until
1853. Still the mathematical limits assigned to intellectual influences could
not bo more important than the active elements originated during this pe-
riod, or those which attained to a complete sphere of activity. Both the
original forms of tho Western Church passed through this contest, not so
much in conflict with each other as each by themselves, struggling with their
own internal forces. Germany was the special battle-field of Protestantism,
and France of Catholicism.
CHAP. I.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHUPvCH UNTIL 1750.
§ 407. German Orthodoxy.
Among those who belonged to the school of the strictest faith there were
still some persons of eminence who showed that they were truly sincere in
their efforts to live a life of piety. An example of an excellent Christian
prince was especially presented in the life of Ernest the Pious (1601-75),
who, with a royal solicitude Avorthy of St. Louis, healed the wounds inflicted
on his people during the thirty years' war ; and not only in the spirit of his
theologians, but in the higher spirit of an apostle, labored afitctionately for
the welfare of the Church at home and abroad, (a) His brother, John Fred-
eric, on the other hand, who doubted the existence of a God, but believed
in that of the devil, in consequence of the secret rancor and proselyting zeal
of the theologians, fell a victim to the darkest influences of the popular faith
(1628), (b) rivalling even that of the Catholic countries of that period, in its
zeal for burning witches. Paul Gerhardt (d. 1676), who committed his way
to God, and betook himself to foreign countries, because his tender conscience
would not allow him to remain in Berlin, where his Lutheranism was in dan-
ger, was the first of a vast chorus of harmonious voices to express the emo-
a) Gelbkf, Ilerziig Ernst A. Fr. Gotha 1810. 8 vols. comp. ITunnitts, Consultatio, ob und wie mar
die in d. luUi. K. schwebenden K. Streitigk. beilegen möge. Lüb. (1632.) 163S.
h) & liöse, Joh. Friedrich VI. Neust iS2T.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CnURCII. §407. P. GERHARDT. 485
tions of the Christian heart in all its relations to God, by popular hymns, (c)
But the German Protestantism of that period gave forth its sublimest utter-
ance in the severe, but harmonious and seraphic music of John Sebastian
Bach (d. 1750), the chorister of Leipsic. Though contented in the contracted
sphere of domestic life, ho longed correctly to convey to others the unuttera-
ble feelings which Avcre struggling in his own heart. The Passion-Oratorios
which he composed were the direct offspring of the Protestant mode of wor-
ship. Contemporary with him was Handel (d. 175'J), whose ambition was
displayed both in private life, and in the style of his art, whoso works are of
the richest and most brilliant character, and in whose celebration of the Mes-
siah was employed an array of musical instruments which had never before
been collected. Both composers lived in seclusion, but were highly honored
during their lives, {d) In consequence of the war, however, and the exclu-
sive prevalence of an orthodoxy confined to the strict letter of the standards,
there was nothing whatever of literature, or of its popular elements during
this period. The theology of the Form of Concord was developed entirely
iu a controversial style with reference to opposing systems, and might be
called a new scholasticism, without the philosophical acuteness of the old.
This orthodoxy may have been the language of sincere I)iety, but it was vio-
lently maintained by means of a contracted education, by an unscientific
course of instruction, by oaths, and by censorships. As every deviation from
it was closely watched and threatened, all intellectual movements became
constrained, and were animated only when engaged in controversy, and in
accusations for heresy. Even Calovius, Koenig, and Quenstedt, who were
leaders, only transcribed the jiroductions of their predecessors, and of each
other. But with all their subfilties one can scarceh* refrain from thinking
that they have described God very much like some mighty Lutheran pastor
who is obliged to save his honor by blows. (<') The authority of the Scrip-
tures was actually felt only through certain passages much used in contro-
versy, the explanation of which was firmly settled by each party for itself.
The pure and powerful prose Avhich Luther had used wa.s forgotten, men of
learning wrote in a tolerable Latin, and the sermons, though .sometimes pow-
erful, unrestrained, and alarming, were generally disputatious, allegorical,
insipid, pedantic, or ordinary. (./') Orthodoxy, and the most unwearied eccle-
siasticism, were compatible with a worldly spirit and the rudest manners.
The zealots for orthodoxy assailed each other with reference to some atten-
uated definitions of subjects which lay beyond the bounds of human knowl-
edge, {g) and the exhortation to unity in essentials, freedom in no n -essentials,
and charity in both, was only as a voice in the desert. (A)
c) E. G. Roth, p. G. Lps. 1829. /;. ('. Langheckei; Leben it I^-M.n. P. G. nrl. 1841. 0. Sc/itOz,
r. G. geistl. Andachten. Hrl. 1S42.
(J) Forkfl, 1 eben J. S. Hnclis. Lp«. 1804. 4. [C. Burney, Memoirs of Ilnndel, and also by the
game, Gen. HisL of Music, Lond. 177(5-89. 4 Vdls. 8., condensed by T. liuHhy, Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 8.]
e) Ifarimann, v. Seogen-sprechen. NCirnb. 1G80. p. 158. ISO.
/) Schiller, Gesch. d. Gcschtrvicks Im Pred. llftl. M^i. vol. I. p. IrtSss.
g) A. Tltoluck: D. Gel^t d. luth. Theologen Wilt Im 17. Jhli. limb. KV2. D. akad. Leben A 17
Jhli. Hal. 1^53.
h) F. Lücke, ü. Alter, Verf. urspr. Form IL Sinn dos kirelil FriedeMK-[)ruclic«, OötL li.'jO.
ISO Mmdkrn cinrucri msTonv. rtit. vi. a. d. iG4s-i>%a
§408. George Calixtus. 158G-1CÖ0.
Dk «nil»« liodlcrni «xUI plillos. ct sollfloe erudlt. llelmst IßlO. Epit Theol. Itlm. 1019. A often,
Omimcrcll llliT. C'alixt Fiw. 1-3. c<I. K Ilenk-o, Ilal. .Jen. Marb. lS.3.3-40.— Ca^.r/j U. syncretlstlca
;I. I. clir. Iti'il.Miken Ü. d. llebon KKricilcn. 1CS2 conflsclrt. (Oless.) 1CS5. 4. MnlUr, Ciinbria litor.
Jlafn. irn. f. Til. HI. p. i21ss. E. Ifenke, A. Univ. llelmst. tm 16 Jhli. Ilnl. \<iVi. — Wiili-h, K. Srr.
vol. I. p. 2l6ss. IV, fifiCss. Planck, Oesch. d. prot. Th. t. d. Konkordicnf. p. 9<)ss. // SclnnUJ, Oescti.
\. xyiikret streltlj,'k. in d. Ztlt d. Cul. Erl. 1S46. W. Gas», Cal. u. d. Synkrct. Brl. ^'yir,.
Tho University of JTelmstadt had been accidentally exempted from the
operation of the Form of Concord, (§ 351,) and hy the jirotection which ite
princes had atl'orded it, it became for a long time an asylum for the Ilnmanists.
Ilero contemptuous language with respect to human reason and philosophy,
such as was ventured upon by Daniel Hoffmann, was punished as an offence
against the philosophical faculty, (a) From this school sprung Calixtus, an
upright and extensively educated man, who, for nearly half a century was a
professor in Ilelm.stadt, where, in the spirit of Melancthon, he sought in tho
historical method for a more unfettered form of theology. By his doctrine
of the necessity of good works, by his separation of ethics from theology,
and by his assertion that the doctrine of the Trinity was not plainly revealed
in the Old Testament, suspicions of his orthodoxy were awakened, first
among his pupils at Koenigsberg, and finally led to a denial of an honorable
burial to his lifeless remains. He endeavored to strengthen the power of tho
Protestants in Thorn by a fraternal connection with the members of the Re-
formed Church (p. 420.) He was regarded by the Catholics as their most
sagacious opponent, and the whole Catholic Church of Germany was invited
by him to escape from the power of the pope. But he had become ac-
quainted with a Christianity unfettered by the subtleties of the Form of Con-
cord, and made known in the Scriptures, in the primitive Church, and in
Christian experience. Conscious that he had thus attained a universal Chris-
tianity, he demanded that the various churches should recognize it, and
thought that they might once more be united, or at least might mutually tole-
rate each other, if they could all be induced to return to the oecumenical
symbols and laws of the first five centuries. This plan was called by the zeal-
ous Lutherans Syncretism. Caloviits, an exasperated but honest watchman
of Zion, with his colleagues in Luther's chair, furiously and indefatigably as-
sailed this heresy of one whom they regarded as a papist and Mameluke, who
should be cut off from the body of the Church by a new creed, (b) But
Helmstadt adhered to its beloved instructor, he was also protected by his
prince, and Jena protested against the unreasonable reproaches of his adver-
saries, (c) These reproaches were supposed to be justified by his assertion
that tho Reformation was merely a particular mode of return to the ancient
Church, and by the references made to him by many then going over to the
<7) De Deo et Chr. Hlmst, l.'>93. On tho other hand: J. Martini Ternunft-'piesel, d. i Bericht,
«MS (1. Vft. Sftmmt drs. Perfection, Phil. scy. "Witt, ICIS. — G. Thomaaius, de controv. Ilufmanniana.
ErU l*^t4.
I) Consensus repetitus fldoi vere Luthoran.ie. 165Ö. (Consilia tlieol. Wittenb. Frkf. 1G64. f. vol L)
Denuo e.\. E. L. T. ITenke, M.irb. 1S46. 4.
c) .Viwafu», auff. Erkl. ü. 93 vermeinte Kcl. Fiacen. Jon. 167T.
CHAP. I. EVAXG. CHURCH. § 408. CALIXTUS. § 409. SPEXEll. 4S7
Catholic Church. lie w.n much respected by tho higher classes, and his
reputation at home was much increased by the honors which he gained in
foreign countries. His influence upon tho theology of his own times was al-
most imperceptible, but he seemed rather a type of what was about to pre-
vail in tiie succeeding age.
§ 409. rietism. Sj^ener. 1035-1705.
I. Spener : Das geistl. Priestertl). Frkf. 1CT7. 12. and oth. Crl. 15.30. Allg GoUopgel. aller glaub.
Chr. n. rechtsch. Tlicol. Frkf. 1C30. 12. and often. Dio Freib. d. Gläubigen v. Anselin d. Mensclicn
in Olaubenssach. Frkf. 1091. Tlieol. Redenken. II.lL ITOO.'iS. 4 voli Cousllla et jud. tli. Frcf. 1709.
3 vols. 4. Lat ii. deutsche th. Bed. In zeltgem. Ausw. v. JTennicke, llul. 1S33. Wahrh. Erzähl, do
sen, was wepcn d. sogen. Pict vorgegangen. Frkf. (1C97.) 1C93. AmsL 1700. \1.— Löscher, Timoth.
^'e^nus. Witt lilSss. 2 vols. u. vieles in d.Unwhuld. Nachrr. 1701-20. Work written to compose the
strife of parties : (Suddens) Wahrb. u. gründl. Erzähl was zw. d. sog. Pict geschehen. Without
place. 1710.
II. C. n. V. Ciinstein, Muster e. rechtsch. Lehrers in d. Leben Sp. Hal. 1740. Suahedlmen, Sp.
(Kochlitz, jährl. Mitth. 1'.23. vol. III.) W. Hosshach, Sp. u. s. Zeit Brl. (1S2S.) ed. by G. Schvceder,
1S53. 2 vols. A'Hrt/)/?, Leben u. Char, eiriiifcr frommen u. gel. Männer d. vor. Jhh. II.il. 1S29. — W.
Thilo, Sp. als Katechet Brl. \HQ. — WaMi, R. Str. vol. I. p. 540ss. II, Iss. IV, 1030;«. Y, Iss.
Planck, Gesch. d. prot Th. p. ISOss. [A new Life of Spencr has been announced as in preparation
by K. Uorshach, in 2 vols. Lps. 1854.] DeuUche Zeitsch. f. ehr. W. 1S53. N. 23s.
Philip Jacob Spener received a pious and liberal education in the city of
Strasbourg, and while yet a youth became the first among the clergy in
Frankfort (IGGG). He subsequently became the superior court preacher in
Dresden (1G8G), but fell into dij;grace on account of his zeal as a confessor,
and was appointed (1G91) Provost in Berlin. He was deeply impressed with
the conviction that practical piety was in danger of being lost in a conform-
ity to the outward letter of Christianity. By devotional explanations of the
Scriptures, and Christian conversation in private religious meetings (collegia
pietatis, after 1670), a high degree of religious earnestness was awakened.
Ills "Pious Desires" {it) encouraged tho hope of reforming the corrupt
Church. In that work ho showed that tho Church should be once more
built up under the influence of tho Scriptures, that tho spiritual priesthood
of the congregation should be restored, and that tho clergy should be edu-
cated to live a life of personal godliness. Then Christianity would be
preached in apostolical simplicity, and become a religion of the heart and of
daily conduct. In Leipsic, where the exposition of the Scriptures had long
been discontinued, a society of educated young men was formed under tho
influence of Spener, for the scientific explanation and practical application of
the Scriptures (July 18, 1G87). Q>) The German devotional lectures upon tho
New Testament opened (1G89) by three men Avho had obtained tho degree
of Magister, among whom was Aug. Herrn. Fmncl-e, were attended with
great diligence by large numbers of students and citizens. On account of
their excessive displays of piety in their outward conduct, these persons were
called Pictixtii^ and were accused of aiming to bring public worship and sci-
ence into contempt. They were tlierefore compelled by the theologians to
.eave Leipsic (1690), and in connection with Thomasius they founded a new
a) Pia deslderia o. hertzl. Verlangen nach gottgerdl. Besserung d. wahren ev. K. (First pubL as
« pracf. to Arndfs P.istllla ev. 1075) Frkf. 1C7.\ lat Frkf. 1078. 12.
I) C. F. lUgen, Hist Collcgil philoblbllci I.li)s. Lps. 1836s. 8 P. 4.
488 M(.I)Ki;n ciinicii iustoky. vkh. vi. a. d. 1045-is53.
sftlt-spriiiK (it n<'//<: (1691). After the first exhibitions of popular favor had
pnato«! awiiy, tlio rij^id tloinniKls which Spenor made in bclialf of morality,
and Ills lihoral hut l(){,ncal system of doctrines, raised ap against him many
oi)poiion(s not only among the worldly classes, but among the orthodox,
Onco more Wittenberg, now enfeebled by ago, defended its Lutheranism, (c)
and the theology of the schools with almost one voice exclaimed against
Pietism as against a new sect. The controversy, however, was carried on not
by seizing and attacking the thing itself, but according to the polemical fash-
ion of tlio times, by accusing it of many erroneous sentiments, and enlisting
in petty quarrels against it the passions of the people, the civil courts, and
even the divine decisions. Those tendencies which had been originated by
Spener, but which had been kept within due limits by the mildness of his
disposition, were soon carried to an extreme by his followers. They con-
tended that all true regeneration must bo preceded by a high-wrought peni-
tential conflict, that none but a regenerated divine should be allowed to min-
ister in holy things, a proud sectarian si)irit was awakened, injury was done
to the serious pursuit of literature by the pure devotional form which theol-
ogy then assumed, some were led to indulge in enthusiastic hopes of a mil-
lennial kingdom, and of the final extinction of hell, ((I) and many high-
sounding pious expressions were introduced which really had no meaning. It
must, however, not be forgotten that the Orphan House was the result of
Francke's pietism, and will ever commemorate the triumph of his faith in
God and his benevolence toward men. (t) As soon, however, as the opposi-
tion began gradually to abate (after 1720), the energy as well as the free
reforming spirit of Pietism was gone, and it appeared to be merely a languid
religion of feeling, which, Avhile it shrunk from every semblance of worldly
X)leasure and splendor, regarded Christianity under the single aspect of a sys-
tem which proclaimed the naturally miserable state of man in consequence
of sin, and the necessity of justification through the expiatory death of
Christ. Protestantism, by its influence, penetrated the hearts of men more
profoundly, and the pious morality of domestic life was strengthened by it,
but especially in the courts of some of the inferior princes it degenerated
into a miserable system of legality and ceremony before God. Registers
were kept for souls, and many idle persons supported themselves comfort-
ably by using the new language respecting breaking into the kingdom, and
the sealing of believers, while serious-minded persons were utterly unfitted
for their ordinary social duties, until in despair they committed suicide. {/)
The orthodox, on the other hand, in their opposition to such fanaticism, gave
their countenance to an extraordinary degree of cheerfulness, and thought
the condition of their Church was remarkably flourishing. (^)
c) Cliristlnth. Vorst. in auMelit. Lelirs'itzsen n. CJottcs Wort u. d. svmb. KBüchern u. unrich
ilgen GcsensTilzen aus II. Dr. Spener's Sclirr. Witt, 1695.
<0 «A M'. PettTSen, MvcTTTipiov airoKaTaffTdcTfaii irdfTuv, d. i. Gehoimn. d. Wiedertr. all«
Dinare. Offonb. 1701^«;. 8 vols.
f) A. II. Francko. by A. JT. Xiemet/er, Hal. 1794. by Guerike, Ilal. IS'27.
.0 &-ml<r, Lobcnsbesclir. vol. 1. p. 47fS.
ff) llosahadi vol. II. p. 126. Thulurk, Geist .1. lu*li. Th. p. 2725S. 27S.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CriURCn. § 410. PniLOSOPIIY. LEIBXITZ. 459
§ 410. Philosopldcal Influences. Cartesius to Wolf.
Although pcience received from the hand of Bocon of Ventlam (d. 1626)
a tendency toward physics and tlie useful arts, (//) many divines long thought
it absurd to concede an authority to Copernicus Avhich was superior to that of
the word of God. (i) The more modern philosophy had its origin with Des
Cartes (d, 1650), in an inquiry proceeding from doubt, after something abso-
lutely true and certain, and which the reflecting mind might find in itself
alone, without reference to tlioology. It was, however, employed in the
Netherlands for the representation of the doctrines of revelation, and took
the place of the formulae of Aristotle. The consciousness of a knowledge
of God which from its OAvn nature was satisfactory, was awakened there by
this philosophy, but as it soon became suspected of political liberalism, it was
prohibited by the Orange party (after 1656). (r) The tragical philosophy of
Spinoza was founded on a profound religious basis independent of all dog-
mas, but Christianity was utterly foreign to his speculations, and during the
century in which he lived he was regarded as an atheist. (<!) In England,
the doctrines of a sound common sense were reduced by Locl-e (d. 1704) to a
philosophical system, Avhich asserted for the experience of the senses at least
a paramount influence in the intellectual world, and demanded a complete
toleration for every kind of religious opinions. He himself, however, never
intended to advocate any sentiment inconsistent with tlie creed of his
Church. ((■) In Germany, Leibnitz^ fully confiding in the pritnogenitnre of
the human mind, rescued philosopliy from the abyss of Spinoza by defending
a free individuality originally determined only by the prime monad, and a
necessary agreement of revelation with the everlasting truths of reason. He
however conceded that the historical mysteries of Cliristianity were beyond
the reach of reason, and with a character in its special peculiarities quite dif-
ferent from the ordinary German spirit, ho kept aloof from all ecclesiastical
controversies. (./') Ilis philosojdiy became intelligible to ordinary minds by
the labors of Wolf (d. 1754), who, though he lived in perfect liarmony with
the Church, sometimes demonstrated its doctrines in a mathematical style,
and sometimes allowed them to pass as mysteries adapted only to the world
of sense. But on account of the droad which Pietism displayed toward the
a) Novum Orpanon Scientianiin. 1620. ed. Brück, Lps. 1830. Ofiörer, Shittg. ISSl. [Bitcon'it
Nov. Org., or True Siiggivstions for tlio Iiiterprct. of Nalurc. Lond. liSO. S. Also in Works, 8 vols. S.
Pliilad. ISlO. Account of Bacon's Nov. Org. in Lib. of U". Knowledge. Lond. 1?'27. 8.]
h) Cttlov. Syst. vol. III. p. ma. JIollii:. Exam. ed. Tdler, p. 809.
c) Cartenii 0pp. Fref. 1692ss. 2 voI'>. ■i.—IIuetii Consura. Par. 1C99. 12. cd. 4. 1C91. J. E. Erd
mann, Darst. n. Kritik d. Cart Ph. IJiga. l^Sl. C. F. Ifock, OirL n. solne Gegner. Vienna. 1SS5.
Bordas Dcmoulin, le Cartfsl inismo. Par. IS^IS. [IK Whewelf, Ul#t. of tlio Iniluctivo Science.«.
Lond. 2 ed. 1S47. 8 vol.s. 8. Tennemanni Manual, p. 3U5-S. Henn/a Tran>l. of the Hist of Phil,
vol. IL p. 48-00.]
(0 Oi>p. cd. i'dK/«.«, Jen. lSn2. 2 vols, ^//w^r, Stuttg. 1*30. //. C. W. Sigicart, d. Spinozi-
mus. Tub. 1S;?9. Amiind Snint€.% It. de la vie et des ouvr. de Sp. fondateur de Tcxcgese et de la
phil. mo<lernc. Par. IS 12.
e) Works of J. L. Lond. 1714. 3 vols, 1S2I. 9 vols. [Philos. works, witl; prel. disc, by St. John,
Lond. 1S43. 8.]
/) Opp. lat gall. germ. cd. Erdmann, Her. 1S89?. 2 vols. A.—L. Fetierhach, Harst u. Krit. vl
Leibn. PU Atisp. 1S37. G. E. Guhntiter, G. W. v. Lelbn. Brsl. (1S42.) 1S46. 2 vols. A. IMffridu
fcpiii. u. Leit.n. Hamb. 1S46. [J. M. .Vackir, Life of G. W. von L. Boston. ISIS. iSmo.J
41)0 m(.i.i;i:n ciiiKfii iiisT(>i:v. i-kk. vr. a. d. lois-isaa
iloctriiu» of ft prc-ostnblislicd (iptiinlsin, und touanl ;ill ])liilos<-)i)liy, lie ■was
driven from II;illo (1723) by tlio iiiMiidatc of a king wlio cared for iiotliin;'
lint wliat lie regarded as useful. The result of tliLs jdiilosopliy, so far as the
Churcli was concerned, was a natural theology whose essential princijiles were
derived from the Christian system, though it appeared to bo independent of all
revelation, (fj) From this school proceeded the Wcrtheim version of the Bible,
an in3ii)id and impudent attempt to present tho Scriptures in a form adapted
to what was said to be the demands of modern criticism. The power of tho
enijiirc was found to bo still sufficient to suppress such a work as this, (a)
§ 411. Peaccalle Afovemenls in Tlieology.
Tlio French theologians contended for the palm of criticism Avith tho
learned monks of St. Maur, but they could gain the prize only by the unre-
strained freedom of their historical inquiries. Among the theologians of tho
Academy of Saumur, Amy raid (Amyraut, d. 1064) taught that the grace of
God was so universal that it was not withheld even from the heathen, and
yet in a certain sense was limited ; («) Pajon (d. 1684), that its influence was
principally upon the understanding, through the medium of the Scriptures
and the whole course of a man's life; (b) Placaeus (Laplace, d. 1065), that
original sin was a corruption to which no guilt was attached until it had pro-
ceeded to actual transgression ; and Louis Capellus (ChapeUe, d. 1C58) justi-
fied the freedom of his criticism upon the language of Scripture principally
in opposition to those who maintained the divine origin of the Hebrew vowel
points, (f) To defend their churches against these libera^ views, the Calvin-
istic orthodox divines urged upon the Swiss a new confession of faith (1675),
the legal influence of which, however, had ceased even at the commencement
of the eighteenth century, (d) Coeceius (d. 1669), who had been educated in
the school of Des Cartes, demanded that theology should be of a purely bib-
lical character, since in his estimation the Scriptures were every thing and
meant every thing, (c) Many literary men in France were driven, by the
persecutions endured by the Protestants, to foreign countries, where their
literature became the means of their support ; and taking advantage of tho
freedom of speech enjoyed especially in the Netherlands, they addressed
themselves in a polished style to the educated classes. Bai/Ic (d. 1706) col-
lected a treasure which those who came after him might use either for or
O) Tlieol. naturalis. Lps 1736. 2 vols. 4.—Cavz, Ph. Lcibn. et "W. usus in Th. Fref. ct L. (1728.)
1749. 2 vols. Ludovici, Entw. e. Uist d. Wolf Th. 2 ed. Lps. 1737. 3 vols. IT. Watke, CI). Wolfs
elcne Lebensbcseh. Li^s. 1S41.
.'() (Lorem SchmUl, d. 1751.) Die giittl. Sehrr. vor den Zeiten des Messie Jesus. One Tlieil is the
liist of the Israelites. Werth. \1^.—J. N. Sinnhold, ausf. Hist. d. sogen. Werth. Bibel. Frkf. 1739. 4
a) Traito de la praedest et de sea principes difforents. Saum. 1634 — C. E. Saigey, Moise Amjr.
Strasb. 1S49. A. Schweizer, M. A. {ZdUrs th. Jahrbb. 1S52. H. Is.)
b) V. E. Löscher, de Claudii Paj. doctr. ct fatis. Lps. 1692. A. Sc7uceizer, I'ajonism. {ZtUer's
th. Jahrbb. 1S53. IL Is.)
c) Synt.ignia thorium theol. in Ac.id. Salmuriensi disputatarum Salin. (1600.) 1664. 4
d) (./. If. ir,-idegger) Form. Consensus Ecc. Ilelv. I^Xiemeyer, Col. Conff. p. 729.)— C ^^. Pßif,
de F. r. lU'lv. Tub. 1723. 4. {Banuiud) MOm. pour servir ä THist des troubles en Suisse ä locea-
»:on du Cons. Amjt 1726. E'icher, hclv. Cons, in d. Hall. EncylcL IL vol. VL)
e) Snmma iloctr. dc foedoro et testamcntis Dei. L. B. 164:?.— Alberti, SiirXofv Kairira, CartesUa
iSinus ct Cocccj. descr. et rtfutati. L. B. 1673. 4.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CnUECn TILL 17S0. §411. BENGEL. -WETTSTEIX. 401
against Christianity ; and he himself was the first specimen of that peculiar
style of Protestanti.sm which, while it is zealous for truth and freedom, sus-
pends its inquiries at the point where faith seems inconsistent with reason,
and contents itself with a statement of the arguments on hoth sides. {/) In
the Motherlands the Arminian congregations began to decline, for the spirit
of Zwingle was now evidently reviving in all parts of the Church there.
Even in England, where the literary spirit (Latitudinarianism) was especially
odious to the orthodox beneficed clergy, it became extensively prevalent, par-
ticularly in the diocese of Cambridge. By its distinction between what it
called essential and non-essential doctrines, it evidently intended to draw a
line between the doctrines of the Scriptures and those of the Church. Tlio
Apostles' Creed was presented as containing every thing indispensable to sal-
vation, kindness toward those who dillor from us in opinion was much insisted
upon as a Christian virtue, and a reconciliation with the dissenters was there-
fore regarded as practicable. (;/) In Germany, Thomashis (d. 1728) became
connected with the Pietists because they were oppressed by the established
Church, but they soon found that the tendency of his instructions was to
form a bold and satirical spirit, and he became convinced that while they
professed to bo seeking the honor of God, they were really inllnenced by a
desire for their own honor and i)Ower. This intelligent German had the
posthumous reputation of having turned the public mind against the trials
for witchcraft, (h) and yet even in the close of the century in which he lived
witches were occasionally put to death in Upper Germany. Pietism having
sustained a defeat in its conflict with the "Woltian school in the very place
Avhere it was strongest (1740), now betook itself discontentedly to a quiet
obscurity. During the struggle, however, even the theology of the schools
had become penetrated by its fervent spirit. This was first apparent in the
case of BuddcuH (d. 1729), who was historically familiar with philosophy, and
yet gave to theology a simple and scientific form. JoJin Albert Bcngcl (d.
1752), whose pious hopes were founded on calculations not proved to be
erroneous until 183G, was not deterred by them from investigating with re-
ligious conscientiousness the original text and moaning of the Sacred Scrip-
tures, (/■) while Wcttstcin (d. 175t) took delight in critical labors, and without
regard to received doctrines endeavored to ascertain which of the innumer-
able readings was the original tpxt of the New Testament, and to illustrate
it by every thing resembling it in antiquity, lie was never, however, per-
mitted to pursue his labors to their final result.«', for as his criticism was
even then suspected of being friendly to Socinianlsm, ho Avas dei)osed (1730^
at Basle, and received with much hesitation by the Arminians. (k)
f) r)iotlonn»lre lilsL et crlt. UoL 1096. 2 vols. f. nnd ofloti. Amst. I'lOss. 4 vols. f. Noiivollc'de li
röp. (k'S lettre». Am-^t 16S4-1715.— J/aiceuwa", Yio d. B. Anist 1730. 12. L. Feuerhadi, Picrro B
Lpz. 2 ed. 1S44
g) (Art/ill r Bury) The Naked OospeL By u true »on of the Church of Engl. 1C90. i.—P. Jurieu
.»rel. du Lntltudiniiirc. (Rolcr. 1C96.) TTtr. 1C97.
h) II. Luden, Thonin-sfus nnch 8. Sehiokfalcn ii. Schrr. Brl. 1S05. A. EichsUulii Or. do Thuia
Jen. 1S89. 4. C. F. Fritswhf, dc rallonnllsina Hal. 1S:JS. 4. Cm. L p. Tsä 15.
i) J. C. Bur/.; Benders Leben u. Wirken. Stuttg. (IS.31.) 1S32. Bengel's liter. Briofwechs. mit-
geth. V. Burl; Stuttj:. 1S36.
I) C. n. llitgmhach, .T. J. Wett^t. u. seine G<gner. (ZciLoclir. f. hist. Th. 1^00. V. 1.)
192 MdDKUN CHURCH HISTOKV. VVAl. VI. A. 1;. ICJS-l^M.
^ 412. /jnr mid Legal Views in the German Chnrcli.
The <li'putios of the Protestant states at the permanent Diet of Ratisboc
(after ICCi) f^nned a tribnhal (Corpus Evangelicorum), -which possessed no
real power, but was designed to secure the riglits guarantied by the Peace, (fi)
Tlio jurisdiction over the individual national Cliurches remained with the
necular authorities, and was exercised by tlie consistories and ministerial coun-
cil, witli tlio co-operation of the states of the respective countries, and, in
some provinces of the licformcd Cliurch, with the aid of the minor synods.
Every ecclesiastical usurpation was therefore easily repelled, tlie Church was
sometimes used as a police for the execution of the laws, and the property of
the Church was sometimes used for secular objects. The press was the only
organ by which ecclesiastical privileges and wants were made known, and
even this was placed imder the restraints of a censorship. In the literary
works of that period, the fact that princes exercised so much ecclesiastical
power is variously explained. When the internal inconsistencies of the epis-
copal system (p. 441) had become evident, the formation of a Territorial sys-
tem naturally followed from the right of reforming the Church which had
been assumed by the imperial diet, from the advancement of political rights,
and from the ascendency of a worldly spirit. According to this system, the
ecclesiastical was merely an element of the civil power. This legal view of
the subject was generally adopted about the commencement of the eighteenth
century, in consequence of the liberal use which Thomasins made of it, and
the judicious limitations assigned to it by Boehmer. Still the consciousness
of her own rights which the Chm'ch possessed, confirmed by the records of a
thousand years, soon occasioned a theological opposition to this view. Chan-
cellor Pf'iff of Tubingen was the author of the Collegial Systeiii (1719), ac-
cording to which the Church is an independent corporation, whose power can
be lawfully assumed by princes only by treaty with it. Both views have
contended with each other side by side, and have alternately exerted an
important influence upon the administration of the Church. {}>)
§ 413. Legal Relations to the Catholic Church.
Although tlie modern state was inclined to compromise the religious dif-
ferences among its subjects, both Churches tolerated each other only so ftir
as they could not invalidate a right actually acquired during the recent con-
flicts. In Germnny, this hostility was fostered especially by the oppressions
which members of the evangelical Church sustained from their Catholic
rulers, and by the enticement of some princes to the Catholic Church, (a)
Catholic dynasties were established in the Electoral Palatinate when the
Catholic line of the Palatine house of ITeuberg came to the throne (1685),
and in Electoral Saxony when Frederic Augustus became convinced of the
truth of the Catholic faith on his becoming a candidate for the Polish crown
a) Sc/iauroth n. ITerrich, Satnml. aller Conclusorum n. Vcrbandl. d. Corpus Evv. Kegensb.
n51-S6. 4 vols. f. IT. vr. r. Buloic, Gesch. u. Vcrf. d. Corpus Evv. Eegensb. 1795.
h) XetUlhlndt, do tribns systematibns doctr. do jure sacr. dirifendorum. (Obss. jnr. ecc. Hal. 1'5;3.)
a) Stnirf. Eel. Beschwerden zwischen den Kath. u. Evangelischen. Lps. 17-2-2. 2 vols. Oertei
rollst. Corpus jravamm. ev. Eegensb. ITTlss, 5 vok C
CHAP. I. EVANG. CnUHCII TILL 1750. § 413. CONVEBTS. 493
(1697). The oppression of the Protestants became legalized in the Palatinate,
when a clause in the Peace of Eyswick (1G97) required that public worship
should henceforth he conducted in the same manner in •which it had been
performed Avhile the French occupied that territory. It was only by the
reprisals which Prussia made, that the Reformed Church recovered any por-
tion of its immunities. (/') In Saxoinj, all the privileges of the Protestant
Church were maintained by the zeal of the people and the states, so that not
even a verse in any of their highly animated hymns would they suffer to be
stricken out. The reigning family in its subsequent generations was sincerely
and piously attached to its Church, but its precarious and foreign throne was
purchased by a renunciation of its important position in Protestant Germany,
and its success in drawing over some individuals was gained at the expense
of the alienation of a loyal people. In 77/'!/HÄ?r/c^--Wolfenbüttel, the Princess
Elizabeth was induced to forswear her vow at confirmation (1707), that she
might become the mother of an imperial family, and her grandfather Anthony
Ulrich^ whose counsel she had followed in this matter, embraced the same
faith with a policy which could then have referred to no consequences except
in another world, (c) In Wurtemhurg^ when Charles Alexander went over
to the Catholic Church, the courage of a single officer was sufficient to give
a check, though in a somewhat tumultuous manner, to the progress of the
defection (1735). {iT) In Salzburg^ certain peaceable congregations which had
beea inclined to the evangelical Church, and had been tolerated as industri-
ous subjects ever since the sixteenth century, fell under the notice of the
Archbishop Count Firmian^ who undertook their conversion by violent means
(1729). One hundred elders then assemljled, at early dawn on Sabbath
morning, in a lonely cave of the Schwarzach, and swore on the sacred host
and the consecrated salt that they would bo faithful to the evangelical faith
and the triune God, and that in every misfortune they would maintain a fra-
ternal affection for each other. An archiepiscopal patent of emigration (Oct.
31st, 1731) drove them under the severest circumstances from their houses
and their estates. Public sympathy was enlisted to console the sad train of
these confessors for the loss of their beautiful mountain homes, and twenty
thousand of them found a hospitable reception in Prussia. (') In Hungary^
few magnates long resisted the temptations to apostasy presented to them, in
the form of bishops' sees and offices in Church and State. The Protestants
of that country, although protected by the laws, were robbed by those who
professed to administer those laws, not only of their churches, but even of
h)J.J. Mufer, norlcht v. d. clausuLi A. IV. PacU r.ysii. Frkf. 1T32. 4. Pütter, syst ParsL d
l)faiz. Rel. Boscli werden. Oiitt lT9:t.
c) Codex August Th. L p. 846s. Acta hist occ, to). I. p. llSss. WV»««?, neues Mus. f. wiclis
Gesch. vol. L P. 2. F. Förster, Fr. Aug. 11. I'otsd. 1SS9.— Aug. TJieiner, Qosch. d. Zuruckk. d.
re?. Häuser v. Braunschw. u. Snclison In d. Scliooss d. kntli. K. Einsled. 1S43. To bo corrected by:
W. O. S<>l<l<in, drci.ssls; Jnliro des rrosclyllsin. in Sachs, u. Ur. Lps. 1S45. W. Ilocck, A. Ulrich u.
Elis. V. I!r. Wolfenb. 1S45.
rf) >/. r. Moser. Lebens-Gcsch. 8 cd. Frkf. u. Lps. 177T. vol. L p. ISlss,
e) Scfte/honi, do rel. ev. in prov. Saliib. ortu et fatis. Lps. 17-32. 4. M. Zus. v. SlUbner, L.
1732. </. Moser, actenm. l?er. v. d. schweren Vert d. Evv. in S. Erl. 1732. 12 St Göking, Emi^rra-
tionsgesch. Frkf. u. L. (1732 ) 1737. 2 vols. 4.— A'. Pansf, Oesch. d. Ausw. d. ev. S. Lps. 1S27. Zelt-
»ehr. f. hbt Th. 1>32. vul. II. I'. 2.
404 MoDKliN CUVMCU HISTOKV. Vi-M. YI. A. T). 164S-1S.VI.
tlicir ohildron. unco more at tlie Diet of (Jcdenbur^' (1081) their religious
freedom wiis solemnly uckiiowledged, but with a reservation iu favor of the right
of the I'roprietors of tho soil. In order to break down the national aristocra-
cy, wlioso exorbitant privileges were principally maintained by the Protestant
noliility, a murderous tribunal was instituted at Eperies (1C87), and the
Jesuits, l)y tlieir crafty policy for conversion, destroyed tiie soul together
with the body. By the exclusion of its complaints from the general diet, the
evangelical Cluirch was completely abandoned (1715), and reduced to less
tliau one half its former size by a process of bloodless martyrdoms. In the
otlier patrimonial countries of Austria the evangelical mode of worship was
utterly annihilated. The few who remained secretly faithful to their reli-
gion, and endeavored to transmit it to those who should come after them, as
soon as they were detected, were banished to Transylvania, the only asylum
now left for evangelical Christians and exiles, (y') In PuhiiiiJ^ the Dissi-
dents, gradually abandoned by the aristocracy, gradually lost also their eccle-
siastical and civil rights. In 1717, a law was enacted which forbade them to
build any new eburches, and another passed in 1733 excluded them from tho
general diet and from aU civil offices. The superior clergy, under the direc-
tion of the Jesuits, now went so far as to think of their complete extermina-
tion. The power of the Jesuits was exhibited in the terrible vengeance they
inflicted (1724) upon the Protestant city of Thorn^ when the general hatred
broke out in a popular insurrection against the Jesuit college in that place.
Despairing of all other relief, the Dissidents threw themselves under Russian
protection (1767), from which they obtained a restoration of their rights.
They were, however, so persecuted on account of this proceeding, that they
never found peace until they obtained it under the favor of a foreign rule at
the dissolution of the Polish kingdom (after 1772). (j/) As soon as Louis
XIY. began to reign independently in France (1661), the work of restoring
unity of faitb was commenced. The Huguenots were deprived of many
churches and schools under the pretence of reviving tbe privileges granted
by the edict of Nantes. In a fit of repentance for his excesses, the king
allowed himself to be persuaded to atone for them by purifying his kingdom
from all heretics. Many conversions among the nobility to obtain the favor
of the court, and among the people for trifling sums of money, seemed to
promise an easy accomplishment of this undertaking. Children were taken
from their parents, " booted missions " of dragoons were sent in every direc-
tion (after 1681), and the whole mighty power of the monarchy was enlisted
iu tho work of conversion. In spite of the terrible penalties denounced
against all emigration, the evangelical classes, wherever it was possible, fled
to other lands. A home was offered to the fugitives in every part of Pro-
testant Europe, but especially in Holland and Brandenburg. France lost
/) § 357. Acta hist ecc. vol. XVII. p. 223. 47Gss. WalcJu nst R. Gesch. vol. IV. p. 227. VI, 209.
IX, Iss. Gesch. d. Prot in Ung. (Archiv, f. KG. vol. I. St 2.) Die Schl.ichtbank v. Eperies, {J. v.
IfoniMi/r, Taschenb. f. vaterl. Gesch. Lps. 1S37.) [A Hist of the Trot Church in Hung, to 1S50,
w ith reference also to Transylvania, -nith Prefoce bv D'Aubignc, transL by J. Crais, w.is publ. in
Lontl. 1S54. S.] '
0) §300. (Jahlonsi:,j) Das betrübte Thorn. Brl. ITiö. LilUnUial, 3 Actus v. Thorn. Tragj.l
K.iniiTsb. \'lb. M\tl>:h, n^t R. Gesch. vol. IV. p. 1. VII, Sss.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1750. § 413. LOUIS XIV. CEVENNES. 495
more than lialf a million of its most industrious and trusty citizens. Tlio
edict of Nantes had long been disregarded, but it was at last formally re-
voked in the year 1G85. In the Ccvennei alone, a mountain tribe which had
descended from the TValdenses, and had been excited to enthusiasm by a series
of abuses, took up arms against their king. A young artisan at the head of
liis Camisards exposed his naked bosom to the swords of the marshals of
France. Prophetic visions produced by an epidemic disease of the imagina-
tion and the boldest military exploits, were witnessed in the same persons.
But as many of these propliets and heroes as escaped the slaughter of the
battle-field and the axe of the executioner, were allowed only the privilege,
which many of them scorned, of freely going into exile (iTOi). The former
were known in England under the appellation of the Little Prophets, pro-
claimed the approach of the age of the Holy Spirit, the subversion of the
pope and of the Turks, and created much astonishment aniong the people, until
with honest confidence they tested their pretensions by an attempt to raise
the dead. Two millions of the Reformed still remained in France, bereft of
all civil rights, and with no congregations except in the wilderness. The tei'-
rible laws of 1724 could not bo carried into elFect upon a whole population,
but examples Avere made of individuals, and many pious preachers were
hung. But Protestantism heroically re-collected its energies, and again held
its first national synod in 1744. (//) In SiritzerlanJ, a civil war was the con-
sc^quence of the protection which Zurich extended to a few converts in
Schweitz. The evangelical party was beaten near Yilmergcn (IGöG), but
Avithout producing any permanent change in the strength of cither party.
Once again the old grudge broke forth on account of the oppression of the
Reformed inhabitants of Toggenburg by the Abbot of St. Gall, and an un-
seasonable religious war grow out of an insignificant brawl respecting a
church. A second bloody battle at Vihnergen (1712) was decisive against
the Catholics, religious liberty was proclaimed in Toggenburg, and the super-
fluous wealth of the abbot was shared between Zurich and Berne. (/)
§ 41-i. Attempts at Union.
K. in Ihiiu'j, (p. 4G3.) Unionsversiiclio s. d. Rt-f. v. O. E. O. fDoutsche Viertcljahrsclir. Stuttg.
1S4C. N. 31s:%) C. G. Keudccker, d. Ilaiiptvers. z. Pacific d. ov. K. in Doutichl. 1S4G.
Some attempts at union were now made which proceeded sometimes from
the action of individuals and sometimes rather from circumstances. The
ultimate object of these, generally, was to ollect a reconciliation between the
Protestant and the Catholic Churches, but the only result was to show how
h) % 3GC. SouUrr, IL dn Calvlnifmc, ea natssancc, son progr6s, sa ddcadcnco ct »a fln en France.
Par. ICSC. 4. — liulhiirefi, Eclaircis-scinenta lilst. Mir Ics causes do la rovocat de IVdit. do N. Par.
ITS-'. 2 vols. Ancillon.W. i\a i'itablisseiiu'iit de Franfuls rcfugii« dans Ics i-tats de Braudenb. lier.
1C90. — De 1(1 Jiitume, 11. des rev. des COvonncs. Par. 1700. Brii^i/it, \\. dii fanatlclsme on des Cev.
Par. 1713. 2 vols 12. J. C. K. ITn/man, Ges-cli. d. Anfrulirs In d. Sev. NOrdl. ISJJT. Comp. W.ilrh,
Bibl. vol. II. p. 105SS.— CA. Coquerel, II. ilos «•glises du de.«ert depuls la fln du repno do Lonis XIV.
*\iw\\i\ la r>v. Par. 1S41. 2 vols. [Ch. HW.<«, G. il« FtlU-e (p. 420). Ediiib. Keviow, Ajiril,
1S54. in Eclectic Mag. Ang. 185-t. p. 434si«. Memoirs of tlio Ware of the Cevennes, professedly by
CawVier lilmseir, and Iransl. Into Engl. Dublin. 182C.]
t) IIoUiii(iei\ Ilelv. KGc.-k;1i. vol. IV. J. r. Mueller's Scbw. Gcsch. furtges. v. VuUUiiiin Zur
IS45. Tol. X. p. ISiss.
40G MODKKN CIIl'KCII IIISTOKV. I'KK. VI. A. I>. 104^1803.
profound wns flio gulf between these bodies. A more immediate and practi-
cablo object was to unite by more intimate bonds of association the Lutheran
and tlie IJofoniicd Churclies. The feelings of tlie Romish party ■were princi-
j.ally enlisted in the recovery of those who had departed from them, and
who on their professed return to their Mother Church were often obliged to
anathematize the objects of their former veneration, ('/) while those of the
Protestants were directed to the attainment of national unity. Spinola,
Bishop of Tina, with a commission from both the emperor and the pope,
visited (after 1G75) many of the Protestant courts of Germany that he might
lay before them certain ambiguous proposals of accommodation, {h) The
only country in which any hope of success seemed to present itself was Ilan-
over, where the reigning family was anxious to live on terms of closer inti-
macy with the emperor. Leibnitz also, that he might give peace to the
world and advance the cause of science, availed himself of some plans which
had been handed down by tradition from Calixtus, and entered into some
negotiations with Bossuet. The latter was Avilling to concede the marriage
of the clergy, the cup in the sacrament, and the mass in the common lan-
guage of the people, while the former thought the Catholic fonn of govern-
ment might be received as a human institution, and by the play of his fancy
wrought himself into a belief of the Catholic dogmas, (c) He however was
anxious that the question of the reception of the decrees of the Synod of
Trent should remain open nntil the decision of a general council, in which
Protestants might have a seat, and their votes might be given respecting it.
As Bossuet was of course obliged to adhere to these decrees, and the pros-
pect of a succession to the British throne was opened to the house of Han-
over, all hopes of success in such negotiations were necessarily frustrated, (d)
John Fabricius, who had taken upon his conscience the responsibility for the
action of the Princess Elizabeth in going over to the Catholic {e) Church,
was so overwhelmed by the contempt of the Protestant world, that he was
obliged to resign his professorship in the University of Helmstadt (1709). It
was not long, however, before he was abundantly compensated for this latter
step. For nearly half a century, John Duraeus (d. 1680), an Anglican cler-
gyman and an apostle of Protestant union, travelled about for the accom-
plishment of his great object. But each of the three great Protestant
Churches contended not only for a faith in the Christ revealed in the Scrip-
tiu-es, which was the only basis of union insisted upon by him, but for aU
those peculiarities which separated it from the others. An agreement for
mutual ecclesiastical recognition (tolerantia ecclesiastica) was formed on the
principles of Calixtus at the religious conference at Cassel (1661), and re-
a) Mohnike, z. Gesch. d. ungar. Flucbformul. Greifsw. 1823. Zeitscb. f. hist, Th. 1S42. H. 1.
I) Thst which was made public: Concordia Christiana. Yien. 1631.
c) Oeuvres posthuraes de M. Bossuet Amst 1753. 4. 1 vol. — Systema theol. LeibnitziL Par. lSi9.
mit Uebrs. v. Räss u. Weixa, Mainz. 1S20. 3 ed. 1825. comp. G. E. Schulze, ü. d. Entd. dass L
Katholik gewesen. Gott 1827. Pertz, ü. L. kirchl. GL Bekenntn. Brl. 1846. [Jfackie, Life of L
p. 20>*s.]
d) 0. G. Schmidt, pericnla conjungendarnm Ecc. a Leibn. facta c. similibus nostrae aetatis moli
minibus comparata. Grim. 1S44.
«) Eriirtflrtc Frage Hn. Fabricil, dass zwischen der Augsb. Conf. u. römlschkath. EeL kein son
derl. Unterschied sei. 1706.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CnCECn TILL 1750. § 414 UNION. LEIBNITZ. 497
suited in the transfer of the university of Rintelen to the Reformed Church.
The members of that Church were always inclined to recognize others as
brethren, but the Lutheran divines would rather hold communion with the
papists, and rcfrardod the hope that even Calvinists might be saved as a temp-
tation of tliC devil. (/) Frequently also, though not Avithout remonstrance,
individuals of the lieformed Cliurch participated in the sacred Supper in the
Lutheran churches, (y) After the IVace of Ryswick, the urgent importance
of fraternal connections between the Protestant nations as a security against
the dangerous exaltation of the Catholic powers, became still more apparent,
and upon the princes of the hou.se of Prussia was especially devolved the
task of adjusting the dissensions which prevailed principally among the Lu-
therans, by a union of the two Protestant Churches. But as long as the
energies of Lutheranism continued unabated, every attempt at reconciliation
only seemed to widen the breach between them. (Ä) The appointment of a
few bishops constituted a part of the ceremonial at the coronation of the
first king of Prussia (1700), but this suggested the idea of a union by the
introduction of the form of government which prevailed in the Anglican
Church, (/) Temples of peace and union churches were however consecrated
in vain ; but although Leibnitz broke oft" the negotiations, it was in the full
confidence that the object would one day be brought of itself to a successful
conclusion.
§ 415. The English Revolution. Cont. from § 364.
E. ITyde of Clarendon, II. of the KebolUon in Engl. 1649-60. O.xf. 1607. 3 vols. f. Burnet, II. ol
his own times, lGGO-1713. Lond. 1724. 2 vols. 4. and often. [Secret II. of Charles II. Lond. 1722. 2
vols. Clarke, Life of James IL Lond. ISIO. 2 vols.] Ch. F. Wurm, d. Engl. K. 16S9-1702. limb.
1S84. F. C. Dahlmann, Gesch. d. engl. Kev. Lps. 1S4.3. 5 ed. 1853. [IL of the Engl. Rev., from the
German of Dahlmann by E. Lloyd, Lond. 1S44.] T. B. }facaulay, llist of Engl from the accession
of James II. Lond. 1848-53. 4 vols. [J. Mcintosh, 11. of the Rev. in Engl. Lond. 1S34. 4. A. II. Tre-
vor, Life and Times of William III. of Engl. Lond. 1S35-G. 2 vols. 8. P. Grimhlot, Letters of
William III., Louis XIV. and their Ministers, &c. Lond. 1847. S. J. Vernon, Court and Times of
■\Villiam in. in Letters to the Uuke of Shrewsbury, cd. by G. P. li. James, Lond. 1841. 3 vols. 8.
A. Ciirrel, II. of the Counter-Rev. for the Re-estab. of Tupery under Charles IL and James IL, and
C. J. Fox, IL of James II. (In Bogue's Eur. Lib.) Lond. 1840. 8.]
On the death of Cromwell, the English people, weary of the tyranny of
a theocratic republic, recalled the Stuarts to the throne (1660), Charles 11.^
though he wavered between infidelity and Catholicism, followed in the foot-
steps of his father, and the majesty of the kingdom trembled under the inju-
ries inflicted by a dissolute despotism. The Episcopal Established Church
was restoreil, and the Puritans had to bear the blame for tlie blood shed dur-
ing the revolution. Bishops were forceil even upon tlie Scottish Church,
and if any royid favor was shown to the dis.souters, it was only from a regard
/) nolmk, Geist d. luth. Th. Witt p. 115. 169. 211.
(I) Ihid. p. 12'.'ss. and Deutsche Zeltsoh. f. chr. WIss. 1S52. N. Ss.
h) Erinnerungen an d. Kurf. v. Urandonb. u. KTmlge v. Preussen bins. Ihres Verhaltens In Ange-
.cg. d. Rel. u. K. Hnmb. 1S3S. E. lleltcing, ü. Y. W. des grossen Kurf. rol. Ansichten u. kIrcUL
«•olitik. Lemgo. 1^17.
i) Relation des mcfiures, qui fürcnt prises dans les annees 1711-13 pour Infrodulro la liturgio
Angl. dans le R. do Prusse et dans I'Elect. do Hannovre. Extriiit d'lir innnusc d. Dr. Sharp, Lond.
.767. 4. Itenke, Ma;;. 1795s. vol. IV. p. ISS.ss. V. p. 219s.'». Darlegung dor Im vor. Jahrb. wcjfon Ein»
Tihr. d. nngl. KVirf. In Pr. geptlognen Untcrharidl. Lpz. 1S42.
32
498 MODKUN CllfliCII HISTORY. I'lCn. VI. A. V. lfl(S-1858.
to tliü C!nt holies. Tlio 'J'a<i Art wiis tlicrcforo jci.'Jsed in Parliament (1C73)
by wiiich every one was proliibitcd froin holding any public oflice iinles.s he
had acknowledged the king's ecclesiastical supremacy, and had received the
saoranu'iit of the Lord's Supper in an Episcopal church. Lcighton (d. 1084),
Avlio had always kei)t the gospel free from any connection with politics, re-
signed the archbishopric of Glasgow as soon as the violent measures of the
Episcopal Cliiirch had cut off all hope of its reconciliation with the Presby
terians. ('/) Milton, having published a treatise in which he endeavored to
justify the sentence of death which had been passed upon the king, gave in
his darkness and solitude a bright picture of his severe puritanic Christian-
ity in his poem of Paradise Lost. (?y) James II. (after 1G85) publicly pro-
fessed his adherence to the Catholic Church, received a Roman nuncio at his
court, proclaimed free toleration of all religions, imprisoned those bishops
who protested against it, called around him a retinue of Catholic officers, and
formed the design of governing a disaffected people without the aid of Par-
liament. That people, however, soon forsook him. His son-in-law William
III. of Orange, the great champion of the Eepublic and of Protestantism,
became king by an agreement in which the constitution of the empire and
of the Church was distinctly settled (1G89). England retained the Episcopal
form of government for its established Church, Ireland was placed under the
jurisdiction of the Church of England, and most of the dissenters obtained
the privilege of public worship. Socinians and Catholics, however, were
excepted, and were never placed on a level with other dissenters until 1779.
The Test Act also remained in full force. In Scotland, where the inclina-
tions of the people were in favor of it, a Presbyterian form of government
was maintained. The supreme ecclesiastical authority is vested in a General
Assembly, composed of commissioners from the fifteen provincial Presby-
teries, assembled annually at Edinburgh.
§ 416. Freethinlers or Deists.
J. Lehinil. View of the Principal Deistical Writers. 1754. 2 vols. Trinius Froydenker-Lexlcoii.
L. u. Brnb. 1759. Zugabe, 17C5. U. Thorschmid, Vers. e. vollst. cngL Freyd. Bibl. Hal. 1765ss. 4
vols. G. Less, neuste Gescb. d. Ungl. (irt/^c7(, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. II. p. 8ss. Ill, 875ss.) Scldoaser,
Gesch. d. IS. Jahrh. vol. I. p. 8S2ss. G. V. Lechler, Gesch. d. engl. Deismus. Stuttg. 1S41. [Koack,
Die Freidenker in Engl. Lps. 1854. 12. Ilagenhach, KGcsch. des IS. n. 19. Jhh. Vorles. 10. vol. I.
Lps. 1S48.]
It was in England that Ave discover the first efforts of the mind to break
away from all traditionary theology. The struggle between the two Churches
there was severe, and the established clergy did not hesitate to defend their
Catholic position directly in the ftice of their Protestant faith. But the civil
freedom there enjoyed gave to every one full opportunity, not indeed with-
tt) Eob. Leighton e. apost !Mann in stürm Zeit Brl. 1835. [Jerment, Life and Bemains of L.
Lond. J. Pearson, Life prefixed to Works. Lond. 1S46. Works with a Memoir, by Aikinan, Edinb.
IS40. Svo.]
h) Defcnsio pro populo Anglicano. Lond. 1651. Baradi^e Lost. 1CC7. De Doctr. chr. 1. XL ed. C.
/?. Si(mner, Lps. 1^27.— H"; Iliiyley. Life of Milton. Lond. 1796.' 4. G. Weher, in Eaumers liisL
Tasehcnb. 1S52. {Todd-i Life of Milton. Lond. 8. J. Ivimey, Life and Times of J. Milton. New
York. 1835. 12.]
CHAP. 1. EVAXG. CHURCH TILI. ITöO. § 41C. FREETHINKERS. 499
out some danger, (a) to express opinions adverse to the established faith. A
series of authors with no official connection witlx the ecclesiastical establish-
ment, but Avithin the pale of the Church itself, defended by arguments from
common sense, and in some instances with considerable learning, the position
that the natural consciousness of tlie divine existence and man's own con-
science was all that was necessary for a perfect religion. Christianity was
therefore regarded by some of these writers as of no value except as it con-
tained the germ of this natural religion ; by others it was resisted as priest-
craft; and by all its historical importance and origin was denied. Lord
Herlert of Cherhury (d. 1648), a statesman of considerable seriousness and
enthusiasm with respect to religion, was the first to devolope this idea of a
natural religion, which he of course pointed out as an element in pagan-
ism. (Ä) Ilvhhcs (d. 1679), one of those vigorous thinkers who deny their
intellects and sell them to arbitrary power, endeavored to prove that Chris-
tianity was an oriental phantom, which had been raised by the influence of
Grecian philosophy to be an instrument of absolute monarchy, (c) The Earl
of ShafteHhury (1713), advocating a religion of mere morality, mingled in
bis writings an apparent reverence for Cliristianity with the most delicate
irony. ('0 Toland (d. 1722) made an assault upon the Jewish character of
Christianity and the genuineness of its original records, and endeavored to
establish a pantheistic religion of a purely earthly nature. (<) The peculiar
way in which Mmideville (d. 1733) represented the passions and vices of men
as necessary to the prosperity of the state, made his work a satire upon the
morality and the perfect standard advocated by the Church. (/) Collins
(d. 1729) attacked the views of miracles, and the whole system of sensuous
metaphysics in vogue among the divines of that period. (.'/) Woohton resolved
the miracles of Jesus into a series of allegories, and died in defence of his
opinions in prison (1733). (//) 2'lndal (d. 1733) contended that the Scriptures
were nothing but original documents of natural religion, that Christianity
was as old as creation, and that the Church was an institution of the
a) Blanco Whitf, Law of anti-religious libel. Dubl. 1S34.
h) De veritate prout distinguitiir a Revel. (Par. \(,U. 4.) Lond. 1C33. 4. ami often. Pc Rel. Gen-
tiliutn. 1CJ5. ed. J. I o««, Ain>t 1700. [transl into En^'l. Lond. 1705. S. Life of Lord II. of C. writ-
ten by hiinseir. Lond. 1824. 8.]
c) Leviathan. Lond. 1G51. f. (in LaL dc materia, f>rina ct potestato civitatis ccc. et civil.) Anist.
1(170. 4 and oflen. llist ecc. carmine eleg. conelnnat.-u Aug. Trinobant ICsS. [Eng. Works, cd. by
M'm. ifolenicorth, Lond. l>39-43. 9 vols. 8. Latin works, td. by Ji. BUtckbouine, Lond. 1839. S.]—
Thomae Ilobh. Vita Carolop. 1G81. 12.
d) Cliaracteristic* of Men, Manner.«, and Times. Lond. 173.3. 3 vols. 12. [Cooke, Life of !?haft«8-
bury. Lond. 1S3C. 2 vols. 8.]
e) Ctirislianity not mysterious. Lond. 1C9C. Adeisidacmon s. T. Livius a Ruper>L vindicatus.
Hag. Com. 17fi9. Xazarcnu.s, Jewish, ricntilc, and Mahometan Cliri.stianity. Lond. 171S. I'antliels-
ticon. Cosmop. 1720. {TuUnid's Misoell. Work.», with Account of Life and Writings by Dt>i Mai-
Manx, Lond. 1747. 2 vols. S.]—Moshehii, Vimllelao nntiq. clir. dIscipL adv. Tol. c(L 2. Hinb. 1722. 4.
[Theol. And Philol.g. Works of Toland. 1732. S.]
/) Fable of the Bees. Lond. 17ti6. 2 vols. 12. with cotnm. Lond. 1714. [Free Tlionglits on Rel.
tlie Clmreli, &c. Lond. 1729 12 ]
g) A discourse of Freetliinking. Lond. 1713. The »chemo of literal prophecy considered. Lond.
1726. 2 vols. [Hist, and Crit. Essay on the 39 Artt. ic. Lond. 1724. 8. Grounds and reasons of the
Chr. Eel. Lond. 1724 S.]—T/iors(:/tmi<l, Lebenscesch. C. Dr.s.l. 1751.
fi) Disc, on the Miracles. Lond. 1727. with 5 continuations till 1729. CurU, Lifo of W. Lond
1733. Lc7Hi-ei; X.achr. v. W. Schicks. Lps. 1710.
bOO MODKUN ( ntJRCII HISTORY. I'KR. YI. A. T). Ir,|?-1SM.
State. (0 Mon/an (tl. 1743), wlio under tho influence of motives partaking
very little of a spiritual character, had wandered throufjh every variety of
the most heterogeneous parties in the Church, attempted finally to tear off
the mask from every thing historical in Christianity, and show that it was ar.
invention of priests, (/i) C'hiilb (1747) maintained that Christianity was
originally intended to be a revelation of the moral law of nature, the viola-
tion of Avhich was to be atoned for by repentance or pimished at the final
judgment, but that it bad been misunderstood and misrepresented by the
apostles. (0 Lord Bolinghrole (d. 1751), a man possessed of the most emi-
nent social qualities, pointed out to those who made a gain of religion, that
tlio same worldly policy which then directed the events of history had done
the same in all past ages, (w) The partial views which this author took from
his peculiar position, were expressed in a ridiculous representation of the his-
tory of the English kings, written in Avhat he conceived to be the peculiar
views and manner of the Jewish chronicles. («) Henry DoäircU^ Avithout
attempting any compromise with science, endeavored to prove that by its
very nature, religious faith excluded the exercise of all thought, if) Tlie nu-
merous treatises written by the clergy in opposition to the Deists, called also
Rationalists, exhibited a much higher degree of learning, (p) but as literary
productions, they were no match for the better class of the works of their
opponents. Concessions were made in them which rendered others abso-
lutely necessary, and suggested doubts in circles to which professed oppo-
nents could gain no access. Many apostasies from the Church under the
guise of indifference took place among the higher ranks. The noblest repre-
sentative of this class was David Hume (d. 1776), a pleasant philosopher, who
in the uncertainty at which ho had arrived respecting all human affairs, con-
cluded it best to be independent in all things, {q) Even after the most
flourishing period of Deism had passed, the absurd scheme of an association
of deists and atheists, or the mockery of a hell-fire club, was commenced in
London (about 1780). (r) The great body of the people held firmly to the
ancient Christianity, in behalf of which a new enthusiasm was awakened
among the sects. In Germany, some isolated persons still went forth in pur
suit of adventures against the Church. Matthias Knntzen, an itinerant can-
i) Eights of the Church against Eomish and all other priests. Lend. 1T07. and often. Christianity
js old as the Creation. Lond. 1730. 4. and often. [Mem. of the Life, Writings, and Controversies of
Tindal. Lond. 1733. 8. and often.]
ir) The moral philosopher. Lond. 1787. 3 vols. Eesurrection of Jesus. Lond. 1743.
/) The true Gospel of J. Chr. asserted. Lond. 173S. and others.
m) Letters on the Study and Use of Hist. Lond. 1752. 2 vols. Svo. Philosophical works, Lond.
1754. 5 vols. 4. [Works with Life. Philad. 1541. 4 vols. S.— mirbnrton's (Bp.) View of the Pbilos.
of B. Lond. 1756. S.]
«) Acta hist ecc. vol. IX. p. 298. XI. p. 259ss.
o) Christianity not founded on Argument. Lond. (1742. 1743.) 174G.
p) Especially Xaih. Lardner, Credibility of the Gospel History. Lond. (1727.) 1738-55. 2 vols.
[Works with Life by Kippis, Lond. 158?. 10 vols. 8.]
q) Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding. Lond. 174S. Dialogues concendng Xat. Eeli-
pion. Lond. 1778. Life of David Hume, by himself. Lond. 1777. [Philos. Works. Edinb. 182C. 4 voli
S. Essays. Edinb. 2 vols. S.]—Wahh, nst Eel. Gesch. vol. YIII. p. 20SiS. Jacoli, D. II. 1787
(Werke, vol. II.) Zschiesche, de Humio scepüco. Hal. 1835.
f) Acta hist. ecc. nostri temp. vol. XII. p. 343s9.
CHAP. I. EVAXO. CHUßCII TILL 1750. g 41C. DIPPEL. EDELMANN. 501
üidate for the ministry from Holstein, asserted (1764) that a congregation
of persons calling themselves Conscicntinrians (conscientiarii) were exten-
eively spread in various parts, vpho maintained that the Christian Koran was
quite as inconsistent with itself, and as unworthy of confidence, as the Turk-
ish Koran, and that we should, like Enoch and Xoah, Avithout the fable of
Christ, depend entirely upon our reason. This they contended was the con-
science which mother nature has implanted in the breast of every man, and
which, as it is found not merely in one but in many and all intelligent per-
sons, teaches us to injure no one, and to leave all to the possession of what
belongs to them, Ilence they taught that if any one desi)i3ed this Bible, he
must necessarily despise himself. They denied the existence of a God and a
devil, a heaven and a hell, except such as is created by conscience, and they
regarded married women and prostitutes as equally respectable, and all priests
and magistrates as useless. These sentiments were boldly and plainly pro-
mulgated by popular tracts extensively distributed among the people. (*)
The bitter railings which Dlppel (d. 1734), under the name of the Christian
Dcmocritus, published against what he called the Protestant papacy and its
vicarious atonement, were the offspring of a Pietism which he carried to
such a degree of refinement that every thing historical and external in Chris-
tianity vanished from his system. (/) Excited by his writings, and following
the path marked out by Knutzen, Edelmann (d. 1707) believed that he was
called to be a second Luther, and looked upon the Scriptures as a collection
of fragments, which were awkwardly put together after passing through hun-
dreds and thousands of credulous lips. In rude but vigorous language he denied
the claims of every religion founded upon revelation, that he might like a genu-
ine freethinker, emancipated from the shackles of Christianity, i»repare the
way for a religion corresponding Avith reason and experience. Such a reli-
gion he contended would make a Christ of every man, Avhom he regarded as
an individual though imperfect organ of the universal Spirit and the divine
Logos. Ilis Avritings were burnt by order of the emperor (1750), but ho was
protected by Frederic II. («)
«) J. Ifuaaetta, Ableinnng d. Verleambdang, ob wäre In Jon.-» o. neuo Sect« d. Gew. cntsUtoden.
•Tea. (1G74.) 1675. 4. In the Append, to Kuntzcn's "Cliartcqvcn." Uerl. Monatsclir. Apr. u. Aug. ISOl.
ir. liossel, in the Stnd. u. Krit. 1844. P. 4.
t) Collections of his writings: Eriift'n. Wog z. Frieden m. Gott n. alien Crcatiiren durch Chr.
Denioc. (17u9.) Berlcb. 1747. 8 vols. 4. M\ilch, IJ. Str. vol. II. p. 71Sss. IL J. W. (Iloirinann) Leben
u. Mein. Dip. Dannst 17S2. W. Klosf, .J. Dipp. (ZoiU^:li. f. hist. Th. 1S51. II. 3.)
v) Unschuld. Wahrheiten. 173!Jss. 15 St. Mosos mit aur;:cdocktcn Angos. Freyb. (Berlcb.) 1740.
3 Anblicke. Dio Göttlichk. d. Vernunft. 1741. Setidschr. den Vorzug, e. Frcygolsts vor e. armen
Bunder zeigend. Freyst 1740.— Selbstblo^rr. (1752.) cd. by Klose, IJrI. 1$49.— ./: //. J'ralje, hist
Naclir. V. Ed. Ilnnib. 1755. W. Elster, Erin, an Ed. in Bezug a. Strauss. Clausth. 1*39.
502 MODEUN CHURCH HISTOllY. PKU. VI. A. D. lfilWS*3.
§ 417. The Quälers.
Cnticli. ot flilcl Conf. Roter. 1676. Lps. 1752. lioh. Burclay, Theo], vcre ehr. Apol. Anist lö7«. 1. and
rft, Venn, Smiiiiiiiry of tho hist., doctr. nnd discipl. of Friends. 1C92. cd. C. 1707. m. Anm. v. Seehohm,
l'vrin. (l'U'.'.) 17!»S. liiilos of discl])!. of the Soc. of Friends. Loud. 17S3. cd. .3. 1S.34.— 6-'. Croenii H.
(jiiiilccrlnnn. Aiiist. (Ifii).').) 1704. Jll/erti, Nachr. v. d. Rel. d. Q. Hann. 17Ö0. (Jmirjlinn, W. of the
[■ooplc c.illcd Quakers. Dubl. 17S9. 4 vols. F. Clarkson, Portraiture of Quakerisme. Lond. 1806. 8-
vdis. //. Tukc, [Principles of Religion as held by Christians comirior.ly called Quakers, in Germ, ii
Kn"]. Lond. and Lpz. IS'28. 8.] J.J. G urtiey, 0\)%%. on the society of Friends. Lond. 1S24. c<L 7
13.34. \_W. Scicell, H. of the Quakers. Lond. and New York. 1840. 2 vols. 8. TI' li. V'ctgBtiiff, II. a*
the Soc. of Friends. New York. 1S36. 8.]
George Fox (d. 1691), a sLoemakcr from the county of Leicester, who
felt called by inward visions to become a reformer of tlie ungodliness which
]irevailcd around Lim, founded (after IG-iO) in tlie stormy times of the revo-
lution the society of Friends, commonly called Quakers, (a) The essential
principle of their faith was that every thing of a rehgious character in man
is the result of an immediate operation of the Spirit of God, Avho would
come to all who quietly waited for him. They therefore look upon all exter-
nal rites as useless. This internal revelation proceeding from Christ ever
since the fall, and given to impart everlasting life to man, they regard as
of equal authority with the Holy Scriptures. They look upon the sacraments
as merely symbols of an internal state of mind, and therefore not necessary
to be received in an external form ; they reject the office of the regular
clergy, together with all systems of theology, on the ground of their being
human inventions, and they wish to have no church but that of the Spirit.
On religious grounds they decidedly refuse to render any military service, to
swear, to pay tithes, and to conform to the fashions of the world. In conse-
quence of the violent disturbances of public worship which Fox allowed him-
self and his followers to make, and their refusal to perform the duties ordi-
narily required of citizens, many of the Quakers were thrown into prisons
and lunatic asylums, until William Fcnn (d. 1T18), a man worthy of the
crown as well as of the cross, determined to establish a home for his com-
panions in the faith, as well as for religious freedom generally. He purchased
the lands situated on the Delaware, and formed, under the sovereignty of
the English crown, and by means of colonies nearly half of whose citizens
were Quakers, the state of Pennsylvania, for a long time the cradle of lib-
erty for the African and for the world. {I) The same privileges as were
enjoyed by the Dissenters generally in England were acquired (1686) by the
Friends, and their conscientious scruples Avere treated with the utmost indul-
gence. Only a few congregations still exist in Holland, in England they are
decreasing, in Northern Germany they have become extinct, and but a sin-
a) Collect of Chr. Epistles written by G. Fox, Lond. 169S. 2 vols. f. Journal of the Life, Travels,
and Sufferings of G. Fox. Lond. 1G91. and often. [Philad. 1836. & Complete Works of G. Y. Philad.
1S31. 8 vols. S. IT. Tiike, Memoirs of the Life of G. F. Lond. 12.]
l>) Works. Lond. 1726. 2 vols. f. (IT. A. Teller) Lebensbeschr. W. P. Brl. 1779. aarlson, Me-
moirs of the private and piibl. life of W. P. 1813. 2 vols. Memoirs of the Hist Society of Pennsyl-
vania. Philad. 1840. vol. IV, 1. [B. IT. Draper, Life of W. P. Lond. 1326. 24.] Correspondence oi
.T. Logan with W. P. collected by ITannah I'enji, Philad. 1821. [J. JT. Janney, Life of W. P. and
Sol. from Cor. and Autobiogr. 2 ed. Philad. lSe2. 8. ys'eems' Life of W. P. Philad. 12. IF'. II.
Diron, Hist Biogr. of W. P. from new sources, new ed. Philad. 1S51. 12 ]
CnAr. L EVAXG. CIIUKCII TILL 1750. § 41S. ZINZENDOEF. 503
gle congregation has become established in Pyrmont (1791). ('■) Govern-
ment among them is administered on democratic principles, by a series of
assemblies gradually ascending to the highest, in each of which difficulties
between members are settled by arbitration. Those who, in the contest for
American freedom, in an admirable enthusiasm temporarily laid aside their
peculiar principles and took up arms for their country, and those who par-
tially renounced the rude exterior required by the society, while moderately
enjoying their well-earned wealth, although tolerated by the society as fight-
ing, free, lukewarm, or wet Friends, are never elected as deputies to their
superior assemblies. The enthusiasm of an entire reliance upon temporary
inspirations is somewhat moderated by an education inculcating stillness as
one of its primary principles ; but the secret inclination which has always
characterized this system to break loose from all historical Christianity, has
been developed during the nineteenth century in many American congrega-
tions by Elias Hides. This has, however, given occasion for an expression
of a more decided adherence to the Holy Scriptures on the part of the
other, and the most numerous portion of the members. {<J) In the com-
munion of this people, Elizabeth Fnj found the strength and courage which
enabled her to penetrate the thousand prisons to which she conveyed the
contrition and consolation of the gospel, (e)
§ 418. The United Brethren. Ziuzendorf. 1700-1700.
Zimendorf : Gegeinr. Gestalt des Krciizroiclis Jesu in sr. Unscliuld. L[>s. (1745.) 4. Tltpl tavrov
o. naturelle liefloxiones. (1740.) 4. Jcreinias e. Prediger d. Gerecbtigk. new ed. Brl. 18-30. Spangen-
berg, Leben d. G. v. Z. (Barby.) 1772ss. 8 vols. L. C. v. Sc/iruutenhach, d. Gr. v. Z. ii. d. Brüder-
gem. sr. Zeit. (I7S2.) od. by F. W. Kijlbing, Gnad. 1S51. J. W. Verheek, d. G. v. Z. Leben u. Char.
GnaA. \^i^.— V<trnh<igen von Eitse, Leben d. G. v. Z. (Biogr. Denkra. vol. V.) Brl. 18.30.— Bü-
dliigische Samml. einiger in d. KHist. einschlag. Selirr. Bud. 1742ss. 3 vols. Spangenherg : Nachr.
V. (L gegenw. Verf. d. ev. Br. U. ( ir«fc/(, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. III.) 5. umg. A. Gnadau. 1S2.3. Idea
fldei fratr. o. kurtztr Bgr. d. chr. Lehre. B.irb. 1779. Lebenslauf v. ihm selbst. (I/enk-e'ft Arch. f. n?:.
KG. vol. IL St 3.) Statuten d. ev. Br. U. Gnad. 1S19.— /). Cram, alte u. nene BrUlerhist Barb.
17T2. (l/egner) Forts. B. 1791-1804. Gnad. 1816. 3 vols. Gr. v. Lynar, Nachr. v. Urspr. u. pegenw.
Verf. d. B. U. 1778. 2 ed. Ilal. 17S1. Ch. C. F. Schulze, v. Entst u. Einr. d. ev. Brüdergcm. Goth
1S22. L. So/iaaf, d. ev. BrQdergeni. Lps. 1825. F. I.itiU, Blicke in d. Vergangenh. u. Gegenw. djr
BrQderk. Lps. 1846. [.1. G. Spandenberg, E.vpos. of the Chr. Doct as taught in the Prot. Church
of the U. B. with Pref. by La Trohe, Lend. 1796. 8. 7). Crantz, IL of the U. B. Lond. 17S0. 8. A".
Jlogenhaeh, KGcsch. des IS. u. 19. Jahrh. 2 ed. Th. L Vorles, 18. Lps. 1S49. 2 Th. 12.]
Louis, Count of Zimendorf, even when a boy at the orphan house, was
filled with the idea which Spener had inculcated, of reforming the Church
and establishing it among the heathen by planting it in their midst as a
grain of mustard-seed. Ilis aspirations received a permanent dircctiim under
the influence of the Moravian brethren, who had formed a settlement on his
estates at Berthelsdorf, to which other newly-awakened jicrsons were added.
until he succeeded in laying (1722) the foundation of the congregation of
Herrnhut, on tlie Ilutberg. Under his influence the hostile spirits among his
people were conciliated, the ecclesiastical constitution which he proposed to
c) J. E. SchmUl, Qulikergemelndc in Pyrm. Brnschw. 1S05.
d) Ev. K. Z. 1S2S. p. SO.'iss. 1S29. p. 782s!». 1S40. p. Ulss.
e) Leben u. Denkwürdigk. der Frau Elis. Fry. Hamb. 2 cd. 1S50. 2 vols. \J. Timpson, McmMrf
of E. Fry. Lond. 1S40. New York. 1847. 2 vols.]
,-,01 .M<)I)KI:N Cllli:« H III>T()ItV. VKll. VI. a. U. ]049-15M.
tliiMii WHS acoopti'd (1727), iiikI in a slmrt fiiuc their missionaries Avandered
lorlli iiiiioii;,' llio licatlicn. Tiio religion wliich lie tauglit was fdiiridcd upon
the Bible, Imt inculcated very free oi)ini<)ns respecting it, and consisted prin-
lipailv ill exorcises of the most confiding love to the Saviour, This love
exalted il above all distinctions in ecclesiastical creeds, but produced no
anxiety to abolish them. Ilenco tlie congregation gradually became organ-
ized into three different tropes, called the Moravian, the Lutheran, and the
Reformed. Their ordinary devotions were principally taken up with refer-
ences to the corporeal part of the expiatory sufferings of Jesus, and their
natural relations of conjugal life were strangely connected with those of a
religious character. With a mind ri'markably inclined to extravagance, and
with inexhaustible powers for communicating with others on religious sub-
jects by oral discourses, and singing directly from the heart, («) in the half
French court dialect of his time, and yet with a singular facility for suggest-
ing the most exalted themes hj the use of the most common comparisons,
Ziuzendorf was fond of playing with allusions to the wounds of the Lamb,
and Avith the boldest images of sexual love. The oftcnce which this gave to
the theologians of his day, was hardh* capable of augmentation by the fan-
tastic notions which he advanced respecting the persons of the sacred Trinity,
and various suspicious circumstances which became known in his commn-
nity. (h) It was with the utmost difficulty that the count broke through the
prejudices of his order so as to reach the clerical office, but he was finally
recognized at Tubingen as a candidate, and ordained to the e])iscopal oflBce
by a Moravian bishop at Berlin, But having attained this official position,
his rank and education were of important service to him in his spiritual du-
ties. After a ten years' banishment from Saxony, he succeeded, as a Chris-
tian statesman, in inducing the ecclesiastical council of Electoral Saxony to
recognize the connection of his congregations with the churches professing
the Augsburg Confession (1748), and in obtaining from Parliament a regular
enactment which recognized them as constituent members of the Episcopal
Church (1749). Although the humblest of the humble, he demanded implicit
submission to his official power of binding and loosing, (c) and infused into bia
works so much of the principle of life, that it could very soon exist without
him. After a brief season of enjoyment, he generally withdrew from those
who were in various ways excited and inspired. ((/) But although the Breth-
ren established settlements in all parts of the world, Zinzondorf was still pre-
pared with the most restless and extreme activity to labor to win persons of
every class in society to the love of his Lord. Each congregation is divided
into choirs according to age, sex, and matrimonial connection. Within the
general bond of the congregation is embraced at once all civil, and many
n) Gelstl. Gedichte d. Gr. Z. gcsamnielt u. gesiclitet v. A. Knapp, Stuttg. 1545. Stud. n. Krit
ISiS. II. 3.
t) (After Fresenius, 1747ss. and Bengel. 1751.) Das entdcclitc Geheimniss d. Bosh. d. Ilermh.
äecte. Krkf. 1749. J. Stiu/itra, Wnrniing vor d. Fanaticism, from the Dutch. Brl. 17Ö2. [Stinntra'i
Pastoral Letter against Fanaticism has been transl. into Engl, with a Narr, of the Eise and Prog. <4
the Moravians by Ilimiux. Lond. 1753. S. Jfosheim, Ecc, U. Cent. XV III. § 17. nt L Ilajenbach,
KGcsch. des IS. u. 10. .Ihh. Erster Th. Torless. IS. & 19.
c) Acta hist ecc. vol. VI. p. 569ss. rf) IhU. vol. IV. p. C41ss.
CHAP. I. EVAXG. CnCRCII TILL 1750. § 419. METHODISTS. 505
professional and external relations, but some "who are called Friends may
also reside beyond the limits of the settlement («V Siaa-nopä). As the congre-
gation consists only of those who are called the Awakened, it follows that
those who may become lukewarm fall under the discipline of the Church.
This consists in admonition, exclusion from the Lord's Supper, from church
fellowship, and finally from the congregation. The officers are deacons,
elders, and bishops, tliough these hist possess no exclusive prerogatives.
Every settlement is under the government of a conference composed of its
officers, and the whole Unity is governed by a conference of the elders, the
seat of which is established at Bertlielsdorf, and calls from every four to ten
years a general synod, at which its own vacancies are filled and all important
measures are decided upon. Every thing beyond the reach of human calcu-
lation is intrusted to a decision by the lot, as tliey believe that Jesus ha.s such
a direct connection with their affairs, that in such a proceeding he directs the
result, (e) The system of government among the united Brethren is the
same with that of the Pietists, although the mild and cheerful disposition of
Zinzendorf could not accede to the requirement of penitential convulsions,
and he therefore was not on intimate terras with the Orphan House. The
objectionable expressions which Zinzendorf liad used in the early part of his
course, were finally recalled by himself, and still more decidedly by his judi-
cious and learned successor, Spaiujcuhurg (d. 1702). (/) The piety of the
Hermhutters soon degenerated into a peculiar mannerism, and it became per-
vaded by a commercial worldly spirit, (y) Yet many a quiet or broken
heart found a home among tliem, and the genuine Christ of earlier days
found there a sanctuary in times of infidelity and unbelief.
§419. The Methodists. Wesley. 1703-91. WhiteßeW. 17H-70.
Tlie works of J. Wesloy. Bristol. ITTlss. 82 v. R. Southe;/, Lifo of J. W. & tlio rise ami progress
of Metbo(li.siii. cd. 3. Lond 1S46. 2 vols. S. J/. Jfuore, Lifo of J. W. Lond. 1824*. 2 vols. II. Wnttou,
Obss. on Soutliey's Life of W. Lond. ed. 4. IS-^a— Life of G Wliitoflild. Edinb. 1S2G. edited after tlio
Engl, by Tholuck in Germ. Lpz. 1*54. [./ Gilliex, Memoirs of G. W. Hartford. IS:«. S. II. Philip,
Life & Times of G. W. Lond. 1537. 12. New York. 1S33. 12.]^^. G. Bitrckhard, vollst Gesch. d.
Metli. in Enjil. Nürnb. 1795. 2 vols. J. Crowther, Portralturo of Meth. Lond. 1S15. J. W. £,ium, der
MetU. Zur. 183S. T. Jacknon, [Hist, of the Comtnencoment, I'rog. it Present State of Meth. Lond.
1S3S. Iiaac Taylor, Wesley & Meth. Lond. ISÖI. S. J. WhiMif.id, Lives of J. it C. Wesley. Lond.
1793. 2 vols. 8. Moore's Lives of J. & C. W. & Account of Great Pvcvivals. Lond. 1524. 2 vols. S. J.
Ilampnon, Mem. of Wesley i H. of Methodism. Lond. 1791. 8 vols, 8. Doc. ii Hist, Invest, of Meto,
in its Connecti'inal Prin. »fc Pol. 2 ed. Lond. IS-Vi. Mirmtes of Conferences in Eiu'l. from 1744 to
1S24. Lond. 1S24. 5 vols. S. Ä Warren, Clironicles & Dit'ost of Laws, »fee, of Meth. Lond. 1?27. 3
vols. 12.]
A revival of groat importance Avith respect to England and N'orth Amer-
ica had its origiu in an association of jiious students wliom Jolin Wesley col-
lected around him at Oxford (172;0, and avIio were called Methodi.sts, on
account of their jirocise and strictly holy lives. During his long life the only
thought that seemed to fill the mind of Wesley was that of the salvation of
Bouls. In connection with him was WhiteßeU, under whoso preaching the
«) Yet comp. Allp. K. 55. 1882. N. lia ScfirautfiibacJi, p. S5s.
/) A'. F. Ltdderhooe, d. Leben A. G. Spang. Ikidib. 1S4G.
(?) Die llerrnh. in Leben ii. Wirken, v. c. eheni. Mit^liedc. Weim. 1S39.
-,0G MoDKüN cm i:<ii iiisroiiv. vva:. vi. a. d. iws-isaj.
lu'.'irts (if iiiiillitiKlos were .shaken, iiml ^vll() fi/lt tliat he needed more tongues
i\nd bodies und .»^oids in the service of the Lord tlian Avas bestowed on mei
lor ordinary i>nri)oses. As lie travelled from land to land, wherever the Eng-
lish language was understood, this seraphic preacher flung his Avords liko
lirebrands among all classes in every extreme of society. The Methodi.sts did
not at first desire a separation from the Episcopal Church ; but when they
wore persecuted in various ways in that church, they began to form a society
embracing many congregations, subject to a rigid system of ecclesiastical dis-
cipline, and under the jurisdiction of superintendents and synods. At an early
]iorlod thoy held some communication with tlie Pietists and Ilerrnhutter.s, but
they soon withdrew from the latter, as their religious life did not commence
with a gentle development of the feelings, but with a violent assault upon the
selfishness of human nature, and a painful process of regeneration. They
therefore required that their converts should be able to tell of a distinct time
in which thej' found divine grace, and they preferred to hear that that period
was one of even violent corporeal excitement. On this account their elo-
quence, which glowed with pictures of hell, had. the greatest success among
those who had hitherto lived lives of irreligion, or at least were then incapa-
ble of feeling any higher appeal. As Wesley was Arminian, and Whitefield
Calvinistic on the subject of divine grace, they finally separated from each
other (1740), but the Wesleyans wei'e the most numerous. Their principal
danger was perceived and guarded against by "Wesley, and consisted in an
iuditference to the moral law while the mind was taken up with the blessed-
ness of a lively faith. It became most developed in the case of FletcJur, a
man who may be truly called a mirror of a ministerial life, wholly lost in
God. (a) The special providential mission of this people was to act as leaven
in the midst of the Episcopal Church, then sunk in the deepest formality, and
to take an interest in the poor and neglected classes among the people. Hence,
although their number at the present time in both hemispheres probably
amounts to a million, their influence, principally by means of 'uneducated itin-
erant preachers, is probably still more extensive. The sacred struggle for
liberty which was so long sustained by Wilberforce, originated to a great ex-
tent among the Methodists, (b)
§ 420. The Church of the New Jerusalem. Sioedenlorg. 1688-1772,
Sicedenhorg : Arcana ooclestia, (Lond.) 1749ss. 7 v. 4 ed. Tafel, Tub. lS.33ss. 5 v. Vera clir. rel.
com])!, univ. Tlicol. novae Eec. Amst 1771. 2 v. 4. A series of writings by & respecting Sw. commn-
nicited by Iinm. TufA & Ludw. Uofacker, especially: Güttl. Otlenbb. from the Lat Tub. lS-2.3s.s S
vols. Die Cbristusrel. in ihrer Aechth. Tub. ISSls. 4 vols. Katocliisnins u. d. Lehre d. N. K. Tub.
1S30. (After the Catecbism of the General Conference. Lond. 162S.) Titfel, vergl. Darst. n. Beurtl).
d. Lebrgegens. der Kath. u. Prot Zugliech. Darst. d. UnterscheidungsL Sw. Tub. lS-35. Tufil. S. a
s. Gegner. Tub. 1S41. 2 vols.— JToW^r, Tub. Quartalscbr. 1S30. P. 1 revised in bis Symbolik. OMet
matters in : StatuUi», kircbl. Geogr. vol. L p. 246ss. Latest liter, account:! in HhfinicaUh Eep. 1S:34
vol. IX. p. 216sä. A. K. Z. Lit, Bl. ISoÖ. N. 95ss, Ihtug, d. Lehre d. neuen K. (Studien d. ev. Geistl.
VrOit ia42. vol XIV.) a F. Xa-nz, E. Sw, d. nord. Seher. Schw. Uall. 2 ed. 1S50. [Many Workl
«) Lebon Fletscbers, m, Yorr. v. Tboluck. Brl. 1S33. [J. Benson, Life of F. Lond. 12.— Chockj
to Antinoin. by J. Fletcher. New Tork. Works of J. F. New Tork. 4 v. S.]
I) Life of W. Wilb. by his sons. Lond. 1*33. 4 v. [Pbüad. revised by C. Morris. 1S4I. 2 v. li]
CHAP. I. EVAN'G. CHUECU TILL 1750. §420. SWEDEXBOEG. 507
af Sw. ha^e been translated by different persons & publ. by 0. Clapp of Boston. 1S13-51. J. G.
Wilkinson, Blogr. of E. Sw. Boston. 1S49. 12. A. Clissold, Tractical nat of the Doctt. of E. S. Best
"iSS9. 12. A'. Jliigeiibacli, KGescb. (p. 49S.) Th. I. Vorles. 21.]
Emanuel von Sircdcnlorg^ wlio was an a-ssessor in the Miners' College at
Stockholm, had been highly educated in many branches of science, and had
contributed much to increase a knowledge of mechanics and mining opera-
tions in general. As he was continually pursuing his researches farther and
fiu'ther into the mysteries of nature, during his internal religious conflicts,
he attached himself to every kindred s[)irit of whom he could learn any thing,
from the time of Birgitte to that of Jacob Boehm(?, and he came to the conclu-
sion that he was himself honored by an intercourse with the spirits of another
world, who manifested themselves to him inwardly, but with the necessary
semblance of an external form, («) Sometimes in quaint, but sometimes also
in very ingenious language, in the style of a Northern Dante he described his
visions, in which were pictures of every terrestrial state, and in a few in-
stances of rare sagacity he made it appear as if lie really had such an inter-
course with spirits. {]>) It was not, however, until he received a revelation
directly from the Lord that he felt called upon to attempt the deliverance of
Christianity from the corruption into which it had fallen from the time of the
Council of Nica^a, and to establish the Church of the New Jerusalem as the
third Testament of God to man, and the spiritual second advent of Christ.
A few congregations of this new church, principally formed on the basis ol
his writings, which were regarded as sacred books, were collected togethc
in England and in North America (after 1788), and were represented in an
nual General Conferences (after 1815). In Sweden his views have obtained
extensive prevalence among the educated classes, and in "Wurtemberg they
have been promulgated by Oetiuger^ (c) and revived by the enthusiastic co
operation of the pious librarian, Tafcl. The doctrines of Swedenborg are a
fantastic species of rationalism, which, in place of the expiatory sacrifice of
Christ and the Trinity, substitutes a three-fold revelation of the one God, who
was obliged to become man, that ho might give a human character to the doc-
trines of faith, and drive back the powers of hell. There is an organ in every
man for communication with the spiritual world, which can be emancipated.
The secret and spiritual sense of the sacred Scriptures are of no use except
to illustrate the truths derived from tlie literal sense, and to elevate them to
the view of reason. (*/) The friends of tiiis system, therefore, might on the
one hand be fond of every mysterious phenomenon in nature and in the
spiritual world, and on the other, receive Ciiristianity as a religion of reason, {c)
It was possible also for them to regard their views as the gradual and con-
tinued development of Protestantism, and while they merely contended for
«) (Kant) Trfiumo eines Gelsterselior.«, erläutert dorcli Triiiimo der Metaphysik. Kiinissb. 1TC6
Kiener, in s. Arcliiv. vol. IlL St 1. Vol. VIIL St. 2. J. Gorres, Sw. s. Visionen u. Verb. z. K. Strassb
1S2T.
I) Samml. d. Urkunden betr. Leben u. Charakter Sw. ni. Anni. v. Tafol. Tub. 1i39.
c) Oetingfit; Sw. u. andrer ird. u. Iiimml. I'liil. I'rkf. u. L. ITOS.
(1) Tiifil, d. Giittlichk. d. II. S. o. d. ticforc Pclirift>lnn. Tub. 1S:}9.
e) La rel. du bon-sens, cxposO prOlun. u la doctr. de la nouv. Jer. Par. 1332. Oegger, nonv. f|ues-
Hens pl.il. Born. 1S35.
50S MODKEN CHURCH UISTORV. PKH. VI. A. D. IMS-lSSa
tlio laying asldo of creeds, they preached that theirs was tlie Joliannic church
of tlio flit uro. (/)
§421. Minor Fanatioal Parties.
F. W. Krug, krif. Ocsch. (I. prot. rel. Scliwärincrel. Sectlr. u. widcrkirchl. Neuer Im Gro«h. Verg
Elborr. IS-M. M. Giibel, Gescli. des clir. Lebens in rt. rheiii. wostpli. K. 1S52. vol. II. F. W. Bar-
t/io/i/, (1. Krwooklen Im prot, Deutsolil. Ansgang. <1. IT. u. erste Hälfte <1. 13. Jlili. bcs. d. frommen.
Qrnfeiiliiife. (llauiiicrs lilst Tasclienb. lS5i & 53.)
1. John Laiculic, a canon of Amiens, dissatisfied with the Jesuits and
their opponents, sought in the Reformed Church a peoi)]e of God, who wor-
shipped Christ in sincerity (1050). lie agreed with that Cliurcli ia its doc-
trinal views, and he was anxious to revive the external organization which
prevailed in the apostolic age. The germ of his cliurch Avas composed of
certain regenerate persons, whom he formed into a devotional family, and
which followed the deposed pastor of Middleburg as an independent congre-
gation. The Mary of this community was the eminently gifted Schurinan, («)
but he himself was every where rejected, until an asylum was granted him in
Altona (1G74). Deprived of its leader the congregation soon dwindled away
in the Netherlands, and became the forerunners of the Pietists in a sectarian
form, (h) 2. A gloomy flame was occasionally kindled in difierent places by
tlie writings of Boehme. Quirinus Kulilmann of Breslau, a poet, whose life
was itself a continual poem, wandered over the earth full of glowing love for
the Redeemer, and urged on by a vague impulse that ho was to revolutionize
the world, until he was burned at the stake in Moscow (1689.) (c) Gkhtel
(d. 1710) of Ratisbon broke up all his civil and social connections, that he
might, like an oriental saint, abstract himself from nature, and lose himself
entirely in the Deity. The results of his efforts among a class of persons
aiming to be a priesthood after the order of Melchisedek, to expiate the sins
of other men, and an angelic brotherhood striving to live free from earthly
cares, pleasures, and toils, have come down through a series of individuals in
Lower Germany to the nineteenth century. (fZ) Daniel Mueller (1716-82)
thought that sacred history was intended to be an allegory to represent
general ideas, that Adam and Christ were the same human formation of the
one all-pervading Deity, that the sacred writings of all nations were equally
divine, and that he, like an Elias, Avas called to redeem the Avorld from the
yoke of the letter. lie travelled through the Avhole northern part of Ger-
many to announce that the external church Avas about to be subverted, and,
although he died under an impression that God had deceived him, he has even
noAV some followers who reject the historical Christ, look upon infidels as their
brethren, and are Availing for Mueller's return to set up a universal kingdom, (c)
/) G. A. Werner, since 1840: Kv. K. Z. 1S45. p. 431s. Zeitsch. f. unirte ev. K. 1S51. N. 31.
a) EvK\r}pia s. melioris sortis electio. Alton. 1673. Dess. 1782. 2 vols.
h) Doelarationsch. o. Erkl. d. reinen Lehre. Ilervord. 1671. Walch, E. Str. ausserh. vol. IV. p
653. Moeller, Cimbr. lit vol. III. p. 35ss.
c) BiitjU, Art. Kuhlm. u. Kublpsalter. Unsch. Nacbrichten 1711. p. 755. 1743. p. 965ss. Hurenbei-Q
de Q. K. (Mas. Brcm. Tb. L p. 651ss.) Adelung, Gesch. menscbl. Narrh. vol. V. p. 3ss.
(1) KindertnUr, neue Engelbrudersch. Nord. 1719. neinheck, Nacb. v. G. Lebensl. u. Lehr*
Brl. 1732. (Harless) G. Leben u. Irrthümer. (Lv. K. Z. 1S31. N. 77ss.)
*) Keller, Dan. Mueller, rel. Schwärmer d. IS Jahrb. Lpz. 1S:34.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CnURCn TILL 1T50. § 421. SECTS & FACTIONS. 509
S. The Heh-etrs, founded by a candidate whose nama was Verschooren, ap-
peared (about 1730) in Leyden, as quiet separatists. Avho held that every one
was bound to read the Scriptures in the original languages, and that the merit
of Christ Avas so great that his elect people were freed from all guilt, (/)
4. The peasant Janssen carried his notions of predestination to such an ex-
treme that he contended tliat every thing i>roceeded from God, and would
finally return to God, consequently, that even all sin was effected by God,
and that human guilt was only a fiction of the imagination. On his expul-
sion from East Friesland (iV-iO) he returned thither professedly by the divine
command, and proclaimed that the country was soon to be reduced to desola-
tion. As the measures taken by the authorities were of no great force, he
succeeded in maintaining himself with a small band of bold followers for sev-
eral years. ((/) 5. 'Elias Filer, criminally connected (1729) with An7ia, a
baker's daughter, afterwards converted l)y him, promised a pietistic circle of
epicures at Elberfeld that the Messiah should be born a second time. She also,
in the character of the woman clothed with tlie sun, knew how, in direct con-
tradiction to the laws of nature, to show from the Apocalyp.so Avhat her for-
tune was to be. The city of Eonsdorf was constructed by them, she was
much esteemed as the mother of Zion, and he died in the midst of the high-
est honors (1744, 1750). (A) 6. In Brueggle, in the Canton of Berne, sprung
up an excitement among the children, accompanied by pretended prophecies
and visions. In this movement the two brothers Kohler, who, while boys,
had been employed in various kinds of magical delusions, made themselves
known as the two witnesses mentioned in the Apocalypse, and fixed upon a
certain day in which they declared that Christ would return to tlie world.
This day, however, was subsequently postponed, as they alleged, in conse-
quence of their prayers. They poured forth the most abusive epithets upon
the Church, and rioted upon the donations, and shamefully abused the wives
of those who were duped by them. Jerome Köhler wjis strangled at the gib-
bet for blasphemy (1753), and although he confes.<ed himself an impostor, his
followers thought he was invulnerable, and they expected hina to rise again
on the third day. (/) 7. From the conventicles still proceeded many persons
under the influence of religious excitement ; Prophets, to prepare the way
for the speedy return of Christ to the world ; Separatists, who protested
against the corruptions of the Cliurch, and those who under the sensuous re-
action of pietistic feelings, abused the liberty of God's children in the indul-
gence of the most unbridled licentiousness. The Counts of "NVitgenstoin, from
financial as well as pious considerations, till almost the middle of the eighteenth
oentury, opened their little principality to all who were oppressed on account
of religion. There Socinians and inspired persons lived together, and those who
had been awakened under the most diverse influences, met together with all
/) Acta hist ecc vol. I. p. 860. VI, lOCOss.
O) AcU hist, eoc. vol. V. p. 13. 2l2ss. VI, lOCSss. Mus. Urem. vol. II. p. 144«s.
?i) Grand d. Verwüst. hell. Stätte o. d. Geliolinniss d. r.<»h. <L I'.unsd. Secte. Frkf. I'^X Z>
Schleiermnc/ier, Apologie. Amh. 1750. tf. H'. JCnfce!, Gescli. d. Bosh. d. Ellor-Secte zu IJ. Marb
1751. 2 vols.
■i) Das entd. G.li. d. Bosh. In d. Brügglersecto. Zur. 1753. 2 vol». Acta hl»t ecc. vol. XVII. p
»06. 1031SS.
510 MoDKUN cnni:rii iirsTORV. per. vi. ^v. d. iw9-is58.
their iii'ciili;iriti(.'S. (h) \i was tliore that Motlicr Ere (of I'utler), as the ne\v
iiicariiatinii of llio flirco divine persons, -witii lier soihiccr and tiiosc whom sho
had seduced, lioi)od to ostablisli her empire (1702.) Even wlien surrendering
herself to natural indulgences of the flesh, as well as to sliaraeful crimes
against nature, she endeavored to lose herself in the wounds of Jesus, and
misused tlio words of Scri[)ture in the boldest manner. The company which
slie assembled were jdimdered by the count's police, and were soon lost in tlio
Catliolic Church, to which they lied for protection. {I)
§ 422. Sjjread of Christianity.
J. Wiggers, Gesch. d. prot Mir^ion. Ilamb. 18-15s. 2 vols.
As long as the Catholic powers had the dominion of the seas, Protestant
missions were necessarily of a very limited extent. The United Bretliren
formed a central point, from which went forth missionaries to every quarter
of the world (since 1732) ; but the gospel, as it was presented by the Herrn-
hutters, could captivate only a few individuals, and could operate only in a
very narrow circle, («) 1. The conversion of the aboriginal inhabitants to
Christianity was indispensable to the safety of the English colonies in North
America. It was commenced (1646) by John Eliot^ with the conviction that
all things were possible to those who diligently toiled and prayed with faith
in Christ. The Puritans, who then possessed the supreme power, established
a society for planting Christianity in foreign countries (1647), and the Method-
ists also forthwith crossed the sea. America, however, has become Christian,
not so much in consequence of its conversion, as of its colonies, {h) 2. With
the continual assistance of the Orphan House at Halle, Denroark has main-
tained (since 1706) a mission for its East Indian possessions at Tnmqiiebar,
from which also were obtained the first missionaries to the English East In-
dies and the West India Islands, In the East Indies the success has not been
very great, and in the West Indies it has been confined wholly to the slaves, (c)
3. In Lapland missionaries had to be continually sent and sustained from
Denmark and Sweden to uphold Christianity against the severe exactions of
nature, {d) 4. Since the fifteenth century Greenland (p. 247 j had been com-
pletely lost sight of by the nations of Europe. A Norwegian minister, Hans
Egede^ became possessed with a strong desire to win back this legendary
country to the fellowship of European and Christian society. He finally suc-
/?■) J. W. Winkel, Casimir reg. Graf zu Sayn-Witt. Vielefeld. IföO.
Abstr.-ict of tlie public acts la : Tcrnüiiftitrc u. clir. aber nicht scheinbeil Thorn.isische GeiianSen.
IIa!. 1725. vol. III. p. 20S.<s.— ff. F. KMer, d. Buttler'sche Rotte. (Zeit-^^ch. f. bist Tb. 1S4Ö. IL 4.)
") Spiingenberg in Walcb, nst Kol. Gesell, vol. VIII. p. 251ss. Ueberslcht d. Mlssionsgescb. d.
ev. Brüdcrk. Gnad. 1S33. [.7: Holmes, U. of Missions of the U. B. Lond. ISIS. Periodical Accounts
of the Missions of U. B. from 1790. Lond. 10 vols.]
h) Eliot, Chr. Commonwealth, or the rising kingdom of J. Cli. 165-2s. 2 v. 4. Mather, Ecc. IL of
New Engl. Lond. 1702. f. [& Boston. 1S53. 2 vols. B.}—J. G. Midler, d. Vorst. v. grossen Geiste unter
d. Indianern. (Stud. u. KriL 1S49. H. 4.) [Life ot J. Eliot, (Sp-irks' Am. Biogr.) Boston. S. D. Neal,
U. of New Engl. Lond. 1747. 2 vols. S.]
o) Hall. Missionsberichto s. 170S in verschiedener Gestalt bis jetzt, Walch, nst Eel. Gesch. vol. V.
p. 119s.<!. [Memoirs of Chr. F. Swartz & H. of Kel. in India. Lond 1S26. 12.]
d) Acta bist. ecc. vol. XL p. 1. XV. 2:?0ss, [./. Sheferus, H. of Lapland with Sketches, &c. Oxon.
1*74. f] Leein, Lappen in Finnm.irk, from the Dan. Lpz. 1771. Jtudelbach in Knapp's Christotcrpe.
CHAP. I. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1750. § 422. MISSIONS. GREENLAND. 511
ceeded in obtaining the supi)ort of tlie D.'inish government, and of a commer-
cial society (1721). On the western coast, tlie only part acce--siblc, he found
a conntry bound up in ice, wliere a few thousand Esquimaux, with no tra-
ditions of the past, wrest from the hand of nature the scantiest means of
subsistence. Egede dedicated himself to the work of their improvement and
conversion. Since that time civilization and Christianity, as far as was pos-
sible in such a sterile soil, has been planted and maintained there, (c) 5. An
Institution was established (1728) by Prof. Calknlurg of Halle, for the con-
version of the Jews and Mohammedans, but as its sphere of operations Avas
contracted, the results were of course inconsiderable. (/)
CHAP. II.— THE ROMAN" CATHOLIC CHUPtCII UXTIL 1750.
§ 423. TJie Pdpacr/.
Ouurnaeci, Vitae et res gestae R. Pontitf et Cardd. a Clem. X. nsqno ad CIcin. XI. Roin. 1751ss.
2 vols. f. Bower, Ramhach, vol. X. Th. 2. L. Itanke, die riim. Päpste, vol. III. p. 3Sss. Respecting
the memoirs of the Conclaves: Ibid. vol. III. p. 34Gss.
When tlie hope of once more subjecting the world to tlie dominion of
Catholicism, and the enthusiasm which sprung from it had passed away, the
papacy gradually retired from the prominent position it had formerly held in
the affairs of the world, and assumed the station of an Italian principality.
And yet it could not bring itself down to a complete renunciation of the vast
claims Avhich it had once set up. In civil affairs the political tendencies be-
gan to predominate over the ecclesiastical. Hence, nothing remained for the
popes but to enter their impotent protest in opposition to the undeniable and
necessary facts of history. As they continued to urge the usual claims for
money and jurisdiction upon the states, which were then rearranging and
deciding upon their own affairs, they fell into porpetuid conflict with the Cath-
olic princes. The states of the Church inherited also the burden of a debt
which had increased under nearly every administration. According to the
selfish policy of the Conclave, and in consequence of the right of exclusion
always exercised by the crowns of France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal, no
cardinals could ordinarily be elevated to the papal chair except they belonged
to the great Italian families, had grown gray in the service of the Koraish
prelates, and were not very ])owerfuI for good or for evil. Such, indeed, was
uiiil'ormly the case, except when the pious party were sufficiently strong to
carry the election. Innocent X. (Pamfili, lG-i-4-55) was made pope on the
ground that lie had never said much, and had done still less, lie commenced
e) IL Eijedf, Nachr. v. d. Groenl. Miss. limb. 17-tO. [Ifana Egede, A descrlp. of Greenland &
Life of the Author. Lond. 1S19. 8.] Paid E'jetif, Nuclir. v. Gr. a. e. Tagebuch, v. 1721-40. Copenh.
1790. (Extracts in tno Acten z. nst KG. vol. IIL p 1. 57ss.)— /?H</W/«/f/i, It. E;;. Grönl. Bischof
(Chr. Biogr. 1S50. vol. I.) [Iceland, Greenland, & the Faroe Isles. Now York. 1S30. 12.] Kölhing,
Gesch. d. Miss, in Gr. Gnad. 1781. T). Ausland. 1S34. N. lUl-s. [Miss. Records rcsp. Greenland, \.t\-
brador, Ac. (Pres. Boord.) Phil. 1S.30. S]
/) Accounts of Ok. Institiition till 1791. St pfi. &-hnh, LcUunsen des II .cli.steii n. s. Rath. a.
Beiden d. Europa. A--ien. .\fr. Hal. IT'lss 5 vols.
512 MODKUN CHUKC'ir mSTORV. TKi:. Vr. A. D. 1648-1 S63.
Ills roiKn Avitli completely destroyinf,' Itoinan afrriculture, by (,'rantinf; to tho
papnl oxchcqncr tho entire mc^nopoly of the trade in corn, and by his depend-
ence npon Donna Olympia ga' e occasion for the taunt that the vicar of Christ
was in petticoats, and tliat J, new Joanna was in possession of St. Peter's
keys, (fi) Alexander VII. (Chigi, 1G55-C7) lived to enjoy the triumph of
■welcoming tlie accomplished daughter of Gustavus Adol|)lui3 to the Capi-
tol. This extraordinary woman had become tired of Protestantism and
of the Swedish crown, and had resigned them botli, that slie might inde-
pendently enjoy the glories of art and science in the midst of the natural lux-
uriance of a southern clime. Though of a masculine temperament, she still
loved a system of faith which made a merit of celibacy, and while she
spurned all restraints upon thought, she nevertheless felt the need of a present
infdliblc autliority. Hence, while she humbled herself to embrace with full
confidence the abstract notion of the papacy, her imperious disposition and
her keen wit came not unfrequently into collision with the actual pope. The
negotiations of the papal court with Louis XIV. respecting portions of terri-
tory belonging to Parma and Modena, the royal prerogative of appointing tho
superior ecclesiastical officers in the newly acquired provinces, and the insult
to the dignity of the French ambassador at Rome, were terminated of course
in the humiliation of the pope by the treaty of Pisa (1C64), since the king
was already in possession of Avignon, and threatened to advance upon Rome
itself. During his pontificate he lost the reputation of a saint, but acquired
that of a poet, and was regarded by the Roman people as a great man in lit-
tle things, but a little man in great things. While the Jesuits attempted to
prove that the pope was infaUible, even in matters of fact, the Florentine am-
bassador decided that a true word never passed his lips, (h) Clement IX.
(Rospigliosi, 1667-69) filled once more the important position of a mediator
between the ecclesiastical and the civil powers. He endeared himself to the
people by the mildness of his disposition, but the affiiirs of government went
on as they best might, without his direction. Clement X. (Altieri, 1670-76),
a feeble octogenarian, was saluted pope by all parties, as if by inspiration,
after a long struggle, but did nothing except to weep over the administration
of his family itivorites. Innocent XI. (Odeschalchi, 1676-89) adopted vigor-
ous measures for the restoration of strict morals both in Church and state,
lie endeavored to relieve the finances, but seemed to think that nothing was
needful but to save as much as possible. A few bishops in France had re-
sisted the royal claim to administer the revenues of even those churches
which had not been founded by the crown during a vacancy in the diocese
to which they belonged, and to appoint persons to the livings dependent upon
such vacant bishoprics. The pope gave his countenance to their appeal.
a) HossUniseher, n. Inn. X. Tit 1674 4 Giialdi {Lett), Vita della D. Olympia Maldachlni.
Without place. 1666. 12. ü. v. liicherz, Lp3. 1753, but not to be depended upon.
I) Philomati labores juveniles. Par. 1656. t—Co7iring, 11. elect. AL HImst 1657. 4 (0pp. vol V.)
—Arkenholz, M6m. concern. Cliristine R. de SuOde. AmsL 1751s. 4 v. 4 ü. v. Reißtein, Lps.
17N3SS. 4 vols. 4 Grauert, Chr. tu ilir. Hof. Bonn. lS37s. 2 vols.— Relation de tout ce qui se pasea en-
tro le P. Al. et le Roi dc France. Col. 1670. 12. Desmarais, 11. des demelez de la cour de France
avec la cour de Rome. Par. 1706. 4. {Leti) 11 sindicato dl A!, con il auo viasgio ncU' altro mondo.
Gen. 166:3. 12.
CHAP. II. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1750. §423. POI'ES. 513
Louis XIV. took possession of Avignon, and threatened to sunder all connec-
tion between France and the Roman See. Innocent refused to grant canoni-
cal confirmation to all those bishops who had been appointed bj' the kinjr.
That he might be master of his own city, and restore tlie administration of
justice, he abolislied the privilege which ambassadors had sometimes exor-
cised, of making their quarters at Rome an asylum (la franchise). On this
the French ambassador, whose retinue was equal to an army, abused both the
ecclesiastical and the sovereign rights of the pope. Innocent died without
being moved from his purposes, hated by the great and by the Jesuits, cursed
by the people as a miser, and yet revered as a saint, (c) Alexander WIT.
(Ottoboni, 1089-91), who was elected through French infiuence, re-established
the whole system of nepotism and simony, supported his native city of Venice
in its war against the Turks, and obtained by the favor of France the aboli-
tion of the freedom of its ambassador's quarters, but he could come to no
agreement respecting the royal prerogative in the French Church. Innocent
XII. (Pignatolli, 1G91-1700) took the predeces.^or wliose name he bore, for
his model, and endeavored to secure by laws the whole succeeding century
against nepotism and simony. Ilis nepotes were the poor, and the Lateran
was his hospital. Ilis elForts for the restoration of Church discipline ex-
tended to so high, and yet to such minute subjects, that some scoffers boasted
that he had reformed the Church in its head and members. In the peace
which he concluded with France the king kept possession of the royal prero-
gative he had previously claimed. Clement XI. (Albani, 1700-21), an inde-
pendent prince and a zealous pathetic preacher, endeavored without success,
in the complicated mazes of the war of succession, to obtain by spiritual or
carnal Aveapons some share in the inheritance. His protest against the as-
sumption of the crown by the Elector of Brandenburg, was regarded in Ger-
many as a papal extravagance. When the aversion of the bishops to the pre-
rogatives of the Sicilian monarchy had come to an open rupture, the pope
imagined that he could destroy the ecclesiastical sovereignty of the crown by
interdicts. But the oidy effect which they produced was that ho was obliged
to support at Rome the three thousand clergymen who were expelled from
the Two Sicilies for their observance of the interdict. (</) Innocent XIII.
(Conti, 1721-24), a kind prince and a conscientious bishop, on the pledge that
he should receive the palfrey and the feudal quitrents, invested the emperor
with the sovereignty of Naples, vainly protested against the bestowal of
Parma and Piaccnza as imperial fiefs, and from respect to France was obliged
to appoint a contemptible wretch to the cardinalship. Benedict XIII. (Orsini,
1724-30), who could bo induced to accept of the papal oflSce only by a regard
to his monastic vow of obedience, seemed always to have regarded tho con-
vent of the Dominicans as his world, while his hypocritical favorite, Coscia,
bartered aAvay both Church and state, until primitive Christian simplicity be-
c) Vita d'Inn. XL Yen. 1690. 4. Bonamici, de vita et rebus gejtls Inn. XI. lioin. 1776. L"utat
da Mege dc Home. Col. 1767.
u) 0pp. (Bulls, Discourse-s Letters) Rom. 17'22. Frcf. 1729. 2 vol.«. t.—Bniifr, Lc-ben u. Thaten il.
khigen u. berübinten CI. XI. Frkf. 1721. .3 vols. {P. Polidoro) L VL de vita et rebus gestis CL XL
Urb. 1727. 4. BcbouUt, IL de CI. XI. Avign. 1752. 2 vols. 4.
33
r>\-i MOr)Ki:M f'ln'RCII IIISTOP.Y. pkr. vi. a. D. IRIS-ISCI
came utterly ridiculous in ;i court so recklessly conformed to the Avorli], A
peace was coiioliideil with Naples, by which it was .stipulated that the Sicilian
monarchy should bo rcco;,'iiized, but that important cases of dispeasatior
should bo reserved for the lloraan Curia, (e) Clement XII. (Corsini, 1730-40;,
who, after a brilliant career was raised to the throne when old and blind, was
the patron of justice, art, and literature, as for as he could be so through liis
family favorites. lie secretly favored the conquest of Naples for a Spanish
prince. (/) Benedict XIV. (Lambertini, 1740-58), a learned, well meaning,
and facetious master, but averse to public affairs, set an example to his people
of noble yet simple manners. As an author he diminished the number of the
saints of the Romish Church, as a pope ho abolished many of their festivals,
and lived in harmony with the great heretical king, (y) and endeavored to
preserve the dignity of the Roman court ])y judicious concessions to the Cath-
olic princes, that they might not become unwilling to present their jjetitions
there. (/()
§424, The Galilean Church.
(Picoi) Essai hist sur Tinfluence do la rcl. en France pendant lelT. S. Par. 1S24. 2 vols, translated
a.s Denkwurdiskeiten d. franz. K. by Räss & Weis, FrnkC 1S2S8. 2 vols.
In France all the splendors of an absolute monarchy were developed under
Louis XIV. (1643-1713), in the midst of a wealthy and intellectual nation,
which found consolation for its secret wounds in the gratification of its vanity
and frivolity. During the contest with Innocent XI. the king convoked an
assembly of bishops and barons at Paris (1682), in which the legal views
which ordinarily prevailed in France were formally pronounced. It was there
maintained: 1. That Peter and his successors have received power from God
in spiritual, but not in secular affairs. 2. That this power is limited, not only
by the decrees of the Council of Constance relating to the authority of Gen-
eral Councils, but, 3. By the established prescriptions and usages of the Gal-
lican Church ; and, 4. That the decisions of the pope, when not sustained by
the authority of the Church, are not infallible. These i)ropositions of the
Galilean clergy were proclaimed by a royal ordinance, to which all the instruc-
tions of the schools were to be conformed, but in Rome they were publicly
burned by the common hangman. The whole power of the pope was founded
on the opinion that no bishop elect could be consecrated without the papal
sanction. All newly elected bishops were therefore very zealous for the re-
conciliation which was soon effected with Innocent XII. by the revocation
of the four propositions. Public opinion, however, in France, has never
drawn back from the positions assumed in them, («) The prelates appointed
«) Opp. theol. Koin. 1728. 3 vols, f.— Icon» et mentis ct cordis Ben. XIII. Frcf. 1725. Leben, u
riialen Ben. XIII. Frkf. 17-31. Aleic. Borgia, Ben. XIII. vita. Itoin. 1752. 4.
/■) Acta hist ecc. vol. IV. p. 10Ü3s8.
g) Aug. Tkeiner, Zustünde d. kath. K. in Schlesien. 1740-53. a. d. Archive d. h. Stuhls. P.atisb.
1S52. 2 vols.
Ä) 0pp. ed. Azeredo, Rom. l"17ss. 12 vols. 4 —Acta hist. ecc. vol. IV. p. ICDJs--, Vie du P. BOn
.K.IV. Piir. 17S;3. 12. Hist poL Bl. 1S5.3. vol. 31. II. 3.
<J) E. du J'in, dc pot ecc. et temp. s. dcelaralio cleri gall. den. rep. Vind. 1776. 4. Mog. 17S3. 4. Bo»
net, )A-fe:isio «li'claralio-.iis. Lux.\Gen.) 1730. 2 vols. 4. it ofu In his Oeuvres 1^30. vois. IX. Baum-
cnAP ir. CATHOLIC cnuRcn till nso. § 4-21 feance. louis xiv. 5 1 5
according to the vacillating policy of tlie king and bis favorites, formed a
spiritual nobility in the court so completely submissive that even their liberal
position with respect to Rome depended entirely upon the royal will. But
when secular literature became flourishing and subjected the intellect of Eu-
rope to its sway, the consequences of the restoration of Catliolicism entirely
disappeared, and many learned, profound, and brilliant writers were produced
within the Church itself. As the great bistorical works published by the
monks of St. Maur and in the Oratory at Rome, were generally undertaken in
an ecclesiastical spirit, and without a wish to sacrifice their learned leisure to
t!ie prejudices of an inquisitorial tribunal, they seldom, and never intentionally,
contained any thing displeasing to the hierarchy. Fetavius (d. 1052) com-
posed his work on the history of doctrines (p. 6, nt. c.) with the hatred to
heretics which is peculiar to the Jesuits, but the power of Catholicism derives
very little support from the medley of opinions he has brought together from
the ancient Church. Peter de Marca, Archbishop of Paris (d. 16G2), attempted
to justify the liberties of the Gallican Church by examples derived from past
ages (p. C, nt. I). Mubillon (d. 1707) wrote against the imiiudence with which
the bodies taken from the catacombs were honored and sold at Rome for
relics. (]i) France was so much beloved by this man of documents that even
the prayers of the hierarchy could only prevail upon hirn slightly to mitigate
the form of his expressions. Huet (d. 1721), at one time Bishop of Avranches,
attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by pointing out vestiges of it in
all antiquity, and the uncertainty of all human knowledge, {c) Richard Si-
mon (d. 1712), with a bold and subtle learning, ventured beyond the views
then commonly entertained respecting the origin, preservation, and interpre-
tation of the sicred Scriptures. He forsook the Oratory of his own accord,
was violently assailed by the Protestants, and although he could not survive
the loss, he burned his manuscripts on account of the displeasure of his con-
temporaries, and for fear of the Jesuits, {d) Salignac de la Motte Fenelon^
the swan of Cambray (d. 1715), apostolital in his spirit, intellectual, and
guided only by the impulses of his own atfectionate heart, described an edu-
cation conformed to man's nature, in contrast with the mode of training pur-
sued by the Jesuits, {c) BoHsuct (d. I704r), the eagle of Meaux, made conces-
sious to the court and to the world without injury to his own dignity or to
his Church. In the service of the king he defended the freedom of the Gal-
lican Church, and for the advantage of the pope ho attacked the Protestants.
4is attractive representation of Catholitisra was made to show that the lat-
ter had abandoned the Church only becau.-e they were ignorant of its true
character. Language was subject to his control as if he were its king, his
g<trle». v. <1. Frt-ili. d. giill. K. llal. 1752. Or^y<>ir<; Ess.il liisL siir U'S liberies do IVi;!. gnlllcano.
Par. tSlT.
h) ßiae'-ü liovKDii Ep. do cultu Sanctorum Ignotur. Tar. 16SS. 4. od. 2. 1705. 4. Rotli In Out-
rages postliumos. I'ar 1724. \o\. 1. p. 209a».
(•) Ifuetii Cointiicntar. de reliiis ad euin pprtlnont. Amst 1718. 12.
(/) II. crit. du. v. T. (Car. 1G78. 4.) Hot UX,. t. II. crit. du N. T. Ho«. 16S9. 4.— Life prefaced to
Ijftties clioisie.s de M. Simon par do la .'A<(;7/»( re, .\in>t. 1730. 4 vols. 12. A'. //. Gr(i/,\i. K. S.
(iiPitiT. zu d. Th. Wiss. Jena 1851. vol. I.)
j) (>euv. Spirituelles. Antv. 1718. 2 v & often. Cnrrespondaneo do Fen. Par. 1827. 3 vols, — Ram
t'l'j, n. .le F..I1. Hay. 172:?. 12. Cobl. 1S2*5. De /fe.t»«»<r, II. de F^n. I'ar. 1809. .3 vols.
510 MODKUN ClIUnCH HISTORY. rKK. VI. A. D. 1Ö4%-1S53.
eloquence Wfts lofty, ingenious, on difficult subjects sometimes wonderfully
fine, nnd in consequence of a strain of sadness which prevails in it, generally
]),itlictic. (/) The puljjit orators contemporary with him Avere : Flec7iier,
IVishop of Nismcs (<1. 1710), whoso cool considerateneas made every exalted
thing on earth bow to tlio doctrine of the cross; the Jesuit, Bourdalov.6
(d. 1704), whose discourses, with no brilliant passages, and with no effort to
obtain applause, move all hearts by their vigorous beauty ; Massillon, Bishop
of Clermont (d. 1742), who, while revealing in the noblest language of an
accomplished education, the secrets of the human heart, the captivating mid-
dle path between the extremes of good and evil, and the intricacies of daily
life, made virtue seem attractive, and even the king dissatisfied with himself;
and finally the missionary, Bridaine (about 1750), who, with popular vigor as
a messenger of God, gave utterance to the thunders of the eternal world, {g)
Jansenism.
Leydecker, II. Jansenlsmi. Traj. ad Eli. 1695. {Gerheron) 11. genürale de Jans. Amst. ITOO. Zm-
cliesini, H, polem. Jans. Eoin. 1711. 3 vols. AbriSjio hist des dütours et des vari.it du Jam«. 'With-
out place. 1739. 4. Dom. de Colonia, Diction, des livres Jansenistes. Lyon. 1752. 4 vols. i2. [Art.
in Kitto's Journal of Bibl. Lit. vol. VII.]
§425. /. rort-Royal.
Fontaine, Mem. pourservir ä m. de P. E. Col. (Utr.) 1738. 2 vols. 12. J. Racine, IL d. P. II.
Par. 1767. 2 vols. More complete in his Oeuvr. Par. 1799. 4 vols. Eelatlon de la paix de I'egl. sons.
CI. IX. avec des lettres, actes etc. 1706. 2 vols. (Quesnell) La pais de CI. IX. Brus. 1701. 2 vols. 12.
ir. Reuchlin, Gesch. v. P. E. Hinb. 1S39-44. 2 v. C. A. Sainte Beuve, P. E. Par. lSlO-2. 2 vols.
[Eel. Mag. vol. 3. p. 369. Art. in Meth. Quart Eev. April. 1S53. p. 191-212.]
A controversy which had for some time been slumbering, was revived by
Jansenius, a deceased Bishop of Ypres. His work, which together with his
testament was edited by a friend, (a) contained an exact representation of the
Augustinian and Pelagian systems of doctrine, from which it appeared that
many of the scliolastic writers and popes approached much nearer the heretic
than the saint. To the system of external accommodation which so exten-
sively prevailed in the ethical system of the Jesuits, was here opposed the
cordial sincerity of a spirit wrought by God, which, being freed by grace
from the power of concupiscence, and implanted in the soil of divine love,
cannot sin, and finds its freedom in the service of God. The Jesuits attacked
the book as soon as it appeared, and Urban VIII. directed against it the bull
In eminenti (1642). The university of Louvain, however, in behalf of the
Netherlandic clergy suggested the inquiry, Avhether the pope condemned the
rejected propositions as the propositions of Jansen or of Augustine ? "When
/) Oeuv. Von. 1736ss. 5 vols. 4. Par. 1744.4 vols. f. Oenv. posth. Amst (Par.) 1753. 3 vols. 4. Oeuv.
oompl. Par. 1S36. 12 vols. 4.— De Beattsset, H. de Boss. Par. 1S14 4 vols. TabarazuJ, Supplem. aus
11. de Boss, et de Fun. Par. 1S22. A. Caillot, Vie de Boss. Par. 1S36. Eespecting his allosed mar-
riage: (WeU) Katholik. 1827 P. 6 N. 1. A. K. Z. 1S27. N. S3. [A work by M. Floquet on the Lif«
& Writings of Bossuet is announced in Paris in 1S54, and is said to contain important discoveries.]
g) Mauri/, Essai sur I'eloquence de la chaire. Par. ISIO. vol. I. Lit. hist -(vill be found in Am
mon, Ilandb. d. Kanzelberedts. Nürnb. 1S12. p. 4Ss. Examples: Musterpred. franz. Kanzelredner
übers, v. Lincke, m. Vorr. v. Krehl. Meiss. 1S33.
n) Augustinus s. doctrina Aug. do humanae naturae sanitnte, aegritudine ot mcdicina adv. Pelaf
et Ma&oillenses. Lev. 1640. f. & of:en.
CHAP. ir. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1T50. §425. POKT-KOYAL. 517
the government had decided in favor of the bull (1G47) it was generally re-
ceived in all parts of Belgium. In France, the Abbot of St. Cyran (d. 1G43)
the early friend of Jansen, a John in the prison of Richelieu, and with a
higher ambition than that ancient preacher, had already collected a band of
^•outhful disciples, whose enthusiasm for the liberty of the Church had been
excited by a severe doctrine and di3ci[)lino. {h) Anthony Arnauld (d. IG'J-i),
the shrewd and profound Doctor of the Sorbonne, with an hereditary hatred
of the Jesuits, took his stand in favor of Augustine, (c) "With him stood,
after a brief struggle in youth, his sister Angelica^ the Abbess of the Cister-
cian convent of Port-Royal., and a convent-mother, whoso gentle spirit was
pervaded by the most thorough earnestness of monastic hfe. {<J) Engaged in the
same cause was also a community of highly educated men, who lived in the
manner of the ancient anachorets in the vicinity of Port-Iioyal (ks Champs.
Innocent X. condemned live propositions taken from the work of Jansen
(1653). Arnauld's friends explained that the five propositions were not in-
tended by the author to be understood in the sense in which they were con-
demned by the pope. But Alexander VII. assured the world (1G5G) that
Ihey were actually condemned in the sense intended by Jansen. The party
at Port-Royal and lour bi.shops objected that this was a simi)lc question re-
specting an historical fact (la question du fait), on which the Church could de-
cide Avith no higher authority than science. This revival of Augustinism
originated in the same spirit which had induced the Reformers to revive it, a
deep religious earnestness in opposition to the extreme levity which prevailed
in the Church. Tlie general duty of seeking edification in the perusal of the
sacred Scriptures was defended, and the absolute recognition of the sove-
reignty of God was a shield against the absolute authority of the papacy and
the monarchy. But the Port-Koyalists denied that there was any such affin-
ity between themselves and the reformers, and entered with peculiar zeal into
the conflict Avith Calvinism. They also acknowledged that the principle of
all good works must lie in a pious disposition, (c) and yet they were models
of the severest penances and solf-denials. Their devotional books, written in
the purest style of the most accomplished French authors, very soon took the
place of the Jesuitical literature. Pascal (1G2:]-G2), an eminent matheniati-
(ian even in early youth, had his religious spirit awakened during a dangerous
illness, and in the midst of continual debility, to consider the natural condi-
tion of the Chri.-5tian. In oi)position to a sceptical world, and in brilliant
flashes of thought, he proved from the very contradictions of men the neces-
sity and truth of Cliristianity as a restoration of religion to tiioso who longed
to know tlie divine will. By the enthusiasm and wit of his Letters, the ori-
gin of whicli was then so mysterions, but exhibited a perfect sympathy with
tlie Port-Koyalists, the public mind Avas completely carried against the lax
piety and licentious confessional morality of tlio Jesuits, (/) although these
?*) Oeuvres cliretiennes ct spirituelles. Lyon. 1C7!>. 4 vols. IC.
/■) Oeuvres (rArnauIil, Lniis. 1773. 43 vols. 4. After Laiijuiiiaix ituileö biogr. (Par. 1S23.) //es«-
l-M, in tlie KUht Archiv. lS2t. vol. II. P. 1.
(/) Entretiens on conferences de la mere Angelique. Brux. 1757. 12.
(■) A. Arnault/, de la freqiiente coniintiiiion. Par. Ki4-3. & often.
/) I'ensees. Par. 10("9 10. Ä ufu^n. I!rl 1S8G. transl. Into Oeriii. {hy ICIeiikcr) Urem. 1777. by Blech.
518 MODKUN cMUi:c;n HisTOKV. i'i;i:. VI. a. u. igh-ka
worn llio ro[)ro3cntativos of worldly interests, and in some respects of c\cl
fioiiiid ioiiimon Hcnse. ((j) Clement IX. gave the Jansenlsts an opportunity,
l»y moans of certain cqnivocal cxi)rcssion3, to reconcile their convictions with
tiio pajKil will (1(509). Innocent XL was at heart not very far from them.
Wwi Clement XL and Louis XIV. were determined upjon their extermination.
Most of them lied to the Netherlands, Port-Royal was aholished, and so com-
pletely destroyed that even the graves were rifled of their contents. (A)
§ 426. II. The Comtitution Unigenitu».
Acta Const Unig. cd. P/off, Tub. 1721. 4. Col. nova Actt Const TT. ed. Diiloin, Lupl. B. 1725.
4.— Anecdotes s6crites de la Const. U. Utraj. 1732. 3 vols. ^ragd. and Lpz. 17,W«s. 6 v. La Const. U.
di'foree a I'egl. univ. Col. 1709. 4 vols. [I'apae Clementis XI. famosissinia Bulla sic dicta Vnlg. &c.
Kom. 171;).]
The illustrations of the New Testament published by Paschasius Quenncll
(d. 1719), a Jansenist who had been expelled from the Oratory, was a hook
much beloved by the people, and recommended by many high authorities of
the Church for devotional uses, {a) But the Jesuits deemed it of great im-
portance for the overthrow of Jansenism that this book should be con-
demned. The same thing was also demanded by Lotus ATF., and Clement
XL. Avas finally induced to condemn, by the Constitution Unigenitus (1713),
101 propositions taken from Quesnell's New Testament as heretical, danger-
ous, or offensive to picas ears. Among these were many doctrines of the
fathers, and even of the Scriptures, but which were capable of a Jansenist
explanation. Hence a large portion of the French clergy and people, with
the Archbishop of Paris, the Cardinal de Xoailles at their head, publicly
resisted the Constitution. The king commenced the work of executing it by
force, and died, not without some misgivings that he might have gone too far
in this matter. Under the regency of Orleans, who cared no more for the
pope than he did for Christ himself, many bishops, in opposition to the papal
enactment, appealed to a future council. But as the minister Dubois was
anxious to attain the dignity of Cardinal, the regency decided (after 1719)
against the appellants, and when Louis XY. imdertook the government under
the Cardinal A. LL. Fleurij, those who had made the appeal wore compelled
by depositions, imprisonments, and banishments, to withdraw it, and the
Constitution was by an act of royal sovereignty enforced as a law of the
kingdom (1730). The last attempt in behalf of Jansenism was by means of
miracles and wild convulsions at the grave of a popular saint, Francis of
with Prcf. by Neander. Berl. 1840. Pensces (in their orisr. form), fragments et lettres pnbl. p. Proip.
Fung re. Par. 1844 2 vols. Les Provinciales^ Par. 1656s. 4. & otten. Lemgo. 1774. 3 v. Oeuvres.
Hay. 1779. Dijon. 1S:)5. 2 vols. [Pascal's Thoughts on Pvel. ed. by Bickerstoth. Lond. 1347. 8. Xew
York, & Provincial Letters. Edinb. 1847. Now York & Philad. 1S47.]— La vie de P. par sa soeui
Mad Perier. (Prefixed to Pensces. Amst 16S4. & often.) Bossut, Discours sur la vie et les ouvr. de
P. (Oeuv. dc P. 1779. 1S19.) U. ReucMin, V. Leben ii. Geist sr. Schrr. Sluttg. 1840. Bordas De-
moulin, Eloge do P. Par. 1S4.3. Neander in Wiss. Abhh. Brl. 1551. p. 74ss. J. MueUer in d. D
Zoitsch. f. chr. Wiss. 18.'j3. N. 80. [Art in Kitto's Journ. of Cibl. Lit vol. III.]
g) Pumas, II. des cinq, proposs. dc Jans. Liege. 1699. 2 vols.
A) Mem. sur la destruction de P. R. des Champs. 1711. Gregoire, les ruines de P. P». Par. 1309.
a) P!»rtially publ. after 1671, but the whole Issued: Lo Nouv. Test en Francois avec des lofle«»
lion» morales. Par. 1657. 2 vols. 12. aud often.
CHAP. If. CATHOLIC CllUncn TILL 1750. § 420. JANSENISM. 519
rd)'/.«, wlio liad died with tlio appeal in Lis hand (1Y27). Strange things
were related, which made a deep impression upon even unbelievers, but the
miracles found a grave in the dungeons •which the government provided for
those wlio asserted them. (A) Beaumont^ Archbishop of Paris, gave orders
that all dying per.'jons who could not prove in their certificate of confession
that they had accepted of the Constitution, should be denied the sacrament,
and it was accordingly refused to the Duko of Orleans. Tiie archbishop was
summoned to answer for this act at the bar of the Parliament of Paris (1752).
All interference in spiritual aftairs on the part of that body was then forbid-
den by the king. The Parliament appealed to their oath, which bound them
to assist every citizen in the maintenance of his rights. A peace was finally
mediated by means of a mild pastoral letter from Benedict XIV. (175G). ('•)
Jansenism has however subsequently propagated itself in throe different
forms. In the ÜSTetherlands it has a peculiar form of ecclesiastical govern-
ment, with no connection with the Roman Church, but with the Archbishop
of Utrecht presiding over the two Bishops of Harlem and Deventcr. 01) The
mystical element has been continued among a few enthusiasts (Convulsion-
naires), Avho, having elevated their feelings to a high degree of spasmodic
exhilaration by a certain amount of corporeal abuses, wounds and crucifix-
ions, pour forth predictions of the overthrow of the throne and of the
Church, (e) The liberal element in the form of a theological spirit has ex-
ten.sively ])revailed among a large portion of the clergy in Franco, Germany,
and Italy.
§ 427. Mysticism, Quietiam^ and Pious Humor.
Antoinette Boiirignon (d. 1C80) of Pvyssel, proposed to God at first, that
she would love him and his creatures at the same time, but afterwards, under
an impression that she loved him alone, and in the midst of a busy scene of
external confusion, she held continual conversation with God like a woman
m the society of her husband. She would consent to be judged by no otlior
authority than the Bible, although she herself professed to stand in no need
of a written Avord of God, and had herself saluted as the mother of all be-
lievers with a new revelation to man. She was i)ersecuted by the Jesuits,
and had .some connections with the Janscnists, but she was herself indillorent
with respect to both Churches, and had many admirers and bitter opi)onents
in both. ('/) The Alombrados, who may almost bo regarded as the Quakers
li) VIo flo M. Franr. do Paris Utr. 1729. and oflon. Keciiell des mir. »iir lo toinbcan do P. Par.
1734s. 3 vol?. Mimlgeron, la vtrlto des mir. (I'lir. 1737.) Col. 1745s>i. 8 vols. 4. Mem. dc Mc. d-.
Pompadour. Par. 1S30. vol. I. p. 57.— Proci-s verbaiix des plusleiirs miSlcclns, dressi'S pnr ordre de s*
Mojo'tö nil siijet de qiielfiue« personiies soidbantes nglteos des conviilslong. Par. 173i Muxhrhn Dts
ad II. ccc. vol. II. p. 307S.1.
c) Apolo^'ic dos jiiiremons rcndtiB contre lo sclilsme jiar les trlbiinaiix sicullers. Pnr. 1752. 3 vids.
Waldig list. Pel. Ge.icli. vol. I. p. 68. 4S9.<«.
d) DiipncOe lif^lUyardf, ll.de lY-pl. metrop.d. dflreclit. I'tr. 17S4. cd. 8. l<s>2. H'.(ieÄ, nst.
Bel. Go?ch. vol. VI. p. 82s.«. Tlicol. Quartidseli. Tub. IS.'G. P. Is. Augmti, d. V.nh. Utreolit.
IJonn. 1S39.
<■) GriyiniA vol. I. p. 37Sss. (Arclilv. f KO. v<d. I. St, 2. p. ISOss)
«) Oeuvres p. /'. I'oiret, Amst 1079««. 19 vols. In tlio first vol. \f Jier Lifo by herself and by
Poirct.— H'/Zc/i, IUI. SireiU aus.«, d. liith. K. vol. I. p. C21. IV, SOlss. W. KloHf, A. Bur. (Zeitsch
f. bist. Til. IS.')!. II. 3.) [Ajxd. for Mad liourijjnon. Lond. 1699. 8. Translations: Acad, of Learned
520 MODKRN CIM-l:CII HISTOnV. ri:i:. VI. a. D. 164=>-1953.
n( Catlidlicisin, liavc nt dilTorcnt limes fsince 1575), ]>iit prolja])ly under the
cxcilcnu'iit of rrotest.'iiit influence?», niiide their appearance in Spain. Michael
Jfolinot of Saragossa, a zealous curato at Rome, recommended as the true
way of salvation that the soul should seek to become affectionately one ■with
God hy qiiiot prayer and a complete annihilation of its own independent ex-
isteuce. The French ambassador, in the name of the Jesuits, demanded that
this Quietism should be rejected by the Church (1G87). Molino?, after abjur-
ing the condemned propositions, died while suffering a severe imprisonment
in a convent (1G9G). (b) Madame Guyon of Paris (d. 1717) followed in his foot-
steps, and even went beyond him in some respects, but with a love to God
so excecdinglj' ardent, that few Ifeve equalled it even in their earthly attach-
ments. ('•) Bossuct, whose clear understanding could see nothing but a dan-
gerous fanaticism in a love which had so completely surrendered all regard
for self, that in its longings after God it had no desires even for salvation,
prepossessed the mind of the court against her. But Ftnclon denied the jus-
tice of her condemnation, and showed how true mysticism was to be under-
stood in accordance with the models of Catholic antiquity, and how it should
be looked upon as the genuine worship of God in the heart, and therefore the
basis of all the external forms of the Church. {<T) Twenty-three propositions
extracted from his book, Bossuet had condemned at Rome. Fenelon received
a copy of this condemnation just as he was ascending the pulpit of his cathe-
dral. "With the humility so natural to his disposition, he immediately sub-
mitted to it, and exhorted his congregation to conform to its directions
(1699). (e) In Germany, Angelas Silesiits (Scheffler of Breslau, d. 1677), a
physician, but subsequently a priest, although he renounced the Protestant
Church and the friendship of Jacob Boehme, carried with him an intense
love of the Saviour. Although the extreme longings of his heart threw him
Into the abyss of Pantheism, his profound speculations are so transparent,
his bold expressions are so childlike, and his poetry is so delightful, intellec-
tual, and affectionate, that they have always been looked upon as sacred in
both Churches. (/) Abraham a S. Clara (U. Megerle, d. 1707) has given a
bold and ingenious expression of the popular humor which prevailed in Sua-
Uivincs. Lond. 1703. Confusion o( the Builders of Babel. Lond. 170S. Light of the World. 1696.
Light risen in Darkness. 170.3. abridged, Lond. 17SG. Renov. of the Gosp. Spirit. Lond. lSt7. 12.]
h) Guida spiritiiale. Eom. IGSl. In Spanish even in 1675. in Lat 'by FnuicJce. 16S7, and in Germ,
br Arnold, 1699. — Recucil des div. pieces coneernant le Quietisme. Amst, 16i3. Other things in
HmsmnHTi, II. ecc. P. II. p. 541. C. E. Scharling, Mystikeren M. Mulinos's Laere eg Skjaebne.
Kjübenh. 1S52. 4.
c) La Bible de Me. Gnyon. Col. (Amst.) 1715ss. 20 vols.— La vie de M. de la Mothe Guyon, öcrite
par elle-mirae. Col. 1720. 3 vols. 12. and often. Brl. 1826. 3 vols. C. Hermes, Züge a. d. Leben d. Fr.
7. G. Magdeb. 1S-J5. [7*. C. Vpliain, Life, Opinions, and Experience of Me. G. Xew York. 1S5L
2 vols. 12. Eclect, Mag. Aug. 1S5:}. p. 431ss. Life and Rel. Opinions of Mad. G. and of Fenelon.
Lond. Is->1. 2 vols. 12. L. M. CHld, Lives of Lady Russell and Mad. G. Boston. 1S30. 12.]
(/) F.xplication des inaximes de Saints sur la vie intoricure. Par. 1697. 12. and often.
e) (JnrUu) Jugenient sur la Tbeol. inyst ct sur les di-uiclez de Teveque de Meaux avec Tarche-
vcque de Cambray. (AmsU 1699.) JSeauxsct and Tuharaud. (p. 515-16.)
/) Cherubinischer Wandcrsmann. Brsl. 1657. and of:en. Munich. 1S15. 1S27. Brl. 1S20. In"-*?
Kelligc Seoienlust o. geijll. Ilirtcnlieder der verliebten P.*ychc. Brsl. 1C57. Munich. 1S26. Witt-
inann, A. S. als Convcrtit, myst. Dichtei -i. Polemiker. Augsb. 1;42. (TT. Schroder, A. S. Hal 7S58
J.) .4. Kaldert, A. S. Br>l. I'soS.
CIIAP. II. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 17Ö0. §428. NEW OEDEKS. 521
bia and Vienna -witli respect to tlie perversities of the world, and in favor of
the pious morality of his native land. ((/)
§ 4:28. Xcicly Eütallishcd Orders.
Boutliillier de la Hance (d. 1700), after a dissipated youth, became, in
consequence of a painful accident, dissatisfied with the world, distributed his
wealth among the poor, resigned all his livings except that of La Trappe, of
which he had been an abbot even in his boyhood, and betook himself to a
residence in that convent (1CG2). That he might revive the original rule of
Cisteaux, ho imposed upon the monks there a terrible system of self-denial,
■which deprived them even of the pleasures of conversation and reading. A
few colonics of the Trappints were founded in Italy, Great Britain, Germany,
and America, and some were formed for nuns, (it) In France, -where popular
instruction Avas not regularly attended to by either the Church or the State,
the Society of the Brothers of the Chrixtian Schools (Ignorantins) was found-
ed for that purpose by Baptist de la Salle (1724), but more especially for the
education of future teachers. A Xeapolitan named Liguori (d. 1787), with
whom the will of the pope was equivalent to the will of God, formed the
Congregation of the Most Sacred Redeemer (Redemptorists, Liguorists), a
friendly variety of the Jesuits, and in subsequent times affording to them a
refuge and a hope. {]>) In addition to the associations without regular vows,
were established sisterhoods for the Adoration of the Heart of Jesus and
Mary, for the cultivation of a sensuous kind of worship which had been
recommended ever since the middle of the seventeenth century by the Jesu-
its, at tho_ suggestion of love-intoxicated nuns. The cstabli.<hment of this
order had been frequently declined, but it was finally (1700) authorized
at Rome, and was introduced in some places. It was a subject of debate
among divines whether the actually bleeding heart, or a mere symbol of
divine love, was the object of adoration. By the people, however, these
votaries were often ridiculed as Cordicolatras or Marionettes, (c)
§ 429. Spread of Christianitij. Cont. from § 394.«.v.
1. The Church in China continued to make some gradual advances, prin-
cipally through the assistance of the missionary seminary at Paris (after
1GG3). Instances of oppression were not numerous, and were generally of
short duration. But the mendicant friars were more and more urgent in
their complaints at Rome against the mingling of Christianity with idolatry.
ff) Judns (lor Er7.wliclin. Bonn. Snlzb. ICSTss. 4 vols, and often. Hiiyl u. Pfuy ! der Welt. Würiz.
1707. 4. nnd nflen. liolni dieli o. Irh llss dicli, d. 1. nllorly Materien, Dlscnrs ii. Pre<llgtcn. Salzb.
17S7. 4. nnd often. Das Gedieaen>te n. g. W. Itlanbenren. lS4ii!i.i. Werke, Lindau ISJCss.
a) Riince : Lettres, pnbl. par B. Oonod, I'nr. ISIt'i. Tr. de la s,ilnlele et desdevoirsdo la vieinonns-
tlquc. 16<3. 2 vols. 4. On the other si<le : .V<il>illo)i, Tr. de» etndes nion.ist. ItiDl. and often.— .Vn/v««/-
I(V»', Vie do rAlptiii de laTrnfipi". I'ar. \'M. 2 vols. 12. Chiitfdiihii.iiKl, \Wy de Kanoe. Par. Isl».
Ulm. lS4r>. L. I>. H. Hist, civile, rel. ct lillir. do l'ubhnye de la Tr. I'ur. 1S24. L'iUert, Ovdvn d.
rrnpplstcn. Drmst, 1S33. OaiUurdln, les Tropplstos. Tar. 1S44. vol. I.
h) Ocuvre.s coiiipleto.s Par. Isa,'). 14 vcds. S. and 12. A. Oititini, vita del b. Alfonso Lig. noin.
1S15. 4. Vienna. 1S:W. Jeuncaril. Vie du b. Alf. LIg. Louvnin. 1S29.
c^ Benedleti .\1V. do server. Del bentif. IV, 00. Archiv, f. KG. vo!. I. St. 2. p. 177fs KuchUr
In Ztitscli. f. lilsf. Th. 1S34. St. 1.
522 MdliKUN C'lUKCU HISTOUV. I'KU. VI. A. I). lCIS-1353.
I'lir ft lon^' time tlio Jesuits, however, succeeded by craft and power to de-
lüiul lliumsflvcs ayainst tlio orders sent to them from Rome on this subject
Tlio k'pito Touriion died wl'ilo enduring a confinement at Macao, brouglit
upon liiin by their means (1710), At last tlieir adversaries wore successful
(1740). No sooner, however, were the sacred usages of the nation rejected,
tluin a persecution seldom susi)ended was commenced, froin which only a few
unimportant fragments of the Church were ever saved. 2, In the East
Indies likewise, the hope of success depended upon the compliance of- the
missionaries with the customs of the Brahmans, and their incorporation of
the religious and social usages of the people into the system of Christianity.
"When the Jesuits at Pondicbery represented in one of their sacred dramas
the destruction of the Indian gods by the Knight St. George (1701), a perse-
cution was immediately commenced in that country ; and when the bull
against the admixture of heathenish customs with the Christian religion was
enforced (1742), the progress of the mission was at an end. {a) 3. In
2'hibet, the gospel was preached (after 1707) by the Capuchins, and they
were allowed to erect a hospitium there. But the worship of the Dalai
Lama was itself too much like an ascendant j)apacy, to present much hope
of success in the proclamation of a Eoman Christianity, (h) 4. In South
America, a splendid church organization according to the European style
was developed. In a portion of North America, where the dominion of
France was extended, were also established component parts of the Gallican
Church.
CHAP. III.— EOMAN CATHOLIC CnURCII UNTIL 1814.
I. MaTTEES PeELIMIXAEY to tue PkEVOLrilOX.
§ 430. French Philosophy. Cont.from, § 416.
Corrcspondance liter, phil. ct crit par Grimm et Diderot, Par. lS13ss. 16 vols. Extracts: Bran
•lenb. 1S20.— U'lifcA, nst. Eel. Gcsch. vol. I. p. 473ss. (.1. A. v. Stark-) Triumph d. phil. iin IS. Jalirh.
Frkf. 1S03. 2 vols, recently edit, liy Buch/einer, Landsh. IS^^-L (i\ Schütz) Gesch. v. Staatsvcrandr.
unter Ludwig XYI. o. Entst. Fortscb. u. Wirks d. sogen, neuen Phil. Lps. 1S26-.3-3. 6 vols. L. Ltr'
minier, de I'influence de la phil. du IS. S. Par. 1S:53. Lps. 1335. Sc/ilonser, vol. L p. 477. IL 443ss. — Liter,
of the French Chtaics in Fhert. [J. D. Morell, Hist and Grit. View of the Spec. Phil, of Eur. in
the 19th cent Lond. 1S47. 2 ed. S. New York. 1848. 8. P. Damiron, Essai sur 1"H. de Xa phil. en Fr.
au XVIIe. S. 3 cd. Par. 1S4G. 2 vols. S. G. IL Letces, Biog. IL of Pliil. Ser. II. vol. IV. Lond. 1S4Ö.
4 vols. IS. leniteminin's II. of Phil Lond. 1850. S.]
The government of royal mistresses (Pornocracy) in the court, the perse-
cution of the Protestants, the maltreatment of piety in the Jansenist contro-
versy, the natural development of the national mind, and the influence of
English Deism, conspired to form in France an opposition similar to that
Deism, but such as naturally sprung up against an infallible Church in a des-
potic and corrupt state. Uodins Septiloquia recognized the claims of ail
religions, that the religion of godliness and rectitude in them all might be
a) J 897. nt. <7.
b) EelHzione del prlncipio et stato presente della miss, del Tibet Eom. 1742. 4. StäuJlin la
Archiv, f. KGesch. vol. L St 3.
CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CHUECH TILL 1S14. § 430. FKEXCU rUILOSOPHT. 523
acknowledged. (<?) In a fictitious book of travels, Vairasse distinguished
between true Christianity and the hierarchy, against which his book was
directed. (/') Even in the canting court of Louis XIV., who finally gave his
consent that even Tartufe should be performed in his presence, it was not
looked upon as inconsistent with the rules of good society to ridicule religion
as Well as hypocrisy. Voltaire (d. 1778) was not quite insensible to the fjos-
sibility of the existence of a God, in whose honor he erected a plain church,
nor to the beauty of Christianity, but in a series of sprightly essays (after
1715), with the most niiive simplicity and ignorance of facts, he gave up all
its historical relations, and sacrificed the life of religion itself to a spirit of
universal scoffing. Montesquieu^ before laying the foundation of his future
government, presented the mirror of an unliiased common sense before the
received doctrines and the compulsory measures of the Church (1721). Phi-
losophy so entirely withdrew to the territory presided over by the five senses,
that the mind of man was finally regarded as a dream of the flesh, and love
as the hypocrisy of selfishness. This worldly philosophy was carried to its
comi)lete results by CoiuUlluc (d. 1780), in Ilolbaoii's circle it was fearlessly
applied to practical life, (c) while Ihicctius (d. 1771) tempered it Avith an
elevated humanity. In this spirit, Lidcrot (d. 1784), whose religion it was
to destroy all religion, edited the Encycloj^edie (after 1751), intended to be a
general survey of all human knowledge, clear and grand with respect to the
worldly tendencies of the mind and in its efforts against all kinds of slavery,
but hostile to all eternal realities and aspirations above the world. Besides
these were a host of inferior works, in which the oriental simplicity of the
Scriptures was nuide the subject of amusement eitiier by bold derision or by
sentimental wantonness, and all systems of faith were ridiculed as priestcraft.
liaynal deprived history of its true glory as a picture of a divine household;
even in Buffon's sublime researches, the Creator is placed far behind a self-
producing nature ; Lalande proclaimed the laws of a heaven without a God ;
and in fact the gospel was generally regarded as a mere astronomical
mytli. ('/) The enthusiastic spirit of Jiouttscau (1712—78) found many things
in the gospel for whidi liis nature had a strong aftiuity, but in consequeuco
of his rejection of all history, he was compelled to oppose every thing in it
of a historical character. By holding up a state of nature in contrast with
the artificial condition of human society, the Jesuitic education then in
vogue, and the supernatural revelation of the Scriptures, he contributed more
than all the scoffers to endanger the Churcli, since he tluis showed how one
could sjjcak witii earnestness and oven transport of divine things, without
being a Christian. (<) This opposition was ])owerful at that time, because
those Avho were the favorites of the nation, who gave laws to the fashion-
a) ColliHjiiliim lioptnplomiTi'S do alxlltls roruiii sublim. Brcaiil». 1,'>!>3. Guhvauer, das llcptnpl
tics Jenn Bodiii. IJrI. IWl.
h) Hist des Sevoraiiibos. I'lir. H)77».s. 3 vols. 12. Sulzb. ltW3. 8 vols.
c) Sy.sU'ine de In imtiiro. I.ond. (.\mst.) 1770. 2 vols niid often. Llegn. 1788. 2 vols.
</) Diipui», Orlglno do toils los cultos. Pur. 1795. 3 vols, and ollcn. 1S37. In tlio Extrjicts hy Eli6,
Btuttg. 1S31).
e: M«. de SlUfl, Leltrcs snr les onvr. ct lo cnraclcro d. K. Gen. 17S9. (}fitaset-rüüia>j) II. do la
vie et des otivr. de ll. Par. 1S2I. 2 vols. Wachler, blogr. Aufs. 1S86. p. 8l5s.
5'24 MODKUN ciit:i:cii iiistouy. i'kk. vi. a d. iws-isca
nlilo world, nrid wire lionorcd with tlic friondöliip of tlio nortlicrn monarcha,
•were its iirinci|ial rcprcsciilative.i, nrid sjiokc of Cliristianity us a sujierannij-
ntt'd Btnf?c of civili/atioii. 'J'lic iiK'asiiro.s adopted by the government against
them were but partial, and generally operated in their favor. As the bier-
arcliy, wlio liad little else at command but learned lore, were no longer
allowed to burn the authors, they defended themselves by burning the books
These works», liowcver, expressed the general sentiment of the French nation.
On tlio hide of the hierarchy Avere the civil power, immense wealth, and a
nobility with which it was in numerous ways connected. On the other side
Avas nearly a whole nation, including a majority even of the hierarchy and
the nobility, with the conviction that their power was founded upon a de-
ception, and that their wealtli had been unjustly drawn from a heavily
taxed people.
§ 431. Clement XIII. (1758-69) and the Jesuits.
B(yicer, Ramhach, vol. X. 2. p. SSlss. {Le Bret) Samml. d. Schrr. d. Auf beb. d. JcsnitenorJ.
betr. Frkf. n. L. (Ulm.) 1778-S4. 4 vols. [J. Poynder, II. of tho Jofuits. Lond. ISIC. 2 vc^ls. 8. A.
AmoulJ, Lcs Jesuites, Histoire, Types, Moeurs, Mysteries. Par. 1S46. 2 vols. 8.]
Clement XIII. (Rezzonico) was chosen pope through the influence of the
Jesuits, and with pious conscientiousness exposed the papal authority to tho
most imminent hazard, that he might avert their fate. They had indeed
pained a victory over the Jansenists, but it was at the expense of the popular
favor. On account of their influence at courts they were hated by states-
men, their engagements in trade involved them often in diflSculties with the
merchants, and their power over the conscience made them obnoxious to all
classes. The very dislike which so many of that age felt toward Christian-
ity, and the whole spirit of the coming generation now making itself percep-
tibly felt, seemed to demand them as the first sacrifice. The result was by no
means certain, since all the nations of Southern Europe had been educated in
their school. On the request of the Portuguese government, Benedict XIV.
had forbidden them to engage in commerce, and when dying, he committed
to the Patriarch of Lisbon the work of reforming them. The order to this
cftect was, however, revoked by Clement. By an exchange with Spain, Por-
tugal had obtained a portion of Paraguay (1753). The Portuguese were
however driven back by an Indian army, and although the Jesuits denied
any participation in an insurrection Avhich then occurred, it was certain that
the insurrection was impossible without their connivance. Carvalho, Mar-
quis of Pomlal, was anxious to withdraw the monarchy and the nation from
all connection with the hierarchy and the nobility. But although the minis-
ter possessed unlimited power, he knew he could not effect such a revolution
while surrounded by the Jesuits. An attempt to assassinate the king supplied
an occasion for impeaching them of high treason. The result was that they
were for ever excluded (Sept. 3, 1759) from Portugal, and their property was
confiscated. The pope interceded for them in vain ; his nuncio was sent out
of the country (1760), and all connection with Kome was broken oi£ (a) It
<0 L'adniinistrat'on de M. de Pomb.il. Amst. 1759. 4. J. Smith, Memoirs of the M. do Tomb.-il
Lti'l. 1*43. 2 vols. B.—{Klauging) Saminl. d. nst Scbrr. d. Jes. in P. betr. A. d. Ital. Frkf. ii. L
CIIAP. III. CATHOLIC CnUECn TILL 1S14. § 431. THE JESUITS. 525
was thus jn-oved that the overthrow of the Jesuits was not impossible. The
bankruptcy of the Jesuit la Vedette in France, was seized upon as an occasion
for making the whole order responsible for the unfortunate speculation iu
trade by one of its members, and for examining its constitution. The Parlia-
ment of Paris summoned the Jesuits before its bar (1702), an apostolical
brief, in Avhieh the holy Father unburdened liis heart of its troubles, and
Jesuitism was identified with Catholicism, was laid aside as if it were the
letter of a private individual, and when public opinion had been gained over
by the publication of the dangerous doctrines of which the Jesuits were ac-
cused, they were banished from France as dangerous to the state (1764). (J)
The other Bourbon courts ordered them to be hastily and violently seized and
transported beyond the boundaries of their re.'^pective territories (17C7). It
was in vain that the pope issued a bull (1705), in which he showed that the
order was sacred, and indispensable to tlie interests of the Church. He only
ventured to annul the edicts of the Duke of J'anita, and to threaten others
with an excommunication (17C8). France, however, took possession of Avig-
non ; Naples, of Benevento ; and all the Bourbon princes declared such fanati-
cal decrees of excommunication utterly unreasonable. (<•)
§ 432. Clement XIV. (1769-74) and the Jesuits.
Lettres interessantes du P. Clem. XIV. trad, du latin et do I'ltal. p. le Marq. de Caraccioli, (not
altogether aulhcntie.) Par. 1770s, 3 vols, and often, ital. u. deutsch. Letterc ed. altre operc di GangancUi.
Firenze. 1S29. Clem. XIV. Epp et Brevia selectlora, ex. secret tabb. Vatic, ed. A. Theiner, Par.
1852.— Haic/i, nst. Kel. Gesch. vol. L p. 8. 20Ks. Oirutvio//, Vio du P. Clem. Par. 1775. Leben
Cletn. XIV. Frcf. u. L. 1775. (by Ileumont) Gang., Cleni. XIV. u. 8. Zeit. Brl. 1S47. A. Theinei;
II. du Pontif. do Clem. XIV. Par. 1652. 2 vols. [J/! D'Alemhert, An Account of tlio Destruction
of tbe Jesuits in France, from tho Fr. Lond. 17C6. 12.]
In the Conclave there was a severe struggle between tho ])arties of tho
king and of tho Jesuits. Tho Bourbons were however victorious, and se-
cured tho election of GanganelU^ a Minorite, who had always disapproved
of the measures of his predecessor, on the ground that they sacrificed the
interests of the papacy itself to those of the Jesuits. Clement XIV. was of
low origin, his character was not very commanding, but he possessed consid-
erable talent.'», a noble manliness, and at the same time a general mildne.-^ of
disposition, and for a i)opo he was eminently liberal. He governed withou:
the aid of cardinids or nepotes, and instead of aiming to build magnificent
edifices, he endeavored to alleviate distres.s in cottages. He abolislied tho
reading of the sacramental bull (in coena Domini), and it was never after-
wards resumed. («) By some concessions made to Portugal and tho Bourbon
17.')9-C2. 4 vols. Deductio chronol. et.inalj-llca, ubi horreiidae nianifestaMtiir clades a Jo.s. Soc. Lusl
taniae ejusque colonils illatnc, ed. J. de Seiilra HUriu», OIl.-lp. 1771. 2 vol."«. ir<//t7i, n>t Pel. Gesch
vol. II. p. 57ss. a. V. ifitrr, Ge«oIi. d. Je.s. in P. unter Ponib. Nürnb. 17S7. 2 vols. J. F. JA v.
0//er», Ü. d. Mordvers, geircn d. Kritili; Joseph v. P. lierl. IS.'Ji). 4.
h) E.xtraits des assertions dani^ereuses et pernlcleuses que les Jes. ont cnselpnfcs nvec Tapprol«»-
tion de leurs Superieurs. Verllles par les commljvialrfi du I'nrlement. Par. 1072. — C/ioineul, Staat.'*
Denkwi'ird. v. ihm selbst from the Fr. Pern. 1790. Nova Acta bist ecc. vol. XIII. p. 43:j,sa. 7iib(t
raiid, Essai sur IVtat des Jes. en France, ed 2. Par. ls'2S.
o) Walch, nst Pel. Gesch. vol. III. p. 109.-«.
a) At Iea.*t not until Easter, 1S30, according to the author's personal Observation.
ß2G mui>i:i:n <iii:i:cii iiisTi.KV. i'Ki:. vr. a. d. icis-iva
Courts, lifti-iiioiiy was (fiioe more cstaldislied with tlicin. When tliey urf,'e(]
hirii to uluihsli tho onler of the Jesuits, lio licsitated for a while, debatinj^
wlietluT it were hotter to destroy than to reform it, hut at last, on the 10th
An;;., 177;{, tiic brief called Dominus ac liedemtor iiOHtcrQi) announced its abo-
lition, on the ground that the peace of the Churcli required such a step. In
Home, the execution of this bull was secured by the employment of a mili-
tary force. Tho number of members connected with the order at that time
in twenty-four provinces was 22,589. Their treasures and pajiers had been
placed where they could not be found. The suppression was enforced in all
the Catholic courts, and even Maria Theresa acquiesced in it wlicn coi)ie3 of
her own confessional secrets had been transmitted to her from Rome, {c)
Frederic IT., however, had so much pride that be would not put down the
order for a while in Silesia, and it was favored in the Polish provinces of
Russia, under a vicar general. i<l) In other countries also the order main-
tained a secret existence, waiting for a revival which it was taught by some
old legends to expect, and individuals have every where been found protest-
ing against the lawfulness of its abolition. The fate of the Jesuits, like that
of the Templars, w\as not altogether undeserved ; but like the latter, they were
condemned without a legal sentence or a process of law, and many merito-
rious persons connected with them were rewarded with a helpless old age.
The missionary and educational operations of all Catholic countries -were
much embarrassed by their suppression. Avignon and Benevento were re-
stored to the pope, but he could not prevent the governments of Spain,
Naples, and Venice from doing as they pleased with the Church and its pro-
perty in those countries. He was well aware, that by the decree for the abo-
lition of the order of the Jesuits, be had signed his own death-wai'rant, and
he died (Sept. 22) abandoned by all, with some evidence of having been
poisoned, (e)
§ 433. rius VI. (1774-99) and his Age, until 1789,
(Jonclave. {VTalch, nst Eel. Gcsch. vol. V. p. 259ss.) (C. C. Ade) Lebens- n. Kegiernngsgescli.
P. VI. Cesena. (Ulm.) lTSl-96. 6 vols. P. P. Wolf, Gesch. d. riim. K unter P. YI. Zur. 1793äs. Lps.
lSfi'2. 7 vols. (./ F. Boiirgoing) Mt-ra. sur Pie VI. Par. 1799. 2 vols.— Ueber die gegenw. Lago il.
roin. Kath. {Plancke, nst. Rel. Gesch. vol. I.)
The Bourbons consented to the election of An geh Uraschi, because they
felt assured from his moderation that his partiality for the Jesuits would not
be sufficient to induce him to attempt their restoration. The treasures Pius
VI. acquired from the states of the Church during the first tranquil years of
his reign, were spent in building and in draining tlie Pontine marshes. His
liberality is extolled by numberless inscriptions. The convents were at that
time assailed bj' innumerable caricatures, and were regarded as no longer tol-
erable except as hospitals for diseased minds, (a) Many princes saw that they
I) Dated from July 21. Acta hist ecc. vol. I. p. 145ss.
c) After Kessler and Ilormajr: A. K. Z. 1S32. N. 160.
rf) LutteroÜi, Kussl. u. d. Jes. 1770-lSOO. Uebtrs. v. £irch, Lps. 1&45.
e) Walch^ nst, llel. Gesch. vol. V. p. 2S2ss. /,* Bret, Mag. vol. VI. p. 144ss. On the other h.ind.
<. : Wie Ichto u. stirb Gang., by J. Reklienhach. (?) Neust 1S31.
a) 11 g. Trcix est trcp. Capitul.Mion de la France avec ses Moines. Have. 1767. 12. (by Born)
Nalurgcsch. d. Mi.nchth. 17S3.
CHAP. Iir. CATHOLIC CllUrxn TILL ISM. § 4G3. PIUS VI. 527
might, without the least infringement of their faith, and very much to their
credit as friends of generul improvement, take possession of the immense
weaUh in the hands of the monks. The pope himself appeared to bo a civil
prince, and the head of the Church merely from tlio favor of other princes.
The bishops, however, clearly saw that if they became independent of the
pope, they must become dependent upon the kings. The clergy foresaw that
the property of the Clmrch would be quite as acceptable to the secular lords
as the wealth of the convents. Even those Avho cared nothing about the
matter, were of the opinion tliat barracks were not much more desirable than
convents. The faith or the superstition of a largo portion of the peoide Avas
such as to make them entirely dependent upon the clergy for their religion.
Accordingly, the great masses were gradually formed into parties favorable
or opposed to a reform. In Fortiigal, the system of things established by the
violence of Pombal was immediately terminated when he was Iiimsclf over-
thrown, on the death of the king (17V7). In Spuin, Count Aramhi^ who, in
accordance with his French education, had made (after 17G2) the inquisition
and the system of education dependent upon the government, was removed
from his station (1772), and Don OlaciJcs repented in the dungeons of tho
inquisition (after 177G) that he ever attempted to cultivate by Protestant
colonies the Sierra Morcna, which was now restored to the robbers. But
gsrms of hostility to the hierarchy still remained in all parts of the penin-
sula, combined Avith a disposition to strive after a political constitution. In
Germany^ conflicting powers Avere measuring their strengtii. I^enhichJ^ Avho
had brought from Gottingen to Mayence his doubts respecting the Messianic
prophecies, Avas deposed and abused (177-i). (Ji) Slciuhuhler, a young laAvyer,
Avas imprisoned at Salzburg for some jest at the Catholic ceremonies, was
condemned to death as a blasphemer (1781), had his sentence commuted to
banishment from the country and ecclesiastical pouance, and lliially died
under his ill-treat ment. ('•) Wlieu tlie preacher Gaisinr cast out devils (after
1773) in the name of Jesus, thousands of persons Avere found at Elhvanger
and Ratisbon possessed and insane. Some of the patients appeared to be
cured, but few received permanent benefit. Tiiose Avho believed in the mira-
cles, appealed to them as proofs against the Protestants and in favor of tho
Jesuits. Most of the neighboring bi.-iliops, then tho emperor, and Anally even
tho lioman court condemned tho Avholo i>roceoding. ('/) In J>i(V(!ria, tlie
OrJ er of {ho IlhnniiKtIl Avas founded by Wiixlnnijd (1777), on a Masonic
basis and Avith Jesuitic forms, by AvJiicii an intelligence superior to, and irre-
ppective of all ecclesiastical divisions might bo diffused among the peojde.
This poAverful as.sociation Avas destroyed by tlio govornnient (17S5). (<) In
Nov. 1780, the Emperor Joseph ]J. obtained the long-dosired sovereignty
over tho hereditarj' provinces of Austria. His administration Avas equivalent
li) Acta hilt, OOP, nosf. temp. vol. III. p. 002i4s. Wulvh, n»!. Ki-I. Gescli. \o\. VIIL p. Tss.
c) After MTicliler: Menzel, ndso d. Oostr. 1S82. p. 1U3.
(}} Oi'iii'r.il view iiml Llli'r.iluie : U'f//c7i, vol. VI. p. 871. 54Us.
e) (WcMiiiiijit) ficsili. «1. A'lrf.il^riitii: «L III. Frkf. u. L. ITSll. vol. I an.l ot!:. Eini^-o Original!<o:i
(1. 111. 0. niif lir>elift I'.ofrlil. Munlcli, 17^7. Anliiin? z. d. Origlnalscli. Frkf. n?7. r^jstcin u. Folgen
<L 111. 0. .Miinicb. 1787.
528 MODKHX CHURCH IIRTOKV. IT.K. Vf. A. I). IWW'iM.
to a revoliitioTi, in ODnscqiicnco of lii.s (lictntorial ino.'iHiircs. With respect to
the Church, liis pliin rtviiiirod: that it should ])0 separated from all foreign
influonco and made puhjcct to the government ; tliat it sliould be made a
school for the instruction of the people ; and that all institutions which could
not be made subservient to the public welfare should be destroyed. Law
upon Imv was enacted for the attainment of these objects, and the represen-
tations of tlio bisliops and the protests of the nuncio were alike ineffectual.
It was then that the pope, a fine-looking and eloquent man, vain of both
these qualities, and confiding much in the power o!" his f^ersonal nddress,
resolved to conquer the heart of the emperor, and awaken the respect whicli
prevailed in former times among the people beyond the Alps, by the presence
of the vicar of Christ. He entered Vienna on the 22d March, 1782, with a
splendid procession. He could not indeed deliver by his intercessions even
one of the convents devoted to destruction as useless. But as the prelates
thought it better for them to obey the pope than the emperor, and as under
their influence the people valued their ancient ancestral usages more than
the liberty and equality which had been forced npon them, the dying empe-
ror (1790) found that all he bad created was annihilated, and that only what
he had destroyed remained unchanged. (/) The feeling of constitutional
independence in Eome had gained a solid basis by the labors of Xic. r.
Jlonthchn, and a recantation extorted from the frightened old man (1778)
could not invalidate the influence of his proofs with respect to the origin of
the! papal power, (g) The four archbishops, ofl:ended at the establishment of
a new nunciature at Munich (1785), took ground against every extraordinary
jurisdiction of the pope on German territory, and associated themselves at
Eois on the principle of an independent national church (1786). They were
immediately sustained by the emperor himself. The University of Uonn was
founded by the Elector of Cologne as a school for enlightened Catholicism.
The bishops, however, thought themselves safer in obeying the distant pope
than the archbishops ; the Bavarian Palatinate followed its ancient policy of
receiving advantages over the national Church directly from the hand of the
pope, and when the archbishops became frightened at the storms which took
place beyond the Rhine in behalf of freedom, they also hastened to become
reconciled with Rome (1789). (/<) Leopold of Tuscany^ in the same spirit as
his brother had exhibited in Austria, attempted by the agency of Scipio
Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia and Prato, to reform the polity of the Church. At
a synod of his clergy at Pistoia (1786), the principles of the Gallican Church
/) Acta a Pio YI. causa itineris Yindob. Horn. 17S2. (Acta hist. ecc. nost temp. vol. IX. p. 283.
4»ss.) A. F. Bauer, Gesch. d. Reise P. YI. Yicn. 17S2s. 3 vols. Walch, nst Rel. Gesch. vol. IX. p.
llSss.— Codex ,T. ecc Josephini. Frivf. u. L. (Prsb.) ITSS. .7b.«. II. Briefe. Lps. 1S22. {CaraccioU)
La vie de Josw Par. 1790. Gross-IIoffinger, Gesch. Jos. Stuttg. 1S35. 3 vols.
0) Justini Febro7iü de statu Ecc. et legitiina potestito Rom. Pontiflcis L. ad reuniendos dissi-
dentes. BuUioni. (Frcf.) 1763-74. 4 vols. 4. and oflen, in different foniis. Commentarius in suam re-
tracUL Frcf. 17S1. 4. Walch, nst Rel. Gesch. vol. I. p. 147. YI, 171. YII, 192. 455. YIII, 529ss.
Brlefw. zw. d. Kurf. v. Trier u. N. v. llonth. ü. Febr. Frk£ 1S13.
A) Resultate d. Emser Congr. in Actenst. Frkf. u. L. 17S7. 4. Pragrm. n. actenm. Gcsch. d. Nun-
tiatur in Munch. 17S7. S. Dom. Pli YI. resfionsio ad Metropolitanos. Rom. 17S9. Pacca, (Memorio
vol. lY.) hist. Denkw. Q. s. Aufenlh. in Deutsch. 17S&-94. from the Ital. Augsb. 1S32. E. r. Munch,
Gesch. d. Kmser Congr. Carlsr. 1S40.
CUAP. HI. CATHOLIC CIIUECH TILL 1*14. § 4«. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 529
and of the most liberal Jansenism were adopted, all superstitious ceremonies
■were abolished, and it was determined that public worship should be con-
ducted in the language of the people, and that the Scriptures should be circu-
lated among them. But these enactments were opposed by most of the bish-
ops in Tuscany, the populace in Pistoia stormed the episcopal palace, and
when Leopold ascended his brother's throne, the hierarchy obtained a com-
plete victory, (i) In Naples^ the convents Avero abolished, the prerogatives
of the monarchy were enlarged, and the feudal tenure of the pope was de-
nied. The controversy on these subjects was finally brought to a compro-
mise (1790), in which it was agreed that the feudal relation should be given
up, but that whenever a new king ascended the throne, he should present an
otfering to St. Peter of 500,000 ducats. {I)
II. The Fi'.EXcn Revolutiox.
Vollst S.irninl. d. Selirr. seit. Er.iffn. d. Kclchft Fr. in RQoks. a. d. Cler. (according to BarrueL,
Col. Eccl.) Kcuipt. 1795SS. 4 voK—Barrutl, II. du Clcrjte en France pond, la rev. Lond. 1794. 1804.
2 vols. J. T. Diitiic, Tie VI. et VIL consldorus dans lours rapports avec la rev. franf. S. Oincr. 1?39.
Jitgei; H. d. Tegl. de Franco pendant la rev. Par. 1S52. .3 voli». Comp, tho pol. liistt of Mignet,
TJiiers, and Wacli:i>nuf/i, Ilaumer, Dahlmann. [all of which, except tlie last, have been transl. into
Engl. See also : T. Carbjle, Micbelet, Lamartine (Glrondins), Alison, and Scott (Lifo of Nap;
Prelim. Clinr>.)]
§ 434. The Xational Assemhhj {Constituent). 1780-1701.
Planch, neueste Kel. Gesch. 1793. vol. III.
The Revolution was not actually occasioned by the disorders which pre-
vailed in tho Church, but without these it would hnrdly have been possible.
The superior clergy were the natural allies of tho higher nobility, but .since
oven the court was obliged to demand great .sacrifices on the part of the
Church, the electoral law was so contrived, that among the representatives
of the ecclesiastical estate the pastors had the numerical majority. These,
with Talleyrand.! the Bishop of Autun, who never failed to discover on which
side victory was about to turn, at their head, at an early day and with hon-
est intentions became connected with the third estate. There was a philo-
sophical party which had entered into a conspiracy against Christianity, but
it had no idea of contending against tho faith of the people. Its object was
to destroy the hierarchy only as a political power, and to efiect the deliver-
ance of the state by the wealth of the Church. The very central point of
interest at tho national festival on tho field of Mars (July 14, 1790) was a
high altar, and there were pious Jansenists, who hoped in tho decrees of the
national assembly to realize their ideal of a Church. Such were tho honest
C'</«'/.i, who wished to bring every thing back to the simplicity of apostolic
times, the cntiiusiastic Carthusian Dom Gerle, who vainly demanded that
Catholicism should be acknowledged as tho religion of tho state, and Gre-
goire, who, confiding in the democratic humane spirit of Christianity even in
i) Act« Syn. Pistolen». TIcIn. 1790. 2 vols. Planck, vol. I. p. 2«3. II, 229«sl D« Potter, Vie et
Mitn. de Ricci. Par. 1S2Ö. 4 vols Stutfp. ISSfi. 4 vols. [Memoirs of Sclplo do RiccI, Bp. of P. and
Ref. of Citli. in Tuscany. Lond. lS.'i2. 2 voK ISj
k) li'atch. nst. Rol. Ocscli. vol. V. p. .'iss. I'lmirl-, vol. I. p. 3ss.
34
530 .\i<M)KKN ciuriu;!! iiistoky. ri:u. VL a. d. 1649-1853.
tho tinK> cf (lio most sanpiiiiuiry oufra},'cs, did not shrink from exposing him-
self to di-risioti and dead!}' peril in behalf of the Church, (a) In the declara-
tion of hiinian rif,dits, -which constituted tho new gospel, freedom of religious
faith was [)roclainicd. Tho hierarchy, determining to submit ■with dignity to
what was now inevitable, proposed tiiat tiieir property should be proportion-
ally taxed, and that all superfluous vessels belonging to the Church should be
melted down. On the celebrated night of the 4th Aug., they also consented
that the tithes should be discontinued, and the pastors agreed that the sur-
plice foes should be renounced. In tlie discussion upon the laAv relating to
these subjects, it was decided that the tithes should be abolished as soon as
the state's treasury should be in a condition to sustain the expenses of public
vrorsliip. All ecclesiastical property Avas declared to be the property of the
nation (Nov. 2d, 1789). It was in vain that Montesquieu, with insinuating
moderation, and Maury^ with severe argument, urged the utter futility of
this proceeding as a financial speculation, the dilemmas to which a pecuniary
salary would reduce the clergy, the inviolability of this kind of property, and
the saeredness of such pious institutions, and that even Siojcs himself warned
the deputies that if men would be free they must be just. It vras determined
(Dec. 19th) that two hundred millions of the Church property should be sold,
and that the administration of every thing belonging to the Church should
be committed to the secular authorities (April 14th, 1790). The state under-
took, on the other hand, tho support of the Church and of the poor. A
house and garden, and at least 1200 livres, were secured to every pastor.
The salaries of the bishops were ample, but moderate only when compared
with the affluence which they formerly possessed. All sinecures were abol-
ished. Monastic vows, being looked upon as inconsistent with human rights,
and not needful to the public worship, were no longer protected by the laws
(Feb. 13th), but adequate annuities were provided for those who belonged to
the monasteries, and they were at liberty to reside in the convents. The
kingdom was divided into eighty-three departments of equal extent, to which
the Church Avas to be so conformed that each department was to constitute a
bishopric. It appeared equally consonant with primitive Christianity and
the newly-established principles of freedom, that all bishops and pastors
should be elected by the people. All fears of evUs attending a popular elec-
tion whicii was not even then directly with the people, were answered by
appeals to the disgraceful concomitants of former elections. Every bishop
was required to be the pastor of the cathedral church, and in all legal mat-
ters to listen to the counsel of his vicars, the old system of the provincial
synods was revived, and all intei'ferenco from neighboring bishops was pro-
liibited ; still the unity of the Church and its connection with a visible uni-
versal head was not impaired. The party of the bishops solemnly protested
against this spoliation of the Church, and this derangement of the episcopal
jurisdictions by the hands of the civil power. To destroy their opposition,
it was decreed (Nov. 2Tth) that all ecclesiastical officers, under penalty of
losing their offices, should take an oath to observe these laws as a civil con-
a) Monioiro* «Ic Gr. precedes ci'iine notice hisL sur Vav-toar par Jf. IT Ciirnot, Tar. 1937. 2 vols.
«?. Krri'jri; Cr. nach s. Denwlinligk. Li>s. ISaS,
CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1S14. § 435. GOBET. EOBESPIEREE. 53 1
stitntioii of the clerpy. A large majority of the clergy refused to take this
oath until the Church should declare its assent to the laws. Mirahcau lifted
np his prophetic voice, predicting that the selfishness of the priests would
bring down ruin upon the Church, if Catholic Franco was induced to contend
against emancipated France. Some bishops, chosen in accordance with the
terms of the new law, were consecrated (Feb. 24-, 1791). After considerable
delay, Fi>is VI. declared (April 13th) that the oath for the constitution was
inadmissible, and tliat every one who took it should forfeit his oflice in the
Church. (/') From this time the Catholic Church became the avowed enemy
of the revolution, and when the pastors were obliged to choose between the
Church and their native land, they began to emigrate to foreign countries.
Avignon was declared a constituent part of France (Sept. 1-tth).
§ 435. Lcgidatke Asscmlhj and Katianal Contention. 1791-95.
Greonire, fur les flifTamati-tirs et porscciiteiirs dans la rel. Par. S. (ISOO.) Curron, les confesseois
de la foi dans I'Ogl. gall, ft la fin du IS. S. Par. 1S,'0. 4 vols.
The Legislative Assembly decreed that every priest who refused the con-
stitutional oath should be excluded from the churches and deprived of his
salary. Those who excited the people to resistance were declared subject to
banishment or imprisonment. The king refused to ratify these decrees as
long as it was in his power to do so, and priests who had not taken the oath
officiated in his chapel. Under the National Convention, when France was
betrayed by priests and barons into the hands of foreigners, and involved in
all the horrors of a civil war, wjien in this contest every venerable usage
was annihilated, when the sacrament of royalty was desecrated, and the su-
preme power was exercised by a Parisian mob, Christianity itself was
regarded as a mere usage hostile to liberty, and the doctrines of the French
philosophy were embraced and reduced to practice by the populace in its own
Avay. In tlie mean time, some noble-minded persons like the Girondists and
Charlotte Corday, found their ideals only in the virtues of the ancient Ro-
mans. A new mode of reckoning time was introduced (Oct. 6th, 1793), all
Christian manners and morals were abolished by actual legislation, marriage
was treated merely as a civil contract, liable to dissolution on notice by one
of the jiarties, all ecclesiastical utensils were sold as national property, and nu
idolatrous worship of reason was solemnizeil, in whicli venal i)rostitntes Avere
the priestesses and goddesses. Gohcf^ Bishop of Paris, appeared with his
priests before the bar of the Convention (Xov. 7tli), to declare that their
previous lives had been a deception. The existence of God was publicly
denied, his vengeance was boldly challenged, and above the cemeteries the
inscription was raised, " Death is an eternal sleep." At last, Ii<'hcspierre^
true even in tliis to his character, and believing that nothing could supply
the jilace of the religious feelinir in tlie hearts of the people as a safeguard
fur all civil virtues, induced the Convention to declare that the French na-
tion recognized tlie existence of a Supreme Being, whose highest worship
tonsisted in the faithful performance of relative duties, and the immortality
^) {Hiilot) Col. Brevlura otinstrr. I'll VI. n<I praos. Gall. ecc. calamitates. Aug. ITDC 2 vols.
532 MODKUN fmi:cH iii.sTouv. ri:ii. VI. a. d. im*-19M.
of tlie Houl. In lioiior of tliis Supremo IJeing an absurd national festival was
oelehratcil (.Inly 8tli, 1704). After tlie subversion of the rei|,'n of terror,
Iil)L'rty for the exercise of all kinds of religion was restored (Feb. 21st, 1795),
witli a view to favor Ciiristianity, which had never been wholly suppressed
among the people, especially in the southern provinces of France.
§ 430. The I'licojihilanthropids. 1796-1802.
MnnucI des Tliöopli. Par. 1797. Ann6e reli^npusc des Tlieopli. (Recuell des disconrs.) Par. 1797.
(Iregoire, Gesch. d. Theopli. übers, v. Stiludlin in s. Mag. vol. IV. p. 257ss. and Hann. 1806. [HisL
di'S Soctes rel. Par. 1828. 6 vols. 8. J. Evans, Sketch of Clir. Uenoin. with an Outline of Atheism,
Thcophil. &c. 15th ed. Lend. Amherst. 1S32. 12.]
As the state was indifferent to all forms of religion, and the Republican
Directory was afraid of the Christianity which prevailed in the Church, the
increasing consciousness of the necessity of some religion led many to adopt
a form of worship adapted to a natural religion. This was gradually intro-
duced into ten churches of Paris, and became extended into most of the
provinces. God, immortality, morality, and the ever-changing life of nature,
were the objects of this system, which, as it was never sustained by any vigor-
ous religious character, was soon found unable to cope with either the Chris-
tianity or the spirit of indifference which existed in society. Hence, after a
brief period of success, when the First Consul declared that this mode of
worship could no longer be tolerated in the churches belonging to the nation,
it was ridiculed by the public and entirely discontinued.
§437. The Eoman EepiLllic. Cont. frorn%^ZZ.
Every kind of influence had been brought into requisition by Pius YI., to
foster by religious fanaticism the flame of civil war in France. Uuonaparte,
who had become master of Italy by the complete destruction of the Austrian
army, demanded that the pope should annul all his decrees against France.
When the latter refused, and ventured to make preparations for resistance,
the French republican general threw himself upon the States of the Church.
At Tolentino (Feb. 19, 1797), a treaty of peace was obtained at the expense
of all the possessions of the Roman court in France, of its legations in Fer-
rara, Bologna, and Romagna, of thirty millions of francs, and of an immense
selection from the Roman treasures of art. A republican form of govern-
ment was bestowed upon Lombardy. Even in Rome a party was formed in
tavor of a republic. When a popular insurrection with this object in view
took place in the city, and a French general had been killed in the fray, Ber-
th ur was sent into the states of the Church to obtain satisfaction from the
government. Under the protection of his arms a Roman republic was formed,
and the pope was informed that his civil authority was at an end (Feb., 1798).
The sympathy generally expressed for the misfortunes of the citizen pope
made him an object of suspicion, and led to his removal from Rome. Finally
this mild and devout pontiff died a French prisoner at Talence (Aug. 29th,
1790).*
• Bnldaaiari, Hist de I'enlivement et de la captivito de Pie VI., trad, de lltallen p. de Lacvw
mre, Par. 1&40. A. d. Fr. v. X. Steck, Tub. 1S44
CHAP. III. CATnOLIC C IIURCII TILL 18U. § 438. PIUS TIL NAPOLEON L 533
III. The Eha of Napoleon.
§ 438. Plm VII. and the lie-estalUshment of the Gallican Church.
Storia di Pio VII. (with orig. docc) Vcn. 1S15. 2 vols. Simon, Tie pollt et prlvöe de Pie VII
Par. 1S23. ViuiJet, Esquissea liist et polit sur Pio VII. Par. 1S24. Jufjer, Leb. P. VIL m. Urk.
Frkf. lS-24. Artaud de Montor, IL Uu Pape P. VIL Par. 1n%3. 2 vols. ed. 3. Par. 1S39. 3 vols.—'
(Caprara) Concordat entre le Gouvcrnoinont franr. et le Pape. Par. 1S02. Cologne, isn'2. Rdnluird,
neue Organis. d. Eel. Wes. in Fr. CoL )'>'^i. Hurrutl, du Pape et de ses droits rel. ä I'occas. du Con-
cord. Par. 1S03. 2 vola.
Pius F//. (Chiaramonti) was elected pope at Venice (March 14, 1800),
under the protection of Austria. By liis apparent concession to the revolu-
tion {'i) while he was Bishop of Imola, lie had shown himself a man of a
crafty and obstinate spirit. Under the armed escort of the allied powers be
was brought to Rome (July 3d), where he was by the treaty of Luneville put
in possession of the States of the Church, but without the legations (1801).
lie now turned his attention to the work of healing the wounds inflicted by
the revolution. Napoleon was at that time convinced that the true end of
all his victories was to secure the liberties of the country by the establish-
ment of order, and to frustrate the conspiracies formed against them in
Europe by extending them throughout the continent by wars of conquest.
Though personally perhaps indiflferent toward all churches, he saw that it
was indispensable to the tranquillity of the country that Catholicism should
be re-established as the religion of the state. For the revolution had dis-
tinctly shown, that even after a nation has broken all bonds, it cannot exist
without a God ; and from the sea of blood into which the innocent and the
guilty had alike been plunged, the recollection of the Church of their fa-
thers emerged like the dawn of a brighter day. Ilence, when the aims of the
future emperor were not satisfied at a national synod at Paris, of those bish-
ops who had taken the oath, a Concordat was agreed upon (July 15, 1801),
after mutual concessions, with the papal minister Consahi. Its stipulations
were: Catholicism is the religion of the majority of the French nation ; the
property of the Church shall not bo restored, but the state undertakes to
sustain the Church by a suitable and ample provision ; all priests who have
taken the constitutional oath, as well as those who have emigrated, shall
resign their offices, but be eligible for a re-election ; n division of dioceses,
conformed indeed to the political departments, but having reference to the
old bisliop's sees, shall be made ; the first consul shall appoint the archbish-
ops and fifty bishops in France, but tlio pope alone shall have the power of
bestowing upon them a canonical confirmation; the pastors shall be ap-
pointed by the bishops ; the first consul shall possess the same prerogatives
as were possessed by the former government ; and the pope shall be the tem-
poral sovereign of the Ecclesiastical State.", and the head of the Church. In
addition to these stipulations, Napoleon enacted by organic laws: the pro-
clamation of papal decrees dei)en(ls upon the discretion of the government ;
there shall always be an opportunity for an ap[)eal to the council of state
against the abuses of ecclesiastical power; the teachers in the seminarieg
a) llomd-lle du citoyen Card. Chiaramonti. 1797,irad. do Tita!, par Grii/oire. Par. (lSt4.) ISIS.
534 MODi'.r.N ciir'KCii history. ri:i:. vi. a. d. icij-isss.
Hlmll 1)0 Ixiiiiid liy tlie loiir propositions of tho Cnllican clergy ; and inaniapo
ceroiiioiiies slia.i bo purfDriiiL-d by tlio priests only after a previous act of tho
civil authorities. The introduction of tlie Concordat was pokninizcd on tho
Easter festival of 1802. Tho Democrats and tho old companions in arms of
tho first consul ridiculed the now capncinado. IJut even while the work of
destruction had boon ffinn<; on, St. Martin (d. 1804) had homo witnes.s to the
mysteries of tlie human heart, and its a.si)iration3 after a God, wlio could
alleviate the disorders of the head, even after Christ had healed the distress
of tho heart of our race. He however labored only for certain initiated per-
sons, leaving the Church to an inferior kind of prescriptions, (h) Chateau-
Irland (d. 1848), in the midst of the sorrows of the revolution, bad found
tho Christianity which he had previously lost, and with many tears he now
believed. In the primitive American forests, under the Grecian sky, and at
the holy sepulchre, he extolled the beauties of Christianity, and what it had
accomplished for luunanitj'. His inner life continued subject to the alterna-
tions of doubt and faith, and the faith which he possessed was always artifi-
cially excited, and tricked out with the tinsel of a worldly vanity ; bat even
amid the ruins of the temples, his Genius of Christianity appears as a long-
forgotten spiritual reality, and a new glorification of an awakening as well as
a witnessing Catholicism, (c) Even Napoleon perceived that the imperial
crown he was placing upon a head already crowned by fame, would be more
firmly fixed were it consecrated by the pope, and accordingly he became one
of the Lord's anointed (Dec. 2d, 1804). The Catechism designed for the
youth of France, (<7) enumerated devotion to the emperor among the divine
commandments, and it was in fact the religion of young France.
§ 439. Dispute between the Emperor and the Pope.
IS. Schoell, Eecucil des i/ieces offieielles. Par. 1S15. Tieces liist. relatives ä Pie VII. Par. ]S14.
(Archiv, f KGescb. vol. II. p. 172. 403ss.) Corrospondance de la eonr do Eome avec la France. Par.
ÜSU. Beauchamp, H. des malheurs de Pie VII. Par. 1814. Eiilation autli. de renlövement du P.
Pie VII. de Vital, p. Lemierre d'Argy, Par. ISli Memorie del Card. Pacca, Orvieto. 1S2S. ed. 8.
1333. 1-3 vols. [Notes on the Ministry of Card. B. Pacca, Sec of State to P. Vll. DubL 1S43. S.]
It was in vain that the pope demanded, as the price of his obedience, that
the Church in France should be entirely under his control, and complained of
the violation of the Concordat by the organic laws, and of the infringement of
the canonical laws bj' the Code Napoleon. That he might cope with the superior
power of France, he formed a league with the enemies of the emperor, and pre-
vented the union of all Italy for common measures against Austria and Eng-
land. This induced the emperor to send troops to take possession of the
h) Des errcurs et de la vtritt-. 1775. Edinb. 17S2. 2 vols. L'homme de di-sir. Lyon. 1790. Ecc«
homo. Par. 1792. Lps. 1S19. De I'esjirit des choses. Par. 1900. 2 vols. Oeuvres posthumes. Tours.
1S07. 2 vols. comp. Varnhagfn, Dcnkw. Lps. 1S40. vol. V. p. 125. lOlss.
o) Atala ou les amours de deux sauvages. Par. X. (ISOl.) Le Genie du Christianisme ou beantcj
de la rol. chr. Par. 1S02. 5 vols. Les martyrs. Par. 1S09. 3 vols. Itineraire de Paris :i Jerusal. Par.
ISU. 3 vols. Oeuvres. Par. 1S80. 22 vols. Memoires doutre-tombe. Par. 1S43. (Berl. lS4Sss.) 12 vola
[Tho Gen. of Chr., The Martyrs, Tlie Itinerary to Jerus., Concress of Verona, his Memoirs by him-
Bvlf, Sketches of Ens. Lit, and various other works of C. have been transl. into Engl, and publ. ii
Lond. 1346-50. IHs KecoUections of Italy, Engl, and Amer. were transl. and pnbl. Philad. ISIC. S.]
<f) Catoch. a Tusaje de toutcs les i-gl. de IVrnpire. Par. ISOG.
CIIAP. III. CATHOLIC CHDPwCII TILL 1S14. § 439. PIUS VIL NAPOLEOX I. 535
Elates of tlio Church (Feb., 1808), and after many acts of violence to declare
that the donations of his predecessor, the Emperor Charles, were then re-
voked on account of the abuse which had been made of them (May 17th,
1809). lie however allowed the pope, as the supreme head of the Catholio
Church' to have possession of all domains belonging to the Roman Curia, of
a palace in Paris, and of two milllüns of yearly revenues. I*iiis \ll. rejected
every ofier of a salary as an insult, depended for his support entirely upon
the alms of the faithful, and declared every one who laid his hand upon the
patrimony of St. Peter, excomnmuicated from the Church, lie was then
arrested (July 6th), taken to Savona, where he opposed to the prayers as well
as the threats of the emperor an inflexible resignation, which could do noth-
ing while lie was not at liberty, and wliile deprived of the counsel of his car-
dinals, lie also refused to contirm those who had been appointed bishops.
lu connection with the Cardinal Maury ^ then Archbishop of Paris, who
thought an honest reconciliation of the Clmrch with him into whose hand
God seemed to have given the world was absolutely indispensable, (a) Napo-
leon now attempted, by means of a synod at Paris (1811), to render the im-
perial Church independent of the pojie. The bishops, however, perceived
that tlieir own protection against the arbitrary power of the emperor was to
be found in the obstinacy which the i)ope then maintained, and the synod
was therefore dissolved. ((>) As far as the sovereign!}' of France extended in
the Spanish and Italian peninsulas, most of the convents, together with the
inquisition, were abolished, the property of the Church was confiscated, and
the liberal form of the Galilean Church was introduced. It was for this rea-
son that the Spanish clergy placed themselves at the head of the national
movement in which the lirst resistance was made against the emperor, and
that they might gain their point, they took part witli the advocates of a lib-
eral Constitution, and with England. The same reason induced Cardinal
liuffo (d. 1827), among the southern peaks of the Apennines, to bestow his
blessing upon the arms of the robbers. After his misfortunes in Russia,
Napoleon was obliged once more to i)ay some deference to public opinion.
He then gained the lieart of the pope, and concluded (Jan. 2üth, 1813) a Con-
cordat at Fontaincblcau^ by which the investiture of bishops was made no longer
dependent on the arbitrary papal will, and in which nothing was said of the
temporal government of the pope. It was not long, however, before the
Jieart of the holy Father was seized by a paroxysm of deep despondency on
account of this surrender of his last weapon, and following the counsel of the
liberated cardinals, he revoked all that he had done. On the very next day
(March 2.jth), tlie enii)eror jiublished the Concordat as a law of the empire,
liut the nationalities which iiad been destroyed by him now rose up against
him, and this military prince began to totter from his eminence. Then it
was that ho concluded to liberate the pope, and restore to him the possessior
of the states of the Churcli.
a) From the Life of Mmv. by his Xcphew. (Stud. \\. Krit 1881. P. 8. p. CCSss.)
b) Melcliers, Nationalconc. zu Paris in. Actonst. Munich. lSi4.
536 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. I'KR. VL A. I). ICIS-ISM.
f III). Occrllirow of the German Ecclesiastical Constilntlon.
MarUiu, KrciicU dos i)rlnc. traltt'S. vol. VII. p. 539s8. Suppl. vol. III. p. 24.3ss. Rclch«<leputallon».
Hmiptsclil. <'cl. by Cümiiierfr, RiitLsb. 1S04. 4. Octuporl, «1. K. D. Reccs.s in. Erliiiitr. Hmb. 1S03. 2
vols.— //</;■/, I)oiit.«dil. nst. Btnat.s- ii. K. Vcränder. Brl. 1804. Planck, Bctr. ü. d. riHt Veriindr. d.
kath. K. Mann. iMiS. (I'uuIhii) üoitrr. j.. Gesch. d. katb. K. Im 19. Jalirli. IKldclb. (1818.) 1828.
Kojip, <1- •-""'• K- '"' 'Ö. Jbh. Mayence, 1S30.
Tlio pcclesiastical Electorates, wliicli liad been jilaccs of rendezvous for
the enii{:jnints, and for all who wished to devise intrigues against France,
were swallowed up in the republic, and by the Peace of Luneville (1801) the
left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. The secular princes, who
were losers by this arrangement, or who for other reasons had found favor at
Paris, were indemnified by the gift of territories belonging to the Church.
To accomplish this, the ecclesiastical princijialities and charitable foundations
were secularized by a recess of the imperial deputies (1803). Dalhcrg, the
electoral arch-chancellor, who enjoyed the esteem of the conqueror for his
pliancy, of the German people for his goodness of heart, and of artists and
learned men for his sj-mpathy with them in their studies, and his freedom
from all petty considerations, was the only one who maintained his elevated
ecclesiastical and political position ; and in his episcopal see at Ratisbon, to
which the metropolitan rights of Mentz had been transferred (1805), he en-
deavored to reconcile the Church with the spirit of the new age. After the
papacy had been secularized. Napoleon declared (1810) (o) that the princi-
pality belonging to it possessed only a secular and personal character.
Although the nobility were more affected by the loss than Catholicism, yet
the Church was in these various ways obliged to expiate the offences of the
empire. It was however obvious that the ecclesiastical constitution was dis-
solved. The dioceses had been dismembered, the chapters and convents had
been abolished, the ecclesiastical princes of the empire had even thrown away the
crosier, Protestant princes claiming to be the heirs of the bishops had usurped
the right of patronage, bishops were not appointed to vacant offices, nor were
the dioceses re-organized, and finally, with the quiet subversion of the holy
Roman empire, there were no more securities for the laws of the empire. In
this way the ecclesiastical constitution was completely terminated. Even in
Bavaria (since 1799), the spirit of lUuminism destroyed the monasteries, and
induced the government to issue enactments against every thing it regarded
as superstition, (b) In consequence of the extravagant claims set up by each
party, all negotiations between the princes of Southern Germany and the
Roman court, which always insisted that heretical princes, Instead of gaining
ecclesiastical property, should lose their own, {c) were utterly fruitless, and
provisional ecclesiastical governments were formed according to the spirit of
the civil authorities.
«) {Dalberg) Dc la palx de Tigliso dans les 6tats do la confed6ration rbenane. Frcf. ISIO. Ratish.
ISIO. .1. Krümer, Karl Theod. Dalb. Lps, isil. Dalberg. Die letzten Lebenstage e. deutscbei
BUchofs. by //. .V. £. Carlsr. 1S46. Liter Naohlas.s d. Fra\i v. Wolzogen. vol. 11. p. Öös.
b) Ifeiil-e-a Kel. Ann. vil. I. p. 127. II, 2iils.'=. A. Z. 1S(I3. N. 253, 1S04. N. 151.
c) Instructions to the Xuntlus. lu Vienna, in Paulus, Keitrr. 1823. p. 87.
CHAP. IV. EVANG. CIIUECII TILL ISU. § 441. KEIMAKUS. BAIIKDT. 537
CHAP. IV.— THE PPwOTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL
1814.
§ Ul. The Age of Enlightenment. Cont. from § 416, 430.
(ff. U. Brastherger) Erzähl, u. Beurth. d. VerüDdr. d. Lcbrbc?. d. Prot In Deutschl. Ilal. ITOX
J. A. IT. TUlmann, pragin. Gesch. d. chr. Pv. u. Th. in d. prot K. 2 Ilalfto des IS. Jahrh. Brsl. 1S05.
(New Title) Lps. lS-24. only 1 vol. Gieseler, Kuckbl. a. d. kirclil. u. th. Kiolit u. Entw. d. letzten 50
J. Gott 1S3T. Tholuck, Abriss c. Gesch. d. Umwülziing s. IT.'JO. a. d. Gebiete d. Th. in Deutschl
(Verm. Solirr. Ilal. 1S;}9. vol. II.) {Ihtgenhach (§ 41C.) vol. I. Vorless. 11-17. vol. II, 1-9.]
The same spirit Avhicli Avas in other places breaking loose from all re-
straints, attempted in Germany to overthrow Christianity. The Wolfenbüttel
Fragmentn. originally composed by lieimarus (d. 1768) for himself and a few
friends in a town zealous for ancestral usages, and edited by Lessing, con-
tended Avith much intellectual acuteness against the habit of decrying reason
which prevailed In the pulpit, and against the possibility of a revelation
which should possess sufficient evidence to render it worthy of universal con-
fidence, and represented the undertaking of Jesus as an unsuccessful attempt
at an insurrection which finally gained credit by a pretended resurrection, {a)
Among other decisive conclusions respecting Christianity, MnuviUon put
forth one in which not only its divine origin, but even the moral principles
of the gospel were assailed. Qi) Bahrdt (1741—92), always clever and light-
minded not only in his scientific pursuits but in his daily life, having gradu-
ally broken loose from the restraints of the ecclesiastical creed, endeavored
by strange fancies sometimes to destroy the Scriptural history, and sometimes
to make it harmonize with the views and sentimentality of the age by repre-
senting Socrates, .Jesus, Semler, and himself, as equally the instruments of divine
providence, (c) He addressed himself to the common people ; others en-
deavored to move the middle cla-sses of society ; the higher classes had im-
bibed the same spirit in a more ingenious form from France; while those who
were intellectually of a still higher order, though they looked from a position
of an entirely secular character, regarded the efforts of these modern Titans
with derision and mockeries. This merely destructive school was not over-
come by the numerous replies its productions called forth, nor by the petty
persecution to which its adherents were subjected, but by the free develop-
ment of German theology. German literature, with some respect for the
blessings of Christianity and what wore called the dreams of its youthful
days, prosecuted the discovery that the doctrine of the Church was perhaps
ditferent in important respects from that of primitive Christianity, and
indulged the expectation that wlien theology should be properly developed,
«) [A'. //;m<?,] Leben Jesu. p. 81. (ZQr. Gescli. u. Lit. a. d. Schützen d. Wolf. BIbl. Boltr. 8. 4.
Wolfenb. 1777.) Frngin. d. Wolf. UnKennnnten, hrsg. v. Leasing, 4 cd. BrI. 1S!5. Selection of all
liiiIiorLint papers frnm the llainbiirc MS.s. : Apolosic o. Schiitzsch. für die Vrniunf^. Verehrer Gottef
V. II. S. Keim. ed. by If. Klone. (Zeit.scb. f. hist. Th. 1S50. II. 4. IS'jl. II. 4. ISS'.'. II. .3.)
h) Das ttrizij; wahre System d. chr. P.el. BrI. 17S7.
c) [A: //«(.fc,] Leben Jesu. p. 81. K. F. AiA;-(//, Glaiibensbek. Ilal. 1770. K. ii. Ketzcr-Alma
n.ach f.)r 17S1. Ilüresiopcl. Gesch. s. Lebens, by himself. Brl. 1790s. 4 vols. Mit P.ericlilpg. v. Vvl-
i,aniJ, Jen. 1701. ü. I.anrkhard, Ilnl. 1761. Briefe anges. Gelehrten, Staatsmänner u. a. an den b»
'ahmten Mfirtyrer Bahrdt. Ljis. 1701. 5 vols.
."538 MODKUN ciiti:'ii iiistokv. tkh. vi. a. d. le^s-iyw.
It would lie cinisistciit with tho dictates of a mature reason. Mifknel'm
(ITI'J-'JI), from tho Orphan houfic, -with some assistance from England, pre-
Bontcd an historical cstiraato of tho original text of tho sacred Scriptures, and
interi)rctcd the Old Testament hy oriental illustrations, and the Mosaic laws
hy tho ])rin<iiilcs of Montesquieu. His dilluse and easy stylo vfus, very agree-
ahlo to the Cicrmans ; in his best days he liad the reputation of being an
innovator, though when an old man he was considerably behind his age, and
he himself, without moral courage, assures us that he always conformed hia
instructitms to tho doctrines of the Church, {d) Erncsti (1707-81; applied
the results of classical philology to the settlement of more precise rules for
tho interpretation of the Scriptures, to which he once more conducted the
creed of the Church, (e) Semler (1725-91), who had by extreme diligence
advanced from the jiietistic and contracted spirit of his youth, when he ex-
hibited neither fancy nor genius, to a mat\irity in which he displayed im-
mense treasures of an independent, bnt irregular and undigested knowledge,
presented various examples fortified by all the w-eight of the original histori-
cal documents, of the misunderstandings, the delusions, and violence in which
he thought the doctrines of the Church in many instances had originated.
In his estimation, the Bible was full of many minor ideas peculiar to tho
places in which it was Avritten, and he seemed to think it was proper to admit
any doctrine into it which might serve to improve the morals of men. lie
never imagined that he was doing any thing calculated to produce a revolu-
tion, and he was pervaded by the pious feelings which formed the habit of
his youth. Hence, when the very system for which he had contended and
suffered became triumphant (1779), and he saw how far beyond all bounds
it was carried by Bahrdt, he was alarmed at his own course, and came into
conflict with the very spirit of the age which he had done so mnch to pro-
duce. For in his subsequent works he maintained that in public the doctrines
of the Church were to be absolutely npheld, although in private each one
was to be allowed full freedom in his religious views. (/) Frederic IL, the
German hero with a French education, who would have nothing to do with
the Christian faith, although he Avas not Avithout some regard for Christian
morality, for the strength of religious feelings, for Protestantism as the reli-
gion of his country, and for every individual of ability in the Church, de-
spised every thing like priestcraft, gave all the influence of his great name to
those who were opposing the doctrines of the Church, and allowed every one
full liberty to be saved after his own fagon. {g) The General German
d) Eichhorn, J. D. Mich. (Alls. Bibl. d. bibl. Lit. 1T99. v. III. p. 82Tss.) Leb-ynsbescbr. von ibm
selbst m. Anm. v. Ilassenkamp, Hint. &, L. 1793. [Introd. to the N. T. from the Germ, of J. D. Midi,
by Jrarsh, lAind. ISIS. C vols. Ct/mnient. on tlic Laws of Moses, transl. from tlie Germ, of J. D. Mich.
by SniM, Lond. 4 vols. S. EMihorns Life and Writinn:sof J. D. M. b:«becn transl. Edinb. 1535. IS.]
*) A. Teller, Ern. Verdienste um Th. ii. Uel. Lps. 1TS3. Semler, Zus. zu Teller. Hal. 17S3. J. r.
Vorst, Or. dc Ern. optimo post Grotinm duce interpretum X. T. Lugd. B. 1S04. 4. [Ernesti, Ele-
uients of Interp. transl., with Notes and App. by M. Stuart, Andover, 1327. 12.]
/) Lobensbcschr. von ihm selbst Hal. 17Sls. 2 vols. Xiemei/er, S. letzte Aeusserungen. Hal. 1T91.
Ekhho,-^!^ Soml. (AUg. Bibl. 1793. vol. V.)
a) Prtuxit, Fr. d. G. Brl. lS32ss. 5 vols. F. r. liaumer : Fr. IL u. s. Zeit. (Beitrr. z. neu
Oescb. Lpj. l>s3G. v. II.) V.edcn z. Gedächtni.isC Fr. IL Lps. 184-3. »t 1S47. J. C. Jokannsen, Fr. d.
O. Kel. u. Tuler. (Zcitsch. f. lilst. Th. 1S49. II. 1.) [E. 2Iori,irty. II. of Fr. ThcoL Lond. & Thilad.
CHAP. IV. EVANG. CnUECn TILL ISU. § 442. KEACTIOX. 530
Library, which under Nicolai^ during tlie first ten years of its publication
(after 17C5), exercised an absolute sway as a tribunal of literature, always
exerted its secret influence in opposition to the ancient system of faith, (//)
and rejected every thinp: which exceeded tlie limits of its own bald intelli-
gence and morality, on the fj:round of a liability either to the reproach of su-
perstition or the suspicion of Jesuitism. {P) It professed to rcj-'ard Cliri.stian-
ity only as an liistorical development of natural morality and religion, and a
popular system of instruction in the best way to become happy in this world
and the next. In consequence of the power possessed by the opposition
among the influential classes, and its continued adherence to the general basis
of Christianity, it would neither be discarded as a heresy, nor attempt to set
Ttp a peculiar Church of its own, but on the i)rincii)le3 of Protestantism it
Avas looked upon as simply one among many theological views, and as hetero-
doxy by the side of orthodoxy. Besides, the sacred Scriptures were upheld
by it in opposition to the fallible doctrine of the Church, although the de-
velopment of the experimental sciences made many doubt whether the whole
of the sacred text could be the immediate word of God. Euliglitenment, by
which was meant an elevation above the childish prejudices of education by
a courage which induces one to rely upon his own understanding, now be-
came the watchword of the age, (/) and Germany once more saw its sanc-
tuary of faith torn down by the hands of its own priests.
§ 442. Chriiftian lieaction. Prussian liellgioua Edict.
Societies were now established for the maintenance of the ancient faith,
by publications, by schools for the education of the young, and by fraternal
admonitions. One of these was formed at Stockholm, 1771 ; another at the
Hague, 1785 ; and a very extensive German society for the diffusion of Chris-
tianity was started by Urlspcrgcr (after 1779), with its principal seat at
Basle, and without regard to differences of creed, including all who acknowl-
edged Jesus as their God and Saviour. («) The Suabiau prelate Oetinger
(1702-82), whose mind was inclined to every thing mysterious and fanciful,
and yet was always practical and fond of general principles, was unwearied
in turning the attention of the people of Berlin to that of which they knew
nothing, and proclaimed the mysteries of God as a sacred philosophy, in which
all material things Avoro pervaded by spirit. (J) Those, however, who con-
tended against the innovations in an intelligent manner, were themselves
atVected by the general literature of tlio day, and forsook many fundamental
l)rinciples of the old Protestantism. Individual instances of persecution were
2 vols. CSimphelV» Life, Jkc. of Fr. tlio Or. Lond. 4 vols. 3. 2 vol», p. a iMrd Dover, Life, Ac of
Fr. the Or. Lond. 2 vol». 9. J). Thlebault, Ori«. Anecdd. of Fr. ilio Or. ft-oui tlio French. Phllad
1S06. 2 vols. 8.]
/() Briefe an .Toll. Mueller, od. by ^flturer-Const>lnt. Scliaini. 1S40. vol. IV. p. ISss. esp. 2-3.
i) /'. iVie. Uebor iiiclno Gelehrte nildiin^. Brl. 17Ö9. J. G. FichU, Nlc Lebun u. sondcrb. Mein
«jngen. Tub. ISOl. (;!,rKi»yl, Nlo. Luben n. lit. Xiidilns;«. Ürl. 1S20.
X-) Kant, Wnsl>t Aiifkl iriin!,'? (ISerl. Mon.it.scbr. 17-;». Dec.)
(i) J. A. Urlxp. 15os<liaftVnh. u. Zwecke e. zu errichtenden deutschen Gcscllscb. thütiger BeförJ.
relnor Lelire \i. Gotl.oelli<:k. Biw. 17S1.
1>) Bibl. WurterbiK-li. (177r,.) ed. with Explan, by rr.tmherger, Stuttg. 1S49. AntoDiog. cd. the
same Stiitl;.'. 1S4,1. J\. A. Aiiherlin, d. Theos, plile Oot with IVaef by A*. liolhf, Tub. 1S4?.
540 MODKUN ('Ill'IiCn IIISTOUV. ri:U. VI. a. D. 164*-1SM.
not. iiidooil wanting.', and flie lepal ecTisor.shij) and tho public prosecutor wore
Homctinios iippcalofl to' Lut generally instead of a resort to tlio civil or tlio
occlesiaHtieal Hword, tlio most timid intrigues -were carried forward, and tho
pcüi)lo Avero indifferent to tlio Avliolc matter. An attempt to suppress the
now freedom of instruction at the University of Jena (1794) was quietly sup-
l)resscd by Charles Angvstus. (r) Tho most decided hostility was displayed
in the very place where the professed enlightenment originally found a home.
FrciJcric WilUam JT.^ painfully impressed with a sense of the position of his
illustrious ancestor with respect to the Church, and himself under the influ-
ence of a faction, Avas anxious to aid Avhat ho regarded as tho cause of Chris-
tianity, and published, by tho advice of his ecclesiastical minister Woellner,
a religious edict (July 9, 17V8), which, for tho protection of the congrega-
tions, threatened every clergyman Avith deposition, and even Avith severer
punishments according to circumstances, Avho should presume to teach any
thing inconsistent Avith the symbols of the Church to Avhich he belonged, {d)
The execution of this edict Avas to be secured by a national catechism, and a
commission for examination (1791) under the immediate direction of Woell-
ner. (f;) But even the laAV passed at the same time for the censorship of the
press, (/) could not prevent such a general expression of disapprobation, {g)
that AVoellner, to escape the reproach of having established a Protestant
inquisition, only ventured on the execution of the edict by way of experi-
ment, since he called in the high authority of the chancery to aid hiin against
the opposition of the superior consistory. The decision in an individual case
Avas to settle the validity of the threatened rule for all others. The supreme
court Avas directed by an order of the cabinet (1791) to inquire whether
Schulz, a preacher of Gielsdorf, (/) who had assailed the fundamental truths
of Christianity, (//) and in accordance with the ncAV fjishion of tho times
Avore a queue, Avas to be regarded as an evangelical preacher ? Although
many influences Avere brought to bear upon the court, and it Avas threatened
in various Avays, it refused to act inconsistently Avith its long-established repu-
tation, and decided that tho Christian conduct of this preacher, and the love
Avhich his respectable congregation exhibited toAvard him, would not warrant
his removal from them. As the accused Avas hoAvever deposed, and an order
Avas issued by the cabinet directing that those members of the court Avho
gave the obnoxious votes should be punished, the general dissatistaction Avas
much increased. (/) It had now become evident, on the one hand, that the
Church Avas established ou no legal basis, and was dependent on the ai-bi-
trary caprice of a minister ; and on tho other, that no external force was suf-
ficient to repress tho intellectual poAver of this development. "When Frederic
William III. ascended the throne (1797), the edict lost all the poAver it ever
c) (Rohr) Wio Karl August sich bei Verketzerraagsversuchen gegen ukad. Lehrer benahm,
llanii. 1S30.
d) Acton z. nst KGoscli. vol. I. p. 401ss. Das preuss. 11. Edict Eine Gesell, a. d. IS. Jalirh. far
d. 19. Lps. 1842.
f) ( Wald) Ann. d. Pr. Rcl. Wes. 1T96. vol. I. St, 4. /) Acten z. nst. KGescli. vol. II. p. 154s&
(/) Uenke, Beurth. aller Schriften welche durch das pr. K. Edi-it. veranlasst sind. Kiel, 1793.
h) Erweis d. liimniclwciten Unterschieds d. Moral u. d. r.el. v. e. unerschrockenen WahrheiU
freunde. Frkt: i;ss.
i) Ifiuke, Arch. vol. I. Qu. 2. p. S4ss. VaUr, Anhaii, vol. I. p. iSTss.
CflAP. IV. EVAXG. CnURCn TILL 1S14. §+43. LE5S1XG. HERDER. 541
possessed, and it was proclaimed by this pious king, tliat as religion wa.s ex-
clusively an affair of the heart, it needed no compulsory enactments, and
that "with reason and philosojjhy for its inseparable companions, he conld not
doubt that it "would by its unaided energies maintain its existence in the
nation. (Z-)
§ 443. Eci-olution in German Literature.
The affectionate reverence with which Geliert (l7lo-6Ü) was surrounded,
notwithstanding the contracted and sickly spirit he possessed, showed that
the simjile utterance of a pure Christian heart found much that was conge-
nial in the minds of others. The admiration also with which the first cantos
of the Messias were received (1748), could never have been awakened if
there had not been a general confidence in an incarnate God, who had given
himself a sacrifice for man. At the same time, however, in which this
theological revolution took place, the intellect of the German people be-
came much elevated. No longer unmindful of its former glory, nor de-
voting itself to the pursuit of monstrosities and miserable imitations, its full
and profound spirit now awoke to a consciousness of its powers, and began
to form a polished national literature, by means of which the nation once
more assumed an important position in the history of the world, (a) Among
the leaders in this intellectual movement were some who stood foremost in
the theological world. Lessing (1729-81), who never aspired to the charac-
ter of a theologian, but only to that of an amateur in theology, with power-
ful native talent and character, threatened to overthrow the formal principles
of the old Protestantism, by proving that Christianity rested not upon the
Bible, but upon the internal experience of men. Although he entertained a
profound respect for the religion of the people, and the serious earnestness
of genuine orthodoxy, he anniliilated the pretensions of the Lutheran pas-
torate by the most terrible weapons of thought and learning, {h) He was
unwilling to accept of a religion on the veracity and faith of others, and by
his Nathan he j)ersuaded the whole nation to elevate itself, as he had done,
above all regard for historical traditions. Herder (1744 1803), as long as ho
was in advance of his age, and after a season of prophetic youthful extrava-
gance, became animated with the same enthusiasm for the Scriptures whicli
he had fdt for Homer and Ossian, and having redeemed tlie gospel of human-
ity from the dogmas uf tlio scliools, he announced and gave a personal repre-
sentation of it among his fullow-men. (r) And yet this triumphant literature
was merely a glorification of the world, and in its most ardent efforts after
ideal excellence had no very definite relation to Christianity. From holding
k) A. K. Z. 1S27. N. 2S.
a) If. Otlzer, d. deutsche poet Lit. ». Klnjuit Nach Ihren otliiscben u. rel. Gc8icht«punkten. Lpa.
rS41. Comp. Gervlnus and Vlliimr.
V) Eino I'aruliel nebst e. kleinen Bitte u. evontuHlen Absagun(;;srhrclben. Anti-Goezo. 1779* and
otli. in the 10 and 11 v. of Les^lng■B Sclirr. ed. by Ixichntann, BrL 1S39.— ÄöAr, Les& In theol. Be-
ziehung. (Kleine theol. Sclirr Scbleus. 1S41. vol. L) liienädcer, ü. Le» als Hrsgebr. d. Wolfenb.
Fraginm. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S44. 11. 4.)
c) (Christi. Schrr. Rig. 179-Im. 5 Satnnil.) Werke z. Rel. a. Th. ed. by J. G. MufUer, Tub. (ISnPs«.
12 V.) 1827SS. 18 V. Z>,iiiz u. Gniber, Charscterintik IL Lps. 1S05. M. C. T. Herder, Erin, an d
Leben IL Tub. 1S20. 2 vols. Welm.Hri<che.s llerder-Albuin. Jen. 1S45.
542 MODERN ClIUnCH IIISTOUV. I'KR. VI. A. T). 1C4S-1S.13.
11 scrnpliio kind of ortlifxloxy, WiAdud siuldcnly ombraceil .'i lax system of
rrcetliiiikin},' (al'tor ITflO), not only in matters of faitli, but in those of morals.
Goethe took some interest as n i)oet in tlie various manifestations of tlie Ciiris-
tlftii spirit, occnsionally ho himself assumed a pastoral style of address while
dcfendinf? practical and sincere piety principally against the reckless spirit of
the innovators, ('/) and he abhorred all negative criticism Avith respect to the
original authorities of antiquity; but tlie idea of any interruption of those
natural laws by which the Deity reveals himself to men, was liighly repug-
nant to his feeling of exclusive sympathy with nature, and the decoration of
a single bird of Paradise was inconsistent with his views of the multii)licity
in which all things appear. For himself, therefore, he never felt the need of
suci« a system as that of Chnstianity. {e) Schiller has sometimes used strong
Innguage respecting the inconsistency of Christianity Avith the adoration of
an independent Ruler of all things, with which the age had made him ac-
quainted, yet in his mature years he himself postponed the categorical impera-
tive to the religion of free inclination, and perceived the important part
which the gospel sustains in the history of the world. His OAvn hopes of the
world's salvation, however, were built wholly upon the influence of moral
freedom and beauty. (/) But by the side of these highly endowed children
of the world, the prophets also found a friendly position on account of the
kindred spirit of enthusiasm which they seemed to possess. Among these
were : Ilamann (1730-88), a powerful child of nature, and yet one filled with
the spirit of the Scriptures, who, with a style as abrupt and fragmentary as
was his actual life, poured forth his prophecies against the Babel of the
Enlightenment on the Spree ; (y) Lavater (1741-1801), who with a magical
versatility of talent ingeniously mingled the earthly and the heavenly ; (/<)
in his better days, Jung-Stilling (1740-1817), idyllic in his style, powerful
in prayer, and credulous with respect to modern miracles ; (/) and Claiidiun
(1743-1815), with his humble and yet humorous sincerity, (l)
(?) Brief il. Tastors * * an den neuen P. zu * * Zwo bibl. Fragen an e. Landcreistl. in Schwaben.
Fragmente.
«) Comp. e. g. Götlies n. Lav. Briefw. eil. by Hirzel, Lps. 1S33. and GOthe's last letter to Angnste
V. Stolberg in the Urania. lS-39. [Autobiog. of Goethe, transl. by P. Godicin, New York. 1S46. 2
vols. 12. Works, transl. into Engl. Lond. 1S52. 4 vols. S.]
/) Ji. Binder, Schiller im Verh. z. Christenth. Stuttg. 1S8D. 2 vols. Comp. C. rilmann and G.
Schtcdh. d. Cultus d. Genius. Ilamb. 1840. p. Slss. Tendency to Christianity : F. J. Günther, Sch.
Lied. V. d. Glocke. Elbrf. 1S53. [Worship of Genius, transl. from the Germ, of C. Ulliiiann. Lond.
lS-15. 12. Life of Schiller and Exam, of Works. Lond. 1S25. 8. Carlyle, Life of S. Lond. and New
York. 12.]
a) Werke, ed. by liothe, Brl. 1821ss. 7 vols, and S vols. (Nachtr. u. ErlUutv.) v. G. A. VTiener.
Brl. 1842. Möller, ehr. Bekenntnisse u. Zcugn. v. 11. Münst 1S2G. F. Ilerhst^ Bibl. ehr. Denkw
L[is. lS.3n. vol. L W. Bauer, de Ilara. vita et Serr. Vrat 1S42.
Il) Geheimes T;;gcbuch. Von e. Beobachter sr. selbst. Lps. 1772ss. 2 vols. Ausgewählte Schrr. ed.
by Orebi, Zur. lS41s. C vols. F. HerHt, Bibl. ehr. Denker. 1^32. voL IL Göthe, a. m. LebcE.
(Nachgel. W. 1S33.) vol. VII L p. 142ss. C. Ilegner, Beitrr. z. Kenntniss. Lav. Lps. 1S3G.
') (Jugend, Jünglingsj. Wandersch. 177S.) Lebensgesch. new ed. Stuttg. 1S35. (^ol. I. A. sänimtl.
Schrr. cd. by GroUnutnn.') Sendscbr. geprüfter Christen an J. SI. Carlsr. 1S33. Schwartz, St Alter
u. Lebensende. Ildlb. ISl 7. Goethe a. m. Leben. (Werke. 1S29. 12.) vol. XXV. p. 245. Jacohi's
Brr. vol. II. p. 4'»7. [Stilling's "Childhood," "Interesting Tales," and " Pneumatology," have been
translated by .Tackson. Lond. 4 voK 12. Autobiogr. Xew York. 1S3S. S.]
t) Siimmtl. W. d. Wandsbecker Bothen. 17T4-1S12. 7 ed. Ilamb. 1S44. S vols. IG. Comp. Hist pol
Blätter. 1*39. vol. IV. P. C6s.
CHAP. IV. EVAXG. CHUECn TILL ISU. § 444. KANT. JACOni. FICHTE. 543
§ 44-t. Reformation of Philosojyliy in Germany.
C. 2t. MicheM, Gcsch. d. Pliil. v. Kant b. Ilesel. Brl. lS.37s. 2 vols. H. M. Chaltj7>afuii, hist.
Entvr. d. Sp^c. Pliil. v. Kant b. Ilegel. Drsd. {lS.37-39.) 4 e<1. 1843. [transl. into Eii-1. by A. Edersheim,
Ediub. 1554.] K. Biedermann, d. deutsche Phil. v. Kant, b. a, unsre Z. Ljis. 1S43.
As the mind was aclinowledged to bo the higliest of all powers, the spirit
of the age pressed most ardently forward in its efforts to ascertain its nature.
In view of all that Wolf and Ilinnc had said, Kant (1724-1804) went into a
careful investigation of our faculty of understanding, and arrived at the con-
clusion that we cannot know things in themselves, and tilings above the
reach of the senses, but that the only thing certain in itself is the moral law,
which conducts us to a practical faith in God and immortality. lie also ac-
knowledged that it is our duty to connect ourselves with Christianity, on
the ground that it is a popular school for moral education, and because its
sacred books, as well as its received doctrines, are an excellent explanation
of the great object of morality. ('?) Jacohi (1743-1819) agreed with Kant
respecting the limitations of all knowledge, but he shrunk from the direct,
strict way of reason, which that i>hilosopher had marked out, and pointed
out in a dilettantic and exalted style the certainty of those religious ideas
which are found in the sentient part of man's nature, and which neither
have nor need any proof. He was himself profoundly studying a j)roblem
which has employed the mind of man as long as it has had an existence, with
the heart of a Christian but the understanding of a heatlieu. (h) A theo-
logical school was founded by Kant, but as his influence on philo.sophy con-
sisted principally in the scientitic and moral earnestness of the movement
commenced by him, some more popular results have been produced in the
department of theology, by the combination of the critical philosophy with
the philosophy of faith. Ficlite (17G2-1814) showed that the ultimate point
toward Avhioh the critical religious philosophy tended, was faith in a univer-
sal moral government. But as he was not satisfied with the resignation
which both Kant and Jacobi required, he conceived of all existence merely
as the voluntary creation of the mind. Having been accused of atheism in
Electoral Saxony, his self-respect, which identified his own person with the
cause of science, led him to nso an incautious expression which jiroduced his
dismission from his professorship at Jena (1799). It Avas not. however, the
existence of God, but the existence of the world tliat he denied; and tlio
omnipotence of the / in the religion of cliecrful virtue, together with his
confidence in the approaching end of Christianity wliiih ho assumed in all
a) KrlUk d. rclncn Vernunft. 17S1. Kr. d. prnkt Vft. 1T?S. Kr. d. rnheüskr. 1790. Ilel.
Inncrh. d. Oronzen d. bl. Vft. Künlgsh. 1793. and oftrn. SäninUl. Sclirr. od. by /.'oifnl-ram, Lps.
■f837s«. 12 vols. IfaitetiHtein. Lps. ISJj'^s. 10 vols. DifUrin, Hedcnt d. Kant. Phil. fTird. nencre Th.
(Stud. u. Krlr. 1S17. H. 4.) [Kimfs Critlck of Piiro i:ca<on. Lond. 1S:5>. S. An Analy^l3 of the C.
(if P. Pv. L'ind. 1S44. 8. Lofic with Life, by ük-hiirdmn, Lond. 1S:!6. S. Metaphyslc of Ethics,
trtinsl. \)\- SemiiIf,YA\v\>. 1S30. 8. Prolesomena to every future Metaphyslc. Lond. Is38. 8. anil
Theory of Rel. Iransl. hy Semplf, Edinb. 18S7. 8. A. F. M. W'iüicA, The Critical Phil, of Knnt.
Lond. 179S. Wirgmnun, Prince. <T the C. Phil. Lond. 1S24.]
h) //«««? u. d. Clauhcn. 17s:. Von d. pöttl. iJIncen u. Ihrer OITenb. Lps. (l-^Il.) 1S'22. Werke.
Lps. 1S12S5. fi \o\>. Uriifrt-. Lps. ISi.'iss. 2 vols. Brtefw. zw, Qoethe u. Jac. Lp». 184C. J. Kulin,
Tac. u. d. Pli Br. Zeit. Mentz, 1824
544 moi)Hi:n church histokv. pkh. vi. a. d. ims-isss.
liis specuktioiiH, hecninc finally trannformcd into the omnipotence of love.
Chri.stiunity was recognized by him as tlie gospel not only of freedom and
equality, hut of inditlercnco to tho world, though ho always expressed a spe-
cial i)reforcnco for the writings of John, (c) His school is of importance in
the history of tlie Cliurch only because it was an important point of progress
in pIiilosoi)liv, and because it imparted an heroic strength to the human mind.
§ 445. Eationalism and Supernaturalism.
StüucUhi, Gesell. (1. Rat. u. Supr. Giitt. 182C. E. B. Pusey, Causes of the late rationalist cliarac-
tor of tlio Tlicol. in Germany. Lond. 1828ss. 2 vols. Amand Saintes, Uist crit. du rationali.sine en
Allomagne. Par. (1341.) 1843. m. Anmerk. u. E.vcursen. v. C. 6. Ficker, Lps. 1817. [A Crit Hist
(if Entionalisin in Germ, from its Origin till now. transl. from the French of Am. Saintes, by J. li.
Beard, Lond. 1849. 8. Art in Kitto's Journal of Bibl. Lit vol. I.]
The theology which now had the ascendency in the German Church, had
avoided an open rupture with that which the Church set forth in her creeds,
and yet had appropriated to itself all which it thought intelligible and useful
in them, A living representation of it was exhibited in the person of the
mild and venerable Spalding (1714-1804), («) But the original opposition
which will always be found to exist between a merely sacerdotal religion
and a religion of mature reason, became developed near the commence-
ment of the nineteenth century as the principal subject of controversy in
the Christian world, under the scholastic names of Eationalism and Super-
naturalism. This, instead of being a discussion respecting some peculiar
doctrines of religion, referred to the primary principles which lie at its foun-
dation. In general. Rationalism found the supreme law of all religion in the
reflecting mind, which it regarded as a natural revelation from God ; w^hereas
Supernaturalism found it in a sacred tradition, which was looked upon as a
supernatural revelation. The tendency of the age was unquestionably
rational, and it was contending for liberty and intelligible ideas in opposition
to merely prescriptive usages. But so far as Rationalism constituted a dis-
tinct school, it maintained the supremacy of a sound common sense, as it was
defended by Wolf, Kant, and Jacobi ; it appropriated to itself the natural reli-
gion and earnest system of morality found in the Scriptures ; and it regarded
this as all that was essential to Christianity. Every thing else in the Bible
it set aside as the various kinds of outward covering which the truth assumed
during the process of its birth. The last representatives of this school were :
Paulus (1701-1851), the influence of whose character as an expounder of the
Scriptures, and his conscientious earnestness in the formation of his specula-
tive creed, was precisely the same in various directions as if he had been an
avowed freetliinker ; (b) Wegscheider (1771-1849), who as a didactic theolo-
c) Vers. e. Kritik aller Offenb. Künigsb. (1J92.) 1793. Grnndl. d. Wissenschaftsl. Weim. 1794.
Af.pell. an d. Publ. ü. die ihm beigemessenen atheist Aeusscr. Jena. 1799. Anw. z. sei. Leben. BrL
1S06. J. n. FiehU, J. G. Fichtes Leben n. Briefw. ISoOs. 2 vols. GoeVie, Werka vol XXXL p,
153. Paulus, Skizzen, p. 170ss. J. U. Fichte, Paulus u. Fichte. (Freihafen. 1S40. P. 2.) Paulus im
N. Sophron. 1S41. vol. L P. 1. [Fichte's Destination of Man, The Nature of the Scholar, The Voca-
tion of the Scholar, The Way to a Blessed Life, and Characteristics of the Age, have been transl. and
publ. with a Memoir of the Author. Lond. lS46ss. 8.]
<7) J. J. Sp. Lebcnsbcschr. v. ihm selbst, ed. by his son. Hal. 1804.
V) Skizzen a. m. Lebensgesch. z. .\ndcnkcn an mein SOj.ihr. JubiL Ueidelb. 1839. K. A. v. Reich-
lin-Meldegg, H. E. G. Paulus u. s. Zeit Stuttff. 1S53. 2 vols.
CHAP. IV. EVA><G. CHURCH TILL 1514. § 445. RATIONALISM. 545
gian, (r) together with EvTir (1777-1848), a high officer in the Church and a
popular author, showed how this style of speculation can he made consistent
with an ecclesiastical professorship, (d) On the other hand, Supernaturalism
abandoned the fundamental principle of the former orthodoxy, but firmly
maintained, though with many concessions, that the historical contents of
Christianity were a supernatural revelation from God, and employed itself in
substituting a biblical for an ecclesiastical orthodoxy. In the department of
German literature, the older Tubingen school, which collected together out
of various authors the mildest views respecting the writings transmitted by
the hands of the Church, {e) appeared to bo the only support by which the
cause of Supernaturalism was itresorved from an entire defeat. In the ranks
of common life, however, and in churches of other countries, this system was
the prevalent mode of communication between ancient and modern times.
§ 446. The Ecclesiastical Party in Germany.
BreUchneider. d. Unkircliliclik. dieser Zeit. Gotli. (IS20.) 1822. A. KZ. 1S23. N. 188.
At the commencement of the new century, the pious morals and manners
of the preceding times had become seriously impaired in consequence of the
sudden relaxation of the former system of faith, the unrestrained mode of
life which the revolution had produced, and the universal tendency to mate-
rial or political interests. The religion of the Bible seemed to have no ele-
ments in common with the modern views of the world, and the religion of
the cross was utterly estranged from the new pleasures and glories of human
society. The school, as established by JJaxedow (1723-90), wlio attempted in
a rather awkward manner to realize the plan suggested by Rousseau, {<() was
inclined to assume the position which properly belonged to the Church, since,
instead of contending against an innate tendency to sin, it put confidence in
the general goodness of human nature, and instead of instructing its pupils
in the Christianity of the Catechism, it educated them as reflecting beings,
by agreeable entertainments and by pleasant views of actual life. Pestalozzi
(174G-1827), on the other hand, devoted himself so thoroughly to his employ-
ment, that in receiving him to their affections they also accepted of
Christ, (fi) The Church, indeed, still possessed the confidence and love of the
great body of the people ; and some were yet firmly attached to ecclesiastical
principles, and scattered blessings all ai'ound them. The best among many
of a similar character were : lieinhard (1753-1812), who presided over the
Saxon Church, preaching the gospel with a scholastic and precise rhetoric,
with many concessions to the new spirit of the day, but with an earnestness
worthy of the former times of the Church, doing justice to every order of
c) In.'titutioncs Tli. Pngni. IIrI. ISl.^ od. 8. 1^4.
d) Briete ü. d. Rationalism. Aach. (Zeitz) 181.3. Krit. Prodl?or-Blbl. s. 1820.
e) Tub. Zeitscli. unter verscli. Titel 1790-10, ed. l>y Flatt, Süsliind, Bengel, Stcudel. Comp,
Rhelnw. Rep. IS.*«, p. 174. 190. 203. 216s8.
a) {3feijer) Bas. Leben u. Cliarakter. Ilaiiib. 1791.
b) Lienliard u. Oorlnid. Zur. (17S1.) 1790s3. 8 vols. Buch d. Mutter. Ifert, 1803. [Autoblogr.
Scenes of iny Life at Bergdorf and Yferdun. LoncL 1S30. JT. Biber, Memoirs of P. and his Plan ol
Ed. Lond. 1331.]
35
54G M()I)Ki:n ciiuucir histouv. per. vi. a. d. icis-i=r^.
tnlont, find mrxlernting every injurious influence from without ; f-) and Oler-
I'm (1740-1826), tlio pastor of tlio Stein thai, and a Protestant saint, who
Bhowed how much an active, fervent, and simple-hearted man can do, with
the divine assistance, for the 8j)iritual and temporal welfare of a congrega-
tion, (c/) But the educated and tlie lialf-cducated classes turned silently
away Irom God, or at least from Christ; and even those who, lilie all truly
exalted minds, had at least some longings after eternal tilings, congratulated
themselves with the author of the Titan, that tliey could penetrate much fur-
ther into the Infinite than could cither Peter or Paul, {e) Rectitude of ex-
ternal conduct, in connection often with great self-complacency and easy
conformity to usage, was now substituted for justification by faith. Many
sermons were nothing but moral lectures, or sought for the practical in some
region far beyond the ])rovince of religion. The lifeless condition of the
Church may be seen in the vandalism with which the old hymns were muti-
lated. (/') Many pious persons, as well as freethinkers, were apprehensive
that Christianity was about to be subverted.
§ 447. Small Fanatical Parties.
A strange mode of divine worship practised by the Jumj)c)'s, a class of
persons who sprung up among the Methodists of Wales (about 1760), now
made its appearance, and consisted in a Avild leaping upward in honor of the
Lamb. This enthusiasm received a regular form from Anna Lee, who, in
consequence of the oppression she endured in England, emigrated with her
adherents to New York. Althougli her prediction that she should, as the
Lamb's wife, give birth to a new Messiah, remained unfulfilled at the time of
her death (1782), lier followers continued to praise God by chastity, commu-
nity of goods, and by dauces like those of David before the ark of the cove-
nant. These Shalrrs have their principal settlement in a few busy and neat
villages near the Hudson, where men and women lodge in the same dwell-
ings, but most strictly separated from eacb other, with countenances immova-
ble, eyes dull, trusting to immediate inspirations, and as the only true Church
waiting for a wonderful development throughout the Avorld. (a) Joanna
c) Geständnisse s. Predigten u. s. Bildung z. Prediger betr. Sulzb. (ISIO.) 1511. K. U. L. PöliU,
F. V. Reinhard nacli s. Leben n. Wirken. Lps. lSl-3ss. 2 vols.
d) Notice sur Ob. Par. 1S2G. Strassb. lS-.'6. IT. Sdiubert, Züge a. d. Leben Ob. NQrnb. 1S26. 6 ed.
13-3S. / 6«/. aus d. Nachlasse eines Visioniirs. Lps. 1837. Ob. Lebensgesch. u. Gesamni. Schrr. »n-
lammensestellt v. W. Burckbardt, Stuttg. 1S43. 4 vols. [Memoirs of J. F. Oberlin. Lond. 1S30.
JSarlc. Wm-ex, The Ban de la Uoehe and its Benefactor, J. F. Ob. Lond. 1S20. S. L. Ilalseij, Memoirs
of J. F.Ob. Pittsburgh. 1S32. IS. H. I^jr^, Mem. of J. F.Ob. Boston. 153S. V2. Artt. in Qu.irt.
IJev. 1S31. and Eclectic Rev. 1823. in Rel. Mag. 1S23. and Littell's Mus. Philad. 1531.]
e) Brief«-, zwischen. II. Voss u. Jean Paul. Ileidelb. 1S.3;3. p. 1-33. 6S. [Autobiogr. of Jean Paul
Richter, from the Germ. Lond. and Boston. 2 vols. 12. £. Lee, Life of J. P. R. Boston, 1S42. 2 Tols.
12. Most of his works are translated.]
/) Billroth, Bcitr. z. wissensch. Critik d. herrsch. Thcol. Lps. ISOl. 7?. Stier, die Gesangbnchs-
noth. Lps. 1S:}S.
«) llenke, Hel. Ann. P. 1. p. lOöss. Archiv, f. KGesch. vol. I. St. 1. Stdudlin, Beitr. vol. V. p.
895. Duke Beruhard, Reise nach Nord-Am. p. lT3ss. Blätter, f. lit Unterb. 1333. N. Gl. Pred. BibL
1S44. V. 25. P. 6. [CiUvin Green & Seth Y. We/l.% Millennial Church, or View of the Society called
Phakers. Albany. 1S23. 12. T. Broicn, Account of the people called Shakers. Troy. 1312. 12. W. J.
Ud^kett, Shakerism unmasked, &c. Pittsfield. lv2S-12.]
CHAP. IV. EVANG. CHÜPXII TILL 1S14. § 447. SECTS. HArCE. 547
SotUheote also promised the people of England that she would give birth to
one who was to be the Shiloh of the world, and made it the duty of believ-
ers to observe the Jewish law, that they might receive the Messiah in a wor-
thy manner. Although after waiting for a long time she died (1814) in her
delusion, and the splendid cradle wliich had been prepared for the Messiah
still remained empty, tlie Xeic Israelites continued till 1831 to observe the
Jewish Sabbath, in hope of the future Messiah, {h) Among the peasantry
of Norway a powerful religious movement was produced by Nielsen Hauge
(1771-1824), who felt called to be a prophet like the herdman of Tekoa (after
1795). The law of God was the principal theme of his discourses, and ho
judged of others as well as wished liimself to be judged, exclusively by the
Scriptures, and the catechism. Community of goods was required only on
the principles which he believed to have prevailed in the Apostolic Church,
and Avhatevcr projjcrty was intrusted to his hands he employed in objects of
general utility. He became odious to the clergy on account of the suspicions
which his conduct threw upon their order, and under a law of 1741 he was
severely abused by heavy fines and a long imprisonment for preaching with-
out a license. This law was finally abolished by the Storthing (1842), and
the law of 184.5 gave full toleration to all Christian sects. A powerl'ul party
has sprung up under Ilaugc's influence, which contends earnestly against the
ecclesiastical authorities on account of the laxness they exhibit with respect
to the terms of salvation, (c) In Sweden the special need of family worship
on account of the great extent of the parishes led to the formation, after 1803,
of a party, which from its perusal of tlie Scriptures and Luther's Postills,
were called Lacmrc. Their pious zeal was proved by their Lutheran ortho-
doxy, their rigid morals, and their devotional meetings. A few zealots
among them who claimed to be infallible, on account of their possession of
the Holy Spirit, and therefore dealt out their curses upon all, and especially
upon the clergy Avho thought difTerently from themselves, who burned the
books of devotion they had previously used because such works were useless
to thos3 who had the Bible, and who paid no regard to the edicts of the eccle-
siastical authorities were fined according to law, and many of them endea-
vored (after 1840) to find their Zion in America, {d)
% 448. Civil Beh'tions of Protestants vivhr CatJiolic Governments. Cent.
from § 413.
TIic iiidilfirence which generally prevailoil on religious subjects had the
eflbct to bring about what the reason of the ago demanded. From inclina-
tion as well as from policy, Frcleric II. placed himself at the head of Pro
testant Germany. As an individual event it was of no great importance that
V) Xiemftjer, Boob. a. Kelson. Ed. 2. vol. II. p. 93s?. A. K. Z. 1S31. X. G7. {P. Mitthiax, J. Sontli
rote's Propliecios nnd case st.ited. Lond. 1S30. 12.]
e) Jen» if or Her : Archiv, f. KGesch. vol. 1 1, p. PMs% Schubert: Ibid. vol. V. p. C-STss. Ev. K. 2.
\^-i\. N. C4. IS34. N. 07. 01. (Ä'. SiU-wfij) Gedanken e. SüddeiiUchen ü. d. K. Norw. caluA. u. Knt
1S49. 11. 2s.)
(0 Schuhfifi: ArchW. T. KOescli. vol. IV. p. 6-2 Iss. V,227ss. A. K. Z. 1S22. N. 5. 1530. N. 8S.— Brl
K. Z. 1840. N. 3s. 1SJ9. N. 4. D. A. Z. 1*02. N. 1C7.
548 MODKRN CllUßCU UI3T0RV. PER. VI. A. 1). 1&J8-1S.M.
the oppression of thoir Trote-stant subjocts by the princes of Ilolienlohe was
l)rovoiito(l by the imperial troops (1750), («) but German Protestantism gained
once more bv the proud position maintained by Prussia a consciousness of its
])()litical i)uwor and pccurity. Joseph II., full of philosophical 7,eal for the
general rights of man, gave to the Evangelicals in all his dominions the com
jilete privileges of citizenship, and the freedom of a quiet worship (1781). (b)
This edict of toleration was not accepted in Tyrol and Hungary. But tho
Ilungarian Diet of 1791 recognized the religious freedom of the Protestants
by tho restoration of all their former privileges, although the Catholic ma-
jority would never allow complete justice to be actually administered in this
matter, (c) As late as 1762 religious intolerance was still so strong in Tou-
louse that sentence of death was passed upon the honest John Calas. Then
it was that Voltaire came forward in defence of murdered innocence, and
convinced the French nation that Christianity was not a barbarous religion,
but one that enjoined toleration upon all its votaries, (d) The Parliament of
Toulouse in 1769 recognized the legality of a Protestant marriage, and the
civil rights of Protestants were acknowledged in 1787 ; but the complete
equality of the, rights of the Protestant with those of the Catholic Church
was not fully proclaimed until the revolution. Kapolcon granted the Pro-
testants a Synodal Constitution (1802), though he subjected it to great Hmita-
tions and a rigid supervision, "When the German empire was broken up, the
permanency of the peace of Westphalia became doubtful. But the right of
possession, which had been acknowledged for years under it in the individual
states, was maintained until the higher privilege of a complete legal equality
Avas received and enforced by Xapoleon, especially in favor of the Catholics,
as far as the terror of his cannons prevailed, {e)
CHAP, v.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL 1S53.
ll^-
§ 449. Development of Protestantism.
Gieseler. (p. 5-37.) A. Keander, d. Tcrflosseno halbe Jahrh. in s. Verb. d. Gegenw. (Dt-ntsclie
Zeitsch. f. cbr. Wiss. 1S50. N. 1-4.)— (irundesJuigen) Der deutsche Protestantismus. Frkf. 1547. 3 ed.
1850.
In times of extreme trouble and great commotion, when the insufficiency
of all human aid was evident, the people sought consolation and safety in that
which was everlasting. From the retirement of quiet families and sects a
love for the Church of former days was openly proclaimed. When the Ju-
bilee of the Reformation was celebrated (1817) the hearts of the people were
turned to the faith of their fathers, and Luther was looked upon as something
more than a mere hero of freedom. German theology had gone forward to
a) 8aminlnng der hohenlobiscben Eel. gravaminura. Heilbr. 1751.
b) Tldfert, Rechte u. Verf. d. Akatboliken in Oestr. Vien. 1327.
c) TihUcamis, Rel. Beschwerden d. Prot, in Ung. Lp3. 1S33. p. :90s8.
d) Memoire de Donat Calas pour son pCre. 1762. Voltaire, Traite sur la tolerance k I'occas. .le U
mort de J. Calas. Par. 176.3. Brl. 17S9. llfagenback (§ 416) vol. I. Vorles. 2.]
e) Kluber, off. Recht d. deutschen Bundes. Frkf ed. 2. 1S22. p. S49.
CHAP. y. EVAXG. ClIURCn TILL ISSg. §449. MODERN PROTESTANTISM. 549
express the negative side of Protestantism, with none to obstruct its progres?
or embitter it by opposition, and it now lost its interest in mere negations. In
all departments of intellectual effort a new historical spirit had been awakened,
and. had drawn the hearts of men to subjects connected with past times. It
was therefore not surprising that this spirit should have had an influence upon
the common feeling of the Church. The old Protestantism, seizing the wea-
pons of the new age, endeavored once more to win the empire it had too soon
given up for lost. "While engaged in conflict with it the opposition first ex-
hibited its bitterest earnestness, and like the warrior spirits after the battle of
the Huns, they once more entered the deadly strife. Many persons were of
course painfully wounded in this contest, and acted inconsistently with their
own former course, (a) But a fresh feeling of lifo now pervaded the Church,
the poetry of the old Church hymns was appreciated, (h) the system of popu-
lar schools was carefully farmed on a Christian ba<is, and theology disclosed
her most ample treasures, especially in Germany. Holland, Denmark,
Sweden, and America participated in these blessings with joyful emulation ;
but England did so with caution, and even resistance. This progress of the
new age, however, could not be arrested ; and it was found, therefore, that the
established forms of the ecclesiastical creeds Avhich had been for a time aban-
doned, could not as such be re-established. Hence, as Protestantism was
obliged at some time to discover the essential contradiction which existed in
its original form, and to develope its nature as the Christianity of freedom,
tlie true ideal of this development was presented in the rehgious indepen-
dence whose power was rooted in the Church. But the perfected idea which
could not be realized by the age without many a severe conflict and extrava-
gance, was exhibited even then in a few personalities, types of the future,
which, though deeply agitated in the struggles of science and piety, stood
firndy established in intellectual freedom in the church of their fathers. Thus
Tzscldrner (1778-1828) openly abandoned the precise letter of Luther's theo-
logical system, but in the very spirit and honesty of that reformer, conducted
the cause of Protestantism, aroused the common sentiments and feelings
which had slumbered in the hearts of its friends, and showed in his polished
and stately discourses that every thing truly human in the past or present
should bo considered as having a relation to Christianitv. (c) In like man-
ner De Wette (1780-1849) investigated the Scriptures with an independent
spirit, alloAved the understanding full liberty in his judgment of the creeds of
the Church, and in morality laid great stress on the right of a subjective con-
viction. He has also pointed out with a judicious spirit the peculiarities of
antiquity, and the style of sacred poetry which the received doctrines of the
Church must necessarily assume, that they may be accomi'iiodated to the ordi-
nary feelings of the Church. IIo did not fail also to show how real Cliris-
tianity had proceeded in the form of the practical spirit and life of the
a) LühMerger, <]. Gründe <I. frelw. Xicdorl. iii. Amto». Nfirnb. ISSS.—Giese, Bekenntnisse eines
Freigewiirdnen. Altonb. 1840.
h) (C. Grfineiscn) Die Oesangbuclisrcfomi. (Stiittg.) 19RS.
c) Pölit-. Tzscli. Abriss s. Lebens u. Wirken». L\>% l$29. J. D. GoldKorn, Minh. a. Tzsch. lotztei
Amts-iind Leidensjidircn. Ljis. IS'iS.
5r>0 MODEHN CIIÜECn HISTORY. I'F.ß. VI. A. 1). lOJS-liM.
Church Avithout (li.ftnrhanco, tlironf,'li all the changes of hiiinari spcculf.tion. (J)
Above all, Schlcicrmachcr (1708-1834) pointed out the various revolutions
through which the age had passed, by proving to the self-complacent party
of the Knlightcniuent, to Avhich he was always a match and superior in
every tiling which they regarded as supreme, tliat even on their own ground
and when every tiling untenable had been boldly conceded, a life without
God and Christian communion was utterly unsatisfying. Having spent a
portion of his early life at Herrnliut, piety toward the Redeemer, even in its
peculiar features, was the predominant trait of liis character. He was, how-
ever, familiar not only with Plato but with Spinoza, and in the full conscious-
ness of his freedom, and with the highest esteen for genuine character
wherever he found it, his piety was exercised toward every thing in the uni-
verse. It did not, however, assume a Christian character until his own eccle-
siastical relations were developed. Hence the fundamental principles of the
Reformed Church he drew from the living fountain of universal Christian
feeling. This was an experience acquired in a domain inaccessible to philoso-
phy. And yet he never surrendered his rights to exercise his analytical criti-
cism upon those enactments of the Church in which it had gone aside from
the truth, and even upon those portions of the sacred Scriptures which he
regarded as fallible. Those portions which were addressed to the feelings he
held under the most absolute control of the understanding, (f)
§ 450. The PMlosophy of tlie Äbsohite and its Ramifications.
In direct opposition to the philosophy of faith Fichte had exalted humau
knowledge until it took the place of divine. When Schelling (b. 1775), start-
ing from this position, had construed nature as if it were a shadowy reflection
of the spirit, he became deeply interested in its actual living movements, and
as his highly gifted mind was engaged in the contemplation of them, he came
d) Idee ü. d. Studium d. Tbeol. (ISOl) ed. by Stieren. Lps. 1S50. Com. ü. d. Psalmen. Heldlb
1811. 3 ed. 1829. Lehrb. d. hebr. jud. Arclifiol. Lps. (1S14.) 1S30. Ue. Eel. u. Tbeol. Brl. (1S15.) 1S2L
Einl. in d. A. T. Brl. ISU. 4 ed. 1S33. in d. N. T. Brl. 1826. 4 ed. 1842. Theodor, o. d. Zweiflers Weihe.
Brl. 1822. 3 ed. 1828. Lebrb. d. Sittenl. Brl. 1S33. Die H. S. übersetzt Hdtb. (lS09ss.) 3 ed. ISSSa.
3 Y. Exeg. II.indb. z. N. T. 1S36-4S. Das Wesen d. chr. Gl. Bas. lS4ö.— ActensammL u. d. Entlass-
ung d.*Prof. de Wette v. theo!. Lehramt zu Berlin. Lps. 1S20. F. Lücke, z. Erin, an de W. (Stnd. n.
Krit. ISöO. n. 8.) [Human Life or Practical Ethics, transl. by S. Osgood, Boston, 1842. 2 v. 12. Theo-
dore, or the Skeptic's Conversion. Boston. 1S41. 2 v. 12. Introd. to the 0. T. tr. & enlarged by Theod.
Parker. Boston. 1843. 2 v. S.]
e) (Tertr. Briefe ü. d. Lucindo. ISOO. first publ. in the Athenaeum with Vorr. by Cuij^-ajf, Ilamb.
1835.) Ue. d. Eel. Eeden an d. Gebildeten unter ihren Verächtern. Brl. 1799. 5 ed. 184-3. Monologen.
Brl. 1800. 6 ed. 1843. Die Weihnachtsfeier. Brl. ISöS. 3 ed. 1S3T. Ue. d. sogen I Br. an Timoth. Brl.
1S07. Darstd. theol. Studiums. Brl. (1811)1830. Der. ehr. Glaube. Brl. (lS21s.)lS30s, 2 v. Werke
8. 1834. in 3 Abth. Briefw. m. J. Gass, ed. by W. Gass, 1852. Deutsche Zeitsch. £ ehr. Wiss. 1850.
N. 51. Selbstbiogr (in his 26th year) communicated by Lommatzsch. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1851. H. 1.)
—Baumgarten-Criisius, ü. Schi. Denkart u. Verdienst. Jen. 1834. Lücke Erin, an Schi. (Stud. a Krit.
1834. P. 4.) Schiceitzer, Schi. Eigonthüml. als. Pred. Hai. 1*54 T/üel, Schi. d. Darst. d. Idee e. sittl.
Ganzen anstrebend. Brl. 1835. F. Delbrück, Schi. Bonn. 1S;37. J. Schaller, Vorl. ü. Schi. H.al. 1844.
G. Weissenhorn, n. Schi. Dial. u. Dogm. Ilal. 1847. 2 vols. Rienücker, zu Ehren SchL (Stud. a.
Krit. 1843. H. 1.) [Eng. translations of S. are : Crit Essay on Luke by C. ThirlwuU, Lond 182.5. S.
Introd. to Plato's Diall. by Dodson, Lond. 1327. 8. Obss. on Sabellius, with notes, by M. Stuart, in
Bib. Eepos. vol. V. p. 2C5ss. VL Iss. and Outline of the Study of Theol. with Lücke's Eeüvlnisconcos
of Schi, by Farrar, Edinb. 1350. 8.]
CHAP. V. EVANG. CnURCII TILL 1853. § 450. SCIIELLIKG. IIEGKL. 55 1
to regard tlie ^vllole lii.story of tlie universe as the i)rocess by Avhicli divinity
was developed in the parallel spliere.s of nature and of mind. In his subse
quent researches after truth he viewed the world as an apostasy, and as
snming that it was originally in opposition to God, he explained its origin ir.
God, and its distinction from God. In the estimation of this philosophy re-
ligion is the immediate coming of the deity to self-consciousness, Christianity
divested of its scriptural simplicity is the turning point of human history, and
the sj'stem of faith which tlie Church has formed respecting revelation, the
Trinity, and reconciliation, is tlie exjdanation which it makes of the great
problem of the universe, and by which it expresses its presentiments with regard
to the final result, (a) Closely resembling Schelling in the reflective and tranquil
manner of his life, Hegel (1770-1831) assumed that the law of logic was the
law of the universe, according to which all opposites are elevated until they
become lo.st in a higher unity-, — until, in fact, they become merely an idea,
which, that it may recognize itself as spirit, i)laces the universe as an object-
ive reality apart from itself, and by constantly thus raising and separating
new opposites which occur in the history of the world, it reveals to itself its
own infinite abundance of life. In the view of this philosophy the popular
religions which have existed in the world have been the several points by
which the divine self-consciousness has developed itself. Christianity being
the religion in which the unity of the divine and the human is presented, con-
tains the ultimate point of all truth, but in the lower form of the idea, as it
remains essentially to those who see things at the stand-point where God and
the world, the present and the future, remain in opposition, and general ever-
lasting truth is possessed only in the individual facts of Christianity. (?;) The
per.sonal intluence and manner of Schelling after the brilliant period of his
residence at Jenn, was powerful on society in the south of Germany ; while
Ilegel, as a Prussian state philosopher, even when idealizing the actual world,
produced a profound impression upon the theology, principally of the north.
The Rationalists were astonished to find themselves assailed by opponents
quite equal to them, both in freethinking and in science, and who yet gave to
Christianity an historical importance and an ecclesiastical form far superior to
what they were willing to concede to it. They therefore accused their an-
tagonists of a pantheism which concealed its inconsistency with morality aud
religion under the semblance of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. To this it was re-
plied, that Rationalism was a stage of improvement which had now, with
Kant, become utterly obsolete ; and that although it extolled reason as the
supreme law in matters of faith, it had never attempted in a scientific man-
ner, even in its most elaborate works, to inforiu men what reason is, and what
a) LiL In MicheUt, vol. II. p. 212ss. & osp. In Zcitschr. t. spccuL Physik. 1801. vol IL P. 2. Me-
thode (1. nkad. Studiums. Tub. 1S03. 2 ed. 1S13.— Phil. u. Rel. 1S(U. Phil. Schrr. Lnndsh. 1S09. Denk-
innl d. Sclir. v. d. Rotlllchen Dlnccn. Tub. 1S12. [.Horell, Hist. &, erit. View of Spec. Phil. In tlia
19th cent. (New Y<iik. TMS.) p. 4.3.3ss. EplL of the U. of Phil, transl. from the French, &c by C. S.
Jlenrij, (New Y.-rk. 1*41. 2 v.) v. 11. p. lUSss.]
I) Lit. in J/(c/(fW, vol. 11. p. ClL^s. Diirorcnz d. Fictcsrhen u. Scholl. Systems. Jena. ISOl.
PhSnonienoIo^rie d. Geistes. IJamb. ISilT. Encyklop. d. pliil. Wiss. Ildll). ISIT. :? od. l->-'U. Vorless. ü,
L Phil. d. Kel. BrI. (1S82.) 1S40. 2 v. Werke s. 1S82. IT vol». Rosenkranz, Hegel's Leben. I5rl. 1S44
552 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. I'KR. TI. A. I). 1648-lSM.
is itH provirioo in roli;,'ion. (r) After IIef,'er!i dcatli liis scliool became divided
into tlidso wlio used an ortiiodox, and tlioso who used a lietero<lox mode of
expression. Tlie former class explained its theological views in the spirit of
its original master, (il) The latter contended that it was only giving greater
distinctness to the original sense of its master, in opposition to the ordinary
mode of representation, when it proclaimed that an everla.sting life exalted
to the absolute idea is in fact the gospel of an everlasting death, that religion
Avhon carried to its perfection by rea.son, is only a God worshipping himself,
and that a God-man is one who never had an existence as an individual upon
earth, (e) Thus, from the modern attempt to exalt the old orthodoxy, has
sprung up a severe struggle for the fundamental princifdes of Christianity,
and the Hegelians were accused by the friends of piety, of atheism, the anni-
hilation of the biblical history, the denial of immortality, and a hypocritical pro-
fession of Cliristianity. (f) They rei)llod by reproaching their accusers with
a shallowness which could only tliink of God separate from the universe, a
selfishness which never disengages itself from its own little I, a hAired of all
philosophy, and an apostasy from Protestantism. (^7) In some philosophic
researches under Hegel's direction, and to carry forward the system which
he had commenced, the proof of an immortality of individuals, and of a per-
sonal and if possible a triune God, was attempted on the basis of the idea of
personality, (h) ScheUing^ himself, was called (ISil) to the professorship left
by Hegel, that he might heal the wounds which had been inflicted by philoso-
phy there. He described the logical structure by which his predecessor had
attempted to complete his system, as a mere episode of that system by a
later hand, and as a philosophy looking only at negative results, but without
power to escape from its ideal to the actual world. He therefore placed by
its side a system of positive philosophy, which, as an hypothesis respecting the
play of antemundane potences assuming in the actual world the form of trini-
tarian personalities, presented some hope of a complete union of science with
a future Johannic Church. But the age had no taste for this second part of
Faust, (i) The original moderate Hegelian school was represented by the
c) E. g. ifarluinel-e, Dogmatik. 2 ed. Vorrede. Uegel, Phil. d. Eel. 1S32. v. II. p. 254. {Morell,
(p. 466ss.) & ITenry (p. 20Sss.) as above.]
d) 6. A. Gahler, de verae phil. erga rel. pietate. Ber. 1S36. Göschel: der Monismus des Gedank-
ens. Zur. Apol. d. ge^enw. Phil, am Grabe ihres Stifters. Naumb. 1S32. Die siebenfaltige Oster-
frage. Brl. 1836. [Morell, p. 47Ss.]
e) Comp. MicJidet, v. IL p. 637. Die dt Phil. s. Hegels Tode. (Die Gegenw. Lps. 1S5I. vol. VI.
üfi. Biwb, la Phil, de l'iVbsolu en Allemiigne diuis ses rapports avec la doctr. ehret Montauban. 1S42.
[3foreU, p. 4S0.]
/) IT. Leo. diö Ilegelingen. Hai. (ISSS.) 1S89.— Ä'u/tnw, Rüge u. Hegel Quedl. 1S3S. Eheinw. Eep.
V. XXXI. p. 2Sss.
O) A. Huge. Pronssen u. d. Reaction. Lps. 1S5S. G. 0. Jfarbaeh, Anfl-uf an d. prot Deutsch!,
wider unprot Umtriobo. Lps. lS3Ss. 2 II. (Ä Bauer,) Die Posaune d. jüngsten Gerichts ü. Hegel d.
Atheisten u. Antichr. Lps. 1S41. C. ZichiescJie, ü. d. Gott d. Prof. Leo u. d. Atheism, s. Gegner. UaL
18:39.
h) J. n. FU-hte ■ Beltrr. z Characteristik d. nenern Phil. Sulzb. 1S29. Ve. Gegens., Wedep. u.
fiel. d. Phil. Ihllb. imi. Ue. d. Beding, e. specul. Theism. Elberf. l*3ö. C. If. Weis*« : Ue. d. ge-
genw. Standp. d. phU. Wlss. Lps. 1329. Idee d. Gotth. Drsd. 1S33. Grundzüge d. Metaphjrs. Ilnib
,S35.
»■> J. r. Sc/i<;Ung, Vorrede zu CouMn. ü. fr & deutsche Pliil. from the French bv Beckers, Statta
CHAP. V. EVANO. CnUECn TILL 1358. § 450. EOSENK RANZ. STRAUSS. 55S
noble individuality oi liosenlcram^ and set up the motto that true reason must
xead to Christianity, that Christianity must be reasonable, and that its found-
ers were the perfect individual realizations of the idea. (1c) But when its
true principles were exposed, and the State which had once brought it into
notice had withdrawn its favor, it could no longer sustain itself against the
general neglect it received. Its essential principle, however, continued to
struggle in ditierent departments of literature against the various prevalent
systems. Strauss (born 1808) rei)resented the gospels as a mass of fragments
composed by tlie primitive churches as the natural development of their own
views and feelings, and yet he looked upon Christ as the ideal genius of gen-
uine religion, and as the highest form in which religion has appeared. lie
did not, however, conceal his conviction that a collision was inevitable be-
tween science and the popular systems of Christian theology, whose advocates
had raised the question whetiier he could consistently belong to the clerical
profession. Hence, when he was called to the theological faculty of Zurich,
the people rose up in behalf of the old system of faith, and the government
of the Canton, though willing to make concessions, was overthrown by a
committee on religious faith (Sept. fi, 1839). In this attair, however, religious
zeal was made in some degree subservient to political objects. (T) "When
Bruno Bauer, who had been thrown from one extreme of the Hegelian party
to the other, and proudly scotfed at all theologians, analyzed the dilferent
gospels as mere works of art, originating in a purely literary way, and
taking their form and materials with various degrees of success and skill from
the prevalent views of the people long after the events of which they speak,
it was found that even the freedom of teaching allowed in a Protestant coun-
try could hardly tolerate the j)ropagation of a doctrine which totally under-
mined the Church. A decided majority of the Protestant faculties of Prus-
sia whose opinions were asked was not obtained, but the civil authorities
formed their decision on the ground of the views then expressed, which were,
that the sentiments maintained in Bauer's writings were inconsistent with
the position of a teacher of theology, (in) Indeed, his own advocates pro-
daimetl that the new principle was atheistic and sims-culottic, and that phi-
losophy had given notice of its complete secession from the Church. (/() "When
a professor of aesthetics acknowledged himself a Pantheist, and attempted
no concealment of his hatred for his ojiponent.'», the whole body of the clergy
1S84 Schelllng'« eret« Vorles. In Berlin. Stutter. 1841. PaulM, die emlllch offonbar gewordene Pbll.
d. Offenb. (Sell. Vorlesungen Im WlntiT 1S41.) I>arftl^t 1843. Vorwort zu II. Steiri-ns nachgel, Scbrr.
V. Schelllng. IJrl. 1S4C.— .»A« r/iWncX:«', z. Kritik d. Sell. OITinb.iruni.i'plill. Ilrl. ISW. Kupp.) F. W. J.
V. Sch. von e. vleljfilir. Beobachter. Lp». l^X Sch. a die Thool. (with tlie Llteniture) BrI. 1»45.
;i) Encjkl. d. theol. Wi.<s. Hal. (I^31.) H45. Krlt, Erl.mt. d. Heg. Systems. König»b. 1J40.
I) [//<»«<■,] Lcbcn Jesu. ji. 34. /). /'. i-lrauttn, Kricdl. Blülter. Allona IS:!'.».— A«cXv, Strauss u. d
Zürcli Kirche, with a Vorr. by De Wi-tte. Ba^s. \<iO. A. lioiicn, Oedoh. .1. Boriif. d. Dr. Str. Frfcf
1S40. Der Kampf d. I'rinciplon lin K. Zürich. V. e. Aagenzeuaon. (Zi-itscli. f. lil*t, Tli. 1S40. II. 3.)
ir. GeUfr, die Strauss. Zerwürfnis.«« in Zur. Hainb. 1S43. [Strauss' Lifo of Jesus, from the Germ.
Lond. 134C. 8 vol*. S. Letter to HIrzell, ic. I.on<L 1844]
m) [//(!«<■,] Loben .Tesu. p. 85. Jiiitur, die ev. Lnndcsktrcbo Prenss. u. d. Wiss. Lpi 1S40. — Gu-
tacbten d. ev. tbeol. Faculläten d. Prouss. L'niv. ü. d. LIcent B. Bauer. Brl. IMi For Lit. sec Brun^
Eep. 1S45. vol. II. p. 97ss.
n) EJgav Riiitfr, B. Bauer, u. s. Oivner. Brl. Mil. D^>ut3clio Jalirbb. ls4-2. N. S». Opitx, B
Bauer u. 8. Gegner. Brsl. l>4ij.
554 MoDF.iiN ciit'i:(ii irisTiMiV. rr.i:. vi. a. d. ic4S-i'«3.
in tho country rose in opposition to the Antichristianity of Tubingen, and the
governinont ccnstn-ed, but protected him by a suspension of two years, (o)
Lewis Fvuerhdch liaving placed tho old, genuine gospel, which had conquered
and dcs|iised tlic world, in direct contrast with tho modern system of pro-
gress, declared Christianity a fixed idea, and all religion a dream, from which
when man awakes ho finds onl}' himself. His bajitism of cold water was not
unacceptable to such youth as had previously fallen out with the notion of
the divine existence. Q:») Near the close of the eighteenth century an enthu-
siasm for the glorious life of the ancient Greeks reappeared among the poets.
Tho great German poet, who had been profoundly affected by the world's
mighty convulsions, now proclaimed tho new gospel of tlie rehabilitation of
tho flesh in contrast with a Christianity which had been especially designed
for the spirit in its horror at a nature peopled with spectres, and which had
for 1800 years consoled men in all their sorrows, {q) lie was soon surrounded
by a literary circle belonging to a young Germany^ "which either wished to
remove the schism which Christianity had made known between God and
the world by means of Christ born on earth as the world's legitimate child, (r)
or thought that men would have been happier had they been entirely ignorant
of God, and hence declared that the vicars of heaven were not needful for
the most exhilarating enjoyments of existence, {s) This youthful poetry was
destroyed as it were in a night, not by the police, but by the serious morality
of the German people, it) The more talented among them directed their atten-
tion to a nobler intellectual chivalry, and though the poet who had led them,
after long keeping swine, like the prodigal son, among the Hegelians, returned
to his forsaken God, he never lost the inclination to jest at holy and unholy
things, even on a hopeless sick bed. {n) But the poetry of a Pantheism which
leads men according to their moral dispositions to adore either the universe or
themselves, and sometimes to worship the Son of God as a son of the people,
has often, without being recognized in its true character, prevailed extensively
among the half-educated multitude. ('•) But as Christianity had been accused,
in quarters where poetry had not joined in the reproach, of a secret worship
of Moloch, and of cannibalism as well as of other crimes, it was resolved that
in place of this barbarous and slavish religion a pure Uumanism should be set
up, as the autonomy of the spirit resting upon its own authority alone, a new
religion looking distinctly to earthly interests, or triumphing over all religion
0) F. Vischer, akad. Rede z. Antritte d. Ordinariates, 21st Nov. 1S44. Tub. 1344. Lit in Briins
Kep. 1S45. vol. IV. p. 189ss.
J}) Phil. 11. Christenth. Mannli. 1830. Das Wesen d. Christenth. Lps. (1S41-4.S.) 1S49. Vorless. iL
•J. "Wesen d. Eel. Lps. 1S51.
g) IT. Heine, Gesch. d. scliGnen Lit in Doutschl. Par. 1S33. vol. L p. 6. 33. 69s. Zur Gesch. d. P.el
0. Phil. (Salon, llamb. 1S:35. vol. II.)
r) Tk. Mundt, Madonna. Unterhaltungen m. e. Heiligen. Lps. 1S35.
») Gutzkow, "S'orrede zu Schleierm. Briefen ü. d. Lucinde. Hamb. 1S35.
(,J. P. Lange) Ue. d. Rehabilitation d. Fleisches. (Ev. K. Z. 1S3Ö. N. SSss.) (G. Schmib.) Votum
Ü. d. jnnge D. Stuttg. 1S36. K. ITase, d. junge D. Parchim. l^'iT.— Paulus, d. Ilofgerichts zu Mann-
heim motiv. Urtheil ü. d. in d. Romane Wally angekL Prefsvergehn. Ildlb. 1536.
v) If. Heine. Komanzero. Ilamb. 1S51.
r) L. Sche/er. Laienbrevier. Brl. 5 ed. 1S4G. Das hohe Lied v. Titus Itlrich. Brl. 1545. F. v Sitl
let, Laienevangolium. Lps. 1Si2.
CnAP. V. ÜVAN'G. CnUECII TILL 1S53. § 451. OETHODOX TIETISM. OOO
as a conquered territory, (w) A coarse political liberalism, from an extreme
hatred of the clergy rejected also the God whom they served, that it miglit
nave its own God of this world and of freedom, (x) This plan of a com-
plete rupture with the whole liistorical development of past times, led the
uneducated classes to confound in one general mass their own wants and de-
sires with the dregs of philosophy. Soon God was annihilated and the peo-
ple were deified, patriotism was despised that all pious reverence might ho
obliterated with it, and Christ was made prominent only as his name could bo
used to sanction democratic and revolutionary principles, (y)
§ 451. Orthodox Fictism and its Extremes.
The romantic poetrj' which prevailed in the beginning of the centnry was
a shadowless picture of the piety of the middle ages. Xovalis (v. Ilarden-
burg, 1772-1801) found a religion in poetry, which, having destroyed its own
I in its ardent longings over the grave of Protestantism, and over the ruins of
liome, indulged in fond dreams of a new church of the all-pervading deity, (a)
The national feeling which had been awakened during the wars for freedom,
and, after the victory had been defrauded of its natural development, and re-
pressed until it became once more nothing but a jiitiful Gerniani.sm, now
longed to recover the pious manners of earlier days. This longing still re-
mained, even when a portion of the youth had ceased to hope for any thing
from pohtical agitations. A religious pleasure was derived from an investiga-
tion of the mysteries of nature, and of tlie spiritual world, and from an
cfibrt to break through the limits prescribed for man. (Jj) In connection with
such a disposition, the revolution which tlien took place in the religious life,
in accordance Avith the laws which regulate intellectual movements, called
forth an extreme reaction against the rationalism which prevailed even in the
third decennary of that century, and then against the philosophizing Anti-
christianity. By means of conventicles and tracts a zealous party was soon
formed, and an energetic organ of communication with the public was estab-
lished in tlie Evangelical Church Journal (1827). (c) Its essential character
is pietistic, ('.?) though it is more liberal and better accommodated to ordinary
n) Daumer: Dil) Gelioitnn. <1. ehr. Alti-rth. Hamb. IS-JT. DIo Rel. d. neuen Woltalters. Ibid.
\<Ö0. 3 vok A. Huge, Ocsainm. Sclirr. Munli. 1S4C-8. 10 vols.
a-) Klielinvaia Kep. IS:«, vol. V. p. 71».
I/) Mux Stinier, d. Einzige u. s. Eigi-nth. Lps. 1S45. 11". J/<i;v, tl. jungo Deutschl. in d. ScUweU.
Lps. 1>I6. J. FibM, System d. social, rolitllc. Zur. 1S47.
<0 Scliriften, ed. by Tieck & SchleKol, Brl. 18.14. 5 ed. 1837-46. 3 vols.
h) Die Poherin von Prevorst Stutt«:. (1S29.) 1832. 2 v. [Tbo Seeross of Provorst, or Uevelatt of
tlie inner life of in»n. New York. 1833. S.] Gescblcbten Besessener. Carlsr. 1S34. Magikon, ed. bj
J. Kerner. Stutts. ISIO. 2 11.
t) I). Schulz, A. Wesen u. Treiben d. Berl. ev. K. Zeitung. Brsl. lS.39s. 2 P. (On the other side:
Pie ov. Kirclio u. d. Consistorlalrath Siliulz. IJrl. 18;?9.)— //. Eicald, die Ungeschlclitllcbk. ov. Gelät-
liclien. Tub. 1845. L. 15. K (oniir.) It. lUri^'stonb. IJraunschw. 1845. Der Geist d. ev. K. ZL 2 cd. Brl
1845. (On the other side: Die Partei d. Kv. K. Z. Von c. Laien. Ev. K. Z. 1846. N. 15s. 138. 30ss.)
C. Z^chiemhe, d. Ev. K. Z. u. Ihr Treiben. Lp<. 1S45.
rf) Bretschneiitei; d. Grundlage d. ev. Plet. Lps. 1S33. C. ifärklin, Dar>t u. Kritik d. mod. Plet.
Ptuttg. 18:"%9. Comp. Dorner In d. Stud. u. Krit 1840. P. 1. Lit. Survey : P.helnwald, Kep. v. XXVIl
l>. 4:ss. ISCss.
55G MODEBN CIIÜECII HISTORY. TEi:. VI. A. D 1C19-1SM.
lifo tlinn was the pietism of tho eigliteonth contury. It ha.° also been more
disposed to enter into tho toils and lionors of secular life, and in varioua de-
grees it has become connected with the old Protestant orthodox}', and as-
sumed its controversial cliaracter. (e) As to its religious elements it embraces
the greatest variety, from the genuine piety exhibited by Luther or Spener,
full of ft joyful faith in a God boru of the Virgin, down through the several
gradations of pure party zeal, pride, and mental imbecility, until we reach
the hypocrisy which uses the language of ardent piety to gain selfish end.s, or
even to cover the most criminal designs, (/) Although the principal leaders,
whenever they expressed themselves in a literary style, committed serious
offences against the old Lutheran or Calvinistic theology, and when confessing
their sins adopted many rationalistic excrescences, ((/) they regarded the theo-
logical vicAvs advanced in those systems as that by wliich alone men could be
saved, and all other views of Christianity, except soine fragments of truth
among the Catholics and Supernaturalists, as unchristian. It was on account
of this exclusiveness that even such theologians as Neander felt compelled to
X ithdraw from their connection. They also erected a literary inquisition, the
object of which was at first disavowed, but was afterwards acknowledged to
be indispensable, and which, when it condemned individuals, clothed its ver-
dicts in the language of Christian intercession, (h) As a complete return to
the position of former orthodoxy was impossible, without denying the reality
of the secular progress which lay in the retrograde path, they pronounced all
these improvements heathenish, and with a puritanical and stupid assurance
they condemned every cheerful expression of genius, (i) and sighed over the
whole development of the Church as an apostasy. From an extreme dread
of the revolutionary spirit of the times, those especially who belonged to the
higher classes now turned to every thing old, even in matters of faith. The
Church Journal reproached an honorable clergy, anxious for their inherited
rights and for their country, with being favorable to a perjured insurrection,
and in the style of von Haller (I-), by means of a patriarchal theory of state,
advocated the absolute di-s-ine right of rulers, and yet announced the over-
throw of a government favorable to rationalism by a popular insurrection, as
a victory for the cause of God. (1) Journals of the same complexion, also, in
France and North America, were in the habit of using the boldest democratic
forms of language in the style of the old Puritans, (m) In German countries
divines of a liberal culture gradually died, almost every professorship and
ecclesiastical office of an exalted influence was tilled by persons favorable to
the new orthodoxy, and those inclined to free researches were intimidated
from pursuing theological studies by the hopelessness of aU such efforts. A
«) E. g. Röhr, I'red. Bibl. 1S31. P. 6. Notizenbl. N. 6.
/) Proofe in Schulz. I. p. 11. IT. 85ss. g) Ibid. II, 134ss.
h) Ev. K. Z. l?ao. N. 10» 1S31. N. STss. 9.3ss. Comp. J/". GOu, kurze aber notbw. Erin. ü. d. Lei-
den (i jungen Wertber. Hamb. 1775.
Ev. K. Z. 1S50. N. 24. 25. 44. 46. 1S51. X. U.—X C. K. Hoffmann, die schleswig-holst Geistliek.
a. d. ev. K. Z. ErI. 1S50.
*•) Ev. K. Z. ls:Jl. X. iSss. 30s. 105. 1333. X. 31. On the other side : A, K. Z. 153-3. X. Iss. SchuU
I. p. 70$.«. 11. p. 41ss A. Widmann, polit Kedenken wider d. Ev. K. Z. Potsd. 1346.
S 450. Dt. k.) m) Ev. K. Z. 1530. X. So. 15:31. X. Iss. 30. Sis. 1S32. X. 43. 59.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHCECn TILL 1553. § 401. SEPARATISM. RAPP. 557
3'ounger clergy was therefore raised up, inclined to the new party, and ani-
mated by the energy of a principle newly asserted, but derived from great
examples in former times. The artificial work of sustaining this party de-
volved in Germany upon tliose established churches which were under Cath
olio guardian.ship, and after the suppression of the revolutionary movements
of 1848, it became a i>rinciple for the administration of government. The
Evangelical Church Journal then contended bravely against the storm,
with only trifling concessions, and the few clergymen who became excited
by the popular movements acknowledged that they were not sustained by
their congregations. It is not probable, nor, if we look at the whole process
of German culture, is it credible, that the ma.ss or the true nobility of
tlio German nation Avill renounce all tliat it has inherited from the last cen-
tury, and become converts to this precise form of tlicological doctrine which
has always become most i)romiuent when its pohtical objects were mo*t un-
deniable, (n) and which has in public life violated all obligations and truth.
Still, with all the disturbance which this party has often caused in the affairs
of various congregations, and the many troubles or extravagances which it
has produced in individuals, until in some cases they have been driven to
madness, it has been the means of accomplisliing much good. It has soft-
ened many obstinate dispositions, and had an important influence in the de-
velopment of the Church. It has strengthened the confidence of the Church
in her possession of a form which is primitive and divine, brought to light
the defective nature of modern Supernaturali.sm, introduced new investiga-
tions of subjects which would otherwise have been too hastily given up,
denounced many an exhibition of a narrow superficial spirit which obtained
favor under tlie garb of reason, and by way of warning has shown what
must be the result of a zeal for the mere externals of a system which has now
passed away. Only a few isolated instances occur, in which this pietistic
spirit coul-d not find satisfaction in the ordinary ecclesiastical connections, or
has aaiumed any extraordinary appearances. Among the Suabian tribes these
excited persons seized upon some ])eculiar sentiment of some eminent eccle-
siastical teacher, or induced some individuals to become their advocates
among the people. Their disposition was in some instances melancholy, and
in others cheerful. Although in this region also the clergy generally adhered
to ancient usages, many innovations had been made in their mode of instruc-
tion, in the liturgy, and in the hymn-book. The opposition therefore be-
came distinctly organized, and a few Separatists refused to perform their
ordinary ecclesiastical, and even their civil duties, runishraents and force,
in some instances carried so far as to take persons by violence to the Church,
were of course in vain. The civil authorities in Wurtcmhcrg finally permit-
ted those who were discontented to assemble in a congregation at Kornthal
(1818), with a peculiar ecclesiastical and civil constitution conformed as near
as possible to the type of the apostolic Church, but under the inspection of
the civil authorities. («) Others wandered away (after 1805) to North
71) E. p. Comp. A. K. Z. 1861. N. 85.
o) Archiv f. KG. vol. IV. p. 4*tss. Ä C. Kaj>ß, <]. Würtcmb. Drüdergemelnden In Korutli. iL
Willielinsdorf. Stiitti'. 1S39. Brl. A. K. Z. 1S4Ö. X. :JJ.
558 MODKUN ( liri:( II lIISTOi:V. neu. vi. A. P. ICJS-ISM.
Aincrion, wIkto, uridcT the iiiiiiic of Jlariuontxls^ tlicy foniicd a Cüiiuiinnity
iiüiir I'ittslmr^r, in -wliich tlie peasant Jiapp (d, 1847) exercised a i)atriardial
autlioritv. As the Kociety prorc'.s.scd to hold their property in common, tlic
whole direction of it wa-s committed to him. Even marriages conld not be
funned without his consent. {■]>) The peace of the orig^inal congrefration was di.s-
turhcd (1831) by Bernhard Müller (Froli), who had formerly lived in splendor at
Oifenbach, had predicted a spiritual universal monarchy, and when threatened
with a legal investigation, had gone to America. There he had been received
by Kapi) as a prophet, and promised tlie younger members of the a.ssociation
with a true comnuniity of goods and liberty of marriage. Uapp was obliged
to purchase a separation for a large sum, with which Proli laid tlie foundation
of his New Jerusalem, and then called upon all believers to hasten thither to
escape the vials of divine wrath. But when the money was all spent, this
vicegerent of God announced that each one might escape as he could (1833). (^)
£(hca}-d Irving (1792-1834) was a Presbyterian preacher in the Caledonian
chapel in London^ with a powerful fancy and a wild antiquated style of lan-
guiige, with some resemblance to that of the ancient prophets, as well as to
that of Byron and Shakspeare. lie soon became the favorite preacher of the
higher classes, for he contended against the wisdom of the age, which he said
was elevating the fallen archangel Liberalism above Christ the morning star.
"When his mind became absorbed in the doctrine that the Son of God assumed
our &i))fi.il nature, although without detriment to his holiness, the fashionable
world began to forsake him. Ilis extreme longing and praying fur the spirit-
ual gifts which had been afforded to the apostolic Church, as the signs of the
approaching kingdom of Christ, seemed at last to call them forth. As in for-
mer days at Corinth, individuals spoke with tongues, in unintelligible expres-
sions of a religious ecstasy mingled with exclamations, which generally closed
with prophecies (1831). The Scotch Presbytery excluded him from the Cale-
donian chapel on account of these disturbances of public worship (1832), and
by a decision of the General Assembly he was deposed from tlie ministry for
doctrinal errors. He now established a church of his own, (r) but in conse-
quence of a new outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and a re-establishment of all
those ecclesiastical offices which were instituted in the apostolic age, this
soon denied its original founders, and arranged itself under twelve apostles
and an order of prophets. This constitution was established not merely for
the present, but for all future times, and the body thus constituted claimed to be
the true Church delivered from its past corruptions, and adorned for the second
advent of its Lord. In England this movement met with but little success,
but in Geneva a class of persons inclined to such extravagances became dis-
turbed by it, and an accomplished orator connected with the German ortho-
p) A. K. Z. 1S22. X. 9. 1823. N. 37. J. Wagner, Gesch. d. narmoniogesellsch. Waibingen 1SS3.
D. A. Z. 1S4T. N. 251. 2G6. Brl. K. Z. 1S50. X. 49.
q) A. K. Z. 1S32. N. 66. JS33. N. 1S6. Der Wunderniann d. 19. Jlili. from the Engl, of Kreidc-
burg. ll.'in. 1S;53. C. v. £onti?wrst, Scliildorung d. Abentheurers Proli. Frkf. 1S34. [Witiebrenner'i
llel Uoiu.iniiiations in the U. S. (llarrishurg, 1.-49.) p. 9.]
r) if. Ilohl, ünicbsL a. d. Leben n. Schrr. Irv. S. Gall. 1839. Ev. KZ. 1S39. N. &Sss. 9Tss. comp
1887. N. 54SS. Acta hist ccc. 1S3T. p. T98ss. [Jones, Biog. Sketch and Sermons of Ed. Irv. Lond
IS3Ö. S.!
CHAP. V. EVANO. CIIUECII TILL 1S53. § 451. IRVIXGITES. WILDEXSPUCD. 550
dox and pietistic school embraced its principles. (••<) Attaching tlieinselves to
this school, the angels and vice-angels of the new Church founded a few
chapels in Xorthcrn Germany, with a great display of primitive forms. (One
of these established in Berlin was closed in 1851.) Their followers, however,
never hesitated to receive the sacrament in the established churches, on the
ground that their general Church was to bo gathered from all existing
eects. (0 On the other hand, those appeals wliich were sometimes heard in
a few Swedish parishes (1841-43) among the young people of both sexes, and
even among children, were only simple and often atVecting calls to repent-
ance, pathetically spoken or sung in the Scriptural language of the Churtli.
Those who were about to utter them were at first seized witli a violent i)ain
in their heads and hearts, accompanied with an extreme agony on account
of sin, and others were affected in a similar way by imitation and comnumi-
cation with each other. But with the exception of some who counterfeited
these things by imitation, the speaking was generally involuntary, and the
speakers were unconscious of what they uttered, in the miilst of convulsions,
faintings, and visions. The country -people were much editied by such scenes,
and took offence at what they regarded as attempts to drive away the Holy
Ghost (Joel 3, Is) by medicines for the body, (m) Although in other places
a love of sin was sometimes concealed under the profession of extraordinary
degrees of grace, (') there are no instances of positive, sanguinary or lascivi-
ous excesses, except where the authors of them jjassed from tliis general cLiss
into other sects. Margaretta I'ctcr, the daughter of a peasant in ]yil(Icns-
jjuch^ of the canton of Zurich, became powerfully excited by lier intercourse
with persons professedly awakened, and by tracts of an entliusiastic charac-
ter, till, in her anxiety for the spiritual salvation of tlie world, siie looked
forward to the occurrence of extraordinary events. Her intellectual energy
and decision of character induced many pious persons of the surrounding
count r}^ to honor her as a saint, and even the consequences of a night spent
in adultery did not destroy her confidence in herself. Tliis feeling of her
own imftortance induced her with her followers to contend with Satan, by
means of carnal Aveapons, to have her own believing sister slain, and with
wonderful heroism to have herself crucified, according to what she deemed a
divine command, that she might save thousands of souls by the sacrifice of
Christ once more in her person (1823). ('/■) It was rumored \i\ Kun'Kjslntrfj
that two clergymen, who j)rofossed the exclusive kind of Christianity, had
introduced sliaineless mysteries into a pietistic circle. The legal investigation,
which was attended with great difficulties on account of the distinguished
persons accused (after 1835), brouglit nothing to light, except that sensual
*) ThUmch, Vorlcss. Ü. Katli. u. Prot. 1946. 2 AMIi. [h'Unff, Tlilorscli. (Stud. \i. Krlt 1S40. 11.
1.) G. Ili-ic/i, (1. Irvingisni. u. g. rd. Clmrakt.r. (IMd. p. 19.Ss.s.) Ev. K. Z. Dec. 1S47. ami Jan. 1S4S.]
t) Ue. (1. Kiitlischliis^ Gottfsm. (1. Erdp. SrliatVli. Frkf. 184ös. 2 voK J. Ihnpei; d. Entrückung
II. ViTwiindl. d. leb<n<len Htillc«'!!. liil. 1S47. ActonstQi-ko d. Minist d. twUtl. .Vngileg. Brl. 1S50. p.
945S.— Tlmliiok'.s Lit. Anz. ISI'*. N. 81. l!rl. K. Z. 1SI9. N. 8.3. 7S. 1850. N. l.S.
«) Dio Pr.ili;rt Krankh. (wlih tin- Liter. In I'.nins. liop. 1S45. vul. III. ]>. 170. iTOss.) Ev. K. /*
1S42. N. Gils. Cf. ISU!. N. \\)»s. Hrl. K. Z. 1S47. N. Vi*.
V) Khi-lnw. Ill p. 1835. vol. X. p. 45.
v) J. I.. Meyfi; fi-hwänn. Greiu-lsctMu-n In Wlldcii.sp. Zfir. 2 cd. 1S2-I. A. K. Z. Iy23. N. 2S. 41a
• 02. Ev. K. Z. 1S31. N. 2G--S.
560 MODERN ClIUBCU mSTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1649-1S53.
pa^Jsiona had l)ccn cxctitcd xinder tho forms of devotion, in order to regain the
innocence of tlio orij^inal Paradise. It also appeared that tho i)reacher Ehcl
(b. 1784), as the highly privileged chief nature, had exercised a despotic
control over the consciences of the others, and that the fundamental princi-
ple of their faith was a philosophic fancy produced by a pious but eccentric
being named Scltoenhcrr (1771-1820), respecting the origin of tho universe
from the mingling of two primordial beings of a spiritual and sensuous na-
ture as Eloalis. (.i) In Saxony^ was Stejjhen (1777-1846), the pastor of a
Bohemian church in Dresden, a stranger and an enemy to the polite litera-
ture of the age, but familiar with the Scriptures and the old Church of
Luther, who knew well how to excite ordinary minds by his simple and im-
pressive eloquence, and to rule them with keen intelligence and firm decision.
He became a centre for pietistic Lutheranism, at that time new in this region,
but propagated there by means of young clergymen and foreigners. Wherever
it prevailed, every natural bond was relaxed for its exclusive interest. When
the government (after 1830) ceased to favor this class of persons, and Ste-
phen found himself threatened with prosecution, professing to speak by divine
direction, he commanded his followers to leave the country, as they could not
there maintain the Lutheran faith in its purity, nor transmit it to their pos-
terity. Most of the clergymen who had been connected with his society now
renounced his doctrines, on the ground that they were identical with ancient
Donatism, and enjoined a flying from the cross. Others followed Stephen
with about six hundred members of their congregations, in the autumn of
1838, from what they considered as the land of Egypt to North America.
"When he had, as their bishop, established a system of unlimited despotism
both in spiritual and secular aflairs, he too soon gave a loose rein to his licen-
tious passions. No sooner was his scandalous conduct made known by means
of women who had fallen or been abused by him, than his government was
at an end. After his deposition and expulsion (May, 1839), the clergy at-
tempted to seize the reins of power, but the ideal of a Wittenberg on the Mis-
sissippi had become nearly effaced from their minds, and the better class, on
witnessing Stephen's fall, became conscious of their own guilt. They firmly
adhered to Lutheranism as the only true form of Christianity, and, after a
long period of distraction, those who survived formed a general connection
by a synod, but maintaine<l a bitter controversy with those clergymen who
were exiles for the same faith, {y)
§ 452. Undecided Controversies letween Old and Neic Protestantism.
The controversj" which had previously been maintained principally on
scientific principles, and with an acknowledgment of a common Christian
ground between Rationalism and Supematuralism, was now so far changed
a-) A. K. Z. 1835. N. 177. Ev. K Z. 1S86. N. 10. {A. F. r. VTegnem) ZuverL Mitth. ü. Schonh.
Leben u. Theo.'«, sowie ü. d. sectir. Umtriebe zu Künigsb. (Zeitsch. t bist Tb. 1S33. P. 2.) Kngsb.
1889.
y) Z. P. LütkemüUer, Lehren u. Umtriebe d. Stephanisten Altenb. 1S-3S. G. PleUaner, die Fanati
ker im Muldenthale. Altenb 1S39. L. Fisclier, d. falsche Märtyrerth. Lps. 1S39. {c. Polens) Die ötf.
Meinung u. Sleph. Ibid. 1S40. C. E. Vehse, d. Stephansche Auswanderung. Drsd. 1S40. Brl. K.
Z. 1S41. N. 7. 33. S6. 1S45. N. S5. Hasse, meissn. KGe^cb. Lps. 1S4T. vol. II. p. 3S6. 410&S.
CHAP V. EVAXG. CHURCH TILL ISM. § 452. HAEMS. CLAUSEX. 5G1
that it was carried on among the common people, and was a contest for the
very existence of the Church. It was also so arranged, that on one side were
involved many principles of Christian freedom, and on tlie other those of
ecclesiastical i)iety. !Many irrelevant matters were introduced into the de-
bate. Tiic Church party brouglit forth a murderer, who confessed that his
rationalism had been the occasion of his crime ; and on the other hand, it
was obliged to hear its religious conversions ridiculed, and to see many pain-
ful things in the domestic life of its members held up to pnblic gaze, (a) The
true ground of the contention, however, was the revolution taking place in
pnblic feeling. Even a liberal-minded statesman expressed a wish " that
about a dozen Rationalists might be idaced c.r(Ta statinn vocendiy (J>) On
the part of tlie Rationalists, a new symbol had been brought forward, which
the orthodox declared to be inconsistent with a standing in the Church, (c)
1, Claus Harms of Kiel (b. 1778), an imaginative, popular preacher of the
old ecclesiastical school of piety, and endowed with a remarkable facility of
expression, {d) celebrated the Jubilee of the Reformation by propounding
ninety-five new theses, in which the doctrines of the total depravity of man
and the indispensable necessity of faith were maintained in opposition to the
unbelief and rationalism of the age. The various forms in whicli these were
opposed, revealed how utterly foreign this system of faith was to the temper
of the age, and how far even those who at first seemed pleased with this
attack upon the contemporary spirit had embraced Pelagian sentiments, and
were estranged from the doctrines of liUtlier. The power of the orthodox
party became gradually established in Holstein, and its adherents found con-
solation in tlie Oath of 17C4, which avowed a strict adherence to the original
Confession of Augsburg, while the more liberal interpreters of the Scriptures
appealed to the Agenda of 1797, and a series of legal enactments put forth
since that time in dlie same spirit, {e) 2. In Denmarl-, the new Theology
had been quietly propagated, when Prof. Clausen^ in a clear and learned
work upon the conflicting opinions prevailing in the churches, pointed out
the spirit of Protestantism as tlie proper independent development of the
religious spirit. (/) On the other hand, (rrundtviff, a man of a poetical tem-
perament, well versed in the ancient history of his country, violent and yet
lil)eral in his disposition, in the name of the Church protested against the
()ositions taken in that work, and maintained that Clausen had placed himself
at the head of all those avIio were hostile to the word of God, and that his
Protestant Churt'h was merely a self-constructed castle of pleasure, and a
temple of idols. When he Avas brought before the civil courts to answer for
these assertions, he resigned his pastoral oflRce, and was condemned for libel
a) A. K. Z. 1S2S. Lit Bl. N. 77. Ev. K. Z. ISW. N. 100. 40. (Ik'riclit ü. d. Umtriebe d. Frümni-
aor. In Halle. Altcnb. 1830.)
h) Freili. v. Stein an Ga?orn. Stuttg. ISiM. p. 804. 81.\ 840.
c) üöhr, Grund- u. Glaiibens-Sütze d. ov. prot K. Ncii.^t (1882.) 8 ed. 1P4.8.
d) Stud. u. Krlt IS*?. P. 8. A'. Harms, Lobcnsbpsclir. v. llini üclbiT. Kiel, ISni.
e) Schrödter, Archiv d. Harmsclien Tlicson. Alton. l^H. Kv. K. Z. 1S29. N. 60. SO.-w.— /te</iO«r
K. u. Scliulbl:itt s. 1'i44. NonMeut^clio Mimat.'sschr. zur Fördcr. d. freien Protestant 8. 1845. Comp.
•<5iTl. K. Z. 1840. N. 10:i. Ev. K. Z. 1840. N. 22.
f) KathoUcisiii. og Protest Kirkeforfenln^, Lüre og Kitus. Kjobcnli. 1825. 8 vols, {\bcra. v. Frie».
Neust. 19-2SS. 3 vols.
36
502 MttDKKN CIHIUII IIISTOUV. I'EU. VI. A. I). 1C4S-1%M.
(1826). Tlie oricntulist Lindbcnj accused Clausen of tlie violation ol' his
ordiiiiitioii vows, and held every person responsible for tbe consequences
" who were witnesses of the cornii)ting influence, without opposition to it."
For tills ho was accused of an attempt to excite discontent against tlie gov-
ernuiont, ])ut was acquitted in the courts of justice (1830). Although this
party ohtained but little public favor, it was much promoted by the holding
of conventicles, and at last Grundtvig received permission to hold ser-
vices for divine worship (1832). A leader of the opposition in the Diet then
endeavored by some liberal means to get the control of this churcli of the
poojjle for himself alone, and vented his rage against every thing of German
origin, ((j) 8. In an academic disjjutation at Leipsic, it was asserted that the
Rationalists were actually dismissed from the Church. This assertion wag
afterwards modified, and it was said that they were bound in conscience
voluntarily to leave the Church, but in the replies it called forth, oven this
was shown to be inconsistent with Protestantism and with Christianity
itself. (//) But the object of its authors was more perfectly discovered by
an article in the Evangelical Church Journal, in which Gesenius, the distin-
guished founder of the modern school of oriental literature in Germany, and
Wegscheidcr, were denounced for ridiculing Christianity, and for perverting
the minds of the youth. Though this article was evidently designed to
induce the civil authorities to interfere in the case, nothing but an admoni-
tion addressed to public teachers in general was ever put forth from that
quarter, and not only the assailed professors, but the most highly esteemed
writers and speakers in behalf of nearly the whole body of Protestant
divines, protested against such a turn of the controversy, and advocated the
freedom of scientific discussion. On the part of those who had raised the
complaint, it was said that the freedom of instruction claimed was nothing
but oppression, when its bearing upon the congregations was regarded, and
that the Church could not endure that its future pastors should be taught the
very reverse of what they were afterwards bound to preach, (i) 4. In He«se-
Cassel, the orthodox party lost its political support when the ministry of
Hassenpflug was overthrown. When the government, in concert with the
consistories, imposed upon ministers about to be settled the obligation to con-
form themselves to the Scriptures, " with a conscientious regard to the au-
thorized standards of faith" (1838), a learned and practical jurist came for-
ward at the bead of a party, demanding the very reverse. To save the unity
and even the legal existence of the Evangelical Church, which he believed
would be endangered by an arbitrary change in the existing law, TlicJcell de-
manded that an authentic inter{)rctatioü should be given, according to which
0) Ev. K. Z. 1827. N. 51s. 1S2S. N. 55s. 1S30. N. 9Tss. 104. 1S31. N. 69ss. 1S82. N. 49ss. A. K. Z.
18'2S. N. 193. 1S30. N. -19. 1S31. N. 4'2s?. 1S32. Lit B!. N. 101. 1S34. N. 111. Stud. u. KriL 1S34. P. 4
p. 995SS. liudelhach in d. Zeitsch. f. luth. Tlicol. 1S41. V. 1.— Bri. K. Z. 1S45. N. CO.
h) iruUn : de rationalismi veraindole. Lps. 1S2". And. ev. K. zunächst in Preussen u. Sachsen. Lps
1S2T. ( Vulkmann) Der Kationalist kein ev. Christ L. 1S2S.— (//<ise) Die Lcii>z. Di.-pntation. Lps. 1S27.
AVmi7, phil. Gutichtcn in Saclisen d. Hat n. Supern. Lps. 1S27. {Clemen) Licht u. Sch.itteii. Lps. 1S27
i) Ev. K. Z. 1S30. X. 5s. 15. ISs. »4. 54s. 59. C9. S4ss. 94s. A. K. Z. 1S31. N. 9. Vota by Bret-
^••hnoider, Noandor, rilmann, Scliott B. Crusin.s, SrliuUz, Clin. tL a. On the other side: Rudel-
Kttch, d. ^■'e'^eu d. r.aliont*. Lps. IS^yj.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIUKCII TILL l>i3. § «2. ALTENBUEG. HAMDURG. 5G3
«lie authorized confessions should be acknowledged to be in substance the
Blandard of doctrine. Ilcnlcel declared that the Aufjustana was as authorita-
tive as the Carolina^ and api)ealed to an assembly of his fellow-citizens (Aug.
14, 1839), which presented a petition to the electoral princes, praying for
some explanation which sliould tran'iuillize the public mind, and lor the con-
vocation of a ,c;eneral synod. By these means they hoped that all authoritative
creeds might be abolished, that the doctrines preached by the clergy might
be made negatively dependent upon the will of their congregations, and that
all parochial compulsion in these matters might be taken away. But not
only the views of the government, but the sentiments of the peojile were
opposed to both these demands, "When Ilassonpflug undertook the re-estab-
lishment of Old Ilessia (1850), the ancient form of oath was introduced, and
every thing received the precise ecclesiastical coloring of the old Covenant
of Fidelity (Trcubunds-Farbung), {l) 5. In Saxe Altenlunj^ a Consistorial
rescript was addressed (Nov. 13, 1838) to the Ephori of Ronneburg, in which
the emigration under Stephen was traced to the dissatisfaction produced by
an unauthorized mode of performing parochial dutie^ and the preachers were
admonished to instruct their people in the essential and fundaraental doc-
trines of Christianity. The explanation of this document by persons from
without, provoked the patriotic spirits of a few clergymen to a lively oppo-
sition. The opinions of four theological faculties were eolicited by the gov-
ernment, with regard to the conduct of the consistory and its opponents,
Tlie only reply favorable to a rigidly orthodox sense was sent by the faculty
of Ijorlin, and even that body was by no means unanimous. As these opin-
ions were published with a noble confidence by the government, and every
attempt at legal proceedings on the subject was suppressed, the minds of the
people were tranquillized. (/) ß. in J[(unhiirg, an excitement was created by
an attack by some Pietists in a literary publication upon what was called the
[)rctended Christian life of the mullilude, and upon Rationalism, which was
denominated a snake in the house of the Lord (183'J). AVhen two candidates
presented tlieinselves, and an opportunity was thus given for an attack, the
yiarty favorable to the old faith used all the means which could be employed
ill a free state to procure their rejection, on the ground that they had vio-
lated their oaths. But when they declared that they would, as hitherto, con-
fiirm according to their conscientious convictions to the Bible and the Cate-
chism, both the ecclesiastical and civil authorities were satisfied, since it
could not be denied that the usage of a half century was in opposition to the
legal authority of the symbolical books. One pielistic candidate was sus-
pended until he should jileilge himself to observe in future the respect duo to
the ecclesiastical ministry, and which had been disregarded in the course of
;.) J. W mckell, Q. (I. Verplllclit d. GcWl. ii. d. (■yiiib. Schrr. On.«.-«. (1S«0.) lS4n. On tlio otiicr
fide: A', r. nnyrlioffr \n 2 kT\U licleiulitiinpcn. Lps. 1S:?9. W. If. Meiner, v. Wort ü. Lclirfrclli.
in d. ev. K. Ciuss. 18:!'.'. — W. Vilmiir, d. Kiirlii-,«?. K. Kns». 1S^5. W. ^fünncher, Go-sch. d. hess, rof-
K. Ciuss. 1S50. Url. K. Z. ISil. N. 47.
/) Borl K. Z. is:». N. Is. 81. C. H: KlöUner, z. ElirmrotUinR c vcninirllmplten clirlsll. GI.
J. rredi?t\v«-isp. Lps. 18:59. J. Sihwlerof, an den II. Dr. Ho.H'kloi in Altonb. Lp.s. l-!j',a. lUdonkon
;1. Itifol. Face. Jenn, Bcrl. Giitt ii. Hcidolli. Xi-bst Acton^tQcken. Altonti. ls.^9. Paiilu«, MoHv. Gut.
Odilen. Mannli. 1S:39. C. VHiiKinii, d. Allenb. Angolcgonli. (Stud. u. Krlt ISJO. I'. 2.)
Söl MODKRN CirURCII niSTORV. PEIi. VI. A. D. 1CJS-1S53.
this controversy. (/«) On tlie other hand, in Bremen, whon the younger
Kniminnchcr, in tlio fervency of liis zeal against those whom lie called the
priesfH of Baal, pronounced the apostle's curse (Gal. 1, 8) upon the whole
anticliristian sjjirit of the ago, although the liheral Protestantism rigidly
pt'ourod its rights against a now j)riestly and Jewish system, the majority of
the clergy in the city and country, to distinguish themselves from such as
they regarded as unbelievers in Cliristianity, formed an orthodox confession
(1840). («) When the Reformed congregation at Liebfrauen, during the
spring-tide of popular feeling in 1848, and in a popular election without the
ordinary established forms, called Dulon of Magdeburg to become its pastor,
and when ho was installed without pledging himself to any creed, the char-
acter of the candidate {o) and the object of the congregation could no longer
bo concealed. The old priest-church was derided as a corpse, from whose
grave alone new life could be expected, and the faith of their forefathers was
estimated only in the light of circumstances the reverse of what originally
existed. A small amount of intelligence, and a popular style of eloquence,
were sufficient to enable such a man to become a religious demagogue, who
professed to preach a Christianity which knew no vulgar class, and whoso
apotheosis he completed, and whose holiest service he performed, when lie
endeavored to inspire men with a burning hatred to despotism, and to enlist
them in an enthusiastic struggle for a free state, a secular redemption, in
which every enjoyment of life might be shared by all. {p) An accusation
was preferred against him (April, 1851) by twenty-three members of his con-
gi'egation, who demanded that the Church should be protected against him
as an enemy to Christianity. Dulon denied that the Senate, which in similar
circumstances (1845) had decided that a preacher should never venture in
his public instructions beyond the degree of intelligence which prevailed
among his people, had any right to interfere in theological controversies. He
alleged that, according to the Constitution of 1849, and the laws of the Re-
formed Church, in which no obligation to a particular creed was required, a
pastor was responsible only to his congregation, and that the great majority
of his people were opposed to the accusation. (7) The Senate applied to the
theological faculty of Heidelberg for an opinion upon the case, and whea this
sustained the accusation, (?•) Dulon was deposed (April, 1852), on the ground
m) Kheinw. Eep. vol. XXVII. p. 236ss. XXXV. ISSss. Ev. K. Z. 13-39. X. 6Ss. ST. 1S40. X. 14s.
51s. A. K. Z. 1840. p. 66. M. U. IlmJticalJcet', Protest in Veranlassung d. neuesten kirehl. Ereign.
in ITanib. limb. 1S39. //. SMeiden. A. prot. K. u. d. synib. R zunächst in Bez. a. llamb. limb. 1S40.
n) Berl. K. Z. 1S40. N. 76. 82. 85. 91. F. W. Krummacher : Paulus kein Mann nach d. Sinne
unserer Zeit 2 ed. Brem. 1840. Thool. Eeplik an Panlel. Elbrf. 1S40. Der Scheinheil. Kationalism.
VDr d. Eichterstuble d. II. S. Ibid. 1841. J. GUde)neUter, Blendwerke d. vulgaren Eational. z. Be-
leltlgung d. Paul. Anathema. Berl. 1841.— J". W. Paniel: 3 Sontagspr. 2 ed. Berl. 1S40. Unver-
holene Beurth. d. sogen. theoL Eeplik. Berl. 1840. W. E. Weher, die Verfluchungen. 2 ed. Berl.
1S40. Bremisches Magazin f. ev. Wahrh. v. Paniel, Eothe, Weber. ISllss. 8 P. — Bekenntniss Brem.
I'.istorcn in Sachsen d. Wahrh. Berl. 1840. Eheinw. Eep. vol. XLIL p. 97. Mallet, fhr Stephaul
Gemeinde. Br. 1850.
o) Ji. Dillon, d. Geltung d. Bekenntnisschr. in d. ref. K. Magdeb. 1S47.
p) Vom Kampfe d. Vulkerfreih. e. Lehrb. fürs deutsche Volk. Br. 1849s. 2 U. 5 ed. ISÖl. Die re£
K., 11. Mallet u. Ich. Br. (1850.) 1851. Der Wecker, ein Sonntagsbl. s. Sept 1850.
g) Brl. KZ. 1850. N. S4. 45. 59.
r) Gutachten d. thcol. Fak. d. Univ. Ilcidelb. ü. Dulon. with Praef. by Schankei. Heidelb. 1552
tue other side : Dulov, d. Gutachten d. vier. heid. Theologen. Br. 1852.
CnAP. Y. EVAXG. CHUIICII TILL 1S53. § 452. DULON. SINTENIS. 565
that his course led to agitation, and Avas dangerous to public safety, and he
was forbidden the performance of any duties as a preacher or an instructor
within the bounds of the republic. (•'<) Even if this proceeding be regarded
as of questionable propriety according to the legal ordinances then in
force, (^) it was certainly the natund result of the revolution which had then
taken place in public alfairs. 7. In M(t(/Jebur(/, when a work of art was ex-
hibited, Sinteiiiti^ the pastor of the Church of the Holy Ghost, maintained in
a public journal that the worship of Christ was a superstition not taught in
the gospels (1840). This was generally regarded as a gross impropriety, but
a few distinguished persons in their zeal denounced it in the pulpit as a trea-
son against the Church. When the consistory required that Sintenis should
acknowledge his views to be inconsistent with his office in the Church, and
promise that he would in future preach nothing which should not, as far a*
he could ascertain from the authorized creeds, be consistent with the doc-
trines of the Bible, under penalty of a suspension from his office, the city
thought that Protestant freedom of instruction was impaired, and that the
whole was intended to place exclusive power in the hands of the pietistic
party. Tlie ecclesiastical suj)erintendents and the magistrates therefore
brought a complaint against the consistory before the Bureau of Public "Wor-
ship, on the ground that it had treated human enactments as if they were of
equal authority with the sacred Scriptures, and that consequently the Pro-
testantism of Magdeburg, once so dearly purchased, was in peril. But when
this department censured the conduct of Sintenis as a pastoral indiscretion,
and admonished those who were zealous for orthodoxy to abstain from everj'
tiling inconsistent with existing rules, the excitement was allayed, (w) — In
all parts of Germany it was only needful that some iiiHammatory word
should be ottered to produce a local explosion. The old Protestantism in its
renovated form, had in its favor the written law, the religious enthusiasm of
the people, and sometimes also the protection of eminent civil authorities,
while the new Protestantism had the usages of almost a century, the mod-
ern improvements in science, the revolutionary principles started at the
Reformation, and generally, where freedom of conscience was threatened, the
masses of the third estate, who rose in defence of such freedom. The ortho-
dox style of preaching had become so strange in particular cities, that some
pastors who used it fell out with their congregations and were dismissed from
them, (/•) and sometimes a city otherwise diligent in the [iractice of religion
and in its works of charity, jirotested in a legal form against tlie Apostles'
Creed, on account of its antiquated character, (ir) In the principality of
k) Brl. KZ. 1853. N. 20. 21. A. KZ. 1S52. N. 70.
Dittenherger, Votum In d. tlicol. Fiic. d. U. IlclJclb. ü. D. IMlb. 1S5-2. On the oilier side:
Schenkel, d. Scliutzpfliclit d. Stajits pegcn <1. ev. K. lleldelb. 1852.
w) Ev. K. Z. IS*). N. 2118. 43. 54s. GTs. A. K. Z. 1S40. N. Cls,'^ (Theunf) Urkunden ü. d. Ver-
fnliren d. Consist, zu Ma^iL gegen Sintenis, v. e. Frenmlo d. W.ilirlielt Lps. 1S40. Mittlieilunfren ü. d.
Veranl. iL liirclil. Aufrcg. zu M;ip<L DarinsL 1S41. — Der Blscliof DriLiokc u. s, actjübr. Wirken Im
Treuss. Staat, v. G. v. C. {Kimig.) Borgen. lS4a
v) Tlwlucl; Liter. Anzeiger. 1S35. N. 47. Acta liist ecc 1SS5. p. 441?9. Ehelnw. Rep. vol. V.
p. 129s^!. vol. XVIII. p. 2*ss. laiss.
%c) Brl. KZ. 1S44. N. 2S. 1S45. X. 23. Ev. KZ. IS«. N. 40. 54 RudelbacK ü. d. Bedeut d. Ap
Syinb. Mit Bez. a. (I. Leipziger Confestlonswirren. Hal. 1S44.
5GG MODKKN ciiuucn nisTOi:v. per. vi. a. d. kb-im.?.
Lippe, five prcnclicr?, -wlio had (Icmanded the re-introdiiction of tho Heidel-
berg Catechism, instead of tho liberal catechism which had been used fur a
pcnoration past, and had protested (1844) against the spurious official oath
respecting tlie creed -which had for some time been publicly administered,
and against the limitation of tho ecclesiastical power of the keys, wore suni-
jnoned l)efore tho consistory as ecclesiastical demagogues, and after hnmblin'^
themselves, they Averc admonished carefully to observe tho regulations of the
Church. Private members were also informed that it did not belong to
them, with their limited knowledge of such subjects, to give a Judgment
respecting them, (.r)
§ 453. Prussia, the Union and the Agenda till 1840. Cont. from § 414.
J. Jacobson, Gesch. d. Quellen d. ev. KReclits d. Prov. rrcii-sscn n. Tos. Ki'inipsb. 1800.
r. Mühler, Gesch. d. ev. KVerf. d. Mark Brandenb. Weim. ISiG.—Jiöckel, Irencon. Brl. 182188. 2
vols. K. F. Gaupp, d. Union d. deutschen K. Brsl. 1S43. K. Semisch, ü. d. Unionsversuche bes. In
Treussen. Greifsw. 1852. C. J. Kitzsch, Urkundenb. d. ev. Union. Bonn. 1803.
Under Frederic II., Prussia had become, in consequence of its natural
position, the most prominent of the Protestant powers. Frederic William
II. (1797-1840), having found consolation under his severe losses in the sta-
ble word of God, wished, after his government had become re-established,
and he had become rather jealous of its free development, that the Church
might be thoroughly regenerated. Though he felt some dislike to the unsta-
ble character of Protestant freedom, and especially to the high-wrought spirit
of Pietism, he was sincerely attached to Luther's honest and steadfast faith,
and with pious conscientiousness, under the influence of the writings of the
reformers, sometimes conducted the affairs of tho Church with his own
hands. He was, however, generally assisted by the gentle Altenstcin, his
minister for public worship, with whose preferences for the Hegelian phi-
losophy in the Church and in the schools he was often displeased, but whom
he never would quite abandon. (</) When the civil power had absorbed aD
authorities peculiarly ecclesiastical (1809), the king established (1817) pro-
vincial consistories, whose duties were confined to matters exclusively spirit-
ual, and did not include the location of clergymen ; district and provincial
synods, composed only of clergymen, and restricted within a narrow circle
of duties, but intended to be an introduction to an imperial synod ; (b) and a
ministry for public worship, which was to be the organ through which the royal
authority was exercised over the Church. The oath which the clergymen
were to take, bound them to be the servants of the state as Avell as of the
Church. As Protestantism gradually developed itself, the contrast between
:be two Churches became less and less prominent before the minds of the
people, and other antagonisms of far greater importance than those between
Luther and Zwingle appeared in each. Hence, when tho king sent forth a
a) Urkunden i. Beurth. d. klrchl. Verh. im F. Lippe. Lps. 1545. Ev. K. Z. 1842. N. WX 1843. >\
23. 87. 72. 1S44 N. 12. 65. 1845. N. 30ss. 92. 1S46. X. 9s. 33. 53. "Ts. 97. 1S51. X. 75s.
fi) EyltrU Characterzüge a. d. Leben Fried. Wilh. IIL Magdeb, 1843-6. esp. 3. vol. [Life and
Opinions of Fred. Will. HI. from the Germ, of Eyiert, by J. Hirch, Lend. 1844. 8.]
I) Acts In Wachler, Iheol. Nachrichten 1817. ScM^iennacher, ü. d. einzuricht SynoJalverf
Brl. 15;17. A. KZ. 182S. X. 44.
CHAP. T. EVAXG. CHURCH TILL 1653. § 453. PRUSSIA. UNION. 567
call for a voluntary union at the Jnbilee of the Reformation, ('•) tlie union of
an eTangclioal Church fell into his hands as the ripe fruit of the age. No
attempt to produce uniformity hy artificial creeds was therefore necessary.
On the one hand, an internal union was etlected by the conviction that those
controversies ■which had now ceased, or which still continued, were not
incon-sistent with Christian love and fellowship ; and on tlie other, all that
was needful to an external union was accomjilished by an agreement respect-
ing a constitution, church property, and ordinary usage?. It was also con-
cluded that the Lord's Supper should bo celebrated in the manner proposed
by the Synod of Berlin, by a mere breaking of the bread and a faithful reci-
tation of the words used in the original Institut »n. But while this Avork
was in process of cheerful accomplishment in the several ecclesiastical corpo-
rations, sometimes by public enactments and sometimes as tlie government
directed, by a ])ractical acceptance of the breaking of bread and an ac-
knowledgment of tlie authorities of the united Cliurch, it was considerably
disturbed by the introduction of tlie Agenda. The development which had
taken place in the principles of Protesüintism, and the modes of speech
occasioned by the new scientific and literary education of the people, ren-
dered some alteration of the language of the Church indispensable. New
liturgies were tlierefore introduced into some established churches without
attracting much attention. A common f(.)rm of worship seemed to become
necessary by the union. Tlie theological commission apjiointod for compos-
ing such an instrument in Prussia accomplished nothing. The king then pub-
lished an Agenda which had been adopted by his cabinet (1822) for the use
of the court church, gave orders that it slreuld be introduced into the garri-
son churches of his kingdom, and recommended it to all the congregations
of the realm, instead of the conflicting and arbitrary forms which had pre-
viously been used in the diflerent provinces, (il) Objections against it were
urged by some who fancied that it partook too much of an old ecclesiastical,
and even of a Catholic spirit, and by others who complained that it was not
sufficiently orthodox, and was too much reformed. Some, also, were displeased
with a heterogeneous pohtical element which they discovered in it. But no
general opi)osition to it (t) was apparent until the government took some
steps to draw over the churches by various temptations or by coercion, and
some authors contended that a strict conformity to the liturgy should be re-
quired by a law on the territorial system. (/') In the midst of this confusion
no synodal constitution was carried into etl'ect, for even the victorious politi-
cal party took no pleasure in a measure which so forcibly reminded them of
the promised representative system. It was only in Westphalia and the
Rhenish provinces that a synodal form on the basis of ancient usages was
introduced (1835), but even there the system left as much to bo desired as it
c) Si-pt 27, lSt7, In KitzHcti, p. 125s.
</) Klrclien-ARonds f. (L proL Ilof- ii. Doiiik. In IJorl. lirl. and oft A. KZ. li».'. N. 17. 03.
«) (Scfileiermiicher) Ue. (L lit. Iloclit ev. IjinUi-sfürstün, v. Paclf. Sinuurus. GotL 1S24. Acten*
•tückc, betr. d. Pr. K. A. ckI. by FuUX; Kiel, 1S27.
/) Atigu-sti Kritik d. Preui>s. A. Krkf. 1S2.3. and Krkliir. ü. d. MnJestfitsrecht in klrclil. Dingen. F.
1S25. ni. Naelitr. IJonn. 1V2C. Jf<irfifiiifi.-f, fi. d. \v.-ilirc Stelle d. lit. Üeebts, 15rl. 1^25. C. F. V
Amnion, d. KiiifTili. d. l!rl. A. gescliiclitl. u. kircbl. beleuchtet Drsd. 1825.
5G8 MODERN CHURCH IIISTOKV. TKIl. YI. A. D. 164*-lSWi.
nctiinlly fulfilled. (.'/) Tlio appointment of general Bnpc-rintendfnts (1820).
with nu'atis at coininariil fur u very extensive sphere of personal influence,
was looked npon as a restoration of the titular bishops to their former pre-
lutical jjosition, and lienco as the commencement of a Protestant episcc>
pacy. (A) The king showed a great predilection for the Agenda as a work
of his own, and he even wrote a very modest defence of it with his own
hand. (/) JJut this difficult controversy was finally settled princij)ally by an
arrangement proi)osed by the Bishop Xcandcr, according to which a new-
revision of the liturgy was to bo made by the ecclesiastical authorities, with
special reference to the most important objections (1829). As this presented
to the worshippers a choice of several forms, and paid respect to provincial
usages, and as the rights of the Church were preserved and were c'uly hon-
oi'ed by the government, it was accepted ■without difficulty. Accordingly,
since 1830, the Agenda has possessed the authority of law, and but one evan-
gelical national Church has been known in Pruasia. {!,) In all the other estab-
lished churches of Germany the royal ai)peal was favorably received, and Wi.s
carried into execution by means of enactments in the synods or the congrega-
tions. In Nassau (1817), this was accomplished by a formal recognition of a
previous unanimity between the two parties in the essential articles of their
creeds. (/) la Bavaria on the lihine^ it was effected (1818) by a general vote
on an edict which proposed that the evangelical Church should properly
respect the symbolical books containing the ordinary Protestant confessions,
but should have no authoritative rule of faith but the Holy Scriptures. In
Baden ^ the same result was secured by declaring (1821) that the Augsburg
Confession, together with the Lutheran and Heidelberg Catechisms, should
be regarded as an authoritative rule of faith only as far as a free investigation
should discover their consistency with the Scriptures, the only sure source of
Christian truth, and as far as the pure principles of evangelical Protestantism
were fouud in them. It was also agreed that the Lord's Supper should be
celebrated there in the form which had been accepted by Melancthon (p.
407). {ui) Wherever the union was not then effected, it was on account of
some local difficulties in the respective congregations. In those national
churches within the bounds of which, very little more than a single Pro-
testant Church existed, as e. g., the Lutherans in the states of the German
Confederacy, and the Reformed in Switzerland and the Netherlands, there
was no necessity or object of such a Union, but even there it was accepted
as an ideal, and was recognized wherever an individual case required it.
The principal remonstrance against it was from a few Supernatnralists who
possessed no doctrinal agreement among themselves. (/<)
g) Acta hist, ecc 1835. p. 37ös. 1S36. p. 4ö0ss. VcrhandU. d. 2 rheio. Prov. Svn.'dal-VersaDunl.
tiariiien. 1S3S.
h) Augusti, Boitrr. z. Gesch. u. Statistik d. ev. Kirche, p. 7S8ss.
J) Lutlior in Beziehung a. d. Preuss, KAgende. Bil. 1S27.
i) A. KZ. 1S'20. N. 140. 1S30. N. 93. Ei/krt, fi. Worth u. Wirkung d. Agende nach d. KesulUta
» v?hnj ihr. Erfahrung. Polsd. IS-SO.
/) Archiv f. alte u. neue KGesch. vol. IV. p. lS9ss. m) yitzsch, p. 1343.
«■) TMiiumn, ü. Vereinigung. Li>s. ISIS. Sleudtl >1. Vereinigung. Tub. 1S3 .
CHAP. V. EVANG. CnUECII TILL 1S53. §151. UNION. LUTREKAXISM. 5G9
§ 454. Lutheranism as a Sect under Frederic William III.
The spirit of orthodoxy which had now been onco more awakened, ])or-
ceived that it would soon lose its principal power, if those portions of tlie
symbolical books in which the ditfereut chnrches opposed and condemned
each other were no longer binding «pen the people. So strong, indeed, was
the feeling now aroused, that in men of a reckless spirit it resembled Luther's
horror at all fellowship with the Reformed Church. That which in other
places was a conscientious conviction in opposition to the Union, or a theo-
logical opposition, {;() in Prussia necessarily carao into collision with the lively
interest Avhich the government took in the united and uniform Church.
When the Union and the Agenda were accepted at Breslau (1830), Dr. Schei-
hcl remained the pastor of a church which rejected the Union as a work of
Indifterentism, a compact between Christ and Belial and the Agenda, as a
part of the same scheme. After many etforts at accommodation, ho was
suspended from the ministry, and when he insisted upon a final decision, he
was dismissed (1832). {h) Clucricle announced that ho had returned to the
old Lutheran Church, from which ho had unconsciously and involuntarily
been removed, and ho now obtained a secret installation for himself as the
pastor of a congregation in and near Halle (1834:). After many disturbances
of divine worship in his house by the police, he was' deprived of his profes-
sorship on account of a rash attack which he made upon an order issued by
the government (1835). (c) A few pastors connected with the established
Church in Silesia produced an excitement among the ignorant people of their
congregations, by preaching that Luther's precious faith, the religion of their
fathers, had been superseded by the theology of the king. To hush up these
disturbances, an order was obtained (Feb. 28, 1834) from the cabinet by the
pietistic party then forming in the court, ('/) which assured the people that
the Lutheran Church, with its various confessions of faith, was not abolished
by the Agenda and the Union, and that nothing but that Church was estab-
lished by law ; and that the sacraments were to be administered according to
the usages of the old Lutheran Church to all who desired them in that mode.
The Lutherans, however, could not comi)reliend how the Lutheran confession,
condemning the doctrines of the Reformed Church, could really be received
in a united Church, or how the same liturgy could bo received in two
Churches which were essentially so dilVerent. These pastors, who had re-
nounced the Union and the Agenda, and would no longer yield obedience to
the consistory of the united Church, were suspended. "When Kellner^ the
pastor of the church in llonigcrn, was about to be suspended (Sept. 11th,
1834), the congregation while singing and praying presented an unwearied
passive resistance to the opening of their church, being resolved to do noth-
«) Gieaehr, neuester Unlonsvors. In Brctixn. Woua. \yi\. lUuUllntch^ Griiiulvesto d. lutli.
Klrclienlehro ii. Friedenspra.xis. Lps. 1S4<).
l>) SteffetiH, wie leh wieder Lutheraner wunle, »mil was mir Lutliortliuiii 1st r.r>l. IsBl. (Iluscltke)
Tlieol. Votum o. Juristen lii Saolisen tl. |)reuss. ll<>f-.\p. e«L by Scbeibel, Nnib. 1S3'J. SdieiM, uoten-
in.vsige Gescli. d. nst Uiitirnelimuiijt c. Union bcs. Im preuss. Staate. Lps. M'H. 2 vols.
c) Einige Urkunden betr. d. Gesell, d. luth. Gemeinde In u. um Halle. Lp?. 1>35.
d) Comp. Es-. KU ls*3. N. 5.
570 MODKUN CIIITKCII inSTOIiV. I'KK. YI. A. D. 1W^1S53.
iiif,' by wl:icli lliey would participate in the crime of desecrating their altar;-
Tlio cliurch was thorefuro broken open by tlie niilitar}-, and on Christma?
day public worship was performed for the first time according to tlie forms
of the Agenda. Kellner was thrown into prison, and at a ])ublic trial, he
and those who took part with him were condemned for insurrection. Tlie
congregation was finally oliligcd to yield by having soldiers quartered in their
houses, {(■) and the i>arty then seemed to be entirely broken up. But in Feb.,
1835, tlic suspended pastors held a synod at Breslau, at which they resolved
to etlcct the deliverance of the Lutheran Church by every practicable and
lawful means. Fi'om the borders of Poland to Erfurt, the scattered remnants
of former congregations, impelled by an obscure feeling of attachment to the
Church of their fathers, assembled together, and by adopting the old Witten-
berg Agenda, became separated from the established church. Scheibel (d.
1843), whose mind was of a very limited order, but who had become power-
ful through the influence of a faith which knew no doubt, led these people
from Saxony and Franconia, and induced the congregations of Silesia and
Brandenburg to adopt a form of government like that of the apostles, and
a rigid system of ecclesiastical discipline. But by the application of the laws
against conventicles, by a neglect of the schools, and a refusal to give testi-
mony, these poor people, Avho assured their rulers that their assemblies for
worship were not conventicles, but the old Lutheran Church, whose exist-
ence had been guaranteed by sacred compacts, were in various ways dis-
trained or imprisoned, their ministers were generally kept in custody, and a
few wandered about without means of support, and persecuted by the police.
A portion of them finally sought an asylum for the Lutheran Church be-
yond the ocean. Since the contracted spirit of this exclusive LutheranLsm,
whose conduct appears much like that of the seven sleepers after a slumber
of throe hundred years, has been exposed by Hengstenberg ; since Olshauscn
lias shown the rebellious nature of its defence, and Hahn, the consistorial
counsellor, has moved against it with the military, the orthodox party has
become subdivided into two portions. The recollection of their common
origin has only embittered these in their antipathies to each other, and they
exchange against each other nearly the same reproaches which had previously
been employed by them against those whom they regarded as unbeliev-
ers. (/) Even the Separatists fell out among themselves, for Guericke would
not accept of the apostolic constitution, and having acknowledged that a
Lutheran conscience might find peace in a Church belonging to the Prussian
establishment, provided Christ was preached there, he soon found opportu-
nity to become reconciled with the government (1840). (g) This government
with some confusion and reluctance now liberated (1838) clergymen who had
been detained in prison long beyond the term fixed in their original sentence
e) A. Z. 1S35. Append. 16. 26s. 50. 64. Acta hist ecc 1S?5. p. SOOss. //. Olshamev, -was ist v. d,
nst. kirchl. Ereign. in Schlesien zu halten? Lps. 1S-S5. Kellner, Sendschr. an Olsh. Lps. 1S35. O.
F Wrhrhaix. Vcrth. d. Uith. S.iche gegen Olsb. Meiss. 1S.35.
/) Ev. KZ. 1S%. N. Iss. Olshausen (nt. e).— Guericke, d. cv. KZ. u. d. Lutheraner. L. 1S.38.
Scheibel, Mitthcil. esp. II. 1. t"". Ehrennirüin u. E. Kellner, die nst Wiedersaclicr d. liith. K
lu Prcus«. Lps. 1S3S.
g) Acta hist. ccc. 1S3T. p. 059. A. KZ. 1S40. N. 52.
CHAP. T. EVANG. CnUP.cn TILL 1853. § 454. FPEDEEIC WILLL\M III. 571
of condemnation, and ceased to imprison according to law those private mem-
Dcrs wlio bad refused to testify against their ministers with reference to otli-
cial acts prohibited by the authorities. (/*) Frederic William III. always
acknowledged the rights of conscience in matters of religion, but witli a
mind remarkably fond of order, he loved to bring every thing to uniformity.
In spiritual things he generally thought it safest to refer to father Luther, but
lie esteemed a man a rebel who adhered to Luther's sentiments with Luther's
obstinacy. He felt himself, and ho proved himself to bo the protector of tho
evangelical Church far beyond the limits of Prussia, and he even bestowed
many favors upon the Catholic Church of Lis kingdom. And yet, in the
evening of bis life, bo found himself involved in acts of arbitrary violence
against each of these Churches, llis time on earth was spent in disquietude,
but his trust was in God.
§ 455. Lcijal Vieics and Legal L'elations in German Countries.
L. Richter, (p. 441.) A'. Uase, J. ev. proU K. d. deuUchcn Keiclis. Lps. (1&48.) 1S58.
In a time of ecclesiastical exhaustion there was no dispo.sition or ability
to construct a peculiar system of laws for the Church. Schuderoff (170G-18-13)
almost alone then contended for a collegiate system, but his zeal against
jurists in the Church had rather a hierarchical tendency, (or) As soon as the
ecclesiastical life exhibited its former vigor, general complaints were heard
that the Church was subject to an arbitrary foreign influence, and that its
members excused themselves from all interest in its affairs on account of the
bureaucratic interference of the civil authoritie.^, and their exclusion from all
share in its administration. Hence, when the union with the Reformed
Church took place, attention was turned to tho fragments of the old ecclesi-
astical establishment, preserved in tho latter in the form of ecclesiastical
elders and synods, and to the union by means of consistories under the sov-
ereign of the country. (Ji) In the literary controversies between the advo-
cates of the ditforcnt legal view.s, those who believed that the Church was
purchased by the blood of tho God-man maintained that its territory was
manifestly beyond tho reach of tho secular powers. But a disinclination for
all theories of natural liberty, and a dread of popular suffrage as the domin-
ion of the flesh, then prevailed, and gave great advantage to those who advo-
cated the predominance of the i)rincoly, or at least of the spiritual powers. (<)
A) Stheibfl: Mlttlieiliingcn A. ii«t. GmcIi. d. lutli. K. Alton. lS85ss. 6 11. Archiv f. hist Entw. ii.
nst Gcsrh. <1. liitli. K. Nürnb. 1S41. 2 P. n. A. K. Z. 1S3S. N. 19K O. F. Wehrhau, meine Suspcn
dlrune, Einkerkerung, u. AuswnnOer. Lps. 1889. J. D. Loncenhnrg, Persecution of tlio Lnth
Oliurcli in Prussia from 1S;M. Lond. 1S40. IJcrl. K. Z. 1S30. N. 39. 40. S7. Slfffem, wiis Ich erlebte
vol. X. p. "I. 724ss.
<i) Ansichten u. Wünsche betr. d. prot. KWesen u. d. Gelstllchk. Lps. 1S14.
h) J. S'huileroff, Gninilz. z ev. pn.t. KVerf. Lps. ISU. E. Zimmermann, Grnndr. z. ov. KVorl.
in sr. Monalscli. vol. L II. Is. Pahl. d. OITentl. Kedit d. ov. luth. K. In TeuL-schl. Tub. 1827. On tbo
other side: /'. v. ßi'iloir, ü. d. pei.'cnw. Verli. d. cv. KWes. In Dcut«;chl. Mgdb. (1818.) 1819. Bret-
IchneiJer, Votum ü. d. repraes. Yerf. d. K. L])?. 1S.32.
c) Ev. KZ. 1S82. N. 2. Ä'iidelJjach, 14 Thcfen Q. Presb. \i. Syn. Lp.s. 1332. Puchta, Einl. In «1.
Recht d. K. Lps. 1840. F. J. Stahl, d. KVcrf. nach Lehre u. lieclit d. Prot. Erlang. 1S40. C. Ti'otAf,
d. v.aliren Qrundl. d. ev. KVcrf. Url. 1S44.
572 MODERN CHUnCH niSTOr.V. per. VI. A. D. 1049-ls»
The Ilofrclian scliool onco moro brought forward the territorial system in
connection with their higher view of the state, according to which the
Chnrch, as a distinct society, entirely disappear?, and becomes merely tho
religions clement of the state, (d) But the more the importance of the state
in a popular and patriotic point of view was recognized, the more the right
of the Christian congregations to dcvelope by their own energies the constitu-
tion best suited to their i)rogress in cultivation, was also acknowledged. The
relation of these congregations to the state was to bo that of mutual assist-
ance, but in the existing organization of the German state confederacies, they
were to be dependent only upon the widest national limits, (e) Baden re-
ceived with the union a synodal system, but the general synod Avas to be con-
vened only at the suggestion of the sovereign, and then simply as an advis^^ry
council. (/) In 1845, Zittel, a pastor of a congregation, proposed to the Diet,
that instead of the past religious intolerance, under wliicli Christianity had
found no peace, they should try the eflect of religious liberty, under which
every form of worship should bo tolerated, and no civil penalties should be
exacted unless a failure in the performance of civU duties appeared probable.
A complete storm of petitions principally from the Catholic sections of the
country, against the majority in the chamber which was ready to concur
with the proposition, was the result. The Union Chnrch was here so strictly
constituted, that when the pastor Eichhorn felt constrained in conscience,
from hiJi attachment to exclusive Lutheranism, to give notice (1850) of his
secession from the united Church, and had received the permission which he
had asked, he was punished by imprisonment, or was directed by the police
to leave the country, because in some instances he afterwards performed min-
isterial duties for those who like him had forsaken the Church. These per-
sons, according to their own confession, knew but little of their former or
their present creed, and had in general been involved in the revolutions of
that period, but they have hitherto received no permission to form any Lu-
theran congregation, {g) The evangelical Church in Bataria^ by an appen-
dix to the national constitution (1818), was allowed the privilege of managing
its own internal affairs, under the supervision of the supreme authorities of
the state. In the Rhenish Palatinate, as soon as the Union was firmed,
parochial councils with power to fill their own vacancies, district synods and
a general synod, chosen partly by and from the congregations themselves,
were organized, and it was for this reason that the rationalistic party in that
country was able to maintain its ground in the long conflict with the superior
consistory at Munich, which was essentially Lutheran, though occasionally
under Catholic influence. The order for the election of elders in the congre-
gations on the eastern side of the Rhine (1821), was so indefinite with respect
d) üothe, d. Anfange d. K. u. Ihrer Vert WitL 1S3'. 1 voL Die ev. Landesk. Preassens u. d.
Wlss. Lps. 1S40.
*) C rUmann, t d. Znk. d. ev. K. BentscliL Stuttg: 1S45. Jul. MülUr, dio nächsten Au^ben
I d. Fortbiid. d. dentsch-prot KVert Brsl. 1*45. C. C. J. Bungen, d. Ver£ d. K d. Zukunft. Hamb.
1845. [Const of tlie Church of tbe Future, &c. from the Germ. Lond. 1S4S. S.] JT. ffusf, d. gute
»Ite Kecht d. K. Lps. 2 ed. 1=47.
/) A. KZ. IS.-?'. X. 201. 1S35. X. 9S. 1S43. X. 101. 117s. 170s> Acta hist ecc. 1S35. p. 41463.
17> Actenma.««. nar^t betr. Past Eichh. (Allp. KBlatt lS5i N. 16s.)— C. Eicfihorn, g««ch. AbriM
d. Entsteh, ev. lutli. Gemeinden im G. Baden. Stults. 1S52.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S53. S 455. CAVAIUX -VVCUTEMBEnO. 573
to the i)cculiar duties of these officers, that many feared a liierarchical
discipline was intended, and hence such a unanimous expression of public
opinion was raised against it, that the government withdrew the plan. (//)
The subsequent establishment of the s3'nodal constitution (after 1825) took
place under many sus])icious limitations ; each of the two dioceses were to
have a separate general synod ; the represontatives of the congregations were
io bo chosen by the pastors; one half of all elected for the general synod by
the district assemblies were to be set aside by the superior consistory ; all
acts were to be merely advisory, and even from such deliberations the hyper-
catholic ministry of Abel had power to exclude at pleasure jtrecisely those
things which were of any interest to the Church, (i) In Würtemherg^ the
Church was represented in the diet by prelates nominated by the king, and
through these its principal effort was to recover the ecclesiastical ]n'operty,
of which the recollection of the people was still fresh. After 1830, when
most of the middle German states received representative constitutions, it
became necessary to make many changes in the administration of ecclesiasti-
cal affairs, and the Church demanded securities for its established rights. (^)
But the theory of the semi-liberal constitution ofthat country was not favor-
able to a peculiar department of laws for the Church, and when the clergy
set up new claims, they lost their old privileges, until the power and the em-
barrassments of the religious interests (since 1840) have combined with the
kindred improvements in political and ecclesiastical jurisprudence to strength-
en their demands and call forth partial promises, for the oppressions of the
people in civil life have compelled them to seek freedom in ecclesiastical agi-
tations. (/) Tho Xational Axsctiihhj i\\ St. Paul's church (1848) had jio idea
of jeopardizing the unity of the nation of which it was then dreaming, by
engaging in the old ecclesiastical disputes ; but in forming a theory of the
original rights of the German people, it was driven by a recollection of many
civil and ecclesiastical aggressions upon mental freedom to put fortli a declara-
tion respecting the true relation of the state to religion. During the delib-
erations upon this subject, it appeared that some were oi>posed to every kind
of church, but the co-operation of these extreme parties in favor of the com-
plete inde[)endence of Church and state, was held in check by the hesitation
of a middle party, Avliich feared to open the door for au uidimited ecclesias-
h) A. KZ. 1S22. N. 24. 81. 84. 43. Works by Lcllmu^ Kaiser, Fuchs. On tho otlier side: Vogol,
Oertel, and otlicrs. — Paulu», will d. Baicrscbo Lkndesk. nicht mundig worden ? (Sophronlzun, 1S24.
vol. VI. H. 1.)
Stfjihurii, kail. Kocht Tub. 1^2.'». p. 6l!w. I'. J. Xiethammfr, Nachr. v. d. ersten Versaniinl.
d. Gen. Synoden In 15. Siilzb. ISiV /'«cA», Zust d. prut. K. In B. Ansb. ISSO. (I'rlntoil) Manu-
script: l)lo Gen. Syn. zu Ansbach Im J. 1S44. Without place, f. AnoUier ruvislun of tlib docuiiiunt
printed ut Ulm.
k) Biikellu. I/iip/rlil, Q. d. llof. d. KVorf. In bos. Küoks. a, Kurhessen. Marb. 1S81. WüilsoIi«
d. cv. Golstlichk. Sachs. L. 1S3I. Gromtmuiin, 0. liof. d. KVerC in Sachs. L. 1S33. For lit see Stud
u. Krit 1S38. II. 2s.
I) G. T. M'<l>ei\ die UmKe-^taUun;; d. KVerf. in Sachi«, I>. ISSiV. Briiuntg, constltntlnnellcs Leben
In d. K. Lps. 1S.'J8. C. Wolf, die Zukunft d. j.rot. K. Stiitt^;. 1S40. C. & AVmiV, d. nst, Zolt. in d.
cv. K. d. I'reuss. Staats. Uraunschw. IS-J-I. R AMI, d. poj:onw. Noth. cL ev. K. I'rous««. I'a.'iewalk,
.843.— Acta hist ccc. 1S35. p. 41SS9. Brl. KZ. 1S4.V N. 2.S.v<«. (ii\.—(nHnde*.haym) Per deutsche Pf J
test, 8. Vergangonh. u. heullgon LebonslVagen. Frkf. 134T. J. Wiggera, die klrchL Beweg. In
Deutiii'hl. Kost. 1*43.
574 ' M(ii)i:i:n nnuicii iiistouy. pkr. vi. a. d. 164S-is53.
tioiil intcrleroiicc from abroad. Accordinglj^, all were alknved full libcrt}' tc
l)olicvo in any form of religion, or in none, without affucting tlic-ir civil or
municipal rij,'Iit.s ; no sjjocial political privileges were allowed to any religions
societies ; permission was given to form new religious societies, and all wero
independently to manage their own affairs, subject only to the general laws
of the state. A general form of an oath suited to any religious ojiinions was
also provided, and the validity of marriage was made to dei)end entirely u[ion
a civil act. With respect to the schools there was much contention betAveen
the different parties, for the Protestant teachers especially demanded a com-
plete emancipation from the bonds of the Church, while the Catholic party
with its pietistic adjunct endeavored to attain an opposite result by a free
election of the teachers by the congregation. The majority, however, while
it held to the principle that all science and instruction in it should be free,
placed the whole school system under the supervision of the state, and re-
moved the schools from the inspection of the clergy as sucli, without forbid-
ding the employment of skilful clergymen in the supervision of them, (rn)
In the composition of the Prussian fundamental laws at Erfurth, these prin-
ciples were essentially retained, with the exception only of the article re-
specting special political privileges, which the state wished to have power to
grant to religious societies whose general aims might specially correspond
with its own. The establishment of a state Church, however, was especially
guarded against, and all charitable institutions were secured from any
infringement. These principles were indeed incorporated in the constitu-
tional charter of almost every German state, but the revived diet of the
confederation declared (Aug., 1851) that these pretended fundamental laws
never possessed any legal authority. Very little was done even when the
power existed to enforce them, for the masses of society were interested only
in political questions, and the clergy were jealous of majorities supposed to
be unfriendly to the Church. la almost every place committees were ap-
pointed by means of the previous ecclesiastical authorities, by whom out-
lines of constitutions were prepared, which conveyed the executive power of
the Church into the hands of a series of representative synods, rising through
several gradations from the congregation, with an unequal number of secular
and clerical deputies, and subject, as before agreed upon, to the control of the
evangelical sovereign through certain officers. All contemplated at some
future period a great evangelical Church of the German empire. These plans
were of course laid aside when the political party of the reaction became
every where triumphant. A few national churches like those of Wurtera-
berg and "Weimar have nevertheless been alloAved to have councils chosen
[lartly by the congregations for the administration of their ecclesiastical
affairs (1851), which have since been actually elected, and been engaged in a
limited sphere of Christian activity. In Bavaria, the two divisions of the
Church on the eastern side of the Rhine, by the free choice of the congrega-
tions at a provisional election, united under one General Synod at Anspach
(1840), and obtained from the government (1850-^3) an electoral law, ac-
cording to Avhich those who possessed the confidence of the congregations
f«) Fund. Law of Dec. 21, 1S48. Artt 5 and 6.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIUECII TILL 1S5.3. § 455. GERM. CHARIER. OLDKXB. 575
conld be appointed to manage their ecclesiastical affairs, and a double iiuinbcr
of clergymen could be elected to the general synod. (//) The General Synod
of the liheuish Electorate assembled in October, 1848, and received from tlie
government a release from the control of the superior consistory, and the
grant of an electoral law. (o) A committee appointed by this synod, in a ra-
tionalistic spirit and Avithout much consideration, changed the original record
of the Union of 1818, which, after the overthrow of the revolution, called
forth the oi)posit)on of the minority, and received the censure of the Pro-
testant faculties of Germany when their opinions were asked respecting it. (]>)
The General Synod of 1858, in terror of the sword of dissolution, in face of
many dishonorable elections of elders, and in consequence of the appointment
of a number of clergymen from the division on the other side of the Rhine,
returned to the patriarchal electoral laws of 1818, went, in fact, beyond
them, and decided with respect to the creed, that the co/iscnsus which exist."^
in the principal confessions of the evangelical German Church, of which the
Church of the Palatinate is a part, is best to be found in the Augsburg Con-
fession of 1540. A reservation, however, was distinctly put forth, that no
compulsory obligation of an ecclesiastical or political nature was thus asserted
in behalf of the symbolic books, (q) In Oldenlurg alone the fovorable mo-
ment was improved, and an ecclesiastical government was actually set np
(1849) by a synod chosen by the congregations. Here the ecclesiastical au-
thority of the sovereign was set aside, and the affairs of each congregation
were committed to an assembly of its adult men, and a council chosen by
them ; the common business of the congregations was intrusted to an annual
general synod, chosen directly by the people, and one half composed of cler-
gymen ; and the administration was placed in the hands of an ecclesiastical
council chosen by and responsible to the synod. Though this constitution
had no connection with the civil power, it was proclaimed by tlie Grand
Duke ; and as men of an ecclesiastical spirit were thosen, it was not unwor-
thily carried into execution, and was capable of throwing off any defects
which might be found in it. {r) But by its separation from the state, the se-
curity of ecclesiastical proj)erty was gone, it was soon left without sui)port in
conseijuence of the hostility of the civil officers, the suspicions of tlie orthodox
party for the indcfiniteness of its creed, (.v) and the dislike of the clergy on
account of their dependence upon the congregations, and in a time of general
political reaction, few would defend it against the reproach of its revolution-
ary origin. A change in accordance with the terms of the fundamental law
of 1852 was effected (April, 1853) by the Grand Duke, after an audience with
the general synod and the supreme ecclesiastical council, on the ground that
the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Oldenburg should indejiendently adiiiin-
it) Bil. KZ. lS-19. N. 16. 80. 84. 89. 43. 18Ö0. N. 84. A. K. Z. 1S5.3. N. 14».
o) Brl. WA. 1S4S. N. 60. 91. 104. 1849. N. 6. 27. 4:J.
2i) Gutaeliton tleutsclicr ev. th. FacuUritun ü. den der K. d. bay. Tfalz zugedachten VerfassunL'S
entw. Frkf. Is'il.
q) A. KZ. 1S5.3. N. WX
r) Verliandll. d. Syii. ü. d. Vcrf. d. Oldenb. cv. K. Oldenb. 1949. 4. Verlmiidll. d. 1. Lande.vsj-n
.S50. 4.— d. 2. I.andcssyii. 1S.')1. 4. Gesetz- ii. A'erordnutiüJ-bl. d. cv. Kirche, vol. I. St. 1
k) Per Xothptand d. ev. K. Oldenb. 1^5-.'. Kv. KZ. ISM. X. 90s.
576 MODERN CIIÜRCII IIISTORT. rKR. VI. A. D. 1C4S-1SM.
istcr its nflhirH in scriptural coiTCspondence with tlio confessions of tlie Re-
formation, that it ought not to infringe upon tlie laws of the state, and that
the Grand Duke, who adhered to the evangelical confession, should have the
same control of ecclesiastical affairs which was usually conceded to tlie evan-
golical i)nncc3 of Germany. This control was, however, to be limited by the
constitution, which, in addition to a supreme ecclesiastical council appointed
liy the Grand Duke, establishes a triple synodal system regularly ascending
from the congregations. No ecclesiastical law can be enacted without the
consent of the national synod, which is to bo composed of twelve clergymen,
seventeen laymen chosen by the district synods, and five persons nomina-
ted by the Grand Duke, but elected by the supreme ecclesiastical council, (t)
§ 45G. 7'?ie Priissiaii National Church and its Branches since 1840,
When Frederic William IV. ascended the throne which a century before
had been occupied by Frederic the Great, the pietistic orthodox party ex-
pected to have complete control. Although he had been educated in a school
too intellectual and modern to sympathize with every kind of literal orthodoxy,
he found spiritual benefit at the baptismal font of the Prince of "Wales, and at
the laying of the foundation-stone of the portal of the cathedral of Cologne. But
the zeal of that party for orthodoxy he regarded as only an excess of commend-
able fidelity, while he looked upon their opponents as perjurers. He fully
understood the feelings of St. Louis when he co-operated with the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury in the establishment of the bishopric of St. James in
Jerusalem (1 841), but so unanimously was public opinion against what was
supposed to be a new attempt to transfer the English ecclesiastical system to
Prussia (§ 414), that this pious foundation was obliged to bo brought back to
its essential object, which was, to be a spiritual union in spite of ecclesiasti-
cal differences, and to be a mustard-seed of Protestantism on Mount Zion,
which has since sent forth its first shoots under Bishop Gobat (since 1846),
though not without some danger of Anglicising and languishing, (a) "When
the king bestowed his special favors upon the priests of a mediaeval Church,
men began to think there was some truth in a prophecy invented near the
close of the seventeenth century, but ascribed to an aged monk of Lehnin
(about 1300), that after the many Avrongs inflicted upon the old Church by
the rulers of the house of Ilohenzollern, the last should bo the king of all
Germany, and should then re-establish the convents and restore the Church
to its former unity, (b) Indeed, the royal assurance was not needed to cou-
t) Verbandll. d. 8. Landessyn. Oldenb. 1S53. 4 Gesetz- u. Verordnnngsbl. d. ev. lutb. K. vol II.
St l.— Th. V. Wedderk-op, die Verf. d. ev. lutb. K. Oldenb. 1S53.
a) (Schneckenhurger and Ilundeshagen) Das anglo-preuss. Bisth. zu S. Jacob n. was daran
Iringt Frcib. 1S42. {Schneckenh.) Die orient Frage d. deutschen ev. K. Berne, lS-13. Ihid. die ev.
KZ. im. Kampfe f. d. Bisth. in Jerus. Berne, 1S44.— (^dftfAvn) Das ev. Bisth. zu Jems, gescbichtl.
Darst m. d. L'rk. Brl. 1842. Briefwechsel (zw. Gladstone u. Bunsen) ü, d. deutsche K., das Episco-
pal u. Jerus. Hainb. 1S44.— /*. C. Ewald, Journal of Miss. Labors in the City of Jerus. Loud. 1*46.—
Brl. KZ. 1S4.3. N. 6. 1S46. N. 52. 63ss. 1847. N. 7. 1852. N. 4. 1853. N. 3. 18.
V) L. de Bouverot^ Extrait d'un manuscrit relatif ä la prophetic dn frCre Hermann de Lehnin.
Brux. 1846. Mdnhnld, in d. N. Prcuss. Ztg. 1849. Append, to N. ^.— Gieseler, d. Lebnlnsche
Weiss, Erf. 1S49. Comp. M. VT. Uefftet; Gesch. d. Kl. Lehnin. Brandenb. 1S51.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1858. § 466. PP.US9. NAT. CHURCH, 577
vince the people that he was firmly established in the faith of his fathers, (c)
From his ref,'aril not only to justice, but to what was ancient and peculiar, ho
had the last of the old Lutheran imprisoned clergymen set at liberty. (</) At
a general synod held at Breslau (18-il), these Separatists formed a Lutheran
Church of Prussia, under a av ell- constructed constitution, but rigidly exclu-
sive with respect to the established Church and the civil government, {e) and
they were recognized bj' the state as congregations of Lutherans separated
from the national Church. (/) Since the cessation of persecution they have
increased with less rapidity. They now consi.st of about thirty ministerial
charges, and wc hear not only of ajipcals for aid for the " Lutheran Church
involved in debt," but confessions that the love of many has waxed cold, and
that the word of God is no longer heard with zeal, (y) In consequence of
internal dissensions, sometimes amounting to mutual excommunications, their
ecclesiastical ideals have been carried to the new world, and there continued
with brigliter prospects. (//) But even witiiin the established Church, a de-
cided Lutheran tendency, like that which has risen in other German coun-
tries, has made its appearance, under the direction sometimes of great learn-
ing and judgment, subjecting all theological principles to its standard, (/) and
sometimes of a shallow fanaticism. (Jc) At an early period of his reign, the
king had expressed his determination to allow the Church, over which the
crown had acquired supremo power during the Eefonnation, freely to form
for itself its own external organization. Tlie transfer of a part of the eccle-
siastical administration from the provincial governments to the consistories
(1845), {I) might be construed as an expedient to get an easier control of the
Church by the appointment of persons of a i)articular party. But when the
provincial synods had assembled in 1844, composed of the superintendents in
each of the six eastern provinces, and a clergyman chosen from each dio-
cese, (m) the king called a Goieral Si/nod at Berlin, not of representatives,
but of distinguished persons in the Church, thirty-seven of whom were cler-
gymen, and thirty-eight were laymen. Under the presidency of the minister
for public worship, during a session continued from June 2, to Aug, 29, 1846,
this body, which made no pretensions to a legal authority, but had no re-
straint on the expression of its opinions, and acted on conclusions drawn from
the proceedings of the provincial synods, presented its views of the existing
wants of tlic Cliurch. (/<) Its jdan for a future ^ecclesiastical constitution
combined the consistorial administration proceeding directly from the crown,
c) D. A. Z. ISOl. N. 404. IJrl. KZ. IVil. N. 74. rf) A. KZ. 1340. N. 163.
e) Bcsclilüsso (1. V. <1. cv. lutti. K. In I'r. peliiiltencn Generalsyn. Lps. 1S42.
/) Brl. KZ. 1S45. N. S4.
(?) Dor po|{cnw. Slnn<l. d. ov. lutli. K. In I'r. Vom Obcrkirchencollogium. Lp«. 1847. Luth.
URIatt 1S.V2. N. 77. l!rl. KZ. 1SV2. N. W\.
h) Ev. KZ. 1S4:1 N. 6*. A. KZ. KA N. 1.').
i) Zellseh. f. (1. (.'efiiiiiinlc luth. Tli. u. K. v. ItwleViach n. Gufricki; j-lnce 1S40.
k) K. M. Ileijn, dlo In d. seino Ni*tz d. Union porntlieno cv. lutli. K. In bos. 15ez. a. Hamburg.
Ibid. 1844. I) Brl. KZ. IS«,'). N. 66.
hi) Protocollo d. Im J. IS-U Ind. oc!>tl. Prov. d. Pr. Monarrtilo ab?eli. Prov. Synodon. 2 H. 4.
Brnns, Pop. 1846. vol. VI. p. 2M»!>. vol. VI L p. 47s9.
n) (;. Kriii/fi-, Borlclito I'l. d. orstc ov. Gen. Syn. Prouss. T,p«. 1^46. Vorliandlungon d. ev. Gen.
Syn. zu Berlin Amtl. Abdruck. Brl. 1846. 4. /,. liichter, d. Virliandlungen d. prou-^s. Goncralsya
Ucbcr.Hichtl. DiirsU Lp.'«. 1847.
37
578 MODKBN cnriicn iiisrouv. pee. vi. a. d. icjs-ism.
witli tlio BViiods proooeding directly I'roin the con^acgalion.s in regularly
usccn<rnig circles, 'o) Tliis assembly had not been convened without some
reference to i^,'^ nature, and only a single voice was raised in it in behalf of
undis},'uiscd rationalism. But as the great majority there, as -well as in the
previous provincial synods, declared itself against not only unconditional free-
dom of instruction, but the compulsory obligation of creeds, {j>) the party of
the Evangelical Church Journal found itself in a decided minority. Tho
moral impossibility of compelling men to adhere to the old creeds (7) was con-
ceded, and yet it was thought indispensable to the completion of the Union
that a confession of faith should bo formed, to serve as a formula for ordi-
nation. But the confession then composed expressed only those sentiments
which are essential to Protestant Christianity in Scriptural language, and
without the precision of theological science, (r) The orthodox minority (14
to 48) tlierefore had reason to complain, notwithstanding all that was said
for their satisfaction, that the adoption of the new confession was a virtual
abrogation of the old. It was, however, decided that those congregations
and patrons who were especially attached to the Lutheran or the Reformed
type of doctrine or worship, should have full liberty, without endangering
tho development and existence of the Union, to use their respective confes-
sions, if they wished in a regular manner to bring those clergymen whom
they called under obligation to some creed, (s) But the orthodox opposition
from without, in whose eyes such a body seemed a Robber-Synod, in which
Christ was denied, {t) was powerful enough at least to postpone the execution
of these enactments, although the ecclesiastical authorities had given them a
unanimous concurrence, and had pronounced them of urgent importance.
The superior Consistory was the only court finally formed under them (Jan.,
1848), but as this was not sustained by any contemporary synodal regula-
tions, it was looked upon as a mere party-authority. In opposition to the
various combinations formed by the pietistic party, a free association of Prot-
estant Friends was organized to promote the interests of rational and prac-
tical Christianity, and in the spirit of the Scriptures, and with all the means
afibrded by the nineteenth century, to secure both Christianity and the im-
provements of the age as equally inalienable and inseparable possessions. In
the district of Middle Germany reached by railroads, this association soon
increased from a small conference of clergymen (1841) to a large popular
assembly under the presidency of Uli I ich, a country pastor of simple but lib-
eral views, and possessing a remarkable and continually developing talent for
presiding over sucli a multitude. {>t) The rationalism which appealed wholly
o) Richter, p. 553s&
p) Review in Bruns. Rep. 1S46. rol. VI. p. 2"2ss. Comp. Ev. KZ. 1S45. X. 8.
q) Comp. Brl. KZ. 1S4C. N. C5. 66. 1S47. N. 1. 3.— 1S46. N. 31. 36. 1S47. N. 30. 44. 4C.
r) Richter, p. 8S2ss.
«) Krüger, p. 12Sss. lS5s. Terlinnclll. p. lR4ss. 86Sss. 527. Riclder, p. 359ss.
Ev. KZ. 1S46. N. 77. 7S. Sis. 83s. 85. 66s. 95. 96s. 100. 108s. 1847. N. 8ss. 14s. 2Gs. 29. 80s. Rii-
telhach, in d. ZeiL^ch. f. luth. Tbeol. 1S47. H. 3. C. I/aver, Beleucht d. Ord. Form. Barmen, 1846.
Comp. Brl. KZ. 1847. N. 47.— Apologctioal : Dorner, in tlie Liter. Z. 1847. X. SOfs. Jul Müller, ü.
d. ersle Trcufs. Gen. Syn. Brsl. 1S47. On the oilier side: Sander, die moderne Tbeui. a. d. uralte
blbl. Gl. Elhcrf. 1847.
u) A. KZ. 1841. N IfT. Brl. KZ. 1S42. X. 44. 103. 1813. X. 47. 82. 1845. N. 40s. 45. 5L 1&16. N.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S53. §450. FRIENT)S OF LIGHT. 57G
to a sound common sense, hard pressed as it was in the domain of science,
found its natural theatre for action among the middle classes, and in these
a.ssemblies exliibited itself as a popular power, on which even the friends of
the llegelian philosophy, now almost discarded in Prussia, leaned for support.
At an assembly held at Cothea in the spring of 1844, Wisliccnvs started the
question whether the Scriptures or the Sjiirit was the rule of our faith, and
tlien, in opposition to the common self-delusion of the rationalists, came to a
decision exclusively in favor of the Spirit. But by the Spirit, he meant the
spirit of truth and love which always animates every man, and especially
every Christian, and by which the Scriptures were themselves essentially pro-
duced. Guericke therefore accused him and the Friendu of Light generally
of having renounced Christianity, and in order to uphold the absolute author-
ity of the Scriptures, he did not hesitate, when pressed with the inquiry
whether he believed in the story of Balaam's speaking ass, to answer
promptly in the affirmative, (f) Although a general Protestant feeling even
among the Protestant Friends was averse to an abandonment of the Scrip-
tures, this establishment of a large party, and this discussion of abstract doc-
trines before a multitude entirely incompetent to sit in judgment upon them,
ajjpeared to most persons of doubtful expediency, (ic) When the ministry
of state in Saxony had, in accordance with their oath, prohibited (July 17th,
184;5j all eftorts and public meetings to call in question the doctrines of the
Augsburg Confession, and other creeds of the same general character, (j) a
royal interpretation of the law against poiiular assemblies in Prussia, applied
it to the promiscuous meetings of the Friends of Light. The consequence
was, that they soon lost their importance, and became once more nothing but
pastoral conferences, (ij) Tlie Evangelical Church Journal in public adver-
tisements announced tliat Wislicenus and his associates had been virtually
excommunicated, by tlie declarations of ministers, who in some instances bad
made public confession, and in others had openly renounced the conununion
of the Church, (z) Hundreds of these were opposed by thousands of pro-
tests from persons of all cla.sse?, against the spirit of the Evangelical Church
Journal. ('/) The school of Schleiermacher, and some other friends of the
Church, though not belonging to the orthodox party, threw themselves be-
tween the combatants (Aug. 15j, with the assertion that the doctrinal formula
of the free development from Christ toChrist belonged to the same basis with
7S. Tlioir Disans: 151 ittcr f. clirUtl. Erbauung, by It. FUcJier, Z«ltscb. f. proL GelsU. by IT. Nie.
meijer and Franke.
c) Guerickf in d. Ev. K^i. ISU. X. -JO. .V>. r>7. (W. i',;. TO. 7U 102. G. A. ]Vii.lii'eitui>, ob Scbrift,
ob Ofist, Vorantw. gi-gin Aiikläiror. L].". XMH. C R Kantig, d. reclite SUindp. .Magdcb. 1S44. On
the otluTfide: /'. SchetlUr, Kriiii^rs iiriniliiws Wort ». unreclitcr Standp. ^.\<». 1S4-I. Oufrickf, ob
Ptiir., ub Gt.l>t? Ein O.initat f. d. liaclipri-<!lj:t <1. Wisl. llul. l!<45. Comp. E. S;hicart, In d. Jen.
A. L. Z. 1S44. N. 131S9. 1S40. N. T.-^s.
u) Ue. (I ViTi'ln d. prot Froundo. I).iriii>t. Isl'l. A. li. FiiiJein, ü. d. Gescllscb. d. prot Fr.
Mavidi'b. \^i4. Guericke, LlclitOoiiniltliuin ii. Kiroliciitli. \.\«, 1SI7. — C. Z»chiesche, die prot Fr.
Kino Solbslkrllik. Altonb. 1S40. Kritik d. prot, Fr. Horno, 154.'>.
,() lirl. K. Z. N. CO. D. A. Z. 1^45. N. 2S). K. Jhttthe». ktintc Rctr. fi. d. neueste Bukanntm
d. Sliiat>^niini>t, iin K. Sacli?. Altcnb. 1S45.
;/) 15rl. KZ. 1S45. N. 75. 1S4C. N. 51. 1S47. N. 52.
t) Ev. KZ. 1S^I4. N. CS. 73. 79. S4s. S9. 90. 92s. 95. 97. 102. I'vl5. N. 9. 17. 22. SI.
«) Rrl. KZ. lS4.'j. N. 59. C3. CS. 75.
580 MO|ii;i:N (-IIUIUJII HIsToUY. VIM. VI. A. D. 1049- iVA
that -vvliicli nsscrtcfl tlmt Clirist was the only ground of salvation, (h) Sue!
ft dechiratioii was iiiiniediately denounced as the ofispring of personal uneasi-
ness, as the creed of the friends of twilight, and as a duel in the day of bat-
tle, (r) Jurfihorn, tlie minister for public -worship, had once belonged to the
circle of Schleiermacher's friends, but he was urged forward by the party of
the Church Journal, and according to the expression used by that party, he
sought the welforo of the Church though in weakness. It was thought that
all appointments to higher offices of instruction or of administration, were
made in accordance with the views of tliat party at the expense sometimes
of even the municipal rights of election. (jJ) Solemn addresses from the mu-
nicipalities of Berlin, Breslau, and Königsberg jjrayed for protection against
the threatened encroachments of the party in whose spirit the ecclesiastical
authorities appeared to have acted in opposition to the religion of the great
majority of the educated class among the peojile and the legitimate results
of the Union, and they entreated that the freedom of Protestant instruction
might be secured so far as it was not inconsistent with public morals and the
security of tlie state. In the king's reply, the interference of the petitioners
was repelled, their accusations were reproved, and their anxieties were dis-
pelled, (e) In Königsberg, Hupp, a chaplain of a division in the army, held
that Christianity was not a peculiar form of religion, but a universal princi-
ple of life. He therefore declared from the pulpit that he renounced the
damnatory clauses of the Athanasian creed, on the ground that they were
unchristian. Having been deposed by the consistory of that place (Dec,
1845), he resigned his office in the consistorial church, and in the midst of
frequent alternations of good and ill fortune, established in a place which had
previously been the scene of political agitations, a free evangelical congi-ega-
tion (Jan. 16, 1846), which recognized the Scriptures as a merely human pro-
duction, but found in it the basis of a faith in the unity of God, and a
supreme rule of moral conduct. As this congregation had assumed all power
over its own religious aflairs, its preacher found that he was opposed by a
party in this very ideal of a fraternal congregation of the nineteenth century,
which would hardly allow him to administer baptism even when requested
by the parents, though using the apostolic formula modernized by himself. (/)
TTklicenus was accused of elevating himself above the Holy Scriptures, and
in his ordinary ecclesiastical practice, of virtually dispensing with the use of the
apostolic creed. But since he, according to the ordinary legal usage of rational-
ists in the established Church, and the annihilation of their legal connection
b) Brl. KZ. 1S45. N. 75.
c) StaU, zwei Seudschr. an die TTnterzeicliner d. Erklär, v. 15. Aug. Brl. 1S4Ö. EengiUnlerg :
Ev. KZ. 1S45. N. 84SS. Harms : Brl. KZ. 1345. N. 77. On the other side : (£". Ifenke) Bemerk, ü.
atahls Sendschr. Brl. 1S4Ö. Further Lit in Brans, Eep. 1346. vol. VI. p. 82ss.
d) {Eilers) Zur Beurth. d. Ministeriums Eichh. v. e. Mitgliede desselb. 1S49. D.is geistl. Minist.
In Pr. u. d. Min. Eiclih. (Bruns, He]». 1S4S. voL XT. H. 3. vol. XIX. II. 1.)
e) Brl. A. KZ. 1S45. N. GS. S9. 1S46. N. 16. Die Theologie des Berl. Magistrates. MQnst. 1S45.
/) Brl. KZ. 1S46. X. 6. 9. 11. 46. 54. 94. 97. 1S47. N. 12. 43. 47. 67. 70. 75. Ulrich, d. Verfahren
Wgen Eupp. in d. Eecursinstanz v. s. Defensor. Lps. 1S46. // HerOwldi, Kritik d. Euppianisraus.
\HC>.—Iiupp : Ue. d. christl. Staat Künigsb. 1S42. Die Symbole oder Gotten Wort Lps. 1S46. Off
mr Brief an Dr. Bensch. Lps. 1S47. Die freie ev. K. in Verbind, m. Gleichgesinnten. Altenb. 1S41
p. 1. Christl. Erbauungsbuch f freie ev. Gemc-indeu. Kuniirsb. lS4Cs. 3 yols.
CHAP. V. EVAXG. CIIUUCII TILL 1953. §456. FEEE COXGREGATIOXS. 581
with any public body, was uinvilling to be controlled in Lis doctrine and
nsages by any authority but that of tlie majority of his congregation, he was
deposed (April, 18-40) by the Consistor}- of Magdeburg from the pastoral office
wliich he held at Halle, for gross violations of the established order with
respect to the liturgy and the doctrines of the Church. (</) He collected a
small congregation professing to believe in an always progressive revelation,
and constituting a serious moral association with agreeable forms of social
life, in which baiitism was left to every one's own choice, and no one claimed
any ecclesiastical character, (/<) Merely as an attempt to form a congrega-
tion at Marburg, a few Friends of Light in that place prochiiraed (Feb., 1847)
tliat they had emancipated themselves from the dualism of humanity and
divinity, and of time and eternity, exemplified in the person of Jesus, and
had planted themselves on the universal ft)undation of Christianity and Prot-
estantism. They professed that they had abandoned the fanciful world em-
braced in the Church, wliich had become disgusting to them, and that they
had now advanced to the more fraternal union of a free humanity. (/) But
free congregations sprung up at first in the Prussian towns through the efforts
of pastors who had either been deposed, or were hard pressed by the author-
ities. They recognized no definite confessions of faith ; their Christianity
was a mere humanity ; the only remnant of the Cluirch whicli they retained
in varioas degrees, was a system of morality free to all wlio were disposed to
receive it ; and the}' looked upon themselves as a particular family of the
great human race, which was to be united at some future day in the bonds
of peace. They kept up a voluntary form of association, although at an
assembly of their doi)Uties at Nordhausen (Sept., 1847), the representatives
from Marburg and Halle proposed to give up the name of Christian, thus
reducing to practice the fanciful idea of the riiilahthcx of Kiel, who only
wished to ignore Cliristianity, and to use the most general forms of piety, (k)
The consistories maintained their jurisdiction over these separated congrega-
tions, and punishment was inflicted upon particular individuals for an unau-
thorized performance of ministerial acts, and the marriages solemnized by
fhem were treated as illicit until the EJlcl of Tulcration (March 30, 1847),
wliich, on the one hand, dotined the existing law so as, in the sjiirit of Frederic
tlie Great, to permit an}- number of licensed chajiels of another failli to lie built
nround the Evangelical and Catliolic national churches ; and on the otiier,
declared the principle that certain civil rigljts were not dependent upon cer-
tain religious acts of a religious, society recognized by the state. {I) The
orthodox party was plea.sed with this law, because it proposed a way by
p) G. Eherty, Scliutzsclir. f. Wlsl. durch s. crwälilten Vertlicldlgor. Altcnb. 1S46. Dlo AnUsent-
iAz. <1. Pfftmrs G. A. Wlsl. Actcniiiä.«fiK dnrpost. diircli. G. A. Wisl. Lps. 1?^8.
/,) Ril. KZ. ISIrt. N. 508. S3. 1S4T. N. T. L<"ti.r to K. nl?«lH;rj:: Ihi,l. 19-JC. N. 41. Organ:
Kirclil. liefoini. Monatssclir. f. freie rrotostatilen. Hal. ISIGss.— 7?. Jienjltj, d. pn>t. Freunde u. d.
Juden. Lps. ISJT.
i) lirl. KZ. 1S4«. N. M. 1S4T. N. 7. 15. Ji.ii/rfio/fr, d. walire Weson il gogenw. rcl. Ecf. in
UfUlsdil. Mannli. 1846.
A) Bil. KZ. 1S45. N. 93. 99. lS4fi. N. 102. 1S47. N. 4. 6. 9. 6-1. 67. Ed. B.ilUtr, d. dcnt<clie K. Son-
t'.ersl). 1S47. 2 H.— Eiilw. c. Bittsclir. an deutsclio Fürsten. Kiel, 1 MO. Grunds, d. rel. Walirbilts-
TriMuide. K. ISSn. Vorirmf. Nacliriclit v. d. iin Miirz 1S12. gcsliftcten Holst. PlillaU'llicnvereiii
eZfiLScli. f. liist. Til. 1S:J9. H. 2.) I) IJil. KZ. 1>47. X. 29s.
582 M<»l)Ki;.N CIHJliCII IIISTOUY. I'KU. VI. A. h. lC4S-ltrA
wliich tlio Rntionnlists might leave the Church. Accordingly, UhJich (aftei
1815), the prcaclicr in St. Catharine's church at Magdehnrg, -was thus pro-
voked to leave tlio Church. He however at first refused to do so on account
of the henetieial inthienco Avliich he liopcd to exert upon the Great Church,
as his excmiilary character was zealously vouched for by Ids congregation,
niid the city in which he ministered. But when he was asked by the consis
tory, whether ho would subsequently conform with punctuality to the require-
ments of the Agenda, and in no way assail the creed of the Evangelical
Church, he licsitatcd to give an affirmative answer without some conditions,
and prayed for Christian forbearance and indulgence. Ilewastlien suspended
(Sept., 1847), that by a regular process of discipline he might be legally de-
posed. Referring to the publicity of his instructions and his example, ho
appealed to the Evangelical Church in Germany, in opposition to a consistory
which, under the influence of party zeal, he said was about to rend the
Church into a variety of sects, (w) and as a defence in case of necessity
against the present ecclesiastical government, established a more numerous
congregation than had before been formed (in the time of its highest prosperity
it numbered five thousand members). The legal existence of this congregation
was secured by a compliance with the terms of the Edict of Toleration (Jan.,
1848), and its permanency by a well-devised congregational polity, through
which it became rich in works of charity. In its original charter it bore also
a decidedly evangelical character, («) but this was endangered by its connec-
tion with other free congregations, and by the different parties which had an
existence in it. — The great storm of March, 1848, soon destroyed the odious
name of an ecclesiastical administration. Count Schwerin, the minister for
public worship, admonislied the consistories, in accordance with the princi-
ples of religious liberty adopted by the royal government, to give the pref-
erence to no dogmatic or theological party whatever, and to look only that,
in the spirit of evangelical charity, Christian truth be promoted on the basis
of the word of God. (p) lie dissolved the Superior Consistory, and gave
orders for a committee to devise a synodal constitution, to be submitted to an
imperial synod which should soon after be convened, that thus the Church
might, according to a frequently expressed wish of the king, construct her
future organization for herself. (^0 The outline of the electoral law for the
ai>pointing synods, was published and defended by counsellors of the crown
versed in ecclesiastical law. It proposed that the deputies should be elected
by the congregations, but that the existing synods should be made use of in
the "Western, and that district and provincial synods should be arranged so as
to serve for electoral bodies in the Eastern provinces, {q) But during the
patriotic movements which so happUy corresponded Avith the ideals the king
had formed, his piety was deeply wounded by the pedantic outrage which
»0 ridich : Bekenntnisse. Lps. 1845. Christenth. u. K. Lps. 1S46. IT Sätze in Beziig a. d. Ter-
pflichtunpsformel d. Synode in Berl. Wolfenb. 1S47.— Amtl. Yerhandll. (till July 9, 1S47.) betr. den
Pred Uhlich. Magdeb. 1S4T. Weitere Mittheill. in Sachen d. Uhlicli, ed. by bimselC Wolfenb. 1547.
Brl. KZ. 1S47. N. 19. 65. 1S62. K. 16. \. KZ. 1S47. N. 154. D. A. Z. 1S47. N. 199. 316. 319. Ubl. Pro-
!est : A. Z. f. Christenth. u. K. 1347. N. BL—JfoeUer u. Uhlich. Lps. 1S4T.
n) IW. KZ. 1S47. N. 94. o) Of April 24. Brl. KZ. 1S4S. N. SS.
p) Ibid. N. 31. 36. <j) i.. Uichter. Vortras ü. d. Berufung c. ev. Landcssyn. Brl. 1S4S.
CHAP. V. EVAXG. CIIUKCII TILL 1S53. § -«.C. LADENBEEG. RAUMEK. 5S3
aimed to deprive royalty of its claim to exist by the grace of God. Before
the appointed synod could actually come together, the revolution "vvas over-
thrown, and the Evangelical Church Journ.-il denounced the clamor for a
s^ynodal constitution as an ill-concealed enmity to Christ, and the whole
scheme of an election by the ])eople as a denial of God.(?') The provisional
ministry of Ladenherg inquired (Jan., 1849) of the consistories, faculties, and
select men of learning, what measures should bo taken to secure to the Evan-
gelical Church, by a constitution, the independent management of its own affairs.
The numerous replies which it received, were filled with doubts as to the ex-
pediency of any synod which might be chosen by the people to form a constitu-
tion, (a) The constitution of Jan. 31, 1850, granted by the crown, contained
many criticisms on itself, but the deputies united in it, and swore allegiance
to it. "With respect to religion, the whole essential spirit of the German fun-
damental laws was retained; but as the opposite parties, the one rejoicing
and the other lamenting, had fallen into the notion that the state, by its sep-
aration from the Church, had become unchristian and atheistic, it was added,
that whenever the state made any regulations with reference to religion,
they should be on the basis of Christianity. A collegiate supreme council
for deciding upon the internal atlairs of the Church, was formed, by the
order of the king, from the evangelical portion of the ministry of public
worship, and a system of rules for the regulation of congregational afiairs,
was bestowed upon the six eastern provinces. (/) The supreme ecclesiastical
council from tliat period governed the Church in the king's name, and tan
Ea\imei\ the minister for public worship, in the presence of the Chambers
declared tliat the new doctrine was, tliat the Evangelical Church exercises
her constitutional right independently to regulate and administer her atlairs,
by its entire separation from, and consequent independence of the state, and
its government according to its ancient constitution, by the sovereign as its
most prominent member, {n) By this happy thought, anxiety {V)r the inde-
pendence of the Cliurch was tranquillized, and the Chambers succeeded in
repelling all complaints about violations of those articles of the fundamental
law of the state which relate to the independence of the Evangelical Church. (*■)
The plan for congregational government, which was looked upon as the basis of
true ecclesiastical freedom, contained a suspicious limitation of the power of
choosing thg vestries, and an extraordinary requisition that the jirivato mem-
bers should be bound bj^ the three principal creeds, the confessions of the
Reforaiation, and certain general laws for the Church which were j'et un-
known. In some of the Ciistcrn provinces, this plan w;w i)rotested against
by parties oi)poscd to each oilier, but it was at last gradual!}' admitted into
r) Brl. KZ. 1849. N. 8.
«) Aiiitl. Gutjulilon <1. Vorf. d. cv. K. In Tr. hcfr. Iin AiiflrBgo I'urch L Kiclitor. l?rl. 1«-J9.
1) Of Jan. 2C. I'^-lt». mid Juno 2'.l, ISSn. AlUrli.'clistiT Krins». botr. d. Grundzfiirc e. Gemeinde-
Ord. u. (L IClnsotx. d. Ev. Oberklrclicnr. nob>t Aktiiist. I5rl. is:*. Comp. J. .Mullet; Dcntscbc
Zeltsch. f. cbr. Wiss. IS:.I. X. Iss.
v) Feb. 8. ls.51. Krl. KZ. \<>\. N. 18. 1,\ IT.
v) Die Selb.'itändigk. d. ov. Landesk. u. ihre Vollzleluing dnrcb div» Ciiltusn\ln. Aktenm-i-ssig dan-
gest, u. dir zweiten I'r. Kammer nebcrreicbt v. Jona-s Sydow, Eltestcr, Kraus«, Llsco, Mueüer.
Url. 1S51.
584 MUDKKN Cllirucn IllSrOItV. PKIJ. vi. a. D. 164S-18M.
most of the congregations, (w) Tlie Hiiiircinc ecclcsiasti(-al council adde«!
many siilutary provisions for the order, discipline, and temporal wants of the
national Cliurch, but under great disadvantages on account of its origin, and
ill the midst of much opposition to its jurisdiction, (x) As a natural result
of the political reaction, tlic power of the orthodox party was increased, and
its elo(iuent legal advocate endeavored to show that the revolution was the
appropriate consequence of liationalism ; that the es.sential spirit of both was
the alienation of man from his God ; (y) that authority should henceforth take
the place of the majority ; and that the king might, under certain pious
forms, be properly exonerated from his sinful oath to support the fundamen-
tal civil laws, (z) Some ecclesiastical authorities at ordinations demanded a
stricter adherence to the articles of faith than had been usually required ;
and even pastors, who could receive the confession in only some peculiar
ideal sense, were subjected to examinations which had long been discontinued,
and which terminated in their deposition, (a) Questions were also proposed to
candidates for theological professorships, which could not be answered, as was
required, in the affirmative, without a renunciation of all theological investi-
gation, (h) The free congregations (numbering about forty in Prussia and tlie
contiguous countries), which had in 1848, like almost all associations, taken
some part in politics, and whose leaders had to some extent been involved in
the movements of the day, had nearly all their houses of worship closed by
the police under the new law against political societies. These proceedings
were partially confirmed by the judicial courts, but some measures of the
police seemed so inconsistent with the freedom of conscience guarantied by
the fundamental laws, that inquiries were instituted respecting them even in
the Chambers (1852), where the government had avowed its determination
to exterminate by every legal means the whole system of dissent, (f) The
supreme ecclesiastical council excommunicated all the free congregations,
without reference to the various tendencies among them, and pronounced
Iheir baptisms invalid, (d) yet the civil courts punished every official act of
their ministers as an invasion of the clerical office, (e) But no mere liberty
without religious energy, nor connections with even impious men, who denied
the existence of a living God, nor popular adulation, to whicii their best lead-
ers felt constrained to resort, nor persecution itself, have been found sufficient
for the salvation of these people. (/) Hupp, however, endeavored to obtain
a higher degree of purity, by a legal dissolution of the old, and the formation
«•) Allg. KBlatt f. d. ev. Doutsclil. 1S52. >f. 8os?. 1S53. N. 36is.—G. Schwerins Protest : Brl.
KZ. 1951. N. 65.
a-) Aktenstücke a, d. Verwalt d. Abth. d. Minist, f. d. innern ev. KS.^ehen. Brl, ISöO, Aktenet.
». d. Vcrw. d. ev. OKRaths. Brl. lS51s. 5 II.
y) F. J. Sta?il, was ist die Eev. ? BrL 1S52. Yet Comp. Ihid. d. rrotest.inf. .lis polit PriDci;:.
(Ev. KZ. 1S.>3. N. 2S.)
z) Briefe u. Staatskunst Brl. 1S5.3. Tet Ev. KZ. lSo3. X. Is.
0) U'. /'. Sintenis, Moellers Wirken in Consist, n. in d. Gen. Super. Lps. 1S49. tK II. Saltser e
Glanbensgericht in der Mitte iL 19 Jalirh. Lps. 1S50.
1) Zeitsch. f. unirtc K. 1S5.3. vol. XV. N. SS. c) Brl. KZ. 1S52. N. C. 9.
d) Aktcnst d. OKRatlis. H. 2. p. 86ss. e) Brl. KZ. 1S51. N. 3T. 77. 1S52. N. 11.
/) Wiissfjerlier, Douai's neue rel. Meusehv. 1S51. C. Z^chUsclie, d. freie Gemeinde, ihre Vi'irk
Mink. »1. ihre StlnunlTirer in d. Br. Sachsen. Il.ilbrst. 1;50.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIICRCn TILL 1S53. § -150. LUTIIEHANISM. 585
of a new but small congregation (Oct., 1853), in which the Bible was re-
garded as the original source of trutli, and the imitation of Christ was made
the supremo end of life, iß) The orthodox portion, on the other hand, which
had recently become so artificially prominent, was compelled once more, and in
more general relations, to be as exclusive as Luther liimself. I5ut these Luther-
ans were so confident of success, and so little troubled witli conscientious scru-
ples, tliat although they had before formed an association at Leipsic composed
of clergymen belonging to the ditlereut national churches, and in friendly
connection with the Separatists for tlic maintenance of the Lutheran confes-
sion ; and although, according to this association, tlie modern notion of anion
in the fundamental doctrines of the two confessions was nothing but a syn-
cretism of many chameleon forms, (//) they refused to attacli tlicniselves to
the Church of Lutlier which tlie Separatists liad formed, but under the con-
duct of the fugitive president of tlie Consistory of Magdeburg, they consti-
tuted over the graves of the Reformers a league (Sept., IS-iO) for carrying out
the Lutheran conJ'ession, even in its provisions for public worship, congrega-
tional order, and the government of the national Church. (/) In the king-
dom of Saxony, they had in their favor the letter of the law, and the coun-
tenance of the rulers, and in Electoral Hesse they had at least the latter
advantage. Li Bavaria, although the younger clergy on the eastern side of
the Rhine had been educated at Erlangen under their influence, the more
zft-alous portion declared that they had already taken the staff to leave a
Church whose altar had been polluted by the admission of tlie members of
the united CImrch, and that they only waited to see if it could not be freed
from this impurity. (Z) Li Prussia, they demanded that the Union, which
they declared had never been legally formed, and denounced as confusiun and
revolution, should be utterly dissolved. Internal dissensions, like those
wliich usually distract a triumphant party, began already to prevail, princi-
pally with respect to the question, whether those invested with the clerical
office were endowed with special grace as the sole dejiositaries of ecclesiasti-
cal power. (/) By the separated Lutherans their whole course was declared
to be a lie. Gucrickc, the confessor of Luthoranism, and afterwards much
abused as an apostate from it, once more abandoned the fellowship of the
rigid Lutherans, where ho had vainly hoped to find a Christian spirit and
freedom for a Lutheran conscience. (//() AVhile those who were faithful to
the Union charged the supremo council with having sacrificed it, jjrayer was
ofi'cred in a Lutheran jjuljiit for an orthodox supreme council, and even then
the existence of that which then ruled the Church was dec'ared to be a
sin. (/<) It however agreed that it regarded only those congregations in
0) D. A. Z. 1S53. X. 25.'}. /i) Ev. KZ. 1849. N. SI.
i) I5rl. KZ. IMS. N. 04. 1^9. N. TT.-Dlo Lil|i/.clt;cr Koiiforeiiz am ;U. Aug. nnj 1. Sept 1S53.
{Kiihiiin, it. (1. Uiiionsiloetrln.) Lps. IS.'JS.
k) 15rl. KZ. 1850. N. K5. IS.VJ. N. 1. Ilommd, llcclit <1. K., Unl..n u. <1. lay. I>rot. Lttudesk.
Aiipp. 1S.')3.
1) J. W. F. irößiug, Oninrtsätzo ev. liitli. KVirf. Erl. (1S50.) \ir>\.—Fn,rkf, z. Lclire v. 0. K
(Zeltsch. f. luUi. Th. 1S52. H. 1.)
to) Gueriikr, Vorsiilitillclie.s fi. brcnncnik' KEragi-n d. Ocpcnw. Lps. 1S52.
n) I!rl. KZ. 1S.V2. N. 94. Olto, Sup. In N.iii:.',-iril, In d. Pciiksoli. d. Itith. Vorolns In roinincrn, s
d. Antwort (Ik-s OKHhIIis: Akt.tist. II. a. p. •oO>.*. Comp. Olio, Monat.ssclirifl. l.sM&s.
5S6 MODKRN CIIL'nCH IIISTOUV. PKIl. VI. A. D. 1C1S-1S.'A
Silosia as truly united in tlic Confession, wliich could show the original docU'
nicnts reliitiuR to the Union ; it delivered tlio whole of Pomerania, which
really jxissosscd tliem, over to the exclusively Lutheran Contes-sion ; and it
concodeil tliat particular i)astors niiglit disj)ense at will witli tlie breaking of
the broad, which was looked ui)()n as the symbol of tlie Union, and that the
Silesiaii consistory might separate into three parts, so as to form a Lutheran,
a Kefornicd, and a United division, with a council for each Confession, {o)
Even the Evangelical Church Journal had already long doubted with regard
to the entliusiasra it had displayed for the Union under Frederic William IIL,
and it found an occasion for a change of course in its opposition to a Union
wliich absorbed all the Confessions. (/>) The king made known to the Lu-
theran association (1850) his desire to establish consistories and superior
authorities in tlie Church, which in the eastern provinces should be Lutheran,
with Eeforuied assessors ; (2) and he gave orders that, in order to preserve
the independence of the two confessions in the Union, the supreme ecclesias-
tical council should consist of members from both confessions, and that all
business which could projierly be decided by but one of the confessions,
should be left to the votes of those Avho belonged to that confession. The
same division was also to bo made in the consistories. (/■) The supreme coun-
cil separated into tAvo divisions, according as they were members of the
Lutheran or the Eeformed confessions. Dr. Nitzsch alone preferred to adhere
to the consensus of the two confessions, and was therefore released from all
participation in the decision of confessional questions, but he was held up as
the patron of the congregations united in the confession by the original docu-
ment. (.<) These proceedings were regarded by the Lutherans as a legal dis-
solution of the Union, and they now therefore demanded in Luther's name,
that the monster of the authorities of the united Church which still existed
should be completely abolished ; that purely Lutheran faculties, or at least
professors, should be appointed ; and that the patrimony of the Lutheran
Church should be restored, {t) Even those advocates of orthodoxy who had
formerly been moderate in their demands, now raised the watchword that
those Avho governed the Church appeared to give their countenance not to
the Union, but to its opponents, and that the natural result of this should be
the separation of clergymen and congregations, until finally the royal regent
of the Church Avould be the only individual belonging to the united body. («)
Indeed, the old traditions and necessary policy peculiar to the HohenzoUern
fomily seemed entirely forgotten in the pleasure which all seemed to feel in
the separation of the confessions. The king then avowed his just displeasure
at the unfair interpretation given to his orders of the previous year. lie de-
clared that he had never intended to disturb the Union, and thus produce a
o\ Aktenst H. 1. p. 408S. II. 2. p. 14ss. BrI. KZ. 1S53. H. 30. Aktenst A. Abtli. d. Minist, p. TOss
V) t'irst in 1844. N. 2s. 1847. N. 1.— 1S49. N. 5ss. :S51. N. 4.
'/) PrinteJ by Ilase, K. d. dt Eelclis. p. 27T.
»•) Order of the Cabinet, March 6, 1852 : Brl. KZ. 1S52. N. S3. Instructions for tlie consisturits-
Ihid. N. 41. «) Ibid. X. C;3.
Open Dcclar. in tlic Monatsschr. June, 1S52. Lutli. Gen. Conf. at Witt Sept. 1S52. : Brl. KZ
19:.2. N. S2. A. KZ. 1S52. N. 105.
a) Brl. KZ. 1?Ö2. X. 61. 00. Deutsclie Zeit^cli. f. clir. Wiss. 1853. N. Iss. lOss.
CHAP. V. EVANO. CnUT.Cn TILL 1S5;5. § 457. BERLIN EVANG. CONFER. 5S7
division of the national Church, nor to renew tlie old controversy about tlio
confessions. The ecclesiastical authorities were therefore directed to oi)pose
all attempts to separate the two confessions, to allow no synods, or even indi-
vidual clergymen or congregation.«, to Liy aside tlie name of Evangelical Con-
gregations, or the ritual prescribed for the Union ; and only on tlie united
request of a clergyman and his congregation, after all proper means and per-
suasions had been tried, to permit ])articular congregations to deviate from
the regulations prescribed for the Evangelical National Church, (r) Two
views of tliis proceeding were expressed among tlie Lutherans: one was that
of painful disappointment from a conviction that this order of the cabinet
was a complete renunciation of the previous legislation ; and the otlier looked
npon it as a mere check to the wavering course of the whole policy for the
Union. Or)
§ 457. Comhinntions.
The Emngclical Conference assembled at Berlin in consequence of u wish
expressed by the Kings of Wurtemberg and Prussia, that the Evangelical
Church of Germany might be more perfectly united, and continued in ses-
sion from January fith to February Htli, IS-iG. Some hopes were enter-
tained in it of forming a union by a stricter con.>truction of doctrines, and
some violent measures were proposed for the accomplishment of such an ob-
ject. But as the great majority were only in favor of securing, on the basis
of the confessions, the two fundamental doctrines which asserted that the
Scriptures were the only source of the knowledge of saving truth, and that
justification was by faith, tliis dii)lomatic a.ssombly from its nature could
only exchange views and make arrangements for an intercourse between the
ditferent parts of the common church by annual as-emblios. ((/). The Church
Conference^ which had been for a while suspended, was resumed at the sug-
gestion of a private company of persons, and of a journal used as an officio
organ by the ecclesiastical authorities of all Germany, (b) It was held after
Pentecost 1852 and 1853 at the foot of the "NVartburg, and was intended to
be a meeting of deputies from tlie .supremo autliorities of mo:-»t of the national
German cluirclies for confidential conference, but with no legi.slative powers. (<•)
But nltliongh these spiritual and .«ecular authorities of the Church stood in
this independent position with respect to each other, some of thorn believed
in tb.e development of Protestantism and in the Union, while others saw no
reality in either. But as all were anxious to preserve the blessing of some
visible form of unity for tbo whole Protestant Church of Germany, questions
of a deeper and more dreaded nature were held at a distance. The expe-
rience and tlie wi.shes of ditferent individuals were here compared, and a
«•) Cabinet Order of July 12, 1S58: Zcltsch. f. nnlrte ev. K. 1958. N. 85.
If) Luth. Gtn. Coiif. at Witt. Sept 1S53: Ev. KZ. ISM. N. S3. Comp. 73. 79s. Counter assertion
of tlic king to tile WltL Conf. of Oct. 11 : I). A. Z. 1853 N. 2T3.
a) Lllernr. rrojrriinimo: C. tV/Hiun»! (p. 572. nt. ?.) OfTlclal action : Locciimcr Artikel. (Pio Vor-
»cliliUrc (1. Dr. Sncthlngc k Riippstrln z. Verein d. ev. K. Ueutsclil. nilt|;ellieilt v. rerer., Grim. 1SJ6.
BrI. KZ. IStC. N. 7. 11. 1\ 3:3 )— Account In I5le<lermnnn. nnsre Ge^enw. u. Zuk. 1310. U. 2. Die Re-
tnltiite <1. Hcrl. Konf. I.ps. ISIO. Comp. IJruns, R.p. 1^4(1. v..i. VI. p. 22Ss.-(.
b) All;;. Kirclienblntt fTir d. ov. Deiitscliiand, ed. by C. O. Moser. Stutt«. I. 1S52. II. 1S.M.
c) Protocols: KDlatt. \V>i. N. 13. 1S58. N. 29ss. BrI. KZ. 1S52. N. 17. 3C. 89. 45». 1858. N. 44 47.
588 MODKUN ciirucir iiisTouv. i*ki:. vi. a. d. icjs-iws.
cTioicc c(»llertion of liyiniis I'or a general liyiiiii-book was adoptcil, (J) tlioiigli
not till, in tlio conniiittcü of invited persons conversant willi sucii matters,
ono party contciwling for tlio adoption, at every liazard, of tlio old text, had
been excluded, and another, wishing to preserve the ecclesiastical poetry of
the eiglitccnth century, had been set aside without a hearing of its peculiar
views. (<■) A desire which had been expressed at a secular festival on tlie
field of Lutzen, to erect a monument to the heroic death of Gustavus Adol-
pluls, by obtaining minute contributions from the people, was so modified,
Avhcn the sovereign himself erected a monument over the Swedish stone, as
to lead to the idea of a charitable institution bearing his name, to sustain those
evangelical congregations which, in the neighboring Catholic countries, were
nnable to endure the expense needful for their ecclesiastical support. The
Gustavus AdoJphus Institution in Saxony, with some assistance from Sweden,
collected (after 1834) a small capital, tlie interest of which was barely suffi-
cient to render the necessity of such aid more apparent. Finally an appeal
from Darmstadt (Oct, 31, 1841) produced another effort in connection with
the Saxon institution, though in a superior style (1842). An assembly was
then held at Frankfort (1843), at which a wise division of labor was made
among various auxiliary associations, with a central committee at Leipsic, and
a superior movable assembly of deputies returning at fixed intervals. The
result of all these proceedings was the establishment of an Evangelical Society
of the Gustavus Adolphus Institution, which, as a Protestant German popular
cause, collects the means for sustaining and building churches for many poor
and almost extinct congregations. (/) The German governments, though in
some cases with reluctance, yielded to the popular influence of this associa-
tion, though in Bavaria it was proscribed until 1848, on the ground that it
was hostile to the Catholic Church, and inconsistent with the German char-
acter, (g) As it was founded principally by the liberal party, Hengstenberg
pronounced the association a great lie, {h) and the Prussian crown was unwil-
ling to sustain any but an independent Prussian society under the patronage
of the king. (J) But as every effort was likely to be paral^-zed by this sepa-
ration, the government finally yielded to the popular will, and at the assem-
bly at Gottingen (1844) the Prussian deputies extended to it the hand of
brotherhood, {k) The internal importance of the society, in spite of the lim-
ited nature of its external object, resulted from the fact that it was a neutral
holy ground on which all parties in the Evangelical Church could meet, and
on which that Church could once more be seen as an undivided power. When
therefore, at the assembly at Gottingen, it was asked that more definite quali-
fications should be named for admission to the association than a mere agree-
d) Deutsches cv. Kircliengesangbuch in 150 Kernliedern.
<■) J. Geffcken, d. nllg. cv. Gesangb. u. d. darüber geführten Vcrhandll. Ilamb. 1S5-9.
/) Leipz. Z. 1832. N. 164. IS.33. N. 11. A. K. Z. 1835. N. 9. 66. 1S41. N. 19. SO. 17-2. 159. 203. 1542.
N. 107. 133. 139. 174. Organ, since the Assctiib. at Frankfort : Der Bote des er. Vereins d. G. A. Stif
Inrg. issued by A'. 7Annnerm<tnn.
O) A. K. Z. isu. X. 34. 45. Brl. K. Z. 15^19. X. 76. -
A) Kv. K. Z. 1*44. X. 6. yet comp. 7ss. A. K. Z. 1S44. X. 41.
t) Oiblnct ord<r of I'.-l.. 14. 1S44 : ücport of the O. A. St I. p. SSs.
i") Ibid. p. 2-0 ^ !\r! K. Z. 1S44 X. 15. 17. 72.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIÜRCn TILL 15ö3. § 457. GUSTATUS ADOLPIIL'S SOCC. 5SG
ment with the principles of the Evangelical Church, the request was at once
rejected. (/) Dr. Rupp was sent by the superior association of Königsberg as
its deputy to the assembly at Berlin in 1840. A vote being taken on the va-
lidity of Ills credentials on the nlglit of September 7th, a small majority ap»
peared against recognizing him as a member of the assembly. (//<) Although
the general sentiment was averse to a perversion of the society to objects
foreign to its nature, yet the orthodox party demanded his exclusion as an
apostate, and they were joined by some of the liberal deputies. This was
done by the latter either because they wished to prevent the society being
made an authority in matters of faith, and therefore allowed the Evangelical
Church to be postponed for the Established Church, or they had a superior
regard for the success of the society which secTncd of special Importance in
that particular locality. Immediately was hoard in every part of Protestani
Germany a cry of extreme displeasure at this action, and an immense ma-
jority appeared in the local societies in various ways, offering protests and
asserting that the decision at Berlin was based upon a false idea of tlio Evan-
gelical Church, and that tlio free alliance of love had degenerated into an
inquisitorial tribunal. (;/) On tlie other hand, the otlier party tlireatened to
withdraw, and eve-ii then Gustavus Adolphus Societies with separate ecclesi-
astical connections had been formed at Koenigsburg and Berlin, and were
readily licensed bj' the government, but never exhibited much life, (o) The
new elections threw the power in the assembly at Darmstadt (18-17) into the
hands of those opposed to the decision at Berlin ; but as all dreaded the im-
piety of a schism, as Kupp had witlidrawn, and as tlie subsequent course of
the free congregations themselves was such as to render their right to a mem-
bership in the Evangehcal Church very doubtful, the parties agreed tliat with-
out reconsidering the decision at Berlin, whenever it became necessary to
act npon the exclusion of a deputy for his want of a membership in the
Evangelical Church, the decision should belong to the superior assembly un-
der such regulations as would give no room for temporary p:issions and preju-
dices, and as would allow the true majority at the time to show itself. It
was resolved that no dei)uty from a society unconnected with the established
churches should be entitled to a seat, (p) After a decline in consequence of
the sway of the political spirit of 1848, the interest in this cause annually
increased as in former times until 1853, when the yearly revenue amounted
to $38,000. Numerous churches liave been erected, those which were decay-
ing have been repaireil, and those outposts of Protestantism wliicli seemed
almost lost have had their confidence revived. The idea of an Evangelical
Report of ihe O. A. St I. p. 869sa.
»?() Protocoll Ü. «1. SltzuiiRil. 5. Haiiptvers. Lps. 15JÖ. 4. Comp. Ilrl. KZ. 1?4'>. N. 74s. 76*. J.
Gcffckfn, lU'rIclit ü. <lie zu Horlln pi'li. Haiiptvers. llanib. HIO.
n) P.oport iif the O. A. 1^6. p. 295,-s. Brl. KZ. 1*40. X. 98. 95. C. Schwarz, Dr. P.upps Aus.u-liliess.
iral. 1S4G. TheiU, Riipp's Aussclillo*.'». Lp«. lS4i). Riipp. d. G. A. Verein u. d. ev. K. Altenb. 1S47.
EUe^Ur u. Kninin-, 1st d. O. \. V. ein Landesktrclil. o. e. cv. prutestantlsclier ? IK DitUnbtrger, ü.
d. Aussohl. V. IJ. Ileldelb. 1S47. For tlio decision : ('. Lampf, ü. d. Aussclil. d. Dr. Kupp. Lps. 1S46.
Lücke u. ninutnn, Ü. d. Niclitnnnahiiio d. Künigsb. Deputlrten. Hanib. 1>47. De Wettt, d. AusscliL
d. Dr. P.upp. Lp.t. l-i47.— Krisis d. G. A. Vereins. Wocli.>ieIrtfden. v. /'. ifallet u. H. IIupMd. Hal
1847. comp. KiMiter, It>>|>. l'^47. H. Cs.
0) Ev. K. Z. 1S47. .\. 5. Brl. K. Z. 1S47. N. 0. M. 09*. 75. ;>) IhUl. N. 79.
500 MODKKN CIIUKCII IllSTOi:V. I'Ki:. VI. A. J). 164S-1S.*.3.
Cliurch Alll(tui'c wjis slarteil in a, circle of friends .'it tlio Sandliof near Frank,
fort, but tlic association itsolf was formed by persons of a similar siiirit, called
tofj^ethcr by u public ap[)eal in the Castle church of Wittenberg CSept. 18iS).
Its general aim was to constitute, in a time of fearful division, a firm bulwark
for the faith, and the two special objects which it had ia view have been well
represented in the persons of the two jurists von Bethnann-JIolltccg and
StahJ^ who have been annually but regularly elected the Presidents of its
yearly meetings. One of these was to satisfy in some practicable form tlie
desire tlien generally felt for a German National Church, and the other was
to modify the Union, for which the new Prussian regulations had left no other
distinction than the permission for each confession to follow out its own pecu-
liar system of government, until it should become a mere confederation, (q)
Hence, in the original charter, the Church Alliance was declared, on the one
hand, not to be a union in which the confessional cliurches are to be abol-
ished, but a confederation of all those ecclesiastical bodies which stood on
the basis of the reformed confessions, viz., the Lutheran, the Keformed, the
United, and the Moravian Churches, for the promotion of certain common
interests, without impairing the complete independence of either particular
church ; and on the other, to have no actual existence until, in compliance
with the request of a committee afterwards to be chosen, the authorities of
the respective national and confessional churches should send deputies whoso
special business it should be to form the true Ecclesiastical Council of the
Evangelical Church (of Germany). Stahl's object was frustrated by the
power which still remained in the Union, and that of B. Hollweg found no
support, and nothing to draw men together during the political revolutions
then taking place. The only effects of their efforts were, the separation of
the Prussian supreme ecclesiastical council into its different confessions, and
the meeting of the Conference at Eisenach. But the assemblies annually
convened by the invitation of the permanent committee became, like the
movable assemblies of the Gustavus Adolphus Society, though with far more
comprehensive objects and ecclesiastical results, great pastoral conferences, to
which distinguished preachers were invited for the discussion of the practical
questions of the day. (/•) With no other limitation than the equivocal con-
dition that all should stand on the Reformed Confessions, here were collected
for free co-operation and sympathy those two parties especially which, at the
Prussian General Synod, and with respect to that synod, stood in such hos-
tile relations to each other. At these Ecclesiastical Diets the members not
only poured forth the warm feelings of their hearts and uttered many devo-
tional sentiments without reference to each other's peculiarities, but many
maxims and plans of Christian wisdom were presented. The divided state
of opinion and the hesitation apparent in it, made its decisions of but little
q) Donier ü. Reform d. ev. Landeskirchen im Zusammenh. mit Ilerstell. e. ev. deutschen Xa-
tiooalk. Bonn. 1S4S.
»•) Die Verbandlungen d. Witt. Versamml. by Kling. Brl. 1S48. Verb. d. 2. Witt KTases. B.
1S49. 2 H. Verb. d. 3. deutschen KTages zu Stuttg. ed. b.v Lecblcr, B. 1550. 2 II. Verb. d. 4. KTages
in Elbcrfeld, ed. by Kratrt, B. 1S51. 2 II. Verb. d. 5. KT. zu Bremen, ed. by Toel, B. 1S52. 2 IL
Verb. d. 6. KT. zu Berlin, ed. by KendtortT, B. 1S53.— Entstehung u. bisher. Gesch. d. deutschen ev
KTages. Bil. Isö^J.
CriAP. V. EVANG. CIIUKCn TILL 1S68. § «7. DOMESTIC MI^S10XS. 591
avail, but they were generally put forth against the unbeliuf ami partial faith
of the times. Propositions of an extraordinary character were generally
modified, or allowed to remain fts rash threats ; (•«<) but the partial reports
which particular parties sometimes gave of the proceedings of some asseniblj*,
acting without due prepai-ation or skill, were in danger of conveying state-
ments or hasty representations to the minds of evangelical princes, and thus
suspicions might be thrown upon the etlbrts of more liberal [)ersüns, and the
natural development of their plans might be disturbed. The propositions of
a committee at the Ecclesiastical Diet at Berlin, to leave undisturbed the pe-
culiar confession of each church, but to acknowledge the Augsburg Confes-
sion of 1530 as the common record of evangelical doctrine in Germany
(according to the programme, as the fundamental creed of the whole Evan-
gelical Church of Germany), was almost unanimously adopted, and every
attempt to modify or explain it was repelled in a dictatorial manner. From
the first every invitation to co-operate in this movement had been declined
by the separatist Lutheran Cliurch. A few Lutheran doctors of Erlangen,
Leipsic, and Rostock, gave their testimony against the resolution of the Assem-
bly at Berlin, on the ground that it was a deceptive act, and injurious, not
only to the Lutheran Church which claimed the Augsburg Confession as its
exclusive property, but to the Confession itself, and that it obliterated all
those distinctions which God had placed between truth and error. (/) The
ecclesiastical diet, from its first organization, was principally engaged in plans
for domestic mUsiom to relieve the spiritual and temporal necessities of evan-
gelical people by means of evangelical instruction and fraternal supplies. The
Church had indeed alwa3's been an institution for ailbrding such relief, but
the doctrine of the merit of works had made the Catholic far more efticient
in such matters than the Evangelical Church, and the practical activity of
the Reformed had always exceeded that of the Lutheran body. "With the
increase of life in the Church, Christian love manifested itself also more ener-
getically in those various associations which had been devised against the
miseries of social life, and entered with more or less earnestness into mea-
sures for the spiritual welfare of all who were alienated from God. (») TT7-
chern^ a licentiate, and the superintendent of the Rough House near Ham-
burg, for the rescue of neglected children (after 1833), succeeded by enthusi-
astic speeches and writings in making the cause of Domestic Missions a
[)opular object even in circles of fashion, and the hesitation of the Luther-
ans on the ground that it might be an interference with the clerical office,
through the unrestrained activity of associations, and that it was a develop-
ment of the doctrine of the universal priesthood, has been insufiicient to
check its progress.(() The centralization of the quiet but complicated action of
«) Ev. KZ. 1852. p. 904.
t) l),as Ikkeniiliilss ik-r liUli. K. gegen d. Dfk. d. Borl. KTiigH gewnlirt von elliclion Lclirern it.
Til. u. d. KUcclils. Eri. 1S50. Comp. W. F. limser. Union u. Confocd. (Ziitsc'.i. f. luUi. Tli. 1^4!».
11.2.)
V) l)ia.M.iiis'iin-.\n«taU /.u KaNerswürlli. (.V. KZ. \<iVä. X. li">. 1S40. X. 41.1 Dio '..arMili. Bchwest-
em d. cv. K. l^lli-iit.-i-liü Vlorti'Ijalirsscli. 1S4'.'. N. lU.)
r) Dlo ilif^'fii.li-n IJIfilicr (U"< raulii'n IlaiiM-?, liuinli. iJ. l-jH. Pic \mww- Mix-dun d. doutsclicn CT.
K. Dcnkx'lir. nn d. <1L N'lition. llaMi)>. 1S19.
502 M()Ih:i:n ciiukcii iiistouy. pkh. vi. a. d. icb-ism.
the local associiitioMS -wliich some liavo attoinptcd, v/ill, perliaps, only give
greater importance to tlic wliolo by the increase of counsel, and by the pro-
posed education of well qualitied laborers ; (w) and tlie ecclesiastical diet,
Avhile it serves to inflame the hearts of men to afford an ample supply for
the abyss of neglected wretchedness which it discloses, will make the Church
Alliance a voluntary alliance of faith working by love. The progress of Catho-
licism in England produced such a spirit of co-operation among the Protes-
tants of that country, that many Avere prepared for a plan of union embracing
all truly evangelical communities. After a preliminary meeting at Liverpool
(1845), and after much discussion of various propositions at an assembly in
London (1840), an Eumgelical Alliance was formed with great rejoicings, in
which, on the basis of nine articles as a common platform of faith, any per-
sons in their individual capacity, and without interfering with their ecclesias-
tical differences, might extend to each other as Evangelical Christians the
liand of fellowship. Even Germans took part in these proceedings, and
Northern and Southern Germany were marked out for auxiliary societies.
But such was the nature of the articles that no union based upon them could
be of much importance except for Great Britain and North America, to re-
mind the numerous sects of those countries, who are divided by certain rigid
literalities, but are united in the many fundamental doctrines of primitive or-
thodoxy, of their higher unity, {x)
§ 458. The Scriptures. Cont.from § 379, 41 L
De Wette, Einl. in das A. u. N. Test. (p. 550.) [Int to the O. T. transl. from tbe Germ, of De
Wette, with copious add. by Tlieod. Parker. Bost 1S43. 2 vols.] in d. N. T. by Credner, Hal. lS36ss.
by Keudecker, Lps. 1S40. Heuss, Gesch. d. II. Schrift, (p. 44C.) [Some notices may also be found ia
T. If. Home's & Davidson's Introductions.]
The peculiar nature of Protestantism was exhibited in the fact that all
parties, in proportion as they had a living connection with the Church, met
on the common ground of the Scriptures. Although these had lost some-
thing of the venerable majesty they onco possessed as a holy book, modern
Protestantism made it easier to investigate them as original documents. With
respect to the New Testament, Griesiach (1745-1812) examined all the libra-
ries of Europe, and laid down the principles for ascertaining the most proba-
ble reading by a careful weighing of testimony and a preference of the older
Alexandrian manuscripts, (a) Lachmann (d. 1851), without regard to the
sense of the passages, merely sought for the most ancient reading, (J) and
Tischendorf recovered, manuscripts which had been lost, and restored others
which had been defaced, (c) In the historical investigations for determining
ic) Entsteh, n. Gesch. d. KTags. p. Ms. BrI. KZ. 1S52. N. 1".
0-) Essays on Chr. Union. Edinb. 1845. Brl. KZ. 1S46. N. 41ss. 45. 50. 633. 71. 74. SI. ST. S9. 1347.
N. 11. 34. C. Mann &, Th. Plitt. d. ev. Bund. Bas. 1S47. E. Boehmer, d. ev. Bundestag in London.
1S51. (Deutsche Zeitjsch. f. chr. W. 1S51. N. 463 ) Journ.ils of the Alliance: Evangelical Christea-
dom, & Bulletin du Monde chrefien.
a) J. C. W. Augusti, u. Griesb. Verdienste. Bresl. 1S12.
I) N. T. Brl. 1S31. Stud. u. Krit 1830. U. 4. 1S32. H. 4. N. Test gr. et lat C. Lachmann, r«*
Phil. Biittmannn.% srx- lect auctoritates apposuit Ber. 1S42-50. 2 vols.
c) Cod. Ephraenii rescr. Lps. 184-3-5. 2 vols. 4. Monumra. sacra X. T. Lps. 1846. 4.
CHAP. Y. KVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S58. $459. WINER. LUCKE. 593
ehe genuineness of the writings of tlie Old Testament, especially of those
which bore the names of Mjses and Daniel, then generally regarded as the
work of later authors, every effort was made hy the newly awakened ortho-
doxy to prove that they were composed by those whose names they bore. (</)
Besides those books of the New Testament whicli had been subject to some
suspicion in ancient times, the first gospel lost the name of Matthew, (e) the
pastoral ei>istles were called iu question, (/") some painful but easily re-
tracted doubts were raised respecting the gospel of John, which had been so
highly extolled fur its theology of feeling, (g) Xo sooner was the interpreta-
tion of the Scriptures released from the service of Orthodoxy than it was
taken up by the party of the Enlightenment. The ultimate results of their
efforts may bo seen in the ethical ex[)03iticn3 required by Kant, and the
rationalistic explanation of the miraculous history. "Wlien science itself suc-
ceeded in overcoming tliis feeble effort, the object of all true interpretation
was generally acknowledged to be a faitliful representation of the literal
sense intended by tlie sacred authors. Winer (b. 1789) made use of the de-
velopment given to classical philology for determining the idioms of the New
Testament, that he might terminate all uncertainty about the meaning of
particular words by the highest degree of grammatical accuracy, (h) Lucie
(b. 1791) was the first who, in the spirit of the recent free investigation, re-
ferred once more to the religious element as it may be learned through the
sympathy which the interpreter should feel with primitive antiquity, and as
it is indicated by ecclesiastical tradition, (i) and enriched by a strong predilec-
tion for the explanation given by the ecclesiastical fathers and reformers.
The Hegelian school insisted that it was the highest duty of an interpreter to
bring out tlie ideas Avhich lie unconsciously at the basis of the biblical repre-
sentations and figures. (^•) This practice was afterwards accommodated to
the heterodox metliod of mythical interpretation which, so far as relates to
the application of antiquities to the primeval history of the Old Testament,
was for a long time in vogue, and met with almost universal opposition when
it substituted an ideal general truth for the original facts of the Christian
history. (?) Two parties were at hist arrayed in direct opposition to each
other; the one regarded tlie Scriptures entirely as the work of man, and the
otlier looked upon them as a direct revelation from God. The new Tubingen
school, particularlj', has endeavored to sliow that the writings of the New Tes-
(0 ITeng»t«iiberg, Bcitrr. z. Eliil. in d. A. T. Hrl. lS.11-.'59. 3 v. [Tlic 8 flrst vols, of Contrlbationa
."»n Zeoh. & Oan. and on Pentateuch, trans, by HyUtnJ, & publ. In Clarke's For. & Tlieol. Lib. Eillnb.
1S4T. 3v. 8.]
e) Sleffert, Q. d. Urspr. A. ersten kan. Kv. Koonl^'sb. 1*32.
/) § 449. nt e. F. C. Baur, dio sogen. Piistoralbr. Stiitli,'. \^''A.
a) BretschneiJer, ProbiiWIlado Ev. et Epp. Jo. indole ot orf:t. Lp». Is^W.
It) Grninin.itik d. neut«st Sprnchlillonis. Li«. 1S2'2. 5 ed. 1S44. [Gram, of tb« Mioin» of tho Or.
Lanu'. of the N. T. from tho Germ, of G. IJ. Winer, by J. If. Agii«ie i O. G. RObfi-f, Plillad. 1S40.8.]
i) Grnndriss d. neutest HcrnieneHUk. Oi.tL ISIT. DrU thcoL Ztitsch. 1^22. !L 3. More fully In
Ills Cominentiir Q. d. Schrr. d. Joh. sine« 1520. [Lücke on Uio Epp. of John Is tmnsiL * pool, ia
Clark's Bibl. Cab. Edlnb. 1S4Ö.]
k) Billroth, Coiiini. zii don Brr. an d. Cor. Lps. 1S33. [flUlroVi on tho Epp. to tho Cor. Is transl
t publ. in Clark's 15lb. Cab. Ed. 1*5S.] ]5rl. Jahrbb. 1S83. \. 5S.
I) K. Jhtsu, Leben Jesu. § 22. nt, <».
38
594 MuDKUN CIIUKCII IILSTOUY. PEU. VI. A. I». ICCJ-ISSS.
tnraont wore tlie result of !i series of conflicts and attempts at compromise be-
tween tlio Jewisli Cliristianity of Peter and the Gentile Ciiristianity of Paul.
Certain i)oints of development following' each other at regular i)eriods, are
supposed by these writers to be discoverable in the doctrinal contents of the
Bacrcd Avritings, and principally on the basis of these the Kcvclation of John,
and the four great epistles of Paul, are alone regarded as genuine monuments
of the Apostolic Church, and the first gospel is looked upon as a collection of
apostolic traditions made very near the same period. The original Gospel of
Luke they endeavored to find in tliat of Marcion, tliough in this they have
been corrected by their own disciples, and in the fourth gospel they have dis-
covered a dogmatic and figurative composition formed from materials sup-
plied by the synoptic gospels, to reconcile all ecclesiastical parties in the second
century, during the latter part of which the notion of the Logos was applied
to that of Christ, and so attained ascendency in the Church for all subsequent
ages. (»)) We have at last a criticism from this school which seems to have
originated more in a love of offence than of truth, for even the four epistles
of Paul are thrown by it into the general abyss, (n) On the other hand, the
new orthodox school professed to take a higher view of the whole sacred his-
tory ; it was convinced of the genuineness of all the books of the Bible ; it
found in every part of them not only divine truth but the Lutheran theology,
and tlie only danger was that the theosophic fancies in which many indulged
might carry them beyond even this. In their fondness for the supernatural
they delighted in extending the work of God's Spirit, and of redemption, to
material things ; and while they conceded that the account of creation la
perhaps poetical, and addressed to the outward vision, they not only regard
it as a veritable history, but have discovered that before the day of creation,
and before the fall of the angels, the earth was the habitation of Satan and
his angels, (o) Their views of general history are occasionalh^ full of interest,
and exhibit some traces of the Hegelian philosophy, for the whole history of
man is represented as a gradual revelation of Christ. But on an intermediate
ground between these schools, some men, and especially some learned divines
have arisen, and have long been tolerated among the faithful by the Evangel-
ical Church Journal, who make a distinction between what is divine and
what is human in the Scriptures, and have sought reconciliation with the
natural science of modern times, not merely by ironical compromises, but by
limiting divine inspii-ation. to that which is strictly religious, and even de-
scribing it as nothing more than a remarkable tact in religious matters, (p)
Although they feel bound by tlieir own religious consciousness to regard the
Scriptures as a divine revelation, they endeavor to treat every one as an evan-
"0 F. a B'lur, (L Christenth. d. 3 ersten Jahrhli. Tab. 1S5.3. E.irlior points p. 2i. Comp. Tbool.
Jalirbb. IS.^l. II. 3. p. 294ss.
»0 B Biiar, Kritik tl. paul. Briefe. BrI. ISSOs. 2 II.
o) Tineisch (p. 24.)—/?. Stiet; Andeatt f. släub. Schriftverständn. Königsb. Lps. 1S2-ISS. 4 vols.—
F.Delit-Sih, Gpsch. d. propli. Th. s. Crnsius. Lps. 1S45. J. C. K Jlo/mann : Weissag, n. ErfTilL
Kr.nil. 1S41-4. 2 vols. Schriftbeweis. Ibid. 1S53. vol. I. J. II. Km-U, Gesch. d. alten BunUos. Brl. 2
sd. ISM. 2 vols.
iA ThiJuck: Komm. Ü. d. B. an d. Hebr. limb. ISOii. p. ?:3ss. Deutsche Zeitscli. f. cUr. Wisa
IS50. X. ICss. 4-2ss.
CHAP. V. EVAXG. CnUECn TILL 1S53. § 459. CALVINISM. MOMIERS. 595
gelical companion in tlie faitli who truly believes, even if he does not believo
correctly in the authority of the Scripture«, and in justification by faith in
Christ, {q)
% 459. Calvinism as a Sect.
Scliickedanz, d. K. v. Genf Im 19. Jalirli. (Arcliiv f. KG. vol V. St 1.) J. S. Chfneviere, Precis
des dibats tlieol. qui depiiis quelques ann6es out adtt'S la ville do Göii'-ve. Gen. 1824. A. Bost, Dö-
fense des Fideles de YisA. do Giin., qui so sont constitues en egl. indepcndant Par. 1S2.5. Hist verita-
ble des Moiniers. Par. 1S24. 2 vols. Basi. 1S25 2 IL Mulan. lo proccs du mctliodisme du Gun. Gen.
iSS5. Genfs kirchl. Zustände. (Deutsche Z.Mtsch. f. ehr. Wiss. 1S50. N. 31ss.) Also Beincrkk. by L.
77(omas. (Ibid. 1S51. X. 17.) Die friihern rel. Zustande d. Waadtl. (Reuter, P.op. 1S4". U. 2s.)— 7!
Fliedtier, Collectenreise n. Holland. Essen. IS^Jl. 2 vols. Anguiti, Betr. iL d. Ztist d. K. u. Tlieol. d.
Niederl. (Beitrr. z. Gesch. u. Statist d. cv. K. Lps. 1S3T. vol. II.) Die Unruhen in d. niederl. rc-f. K.
1833-39. By X. edit by Gie^eler. Hamb. 1S40. comp. Acta hist ecc 153Ö. p. 561ss. Ev. K. Z. 1S33.
N. SOss. [A: R. nagenhach, (p. 416.) Vorles. 19. Th. 2.]
Even in the time of Rousseau the ministers of the Church in Geneva
shrunk from answering the question Avhethcr Christ was God. The venerable
Society of Pastors enacted a law (1817), by whicli it was announced that
ev^eiy minister would be required at his installation to promise that he would
abstain from the discussion of certain principal points of Calvinistic ortho-
doxy. After 1813, however, some persons zealous for orthodoxy became ex
cited, and were strengthened by the influence of Mad. de Krudener (17G6-
1824). The attention of this lady w;is now turned from palaces to cottages,
that she might preach repentance in the wililorness of civilization, and col-
lect and establish out of all churches a kingdom for the Lion of Judah. («)
This class of persons became numerous in the Pays de Vaud, and under the
direction of some suspended ministers many Separatist congregations were
formed, with various individual peculiarities. According to a popular witti-
cism they were called Momicrti, but a more respectable appellation was that
of Methodists. The people, who were reproved by them even for innocent
mirth and harmless usages, not unfreqnently rose upon them in acts of vio-
lence, and the leaders of the new church were punished by the government
with imprisonment and exile. Under the feeling that they were thereby imi-
tating the primitive Christians, they endured these persecutions with much
courage. After the Revolution of 1830 the conviction became nearly univer-
sal that it was unbecoming for a free people to persecute men for any reli-
gious creed whatever. An Evangelical Society for the restoration of Calvin-
ism after a Scriptural model was then formed (1831), by which a theological
seminary has been established (1832) for orthodox student.«?, (i) But although
the Clmrch of Geneva had been accused by the Momiers of apostasy from it-
self, the jubilee of the Reformation was triumphantly celebrated tiiere, (c)
and the Grand Council of the Canton of Yaud, after a protracted debate,
tore ill i)ieces the Helvetic Confession (1839) becau.se it was the standard of
:l
v) Conversation saliwns: Studien u. Krit ed. by Umbrelt & üllmann since 192S. Dcutscho
Ztitscli. f chr. Wiss. u. ehr. Leben since 1S5<). Comp. O. F. JCrausn, die sogen, neuere Theol. (Theol.
Jahrbb. 1S53. II. 2.)
a) (I/iirtei;) Frau v. Krndcner In d. Schweiz, liehet 1817. Zeitgenossen. Lps. 1818. vol. III.
h) A. K. Z. 1S;31. X. 92. 1833. N. 59. Ev. K. Z. 1831. X. 84. 1882. N. 54. Deutsche Zeitsch. t chi
W. 1850. X. 50.
c) Jubile de la Kef. de Geneve. Gen. 18.35. 3 vols. Acta hist ecc 1S35. p. 44Sss.
596 MODERN CHURCH IIISTOKY. I'KK. VI. A. D. 1M3-1W3.
tlio Momiers, (</) Tlio Revolution of 184G overthrew tlio Calvinistic aristo-
cracy of the pastors, and a Consistory, elected by the congregation, and -with
a majority from the congregation, wag placed at the head of the National
Church, (e) Tlio various congregations of dissenters formed themselves
(1848) into an Evangelical Church, wlioso wants have heen snpjplied, and
wliose pious clTorts have been sustained with a generous liberality from Eng-
land, in a noble rivalry with the E^itablislied Olxurch. (/) — Tlie Church of the
Netherlands was completely re-organized during the occupation of the coun-
try by the French, By the fundamental law of 1816 the synodal form of
government was renewed and concentrated, but the old church discipline was
abolished, and the influence of the state retained. Tlie disposition of the
people was favorable to a merely practical Christianity, and tlie educated
clergy were partial to a Scriptural supernuturalisni, Avhich now retained no
repugnance to the Remonstrants. In consequence of the poetic interests in
the Netherlands of former times, created by the poet Bilderdyk, many began
to long after the orthodoxy of those times, and tAvo Israelites "who had been
converted by him, displayed much zeal in opposition to the constitution, to
vaccination and the Remonstrants (1823). Gradually a party was formed
which demanded that every thing should be restored to the condition re-
quired by the constitution and the creed of the Synod of Dort. The leader
of this party, a young minister whose name was De C'ocJc, was at first sus-
pended by the ecclesiastical authorities because he would not refrain from
interfering in the spiritual affairs of the parishes of others, and for calling iiis
ministerial brethren wolves, and the hymns which had (since 1807) sup-
planted the Psalms the songs of Sirens, and was finally deposed (1834). A
portion of his congregation forthwith declared themselves separated with
him from an Established Church in which they believed so many heresies were
mingled, and in a short time their number was increased by the accession of
four ministers and four thousand people. Even in the Established Church
many were alarmed at an open rupture with the decrees of the Synod of
Dort, but the General Synod refused to explain the legal oath respecting the
public confessions of faith in such a way as to take from each one the right
of judging for himself whether they were conformed to the Scriptures or not
(1835). The Separatists were fined and imprisoned by the civil courts as dis-
turbers of public worship, and for violating the law which forbade more than
twenty persons to assemble without permission from the authorities. They
at first claimed protection on the ground that they were the old orthodox
church, and not a new sect, but they finally presented their statutes to the
king, together with a renunciation of their claim upon the property of the
Church, and obtained the royal permission to form themselves into separate
Christian congregations (1839), The Synod of the National Church, which
met in 1850, in view of the numerous changes which had been made in the
fundamental law of the state, formed an independent synodal system, ac-
d) Ev. K. Z. 1839. N. 26. 1S40. N. 9.
«) Rapport da Consist d. I'cgl. nationale de Gen. 1349. Eeglement organlque poar Tegl. nat Oen
849.
/) Egl. e\ ang. a God. 1S49. Assemblee gen. do la Soc. ev. Gen. 1S49.
CnAP. V. EVAXG. CHURCH till 1S53. § wo. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 597
cording to whicli the peneral aftairs of the Church were to be managed by
the General Synod, which met annually at the Hague, and consisted of dele-
gates from the ten provincial synotls, and from the three theological facul-
ties, and by a commission chosen by tiie General Synod to act in its name
during the intervals between its meetings, (g)
§ -ICO. Division of the Church in Scotland and in the Pays de Vaud.
A. F. Gemht^rg. d. fchott Xationalklrche. Hamb. 1S23. K. IT. Sack, d. K. v. Schottland. Heldlb.
1844. 2 vols. B. W. Xoel, Case of the Fre* Church of Scotland Ixjml. IsH. 8. A-i. Si/doir, d.
schott Kirclienfrase. I'otsil. 1345. J. KoMin, d. «clmtt. K. Huinb. 1S.'>2. — With respect to the public
acts of the Council of State, and the comments of the Tres. Drufij: AUg. Z. Monatsbl. Kcbr. 1S46. Der
waadtl. KStreit by X. (Schweglers Jahrb. d. Oejenw. Febr. 1S46.)— Rri-cis des falls qui ont anient et
suivl la demission de la majorite des pasteurs et ministres de Tcirl. du canton de Vaud. Acconip. des
docura. oOlc. rocueil par Ch. Baiip. Laus. 1^46. Also on this subject: Leopold in Zcit«chr. f. hL< Th.
1S46. H. 4 1847. H. 1. i.—Al Schweizer, d. kirchL Zerwürfnisse Im Kanton Waailt. Zur. 1846. E. F.
Gelpke, d. kirchl. Bewc?. im K. Waadt. (Zeitsch. f hist. Th. 1850. H. 8.) [IMheringUm, Hist, of the
Chh. of Scot. E.linb. 184=3. Xew York. 1844. p. 3G3ss. ITitnna, Life of T. Chalmers. New York. 1850-
2. 4 V. jr. L. Alexander, Kotes of a Tour it Notices of the Rel. Uoilies of 8wit2. Ola.ig. 1&46. S.]
The Church of Scotland always felt a peculiar jealousy in behalf of its
independence in all spiritual matters. The right of patronage was therefore
abolished in the fundamental law of 1690 (revolution settlement.) "When
this, however, was restored by secular violence (1712), the protests of the
Church were generally quieted by those (Moderates) who found their own
comfort promoted by the existing state of things. But when the religious
life of the Church was revived, and the puritanic element became powerful,
the Avhole energy of the party then formed (evangelical party) was concen-
trated in the efibrt to destroy the power of patrons to impose upon congrega-
tions ministers who were not aecejttable to the peojde. In 1834 the General
Assembly conceded to each congregation the right to reject such ministers
(veto act). When, however, the royal courts took under their protection the
rights of the patrons, and in consequence of the resistance made by the Gen-
eral Assembly, interfered in various ways in the spiritual atTairs of the Church,
and finally, when redress had been sought in vain from the imperial parlia-
ment, on the opening of the General Assembly, May 18, 1843, the friends of
ecclesiastical freedom (Xonintrnsionists), including a largo and the most influ-
ential portion of the clergy, with the noble-minded Dr. Chalmers (d. 1847)
at their head, sepai*ated theinsclves by a solemn protest from the Established
Church, on the ground that violence had been done to their con.'*ciences, and
dishonor had been inflicted upon the crown of Christ by the civil power. All
their churches and revenues were abandoned by these seceders with no other
lioi)e than their reliance upon the free-will oflferings of the Scottish people.
As on the one hand .some projtrietors refused to sell the neco-ivsary ground and
materials for building now chun-liea, so particular congregations, on the other,
attempteil by violence to exclude from thoir churches those ministers who
were obtruded upon thorn by patronage. Millions of pounds, however, amply
(7) A. KZ. 1=^1. N. S'^s. C«inip. H.id. 185.J. N. 15. Url. KZ. 1^53. N. 9. Ullmanu, z. Charnkteris.
tik d. holL Th. (Stud. u. Krit. 1844. H. 8.)
598 MODKIiM C'HtTRCII IMSTOUV. I'KR. VI. A. I>. m9-19M.
siifTuMont for .'ill tlie occlcsi.'isfical wants of tlio people, Avere oonfrihiited, (a)
and with tlie ntniost Avorldly i)riHlenco, a.s well as tlic most earnest piety, tlie
Free rreshyteriau Churcli was founded, and became the real National Clnircb
of Scotland. — In tho Canton of TvaaZ the spirit of the metliodistic piety so
far penetrated even the Established Church, that sometimes Avlien its minis-
ters liad performed tho duties of public worship many would hold devotional
assemblies in the evening (oratoires), which were attended esi)ecially by tho
higher classes. In direct contrariety to the traditional doctrine inculcated
from Berne, that the Church was strictly dependent upon the state, the idea
that tho Church was absolutely independent of the state was diffused among
the clergy, more especially by the labors of Vinet. (V) After the overthrow
of the comparatively aristocratic government (1845) the provisional regency
of tho sovereign people prohibited the clergy of the Established Church from
attending the oratories which had been already threatened by the populace,
and some clergymen who disobeyed we.re suspended. "When the new demo-
cratic constitution was about to be submitted to a vote of the people, the
government, wishing to recommend it by proclamation, sent it to the clergy
to be read from their pulpits. About forty clergymen refused to comply with
this request, and in justification of their act appealed to a law which ap-
peared to give the use of the pulpit to the government only fur the publica-
tion of acts relating to religion. For this refusal they were accused before
their ecclesiastical courts, and acquitted, but they were punished by the civil
government in a suspension for one month from their spiritual duties. To
extricate the Church from this thraldom it was proposed (Sov. 11, 184.5), in
an assembly at Lausanne of the clergy belonging to the establishment, that
every clergyman should resign his office, when a majority immediately re-
nounced their charges and their salaries. But as they possessed no hold upon
the popular mind, they were only able by foreign assistance to start a Free
Church in small conventicles, which were persecuted by the police nntil
1850. In the mean time the government found but scanty means for the
spiritual support of the Established Church.
§ 461. The Anglican Church and the Dissenters.
Bogue & Bennett, 11. of Dissenters. Lond. lSOS-12. 4 vols. (Archiv f. KG. vol. II. p. 541. III. p.
304. 49T. IV. 1. 23Tss.) Lond. lS-33. 2 vols. J. Bennett, II. of Diss, during thojast 30 years. Lond. 1S39.
K. If. Sack, ft. Kel. n. K. in Engl. BrI. 1S13. Funk; Organisirung d. engl. Staatsk. Alton. 1329. M.
Boose, Ecclesi-Tstica, or, The Church, her schools and her clergy. Lond. 1S42. S. H. F. Chden, d. Za«
stünde d. angl. K. Lps. 1843. O. V. Gerlach^ ü. d. rel. Zustand, d. angl. K. Potsd. 1S4Ö. C. Schoell,
d. kirchl. Zustande in Engl. (Gelzer. prot Monatsch. 1S53. May.) \J. Grant, H. of the Engl Church
& of the Sects whicb have departed from her Com. Lond. lSll-26. 4 vols. S]
The principal religious activity of the country was found among the Dis-
senters, who constituted about one third of the whole population, and in
Wales the majority. But as they possessed no common centre, they became
broken up into a great variety of sects, among which might be seen, in their
n) Brl. K. Z. 1S4C. N. 38. 1850. N. 49.
?'> Ejsal sur la manifestation des convictions rellg. et sur la separation do I'egl. et de T^tat. Pe?
•S42. Kdlb. 1815. Considerations dediees a Mss. les ministres demissionairos. Laus. 1843.
CHAP. V. EVAXG. CnURCII TILL 1S53. § 461. ENGLAND. 599
extreme form«, every {,'ratle of religious life, from the most enthusiastic exal-
tation down to the most sceptical rationalism. Some of the principal sect?
among them, however, have recently attempted to unite together in more
intimate fellowship. They were protected and made subservient to various
party purposes by the opposition in Parliament, but with all his eloquence.
Fox was unsuccessful when he pleaded (1790) for their civil rights, («) But
with the increasing spirit of general freedom, public sentiment became
changed, and after many attempts at partial relief the test act was finally
abolished in 1828, and the exclusive right of the Episcopal clergy to solem-
nize marriage and baptism for dissenters was taken away in 183G. They were,
however, still compelled to pay taxes to the Established Church, and the
House of Lords thought it necessary, by lifeless orthodox forms, to protect
the Universities under the patronage of the State against the intrusion of dis-
senters. {l>) But many powerful associations avowed their determination to
promote the principle of religious freedom, not onlv in England but in every
quarter of the Avorld. {c) A charter was obtained for the University of Lon-
don (1836), the object of which was principally the education of dissenters.
The Established Church became almost a sinecure, while the actual duties of
the pastoral otRce were either evaded, or performed by poorly paid pastors
and hired vicars, ('/) For a long time the bishops in the House of Lords,
with the aristocracy, set themselves in direct opposition to the wishes of the
people, and persons of worldly sagacity lost confidence in the spiritual privi-
leges of the bishops, as well as in the divine right of tithes. The injurious
influence of an Established Church was demonstrated by the dissenters, and
the bishojis were warned by the government to set their house in order.
They appealed to the oath taken by the king at his coronation, that he would
maintain the inviolabilitj' of the Church, and by virtue of which he held his
crown. But an evangelical party had now been developed which especially
represented the Protestant, as the High Church party did the Catholic ele-
ment in the Episcopal Church. This evangelical party expected delivcr-
<ance only in such a reformation as was demanded by the times, (t) Certain
literary men at Oxford, of Avhom the i)rincipnl were Newman and Pusey
(after 183;3), raised the Catholic clement to a still higher position. The ob-
ject of these persons was avowed to be the revival of genuine Catholicity.
Protestantism was disavowed, and many Catholic but old ecclesiastical usages
and statutes, so far as they wore consistent with the thirty-nine articles, were
brought once more into practice. These etlbrts were favored by the Iligh
Church party, until their gradually developed tendencies to Roman Catholi-
cism aroused the Protestant sjiirit of the nation, and I'usei/Lsni was rejected,
even by the bishops. Since that time many i)or.sons have passed over from
a) Sluüilliii, Ocogr. u. Stat. vol. I. p. ICiss.
h) Aftir ISeverleij: A. Z. ISU. N. 22'.'. 229. KlielnwaKl, Kep. vul. XXIX. p. 92ss.
c) A. Z. ls:U. N. 150. </) A. K. A. 1>:3I. p. 312.
e) Lord llftileij, A I'lan of Cliurch Koform. Lori.l. oil. -1. I>a2. [Eilinb. Kovlow, vol. XXXVIII.
p. 14.">. I'll). 1^2:5. XLIV. p. 49n. Sept, 1S2Ö. (Sil. tnm\ K.l. I'.cv. Tar. Is3u. vol. V. p. aOl-324.) Ji. W.
Koel, Union of Clili. Jc State. Loml. A; New York. 1>49. 12.] Furtber liefunn Literature: A. K. Z.
186a LiL Ul. N. 49. Stud. u. KrlU IsJ«, P. Is.
600 MODERN CnUKCII IIISTORV. PER. VI. A. D. 184W858.
tho EstaMislioil to tlie Catholic Cliurcli. (/) During tliis collision of partip«.,
and in coiisciincnco of the serious spirit of practical piety excited among the
people (aCtor 1820), a new and fresh life was awakened in the bosom of tho
Church itself. The hierarcliy gave up a portion of its titlics that they might
not have tho Avholo wrested from them. In 1836 a bill for the reform of tho
Church was introduced into Parliament by Lord Russell. It diminished the
prodigious inequalities which had existed in the revenues of the bishops, im-
proved and increased the parishes by means of a portion of the sinecures, and
jjlaced restraints upon pluralities and the perforiüance of pastoral duties bj
hired proxies. Some further concessions were made even by the aristocracy,
when a Commission for Inquiry was appointed by Sir Robert Peel. The
ministry, however, admonished the reformers that they should be satisfied
with what they could get, rather than attempt radical changes. The conces-
sions were accepted with much reluctance by the majority in the Lower
House, and constituted the commencement of a reform, which was subse-
quently carried out in the same spirit in the Ecclesiastical Revenue Bill
(1840). (g) "When a number of bishops had been consecrated for foreign
countries the ministry began also to endow dioceses in England with the sav-
ings of the hierarchy (1847), without connecting with them seats in the
House of Lords, (h) The Church Pastoral Aid Society, with the assistance
of Parliament and munificent voluntary contributions from the people, erected
numerous churches in the commercial towns, and sent forth assistant preach-
ers to supply the spiritual wants of an increasing population. When Goi'ham,
a vicar, was accused of teaching that the grace of regeneration does not ne-
cessarily accompany the act of baptism, and when the Bishop of Exeter, who
was favorable to Puseyism, refused to admit him to the benefico to which he
had been presented by the crown, he was instituted (1847-50), in accordance
with the verdict of the privy council, the highest ecclesiastical court (after
1833), in spite of the protest of his bishop, on the ground that his view.«
were not inconsistent with the articles of tho English Church. In this aÖair
Avas exhibited on the one hand, the stubbornness of episcopal orthodoxy ever
when not much sustained by public opinion, and on the other, the impropriety
of submitting theological controversies for decision to the civil courts. Bui
jdl attempts springing out of it to raise the assemblies of the clergy from their
nominal existence to the real spiritual powers which they formerly possessec
(p. 442), or at least to transfer the decision of controversies on ecclesiastical
doctrines to the episcopal courts, were frustrated either in Parliament or by
the ministry, (i)
/) 2^eicman) Tracts for the tlmos, espec. No. 9ö ; Remarks on certain passages in the 39 Artt 1S41.
(Brl. K. Z. ISU. N. 31. 36. 42.) K B. Puset/, The Articles treated on in Tract 90 reconsidered. Oxt
1S41. n. Aheken, Letter to E. B. Pusey, in reference to certain ch.arges .isainst the Germ. Church.
Lond.lS42. J/i Petri, HeMrr. z. Würdig, d. Pus. Gott 184-3. 2 II. C. Fock, d. Pus. (Schwcgler,
Jahrbb. 1S44. p. 742ss) P. Weaver, d. Pus. A. d. Engl. v. Amthor, Lps. ISU. Bruns, Eep. 1346. vol
VI. p. ISlss. vol. VII. p. S9ss.
g) A. Z. 1S.36. N. 19S. Suppleiu. X. 211. 216. 2:». Brl. K. Z. 1S40. N. 73.
A) Brl. K. Z. 1847. N. 35.
Zcitsch. f. hist Th. 1S53. H. 1. [.ludgment of the Dean of tho Arclies' Court n tlie case ol
Borham r. the Bishop of Exeter. Loud. Is49.]
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIÜECII TILL 1S58. § 462. NOUTII AMERICA. 60 1
§ 4G2. Ecclesiastical Affairs in the North American Republic.
A. Reed and J. Matheson, Visit to tlio American Ctiurclics. New York. 1833. 2 vols. (Ev. KZ
1937. N. Sss.) IL Cimccll, America and tlio Airier. Cliurcl). 2 eO. Lond. 1S5;3. (Ev. KZ. 1839. N.
66ss.) J. D. liiipp. He pasa Ekklesia, or llist. of the Rcl. Denominations in tlie U. S. Pliil. 1S44.
Ji. Baird, Religion in tlio U. S. Edlnb. 1S44. Reviiwa as KGesch. n. kirclil. Statist by C. Brandes,
Brl. 1S4-4. [Ihid. Chr. Retrospect and Register. N. York. tS50. 12. Ibid. Rel. Denoinm. in the U.
S. (in Amer. and For. Chr. Union, vol. I. N. 2. — vol. III. N. 4.) Rel. Denomm. in the U. S. by vari-
ous authors. Ilarrishurj.'. 2 cd. 1S49. P. D. Gorrie, Churches and Sects In the U. S. N. York. 1850.]—
tT. G. BtUtner, Briefe aus u. ü. N. A. Dresd. 1845. 2 vols. F. v. Haumer, [America and the Amer
.People, from the Germ. X. York. 184G. S.] Lp<!. 1845. 2 voKs.— W. Klone, d. chr. K. in d. Verein. St,
N. A. (Zcitsch. f. hist. Th. 1S43. II. 1.) {J. Vixon, Tour through tho U. 9. N. York. 1S4S. 12.]
[A peculiar form of ecclesiastical life lias been developed in the united
States of America. Tho religious spirit has there been allowed unlimited
freedom to assume every variety of external organization, an<l has found full
scope for its utmost zeal. The national and State governments are prohibited
by their constitutions from all interference with religion, but Christianity is
generally recognized as a part of the common law, stringent regulations are
in force against blasphemy and the profanation of tho Sabbath, and public
prayers are daily otfered in connection with all legislative proceedings. (</)
Error is permitted to contend on equal terms with truth, no civil disability is
imposed for opinion's sake, and all may propagate their views in public and
in private as long as tho rights of others are not invaded. As yet, there is
no evidence that in such circumstances Christianity will not triumph. In the
exercise of its free energies, it has contended with a highly stimulated
worldly spirit and a multitude of errors, which have liere found their best
and often only asylum ; and not only is it almost universally received, but its
most prevalent forms are those of the strictest evangelical piety. From tho
peculiar origin and history of the nation, we should of course expect to find
that its ecclesiastical organizations and usages resemble those of tho Old
World. But the Puritan and Methodistic elements have been especially
attracted there, and have become prominent in the national character. The
zeal engendered by an earnest Christianity thrown into such i)Owerful conflict
with the world, has led its friends to an intense use of ordinary and extra-
ordinary means for the conversion of men, and the religious revivals which
have sometimes been witnessed in other lands, have here become frequent. (5)
Accustomed also to rely much upon the poAver of numbers, great societies
have been formed for the removal of social evils, and for combined effort to
plant the institutions of the gospel among the destitute at home and abroad.
A majority of the wliole population luive abandoned the habitual use of
intoxicating drinks, and seven States of the Union have already prohibited
the sale of them as an ordinary beverage. More than 3,000 ministers of the
gospel are sustained principally in the older States, to labor among the newei
a) Constitutions of tho several Stntes, and of the U. 8. Ac. N. York. 8. J. Story, Exposition ol
the Const, of tho U. S. N. York. 184T. ^f. itcKinne;/, Amer. Magistrate. (I'lillad. 1^0.) p. 689. 193
208. G. T. Ciirtif, lILst. of the Const, of tho U. S. N. York. 1^54. 2 vols.
I) TV. B. Spragiie, Ix^ott, on Revivals. Albany. 1882. 8. A. Bitrnex, On Revivals. N. Yorlc
1841. C. Finney, Lectt. on Revivals. X. York. 1S35. Collon, Hist, and Char, of Amer. Revivals.
Lond. 1832.
G02 MODKUN ciii;i:oi[ irisTOK\. i'ku. vr. a. d. i8-js-i9i3.
scttlomeiits of llio West aii<l Soutli.O-) Tlicrc is one Iioiibc of worship fo
every 04n, mul one minister for every 600 of tlie entire population. Ql) As
encli denomination of Cliristians, in case of general disa;,'reenient or gwev-
nncc, find.s its ultimate remedy in separation, numerous sects have sprung up,
■without important distinctions in doctrine or organization ; but the evils of
disunion are in many instances much mitigated by an interchange of corre-
sponding delegates through their superior assemblies, by the free reception
of each otlier's ministers and members on prescribed terms, and by co-opera-
tion in many of tlie national charitable associations. The lionvin Catholic
Church has in some instances attempted to ingraft upon itself popular traits
and usages, but its general spirit of uniformity has resisted thern, and its pre
vailing character here is the same as in the Old "World. Its growth in this
country has been for a few late years remarkably rapid, almost exclusively
by Catliolic emigrants from Europe, multitudes of whom, however, are for
ever lost to tlie general Koman fold, (c) The vast funds, numerous clergy,
and other laborers, with which foreign societies have supplied it, have ena-
bled it to establish many institutions for education and charity, and erect a
splendid hierarchy, which give it great power for proselytism, and have
raised the hope that Kome might recover its life by appropriating to itself
the youthful energies of this growing nation. (/) But by its conflicts with
educational establishments, by its unity of action in behalf of political inter-
ests, and by its sympathies and connections with foreign and anti-republicau
influences, it has awakened against itself a powerful political and religious
feeling which has sometimes broken forth into unlawful violence, (y) I*
probably has under its control, principally in the large cities, in Maryland and
in Louisiana, about one in twelve of the whole population. The Episcojjal
Church, though the oldest (1607), is still among the smallest of the Protes-
tant sects, but its progress has recently become accelerated especially among
the Avealthy and conservative classes. It ditiers from its parent English
Church by its want of a connection with a civil establishment, by an exten-
sive participation of the laity in the legislative and administrative power of
the Church, and by its synodal constitution under annual diocesan and tri-
ennial national conventions. (Ji) The Congrejationalists, whose first church
was formed in the ship which conveyed the pilgrims to America (1619), and
Avho are principally descendants of the English Puritans, believe that each
congregation possesses all ecclesiastical power in itself; but in the exercise of
this, they form occasional Councils, composed of neighboring ministers and
the delegates of contiguous churches, for the ordination, the settlement, and
the dismission of ministers ; Dis-trict Associations, composed of a few minis-
ters and churches who may permanently associate for mutual counsel and
c) if. Baird, Retrospect p. 218ss. 259ss. d) Abstmct of Census, p. 29.
e) Amor, and For. Clir. Union. Ang. 1S52. p. 251. N. York Observer, June 10, 1S52.
/) Catholic Almanac for 1SÖ4. Bait. 1S54. Foreign Conspiracy. New Yorli. 1S35. X. L. liica,
Komanism, tlie Enemy of Education, Free Institutions, &c. Cincin. 1852. 12.
(/) Komanism incompatible -nith Republican Principles. N. York. 1S34. 1?. Our Country, its
Danger, Ä:c. X. York. 1S40. IS. G. B. C/teerer, Eit:ht of the Bible in Schools. X. York. 1S50. 16.
h) S "V/i^r/yrc^ Hist of the Prot Eplsc. Church in Am. Lon.l and X. Y. (1S44.) 1S46. 12
vr. W/iiU, II. of the Churcli. N. York. 1S54. S. A. B. Chapin, in Hist of Eel. Denom. p. 601.-«
CHAP. V. EYAXG. CHURCn TILL 1S58. § 4G2. NORTH AMERICA, 603
fellowship; and General Associations or Consociations, comprising all the
ministers and churches of a State. Such bodies, however, have only advi
pory power, and their decisions have the force of discipline only by their
moral influence. The intelligence, the systematic benevolence, and the sober
piety of this people, have rendered them especially influential. They prevail
principally in the si.x Eastern States, in New York, and north of the Ohio.
They acknowledge the absolute authority of no uninspired creed, but great
respect is paid to certain Calvinistic Confessions of Faith and Catechisms
wliich are used among them, and some of their divines have exerted a deci-
sive influence upon the theology of tlie age. (/') Near the close of the last
and the commencement of the present century, a number ot the Congrega-
tional ministers and churches of Massachusetts were known to believe Uni-
tarian doctrines ; but a general separation was not effected until (1815) the
orthodox party were startled by some announcements respecting the progress
of Unitarianism in America in an English publication,.and immediately with-
drew their fellowship from all who were suspected. (7.-) After an excited
controversy, the Unitarian Congregationalists were left in a distinct body,
which has since extensively prevailed \\\ the vicinity of Boston, with an ele-
gant literature, a high standard of morality, and a liberal philanthropy.
There are said to be in the United States not less than 250 congregations
especially connected together as Unitarians ; but a still larger body who call
themselves by the simple name of Christians, the Universalists, and a seced-
ing portion of the Society of Friends, agree with them in the distinctive
article of their fiiith. The Baptixts follow next in the order of time (1639);
and if we include under the appellation all who deny the validity of baptism
except by immersion, and on the professed faith of the subject, they must be
regarded as the most numerous denomination but one in the United States.
"With but few exceptions, they are rigidly Calvinistic in doctrine, but they
agree with, and even exceed the Congrogationalists in their rejection of all
human authority in matters of faith, and in their practical maintenance of
tlie independence of tlie congregations. Tliey, however, have their occa-
sional Councils, their Associations for small districts, tlieir Conventions for
States, and until the recent separation of the Northern and Southern sections,
a Triennial General Convention for the whole nation. A large number of
Baptist churches are never represented beyond tlieir district Associations,
and differ from their brethren on many iiiii)ortant articles of faith and prac-
tice. (/) Many minor sects have seceded from the general followsliip, on the
ground of questions connected with the Sabbatli, missions to the heatlien, the
nature of tlie faith and obedience to be i)rofessed before baptism, and the
t) (r. Punc'Aard, View of Congregationalism. Andover, 18891 Ibid. Hist, of Cong. And. 1S48.
Cninbrlilfic and Snybnx.k riutfonns of Cliurcli PIsc Boston. 183». 8. T. C. i'jiliam, Uutio Dls
ciiiUnne. i'ditliind. 1S2'.). L. Harun, Mim. <if t'liurcli Meiid)crs. New lliiven. 1S33. R. Baird,
Bkctchcsof tlio i;el. Dcnoiii. in Am. and For. Clir. Union, vol. I. N. 8. p. 12:1.
/.) Jiclxhiim, Meiniiirs of Llndscy. Lond. Isl2. Ilnslon. 181.'). A. Liimxon, In I'd. Denom. p. 636.
LütttTS on the Introd. and I'rog. of L'nitiirlanisn\ in New Kngl., In f>i>irlt of tlio rilgriins. vol. II. and
111. Boston. lS'J9-3i).
/) />. Benedict, Hist, of llio Baptists. N. York. 1S24. 11'. Uague, Bap. Clinrcb Transplanted, &Q
N. York. ISUl. 12. /'. -I. Om and J. Ilolij, Baptists in Aiiieriea. Boston. 1S39. 12.
GOi MODERN CIIUKCH HI8TORT. PKK. VI. A.D. 164S-IMA
gt'iicriil doctrine« of rclipion. (m) Of lato yearn, some portions of this de
nomination liavo done niucli to redeem tlieir order from the reproacli of in-
difforenco to education, and they have now under tlicir control fourteen
collcfjen, and eight theological seminaries. The Preslijtcrians are also sepa-
rated into many minor divisions, among wliich the Dutch Reformed (since
Ifilit), the Gcrnian Keformed (s. 1720), the Associate (s. 1750), and the Ke-
forincd Presbyterian (s. 1752), have always maintained a distinct existence
since tlieir first settlement in this country ; and others, as the Cumberland
(1810) and the Free Presbyterian (1S4G), were offshoots from the main body.
In 1838 this main body -was itself divided into two nearly equal portions,
each claiming to be the true Presbyterian Church, but differing from each
other in their construction of their articles of faith, and in their views of
ecclesiastical policy, (ti) With a slight exception with res-pect to the Cumber-
land body, (o) all these members of the great Presbyterian family claim to be
Calvinistic in doctrine, and most of them are in fraternal correspondence with
each other through their highest judicatories. Their form of government is
essentially the same "with that of similar European bodies, and they are dis-
tinguished for their intelligence, their stability, and their attachment to truth.
The Lutherans have retained the faith even better than the language of their
ancestors ; they are beginning zealously to cultivate the orthodox literature of
their Fatherland, and are providing an ecclesiastical home for the multitudes
of a kindred faith who are landing on their shores, (p) The Jlcthodists have
adopted the doctrines and discipline of the English Wesleyan connection, -with
no essential change. Their Episcopacy is not prelatic, but presbyterian, since
its powers originate in, and are continued by the eldership, and its duties are
simply to preside in the conferences, to station the elders and preachers, to
ordain bishops and deacons, to travel through the connection, and to oversee
the spiritual concerns of the Church. They have been especially successful
in reaching and reclaiming the great masses of society, in carrying the truth
in its living power to even the most retired districts ; and though they were
the last to commence their labors, seventy years have been sufficient for
them to become the most numerous class of Protestant Christians in the Uni- ■
ted States. Their ardent zeal, tlieir active energy, their numerous institu-
tions of learning, their earnest literature, and their thorough system of polity,
must exert a powerful influence upon the future character of the nation. A
division nearly corresponding with the geographical boundary between the
Northern and Southern States, has taken place within their Churcli on ac-
count of slavery, and a number of fragments have fallen away from it on
account of its government and discipline, but its general usefulness and sta
bility have not been apparently impaired, (q) Among other minor bodies,
»») History of the various Baptist sects In Eel. Denotnni., by authors l)elonglng to thera. See also
Gorric's Churches and Sects, p. 13-2ss. Sitird, in Amer. and For. Chr. Union. voL I. p. 20Sss. 503ss.
«) lli-tory of the Division of the Presb. Chnrch. (by a Coin, of the Syn. of N. York and X. Jer-
•oy.) N. York. 1552. J. Woods, Old and Xew Theology. Phila.l. 1S40. 12. X L. ßice, Old and New
Schools. Cincin. ISO-l 12. o) L. Jonen, Plea for the Cumb. Prosb. Church. Louisville. 1S47. 12.
/>) Ev. KZ. 1547. N. 2.1SS. Comp. Brl. K. Z. ISIS. N. 45. BUtUxer, Briefe. Dresd. 1S45. 2 vols.
Comp. Kliiinw. Kep. vol. XLIV. p. iS2ss.
(?) A. SltrenK On Church Polity. N. York. 1550. 12. Memorial of MethodUm. N. Y<rk. 1S51. 12
a: lUug», Ili>t. ..f ilic M. E. Cluireh till 15W. X. Y..rk. lS-36. 4 vols 12.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIUECII TILL IsSa § 462. XOIiTU AMERICA. 605
there are about G,000 Moratiana in twenty-two congregations, under as many
ministers, and two bishops claiming apostolical succession ; (?) about 150,00C
Friends^ whoso orthodoxy and efficiency have been increased by a recent
secession, and who, in spite of some decline in their numbers, quietly main-
tain their amient doctrines and usages under a regular system of Preparative,
Monthly, Quarterly, and ten independent Yearly meetings ; («) about 0,000
Shal-cr»^ who, since the decease of the " Elect Lady " (p. 546), have formed
sixteen comu)unities in which all things are held in common, and endeavor
to find the purity and bliss of Paradise in perpetual virginity, and a wild
mode of worship ; {t) about 8,000 Sicedenhor'jidus, with an extensive litera-
ture, and a number of highly learned and eminent advocates ; («) and above
1,100 societies of Univcrsalistn, who have formed a regular organization under
a regular ministry, and a General Convention, and have collected a respect-
able literature, (r) — A system of education, from which all sectarian pecu-
liarities is excluded, except with the consent of the local inliabitants of a
district, is ])rovided for by law, in some States, with great liberality and intel-
ligence, and in all with increasing emulation and zeal, so tliat already one in
five of the whole free population are under its instruction. In many denomi-
nations of Christians, candidates for the ministry are required by ecclesiastical
rule to pass through what is equivalent to a complete course of collegiate and
theological instruction, and in nearly all the usage is more and more in
accordance Avith such a rule. In no part of the world are the clergy more
respected and laborious; and though in most instances sustained entirely by
the voluntary contributions of their people, their position and comparatively
small number render them independent of popular caprice. The piety of tliis
peopk, being entirely spontaneous, is remarkably sincere and fervent, and
many of its exhibitions, which seem peculiar and even grotesque, will be
found not ill adapted to the wants of a peculiar population ; but we need not
bo surprised to find that an aristocracy of wealth, and a regard for numerical
power, should sometimes divert attention from the refinements of a graceful
humanity.]
§ 4G3. Legal Conditions icith respect to Catholic Goternmcnts.
The Congress of Vienna could not agree with regard to the expressions
by which the constitution of the Cathohc and Protestant churches of Ger-
many were to be placed under the protection of the Alliance. The sixteenth
article of the Act of the Alliance was therefore merely so formed, that no
dirterences between the parties professing tlie Christian religion wore to create
any inequalities in municipal or political rights. Tlie perfect equality of both
Churches, so far as relates to the law of the land, has accordingly been more
or less expressly acknowledged by most of the states coimected with the
Alliance, (u) In JJuvaria, however, in addition to other violations of Prot-
r) L. D. 9on &-hireinitK, In tlie lllst of R«>1. Honoinm. p. 850as.
«) T. Kvum ami IK Oi'ilxms, Illstorlos in II. iJ. p. 'JTOsks. 290ssl
t) C. Green and Ä )'. HW/«, A luminary View of the Millenolal Church. N. York. 1S23. 14.
ft) New .lerusaloiii Magiulue. Biv-tun. 2C vols. IS'27-ISM.
v) T. Whittemore, Mixl. Hist of I'nlvcroiili.-'ni. I{o«fon, IsSO. 12.
«) Klüler, Ucl'er^ il. Verli. d. W. Congr. AMIi. 3. p. 3'.)7. 441ss. Tittmann, Qii»«ett. de art. 16
60G MODKRN CllUnCII mSTOItV. PKO. VI. A. D. lWS-1%88.
I'stnnt privik'f^OM, an order «lictateil by a new zeal in favor of Catliolicism,
reiiiiired all i)orsons connected ^vitll the army to bow the knee to the sacra-
mental liost (Ang. 14th, 1838). This was regarded by the Protestants as a
measure intended to compel them to commit what seemed to them an act of
idolatry, or at least as an illegal imposition upon their consciences. Although
it wius described to them as legally only a military ceremony, it was practi-
cally adliered to as if it were a triumph of the Catholic Church ; and after a
long series of forced and partial concessions, it was not com])letely yielded
to the bitter complaints of the whole Protestant population, until (Dec. 12th,
1845) the diet threatened to adopt the grievances of the Protestant deputies
as its own. (b) In the Austrian hereditary states, Protestantism was but par-
tially tolerated, and until the movement of 1848, its churches were inter-
dicted the use of names and spires, and were deprived of important rights. (<•)
To take from them the necessity of going to foreign universities, a theologi-
cal school was opened for them at Vienna (1821). In Bohemia, recollections
of the Hussites were awakened with the revival of the national spirit of the
ancient Czechen. In the Zillerthal, certain ancient traditions preserved at
Salzburg, and evangelical influences upon some Tyrolcse travellers, produced
a party strongly opposed to the CathoKc Church. This opposition was still
further increased by the perusal of the Scriptures, and finally induced a few
families to make application (182G) for liberty, in conformity with the spirit
of the Edict of Toleration, to join the Evangelical Church. But as the states
of Tyrol were opposed to a Protestant form of worship in their country, and
contended that the Edict of Toleration was never published for such cases
and as the evangelical party continued to increase even under the oppression
of a decidedly Catholic popiilation, and with no services for public worship,
the emperor finally commanded them either to settle in some other province,
or to emigrate to another country. In these circumstances they addressed
themselves to the King of Prussia, who erected for them a church and pri-
vate dwellings on his domain of Erdmansdorf in Silesia. Thither, in the
autumn of 1837, about four hundred of them removed, although a hundred
never became settled there, or in 1838-39 left their new Zillerthal, to connect
themselves with some of the Lutherans who had separated themselves from
the established churches, (d) In Hungary^ when the partial privileges con-
ceded by the law respecting religion had been in many ways violated, and
tlie comiilaints of three millions of Protestants had been for a long time dis
Foederis Germ. L. 19:30. W. v. Hohenthal, d. Parität d. Rechte zw. d. katli. u. nichtfcath. Unterth.
1. Riindesst L. 1&81.
I) Ev. K. Z. 1S44. N. 6"6S. — {E. «. GUc?i) Die Eniebeng. d. Protestanten vor d. Sanctissiranm d.
ksth. K. Ulm. 1S41, With " Offenen Bedenken"' of 1844-45 against later insufficient modifications.
J. If.irlens: Offene Antw. Munch. 1S43. u. Zeitsclir. f. Prot. u. K. 1S4;3. vol. VI. K Thiersch, ü.
Protest n. Knicb. 8 Sendschr. an Diillinger. Marb. 1S44.— Ji Dvllivger : Die Frage v. d. Knieb. d.
Prut V. d. rel. u. Maat^rechtl. Seite. Munch. 1S43. Der Prot in Balem n. d. Knieb. Kegcnsb. 1&43.
Lit Uebors. bv Schoder in d. Jen. Lit Z. 1S45. N. 202s8. Bruns, Kep. 1S45. vol. IIL p. 24ss. BrL
K. Z. 1>4G. X. 15. 25s.
c) J. ll.lfirt, d. Rechte n. Verf. d. Akatboliken im östr. Kaiscrst Vien. (ied. 1927.) 1943.
(1) {Hheinicdlfi) Die Evangelischgesirinten im Zillerthal. Brl. Ij3". In 4 ed.: Die ev. Zillerthaler
la Schlesien. 1S3S. Acta hi>t ecc, 18-37. p. 655ss. Rlieinw. Rep. vol. XXXVIL p. s4ss. [Exiles of
Zilleril-.al. (Ptibl. by the Am. and For. Chr. Union.) X. York. 1840. 18.]
CHAP. 7. EVANG. CnURCII TILL 1553. § 463. HUNGAET. FRANCE. 607
regarded, tlieir cause became identified in public estimation with the free
development of the state. At the Diet of 1833, the great majority appeared
enthusiastic for justice to their Protestant fellow-citizens, but the State-Table
preferred eutirely to dispense with the mutilated bill of religious grievances
propo.sed to tlicin by the magnate«, and rather than take up with a partial
grant, to trust to their chances for the future, (t) At the Diets of 1839—40,
both Tables united in presenting to the crown certain bills by which the
members of the Evangelical Church were guarantied absolute freedom, and
equality of legal privileges. But when the papal brief of April 30, 1841,
against the ecclesiastical confirmation of mixed marriages without security
that the children should be educated in the Catholic faith, had received the
royal sanction, the courts began to infiict penalties upon all bishops and pas-
tors Avho acted in accordance with this measure. At the Diet of 1843, bold
voices were raised in both Tables in opposition to this system of mediaeval
Church polity ; and although there was still an episcopal majority among the
magnates, which succeeded in modifying the demands of tho other Table,
both houses were oi)posed to the royal order of July 5th, respecting mixed
marriages. They declared, that while they were agreed with regard to the
principle advanced in that enactment on the subjects of freedom of con-
science and complete reciprocity, tho only proper application of it, as well as
the only way to satisfy the minds of the people, Avliich they could discover,
was the enactment of a law by which the children should be disposed of
according to the religion of the father, except where special jtromises had
been conceded by one of the parties (reversales) to the contrai*y. Accord-
ingly, the whole subject was virtually disposed of by the royal ordinances of
March 25th and Nov. 11th, 1844, which left the education of the children of
mi.\'ed marriages to be determined by the agreement of the i)arents, acknowl-
edged the validity of marriages solemnized in the Evangelical Church, and
prohibited tho clergy from arbitrarily interfering when persons were dis-
posed to pass from the one to the other Church. (./") But tho storm which
since 1848 lias passed over Hungary, has for a while committed to the mili-
tary power the Church as well as the country of the orator from whose
mouth issued a sword. Q/) In tho st)Uth of France, the long-restrained
hostility of the Catholic poi)nlace broke out on the restoration of tho Bour-
bons (1815), and for three months, in Nismes and its vicinity, the members
of the Reformed Church were robbed, murdered, and driven from their
dwellings by the flames. No notice of these excesses was taken by the gov-
ernment until exi)ression3 of indignation from all parts of Franco and of
Europe found their way to tlie throne. Individual instances of outrage were
rejieated in 1810, the perpetrators of whieh were never punished; and the
Protestants were always treated with contempt, until they reco%ered their
privileges at tho revolution of 1830. (//) But their Church was never able
e) BerzeH»!/, Naclir. fi. d. Ziist <l Evv. In IT. Ljkh, 1S23. Friedrich, Br. ü. d. La?e <L ev. K. In
C Lps. 1S2.'>. Die nelijrlonFboscliwcrdon d. Trot, in U. a. d. Reichst lin J. WH. edit, by Klin*
TibiHcanun, Ljis. VS33 [Hist, nf tho I'rot. Church In Hunjt. from flic Kef. to ISJO, with reference
«Iso to TransylvRiiia, fimn tlio Curiimn by ./. CVdi'f/, I^und. 1^M. 8,]
/) J. r. .Viiil.itJi, d. Rel. Wirren in I'. Ilntlsb. 1 W). 2 vols. Nachtr. i:ati>b. 1S4Ö.
a) Brl. KZ. 18.VI. N. 17. 20. 1S51. N. 6. 9. 1S.V2. N. !t2.
A) Defen.'« df» Pnitcstnns dn Hiis-Lanjjiiedoc ISlö. -t. (.Archiv f. KG. vul. III. p C2.jss.) ^f'^U■s,
608 MODEEN CnUKCn III3T0KY. PER. VI. A. D. 104S-1S58.
to come to^otlier in a poncral sj-nod, and by a decision of the Coiirt of Cas-
sation (1843), notwithstanding the fundamental law of religious liberty, no
evangelical congregation could be established under the statute respecting
associations, without the arbitrary permission of the government and the
local authorities. (/) Under the republic, the Lutheran Church, especially in
Alsace, at a freely elected General Assembly in Strasbourg, and the Reformed
Church at a Synod in Paris, deliberated about the best means of developing
in an independent manner their old established constitutions (1848). (/.)
Louis Napoleon ordained (March 2Cth, 1852) that the congregations should
be governed by presbyteries, and their districts by consistories, freely chosen
by them, but both under the presidency of chosen pastors approved by the
government ; that the churches of the Augsburg Confession should have for
their superintending and legislative authority a supreme consistory, to be con-
vened annually, and to be composed of the presidents and lay-deputies of all
the consistories, and for their administrative authority, a directory, half of
whose members were to be appointed by the government, and half by the
supreme consistory ; and that the Reformed churches should have a Central
Council at Paris, with indefinite powers, and consisting for the first time of
distinguished Protestants, and the two oldest Parisian pastors. (Z) In the
elections held under this edict, all persons were allowed to vote, and the pres-
byteries which had been previously in existence were confirmed. The Ecan-
gelical Society^ a free association formed under English Influence, undertook
to evangelize France from Geneva (p. 595) and from Paris (since 1833); for it
endeavored, by its colporteurs and evangelists with Bibles and tracts, not only
to win the Catholics, but to bring back the Reformed Church to its original
principles, (/«) while the Society for the General Interests of Protestantism
aimed only to unite the orthodox portion of the Church in the pursuit of
general objects. («) Although the Reformed Church has since increased, not
only by persons coming from other bodies, but by the accession of those
whose preferences had either been unformed or concealed, in these intellec-
tual contests its spirituality has been exposed to great hazard. When the
Synod of 1848 resolved to disregard all confessions of foith, that it might
keep the Church practically united, pastor Fred. Monod and Count Gasparin,
the noble champion of French Protestantism, abandoned it. On their invi-
tatiou, thirty congregations which, from a desire to possess a more rigid disci-
pline or a purer faith, had previously been independent, now united in a Synod
at Paris (18-49), and formed a Union of evangelical congregations on the basis
of a new confession, whose articles were merely devotional, in the style of
the apostles John and Paul. These congregations had been formed -with a
distinct creed, received no support or assistance from the state, and were
n. of the Persecutions endured by the Prot of the south of France. Lond 1S21. 2 vol& (Kllist.
Archiv. 1S23. II. 3s.)
i) IT. Keuchlin, d. Christenth. in Fr. Hamb. 1837. p. 33Tss. Le proces de Sennevillo. Affaire da
liborte des cultes, plaidöe par OdOlon Sarrot Par. 1S43. {A. Mäder) Die prot K. Fr. 17S7-1S46. ed.
by Gicseler, Lps. ISiS. 2 vols.
A) Brl. KZ. 1548. N. 75. 89. 90. 98. 102.— 76. 95. 1849. N. 7.
t) Brl. KZ. 1852. N. 28. A. KZ. 1853. N. 143. m) Organ : Archive dn Christianisme.
fi) Aginor de Gasparin, Les IntilTcts generaux du Protest, franr. Par. 1543. Essen. 1S43.
CJIAP. V. EVANG. CHUPXn TILL 1SÖ3. § 463. FEANCE. ITALY. GOG
independent in government and worehip ; but they now resolved to maintain
unity by means of a biennial synod, and a synodal commission for the inter-
vening period, (o) But even in the Reformed National Church there are two
opposite parties : the Evangelical, under Ad. Monod, agreeing in doctrine
witli the Separatists, and anxious to preserve, as for as possible, the old con-
fession and the old customs; (^/) and the Liberal under Coquerel, rejecting
every creed except the Scriptures as the word of God, and before the altar
cf the Lord. The number of ministers in each of these parties is nearly the
same ; they remain united, and both are rich in works of pious charity. (<■/)
The theological faculty at Strasbourg maintains an intimate fellowsliip with
German science, and the other at Montauban, with a clergy trained by
rhetorical rules and with a practical spirit, is conversant principally with de-
votional subjects. (?•) By its acquisition of territory in 1815, and by its Con-
stitution of 1842, Geneva lost its Protestant independence. (.•«) In /to??/, an
evangelical public Avorship was needed only for foreigners residing there.
The policy of the governments of Milan and Florence did not lead them to
oppose the formation of particular congregations. A regard for England,
Prussia, and America, disposed Naples and the ecclesiastical states to tolerate
Protestant chapels ; and after the old prophecy had been twice fulfilled, Ger-
man Protestantism found an abode in the Capitol. (/) When the national
desires of the Italians began to come in conflict with the hierarchj', an incli-
nation towards Protestantism showed itself here and there under English
influence, and the pope found himself threatened by a host of reforming
spirits and Italian Bibles. After the re-establishment of the legitimate au-
thorities, the revolutionary religion was put down, and many a victim was
sacrificed in the prisons, (u) But when the Madial family in Florence were
condemned (June, 1852) to an imprisonment for several years, on a charge
of endeavoring to make proselytes to Protestantism by reading the Bible, the
zeal of their Protestant friends in England became powerfully excited against
this anachronism. In opposition to the deputation of the Evangelical Alli-
ance, and the intercession of the King of I'russia and the English govern-
ment, the Grand Duke asserted tlio independence of his judicial courts, and
his obligation to protect the religion of the state ; but so menacing became
the popular excitement in England in support of the ministry, that the Tus-
can government thought it best to get rid of their troublesome prisoners by
sending them out of the country (March, 1853). (c) In consequence of this
aff"air, an association was formed in Hamburg (Aug. 1853), under the presi-
o) Union des <:••[. cvang. do France. Par. Is'O. Jf. Ihllmar, Entst. d. Unlonsklrclio in Fr.
(Zeitscli. f. hist Tli. 1S51. H. 8.)
p) Adolphe Monod, pourquol je dcniourc dans I'r^l. etablie. Par. ISIO.
q) A. Dammitn, d. pmt K. in Fr. (ZoiUcl). f. List. Tli. 1S50. H. 1.) E. S. Q. d. rd. Zust Fr.
CGelzer, prot. Monatscli. Is53. Aug. -Oct.)
/•) E. lieunx, d. wiss. Tlieol. unter d. fr. Prot. (Stud. u. Krit. 1344. IL 1.)
X) Comp. I5rl. KZ. 1S4'.'. N. 2C. A. KZ. Ib&J. N. 149. E. CiiniU in d. Jon. I.. Z. 1S43. N. 242.<9.
t) Niebuhr's Briife, v(d. II. p. 4oG. Fleck; wlss. Kclse Lps. lS:t5. vol II. 1. p. 124ss. li. Baird,
Blcetchcs of Protestantism in Italy, paet and present. IJoston. 1S46. 12.
u) Brl. KZ. 1S49 N. 73. 96. 1S.V). N. 21. Ev. KZ. 1^52. N. 9.3. A. D. Z. 1^3. N. 264
V) Ev. KZ. 1S52. N. 102. Brl. KZ. 1853. N. 16.— Hist. pol. 1511. ISM. vol. XXXI. p. 7S.3.sa [Story
üi the Madiai. N. York. 1S63. Anicr. and For. Clir. Union, vol. IIL p. SOTss. vol. IV. p. G5ss ]
;J9
610 MODKUN ClinUCII mSTOUV. PER. VI, A. D. lC^S-1858.
(Icnoy of Lord Sliiiftesluiry, witli an executive committee in London, to assist
by every means sanctioned by tlie gospel all who might sutler persecution for
their contossion of Christ, or for reading and distributing tlie Holy Scrip-
tures, (ir)
§ 404. Old and Kcw Sects.
1. Tlic WnMcnsc9.i wlio were connected with the Hussites by fraternal
ties, recognized finally in tbc Reformation (Synod of Angrogna, 1532) the
very objects which their ancestors had been obscurely seeking, (a) They
were therefore exterminated in France, with the exception of some remnants
living in the High Alps of Dauphine, but they have been preserved under a
synodal system of pastors and elders in three Alpine valleys in Piedmont.
Here they came sometimes under the influence of distinguished persons be-
longing to the Genevan Church, though generally they retained the character
of great pious simplicity. They have been much oppressed by their own
authorities, but since the time of Cromwell, they have received pecuniary aid
from the English government. Napoleon favored them, but after the restora-
tion they were thrown back under their former oppressions, and confined to
the narrow valleys of their ancestors. (V) The flag of liberty on the throne
of Piedmont opened to them the whole country (Feb., 1848;, the inclination
generally felt toward Protestantism found among them a primitive legal form,
and a great Waldensian church was dedicated with much solemnity in the
city of Turin itself (1853). (r) 2. Among the Mennonites in Holland, the
Arminian party obtained the ascendency, and when the different factions of
the Gross became united, all distinct creeds were abandoned (1800). {d) The
Ba2)fists of England and North America had their origin principally among
the Independents (since 1630). The largest portion adhere strictly to Cal-
vinistic orthodoxy and discipline, but a part are Arminians (General Bap-
tists), and some have no ecclesiastical discipline. Some minor communities
among them have originated, in some instances, fi-om their adoption of the
Jewish Sabbath (Sabbatarians) ; in others, from their inculcating opposi-
tion to the slave-trade as a religious duty (Emancipationists) ; and still in oth-
ers, from the principle of abstinence from all controversies on the ordinary
orthodox doctrines (Christians), (e) In Germany, persons sometimes became
Anabaptists from pietistic scruples, or from some religious extravagances, and
a few small congregations have here and there been baptized by the English
missionary OncJcen, of Hamburg (since 1834). (/') In Denmark, they were
w) A. KZ. 1S53. N. IToss.
a) Herzog, röm. Waldenser. p. 833ss.
h) M'. Dieterici, A. Wald. u. ilir Verli. z. Trenss. Staat. Brl. 1S31. Mayerhoff, d. W. in unsern
T.igen. Brl. 1S34. Fleck, Eeise. vol. II, 1. p. 21ss. [JK Henderson, Tour in the Valleys of Pied-
mont, in lSi4. Lond. 1S45. S.]
c) J. U. \Yeisa, d. KVerf. d. Picm. W. Zur. 1S44. Brl. KZ. 1548. X. 21. 77. A. KZ. 1S53. X. 173.
d) FUedner. CoUectenroise. vol. I. p. 133ss.
e) Buckuii, II. of the English-American Baptists. Boston, 177-2-S4. 2 vols. [D. Douglas, II. of
Dapt, Churches in the North of Engl. Lond. 1S4G. S ] A. F. Cov and J. Ilohy. (p. 668.) Archiv, t
KG. vol. II. p. 5769.S. KHist. Archiv. 1S24. St 3. Ev. KZ. 1S32. N. 95. 1S39. N. 91ss.
/) Pitpikofer, d. neuer K. in der Schweiz. St. Gall. lSo4. C. Grüneisen. Abriss e. Gesch. d. rel.
Ojmelnschafton in WQrtcmb. in. bes. KQcks. a. d. neuen Taufgesinnten. (ZciUcli. f. hist Th. 1S41
II. 1.) Brl. KZ. 15.40. X. 74. 1S41. N. "9. S". ISol. X. 34. 3T
CHAP. T. EVANG. CnUKCn TILL 1S53. § 464. UNIT. PLYMOUTH EUhTH. 611
ftt first punished by fine and imprisonment ; but when this course was found
to be ineffectual, they were allowed to have a single congregation in Fi-ederi-
cia (1842), It was, however, found impossible to confine them within this
limit, (y) 3. As Unitarinnium could be propagated simply as an opinion, it
had less occasion to be extended as a sect. In Transylvania, the Unitarians
have maintained a well constructed ecclesiastical system, and have developed
their views in consi.^teney with their supernaturalist concessions. Qi) In Eng-
land they lived legally subject to the axe of the executioner, and although the
laws against them had long since ceased to be enforced, even in 1792, Parliament
refused formally to abolish the statutes against them, and it was not till 1813
that they were finally tolerated by law, Lindsey (d. 1808), whose gentle
spirit led him voluntarily to withdraw from a congregation connected Avith
the Established Church (1773), and the natural philosopher Fiuesthy founded
a few Unitarian congregations, and an academy for free theological inquiry,(/')
When Priestley was obliged to retire to America before the storm of the pop-
ular will (1794), he there encountered every kind of opposition. But after
his death (180-4), a kind of Katiuuallsm began to spread in opposition to the
prevalent sentiment of the people there, and found a peculiarly favorable
home in the general isolation and freedom of the churches. Several hundred
congregations among the Independents and Baptists have enibraced it, and
for some time it has had the ascendency in the State of Massachusetts, (k)
In England, the greater pai't of the Presbyterian and General Baptist congre-
gations have adopted the same sentiments. When they thus denied the doc-
trine of a Triune, incarnate God, the orthodox Dissenters maintained that
they had forfeited their right to all ecclesiastical property derived from foun-
dations established for the promotion of the Christian faith. This view was
sustained by the civil courts, and many congregations were deprived of their
former splendor m public worship, until by a new law (Dissenters' Chapel
Bill, 1844), which gave a legal title to such as had enjoyed immemorial pos-
session of the fund, a termination was given to this scandal. (/) 4. The
I'll/mouth Urethren^ a society founded by Darby, an English clergyman, and
propagated from Plymouth to the Canton of Vaud (1840), felt constrained to
abandon the Protestant Cliurch, on the ground that it also had become a
Babylon, but they remained strictly Calvinistic in doctrine, and were diligent
in religious labors, liegarding themselves as the elect children, and there-
fore universally the priests of God, they relied on the promise of our Lord
(Mattli, 18, 20), dispensed with a regular clergy, and in small domestic
churches waited for the approaching second advent of Ciirist, {in) 5, A
(7) BrI. KZ. 1S48. N. 9. 1S4G. N. 18. 80. 1S47. N. 12.
h) (G. Jfitrk-on,) Sumina Thcul. unlv. fee. Uiiilarlos. Clnudiopoli, l"sT. Arcliiv f. KGoscb. vol
IV. St 1.
t) Th. lidnham. Memoirs of Lind-cy. Loud. ISiO. Mimoir? of J. rrifntlfi/, (by liimself nml his
son.) Lond. ISOCs. 2 vols. H'. Turner, Llvis of Kiiilncnt Unitarian!!. I.ond. lS40?s. 2 vols,
X) JI'((/./i, list. rel. Gesell, vol. V. p. 175. Yll, 34Tss. Arclilv f. KO. voL I. p. 88. IV, 149ss. Ev.
KZ. ISoO. N. l.S. 1H31. N. 40.
I) J. iturch, lIlsL of the Pres, and Oen. IJaptlst Clmrches In the West «f Engl. Lond. 1885. K.
A. Crediier, l;irchl. Zust .nde. (Heidlb. Julirb. ISJS. II. 1.)
vi) J. J. lUrzog, les Frires dc Plymouth et .lohn Darby. Laii<>. 1S45. Ev. KZ, 1844. N. 28. 23
Bil. KZ. Isjl. N. 00. [('. F. LeopoUl, in the S^tiid. n. Krit. 1S4S. II. 4.J
61-2 MODKUN CIIURCn niSTORT. PER. VI. A. D. lC45-li53.
runmiico founded on tlio story tliat tlic ten tribes of Israel liad been driven
to America, and been converted under tlio jjcrsonal ministry of our Lord
there, was turned into a holy hook Avhicli Jo^exih Smith (b. 1805) claimed to
liavo discovered by revelation, and found to be an historical record by Mor-
mon, an old prophet among that people. Professing to be himself an inspired
l)rophct, ho collected around him an active host, which were driven from a
number of places, but at last commenced the erection of a city and a splen-
did temple in the State of Illinois. Their pious claims upon the property of
their neighbors soon armed a multitude of fanatics against them, by whom
their temple was destroyed and their prophet was slain (1844). During two
subsequent years, and in the midst of indescribable troubles, the Mormons
went through the wilderness and across the Kocky Mountains to the great
ocean, and founded on the Salt Lake (Utah Territory) a city and a flourishing
state, which is preparing to take its place under the starry banner of the United
States. From this point their messengers are going forth, full of faith in old
and new prophecies, into all parts of the world, to baptize the Latter-Day-
Saints and to assemble them in their new Zion on the Salt Lake. Their
Catechism has an evangelical and almost an orthodox tone ; they take some
pains to deny the limited polygamy which is practised among them, and their
community of goods is limited to one tenth of all property and annual rents,
to be used for objects of common utility. The purpose of their theocratic
government is to establish a firm social and military system, and it offers
those who have come to them, especially from Scotland and Scandinavia, the
prospect at least of a temporal kingdom. (//)
§ 465. Missionary and Bible Societies.
The ordinary Annual Reports, esp. of the London,' Edinburgh, Basle, Halle, and Berlin Bible So-
cieties. For a Gen. View: Knapp, Abriss e. prot. Missionsgcsch. (Hall. Jabresb. 1S16. St 66.)
Fortschritte d. ev. Missionsw. im 1. Viertel d. 19. Jahrh. Bas. 1S26. F. Lücke, Missionsstudien.
Glitt 1S41. F. ^Y. Klumpp, d. ev. Missionswesen, s. weltgesch. u. nation. Bedeut Stuttg. 1541. J.
Wiggers, (p. 510.) J. IT. Brauer, d. Missionswesen d. ev. K. St.itistik. Uamb. 1S47-51. I. vol. 1. 2 H.
A'. J. Kitzsch, cl Wirk. d. ev. Chr. auf kulturlose Völker. Brl. 1S52. Comp. Wisemann, d. Un-
frnchtbark. d. v. Protestanten unternommen. Miss. Augsb. 1835.— Ji Oicen, Hist of the Orig. and first
teji years of the Bible Soc. Lond. 1S16. 3 vols. Lps. lS2t Archiv. £ KG. vol. II. p. 229ss. III. ITlss.
A. KZ. 1S25. N. 123. 1828. N. 25. 1829. N. 86. [F. Schobert, Present State of Christianity, and of the
Miss. Establishments. Lond. 182S. 12. J. 0. Choules, Hist of Missions. Boston, 1883. 2 vols. B. R
Edwards, Miss. Gazetteer. Bost 1832. 12. (7. WüUa7ns, Miss. Gaz. Lond. 1S2S. 12. J. Tracy, H. ol
tho Am. Board. Boston, 1838. 12.]
In the spirit of the present age, which accomplishes great enterprises by
means of private voluntary associations, the extension of Christianity has
become a popular cause. Boards for missionary societies, each of which is
peculiar and distinct in its character, were organized at London in 1795, («)
at Edinburgh in 1796, at Boston in 1810, at Basle in 1816, {l>) at Is'ew York
n) Book of Mormon. Book of Covenants. The former work has been several times printed sinca
1880, even in German. Pratt, e. Stimme d. Warnung u. Beleb. C alle Völker, from the Engl. Hamb.
1S53.— TMrn^r, Mormonism in all Ages. N. York. 1S4;3. Caswell, The Prophet of the 19lh Cent
lond. 1S42. Jiaumer, (p. 601.) vol. II. p. 154ss. Brl. KZ. 1S51. N. 69. 1852. N. 100. 1S53. N. 6. 42. 45
A. KZ. 1S53. N. Sss.
a) Vr. Ellis. Hist of the Lond. Miss. Soc Lond. 1844. vol. 1
I) W. Hoffmann, Eilf Jahre in d. Miss. Stuttg. 1853.
CUAR V. EVANG. CUUECU TILL 1S53. § 4C5. MISS, i BIBLE SOCIETIES. 613
in 1820, at Berlin in 1823, at Barmen in 1828, and at Dresden in 1836.
Wherever Protestants were found, auxiliaries to these societies were formed,
and about five millions of dollars are annually collected for the education and
support of five thousand native and foreign laborers in the missions of nearly
fifteen hundred stations on the globe. Every party in the Church, especially
in England and America, contriljutes of its money and its prayers, under the
conviction that the more a Cliristian. gives for objects abroad, the more he
will have of spiritual blessings in his own heart. The English missions aim ^
to make their converts thoroughly English, but the American missionaries I
avow that they wish to become national pastors, wherever they may be sta- '
tioned. In consequence of the peculiar organization of the London Society,
it was obliged to confine its attention to the simple proclamation of Chris-
tianity, and to leave the ecclesiastical connection to be determined by the
converts, or rather by the missionaries themselves. The Church Missionary
Society recognized indeed only the system of Christian faith professed by the
Episcopal Church, but it employed even German missionaries, and allowed
them to manage their ecclesiastical afiairs in their own way. The difiiculties
experienced by Ehenius (d. 1838), so remarkable for his powerful faith, and
who was the first that fell out with the society, sprung entirely from his de-
cided literary tendencies, (c) Tlie Xorth German Missionary Society (1830)
was much endangered by its controversy about the Lutheran and the Re-
formed Confessions, but with respect to missionary operations it always per-
ceived the necessity of a union. (</) The missionary societies of all countries
tvhere the German language was spoken, were united (1846) into one gen-
eral body, that concert in missionary operations might be secured by
means of periodical general assemblies and a central Board, whose location
might be changed according to circumstances. {>■) But when the Dresden
mission was transferred to Leipsic (1847), it placed itself decidedly on the
ground of the Lutheran Confession, and the Bavarian Lutherans pronounced
all contributions to the society of Nuremberg sinful, until it received a
Lutheran name and character (1852). (/) As most of the missions were
commenced under the management of what was called the Methodistic party
and the Moravians, it was found that none but those of a kindred spirit
would enter lieartily into the work of conducting them. Gradually, there-
fore, a certain degree of coolness with regard to them sprung up among the
Kationalists. (y) Although the doctrines of many of the missionaries may
have reminded one more of the Formula of Concord than of the gospel,
there were certainly some missionaries, as e. /;., those who proceeded from
the school of the sincere Jtunikc of Berlin (since 1800), whose virtues and
Bacrifices remind us of apostolic times. (//) Not only ministers with a regu-
c) n/ieiniralil, Kep. vol. XXIV. p. lS4s.s
d) Iloporl iifllie Nonlii. Miss. G. llamb. 18.30. A. K'A. 1S47. N. 1.V2. AIL-. Mi3>ion?zoilutig, cd. by
Brauer, Ilatiib. lS45ss.
e) Brl. KZ. 1S47. N. 70.
/) L. A. Petri, d. Mis.i. u. d. K. Hnnn. 1S41. K. Graul, d. ov. lutli. M. zu Dresden an die hitb
K. Lps. 1S45. Ev. Iiitli. .Misvslonsbl. Dr. u. \.\i\ s. lS4Cs9.
0) Röhr, rre-l. Blbl. vol. XII. If. 4. Noiizuiibl. and oft. A. KZ. 19-30. N. S3.s
//) Ev. KZ. 1S81. N. 90.
oil MODKUX CIIUnCH IIHTOUV. I'KR. VI. A. I). 1G4S-1963.
lar ediicatinii, Imt in some cases meclmiiics of a» elovatod religious spirit,
wore si'iit Ibrfli. Tlieir principiil influence has been exerted by means of
])OpiiInr scliools, and generally nono have been admitted to baptism until
tlieir tidolity has been proved. — When the Pietists of Halle had begun fl7l2)
to provide cheap Bibles, (0 this attempt to supply those who in different
places were found destitute of the word of God, suggested to some benevo-
lent people in England the idea of supplying every nation on earth with tho
Holy Scriptures in their own language. The British and Foreign Bible Society
at London was the first and the most important of all those enterprises. The
single penny of the poor soon became a million, and innumerable Bibles are
now distributed in more than a hundred languages. That the whole power
of all parties may be combined for the accomplishment of this object, nothing
is printed by this society but the word of God, in a faithful, and, when it is
possible, in an ecclesiastical translation, without note or comment. The rela-
tions of the English society to foreign societies were disturbed by its resolu-
tion to withdraw from all co-operation in the circidation of the Apocrypha
(1827) ; but although the difficulty was nearly settled by mutual conces-
sions, (k) it Avas made the subject of controversy in the orthodox party in
Germany, because those who maintained the divine authority of the Scrip-
tures were against, while those who regarded them as merely traditionary
records were in favor of the Apocrypha, and the practical interest might
therefore be so explained as to be on either side. (/) The proposition in Lon-
don, to banish from the society all who did not believe in a Triune God, was
voted down with great unanimity (1831), but its advocates withdrew, and
formed a separate society, (m)
§ 466. Sjtread of Christianity.
In consequence of the revolutionary wars in the south of Europe and
America, the dominion of the seas had fallen into the hands of Protestant pow-
ers, and all the shores of the earth were open to their missions. Hence,
when peace was concluded, the gospel was proclaimed in all parts of the
world with more power than ever before, and with a powerful popular sym-
pathy in its favor. In the South Sea Islands, even among the milder tribes,
Christianity had to contend with the most licentious practices, and the terri-
ble sanctity of the Tabu. At Tahiti, the dissenting missionaries, since 1797,
never despaired even in the most hopeless seasons, and have finally obtained
possession of tho native children. Xing Pomare II. learned to read and
write ; an insurrection in favor of the old religion was quelled after a san-
guinary struggle (Nov. 12th, 1815), and the magic work of the first printing
press was hailed (1817) with the most joyful anticipations. At the Sand-
wich Islands, king liiho-riJio had already destroyed the old gods when the
American missionaries first landed on his shores (1820). (a) Since that time,
most of the Society and Sandwich Islands, as they could not escape the vices
i) A. IT. Xiemei/er, Gesch. d. Canstcin. Bibelanst. Hal. 1S2T. ^l-) A. KZ. 1S27. N. 12. 1530. X. Sa
^) Drl. KZ. 1?53. N. 4;^. m) Ev. KZ. 1S81. N. C-3s. 1S.32. N. S4. 95.
a) E. ProHt, Mem. of tho Life of J. Williams. Loud. 1S4:3. W. J. Bes'ier, J. W. d. Apostel d
Südsec. Brl. 2 cd. ISiT.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S53. §466. EAST INDIES. G15
of civilization, have accepted also of the virtues of a Puritanic form of
Christianity, and submitted themselves to the theocratic government of the
missionaries ; (7^) but the English missionaries have been driven from th«
Marquesas, and the evangelical churches of Tahiti have been wasted by
French ships of war with Catholic priests (since 1842). (c) The old land of
Avonders, the land of Brahma, had now become subject to the merchants of
England. Tlie East India Company has sometimes favored Brahminism be-
cause it believed that the security of its dominion might be promoted by the
jealousies of the Brahmins and the Mussulmen. But public oi)iniim in Eng-
land demanded that the government should act in consistenc}' with the
Christian religion, and accordingly, in 1829, the suttees ceased to receive the
protection of the laws, and in 1831, all offices open to any natives were made
free to Christian Hindoos. The system of caste still presents very great
obstacles; the manner in Avhich the Brahmins have been educated enables
them to propose objections ('?) which an uneducated missionary finds it hard
to answer : the number of converts is small, and the missionaries' native
helpers have very little influence with those wliom tliey have forsaken. The
Anglican Church is the only body which has laid the basis of an external
polity there. The diocese of Calcutta has been established (1815), and the
suffragans of Bombay and Madras have been since attached to it (1833).
But the foundations of the old temples have been powerfully shaken by the
quiet influence of Christian dominion and improvements, by the schools, a
free press, and trials by jury. In the promotion of these objects. Bishop
Heber (d. 1826) spent the brief day of his administration in his immense dio-
cese laboring principally for the Christian education of the people, (e) Bishop
Wilson has declared all distinctions of caste abolished among such as profess
the Christian religion (1833), since the gospel has placed all men of every
nation and condition on tlie same footing. (/) On the other hand, the great
liammohun-Iii'ii (1780-1833), in possession of the treasures of Indian and
Chiistian learning, has proclaimed that the purely moral worship of the one
6) E. W. Löhn, ü. <L Rel. d. Polyiicsier, a d. Tapnländer. (Zeltsch. f. hist Th. 1S42. U. 4.)— 0. r.
KoUehu«, Kcise um d. Welt Weim. 1S30. {Röhr, Pr. Bibl. vol. X. H. 5. XII, 4. XIII, 5.) To b«
modiftod by: Ellis. Pdlyncsian P.csearclies. Loud. ISJO. 2 vuls. (Kv. KZ. 1S30. N. SOss.) [N. York.
1S31. 2 vols.] /'. Krohn. (L Missionswcson d. Süilsoo. Hiiib. ISIW. J. Williams, Xarr.itivo of Miss.
Enterprises in the South Sea Islands. Lond. 1S3'. C. E. Meinickf, d. Südsocviilker u. d. Christonth.
I'rcnzl. 1S4-L //. Wetjener, Gesch. d. chr. K. a. d. Gesellschafw-Areliipol. lirl. 1S44. vol. L
c //. Lutlerofh, Gesch. d. I. Tahiti, u. Hirer Besit/nahme durch d. Franzosen, from the Fr. by Hriins.
Rrl. 1S48. ir. E. Benser, d. Ml.sslonür u. 8. Lohn, (fnini J'ritchard, The Missionary's RewanL Lond.
1S44.) Hal. 1S40.— iS". Michaelis, d. Völker d. Südsce u. Gesch. d. prot u. kath. Mis-s. unter dons.
Munst 1S4T.
(/) An Apology for IIcathenLsrn, and Controversi.il Trcatis«« against Christianity, by a Brabinin.
Translated, with notes by Bp. Wilson. Bombay, li,i2. (.Mitgcth. v. Porot in Stud u. Krit 185^).
n. 2.)
e) Luchaniin, nst Unters, u. d. Zust d. Clirlsfen in A.«Icn. A. d. E. Stuttg. 1S1.3. [Christian Re-
searches in Asia. Lond. ISll. S. and ufl.] Kiemeyer, nenero Gesch. d. ev. Miss, in Ostind. (Ha!.
1^0. St 77.) Ihhei; Journal. Lond. 1S26. 2 vols. 4. Life of Heber. Lond. lS.3i>. 2 vols. 4. United
in: Krohn, Hebers Leben n. Naclirr. Ü. Ind. Brl. 1S31. 2 vols. ,;: Hough, Hist of Christ In Inilin.
Lond. ISSO-rn. 4 vols. Die Entw. d. chr. Mls.s. in OsUnd. (Has. Mag. 1>41. H. 1. 2. 4. 1S42. II. 1. .Ss
1*43. 11. Iss. 1S44 H. 2s. 1S45. II. 2 ) J. J. Weithredit, d. prot Miss. In Ind. ni. bes. Rucks, a. Bca
galen. Ileidlb. 1844.
/) Ev. KZ. 1S34. N. 73s.
616 ' MOnKRN CIIUKCII IIISTOUY. PPMl. VI. A. D. 1043-1853.
God is TiuTi'ly tlic restoration of orifjinal Bniliiniiiism, and that tliis doctrine
con.'^titntc's llio unity of tliat system -with tlic essential principles of the gos-
pel. ((/) At Malacca, a Christian school was opened for the cduciition of tke
Chinese residing there, and Morrison (d. 1844) translated the Sorii)tures for
their use. English cannons have compelled the Celestial Empir.e to open its
gates for the reception of the gospel as -well as opium (1842), and the Hessian
Misüioiiary Society has avowed its sjjecial interest in the conversion of China.
Giitzhnf (1803-51), born a missionary, and trained in the scliool of Jaenike.
in the full costume of a native, and sometimes in connection with Englisli
merchants, has penetrated with some violence into the interior of China
(since 1831). At first he was obliged to communicate Christianity to the
Chinese only in a manuscript form, but after a time he succeeded in sending
forth in every direction a large number of native preachers from the Anglo-
Chinese seminary, which has been removed from Macao to IIong-Kong, and
finally, as a friend of China, has pleaded its cause in the different countries
of Germany. Qi) The insurrection created by the new Son of Heaven
(Tien-ti), has already destroyed the idols (since 1852), threatens to over-
throw the Tartar dynasty, and has adopted many ideas peculiar to Christian-
ity. (() Missions of all denominations have been established among the
colonies on the coast of Southern Africa^ where, in consequence of the rev-
erence which the negro generally feels for the white man, the difficulty has
been not so mucb with the decided opposition as with the indiflterence of a
stupid barbarism. The Ehenish Missionary Society looks with pious expec-
tations to the miniature likeness of its own native valley in the Wupperthal
belonging to the Colony of the Cape, but when the Hottentots rose against
the white men (since 1850), they forgot their catechism. At Sierra Leone has
been formed the germ of freedom and of Cliristianity (since 1810), at an
expense of millions of money, but it is continually threatened by a most
noxious climate. (}) To secure the benefits of European civilization for hit
subjects, King Radama allowed Christianity to be freely introduced intc
Madagascar (since 1818). The queen who succeeded him, however, com-
manded her subjects to think no more of the new doctrine ; the missionarie:-
abandoned the island (1836), and the native Christians were impaled alive.
g) Translation of several principal books of tlie Teds. ed. 2. Lend. 1S.83. Appe.il to Cliristians
Calcutta, lS20s. 2 vols. Correspondence rel.itive to the prospect of the reception of Christ, in India.
Lond. 1S24. A. KZ. 1824. N. 43. Gescb. d. ev. Miss. Hal. 1837. St S3, p. 9ü6s. [Christ E.\am-
iner, Sept and Oct 1826. Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. II. p. 270ss. North Amer. Eeview. voL
XX. p. S98ss.]
h) W. If. Medhurat, Ch\M, \is State and rro.^peets. Lond. 1S3S. Freely revised. Stuttg. 1S40.—
GuUlaf, Sketcli of Chinese Hist, Ane. and Mod. N. York. 1S40. 2 vols. 12.— C Gutzliff, Journal of
Throo Voyages along the Coast of China. N. York, 1S33. Lond. 1834. (Ev. KZ. 183.3. N. 56. 1S34. N.
TOss.) Gaihan's (Gützl.) chin. Berichte, 1841-16. ed. by the chin. Stiftung. 1850. A. KZ. 1S40. N.
181. 1847. N. 143. 1S50. N. 202ss. 1851. N. 40.
«') Koltrr. z. Kunde Chinas in Bez. a. d. Miss. ed. by A". L. BiernaUl->, Cass. 1SÖ3. vol. L 11. 2.
A. KZ 1853. N. ISO.
k) (0. V. GerhicJi,) Gesch. d. ev. Miss, im sfldl. Afr. Brl. 1832. (7. and S. Eep. of the BerL Soc.)
Reports of the Rhenish Miss. Soc. Barm. ISSOss. Hist of the Civilization and Christianizatlon of
louthern Afr. Kdlnb. 1880. Some circulars sent from South Afr. to Bishop Xcander, ed. bv G. G.'lcl
Ilamb. 1^10.
CUAP. VI. CATII. CHÜRCn TILL 1S53. § 4C7. PIUS VIL CONSALVL G17
but Christianity was Ly no means extinguished, (T) The remnants of the
aboriginal tribes of XortJi America betook themselves to the deeper shades
of their primitive forests ; and although some of them acknowledged the
God of the whites, others replied to the solicitations of the missionaries, that
they had previously lived happily under the protection of the Great Spirit,
and that what they had witnessed in their white brethren had only made
them doubt the expediency of any change. — About sixty-five millions of
people are at present adherents of the Evangelical Church.
CHAP. VI.— THE ROMA:?^ CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1853.
§ 4G7. Re-establishment of the lioman Hierarchy. Cont. from § 439.
With the restoration of the Bourbons, a party bound together by the
most intimate relations, and ramified in a great variety of forms, became dif-
fused in all parts of Southern Europe, and formed a secret connection until
1830 with tlie apostolical congregation as the nucleus of all their operations.
The object of this party was to obliterate all vestiges of the Revolution, and
under the name of the absolute monarchic system, once more to divide the
world between the Priests and the Barons. Tlieir watchword, tliat the altar
cannot fall without the throne, and the terrible experience of the few past
years was sufficient to draw toward them the hearts of the princes. Tlie
result was, that tlie state received an ecclesiastical, and the Church a politi-
cal element. By this dangerous connection, the hierarchy obtained many
unexpected concessions, but the Church was involved in all the changes of
tlie political system, and its true power was much impaired. And yet the
newly-awakened religious zeal Avhich now took possession of the leading
spirits of the age, sometimes the result of enthusiasm, and at other times of
deliberate purpose, was beneficial to the cause of Catholicism, and raised up
many a dilapidated and fallen jtillar for its support. Vius VII. once more
entered his capital (May 24th, 1814), which, having been reduced to a mere
French provincial town, now received him with acclamations, {a) The
Ecclesiastical States had their former limits assigned them by the Congress
of Vienna, with the exception of a small district beyond the Po. The pro-
vinces beyond the Apennines Avere exposed to the rapacity of Austria, now
the dominant power in Italy. The Diplomatists of Vienna smiled when
Consalvi sülemiily protested against the dismemberment of the country on
the Po, the Austrian occupation of the castle of Ferrara, the refusal to sur-
render Avignon, and the secularization and dissolution of the (German em-
pire, {h) The nations licard with amazement that the pope had pronounced
the Bible Society a pestilence (1817). (') The bull Sollicitudo Omnium (Aug.
7th, 1814), in compliance with what it called the almost unanimous entreat}
EUia, n. of Madnst. Lond. 1S8S. 2 vols. (Ev. KZ. 1S39. N. 15ss.) llrl. KZ. ISIL N. 25. Ftld
Iter, (1. Ev. 0. Madag. Künigsb. Ii45.
a) Pucca, Moiiiorio. Orv. IS*?, vol. V. Aii?sb. 1884. vol. V.
I) Klüher, Acten d. Wiener Conjrr. vol. IV. p. 825. VI. 441ss.
c) IJuW, Decreta, qulK soclett. bibl. it P. K. dnninontiir. lieg 131S.
618 MOHKEN CHÜUCH niSTORr. PKR. VI. A. D. 1045-1 SM.
of CiiriHtendom, restored the order of tlic Jesuits tlirougliout the -world,
Nowhcro, except in tlie Ecclesiastical States, Lowever, was it able to regaiu
possession of any i)ortion of its former property ; but it received from the
former society an inheritance of suspicion and hatred, which its members
Bonght to remove from tlie popular mind by a course of strict morality and
manners. In Naples, Belgium, Ireland, and in most of the American States,
they were tolerated ; in Sardinia, they were richly endowed, and intrusted
with the education of the youth ; and in some of the cantons of Switzerland
they erected edifices for instruction, which were resorted to by many chil-
dren of the French and German nobility. Austria, after a protracted refu
sal, opened a few of her provinces to them (after 1836). They Avere excluded
from Russia for their abuse of confidence (1820). (d) As they became, under
General Iiooi/iaan, after 1829, more and more decidedly the prominent cham-
pions against all freedom both in Church and State, not indeed from any
warmth of natural character, but by cold calculation and untiring diligence,
their intrusion into the western states of Europe depended upon their uncer-
tain victory over liberal institutions, (c) Every condition which they had
desired in behalf of the new order of things in the Church, had been con-
ceded to them by the Eoman court, and by the governments of Turin (1814,
1817) and Naples (1818), since every limitation of the hierarchy was sus-
pected in those countries as a democratic element. (/) Every ecclesiastical
measure indicated that it was the design to bring all things back to the con-
dition in which they were before the time of Cl^nent XIV. In the civil
administration, Consalvi endeavored to strike out a middle way between the
hierarchical and liberal parties. A Motu-Proprio of July 6, 1816, confirmed
the legal equality of all citizens, just as it had been introduced by the French
when they abolished all municipal and provincial privileges. But when the
French code had been abolished, nothing was substituted in its place ; the
prelates once more seized upon all the civil offices, the privileged classes were
opposed to a re-establishment of the financial system, and even robbers col-
lected annuities. It may therefore with propriety be said, that there was no
security for the government but in the pious recollections of the people,
and in the proper management of the confessional, (g) After experiencing
such extreme vicissitudes of fortune, Pius VU. died (Aug. 21, 1823), his last
days having been beclouded by the burning of St. Paul's church, and the
threatened approach of a new revolution. (//) Although he was a theologian,
his education was by no means extensive ; he had no great confidence in his
own abilities, displayed great powers of endurance, and his countenance wa?
that of a saint, and an image of a noble soul.
d) rater, Anbau, vol. 11. p. 39ss. KITist. Archiv. 1S2.3. P. 2. p. 22s3. WesUivUder, ü. d. Wie
derh. d. Jes. 1818. Cretineau-Joly, Gesch. d. GescUsch. J. from the French. Vienna lS45ss. 6 vols.-
//. Liilteroih, la llussie et les Jesuites. Par. 1844 Ü. v. Birch, Stuttg. 1S46.
e) Pas Innere d. GescUsch. Jesu. Lps. 1S45. Der Jes. O. u. s. Unverträgliclik. m A. deutscheii
Verli. Stuttg. 1S4G.
/) Orig. Docc. In Vator's Anbau, xol I. p. 65ss. 14Is?.
0) Tounion, i:tudes statistiques sur Eome. Par. 1S31. Z. HanUe, Rom. 1S15-23. (Hist, pol
Zeltachr. 1S:3». P. 4.)
/() P. BtihliitMri, Relazione dcUe aversita c patimenti del P. Pio Til. negU Ultimi trc anni del
•uo iK>ntif. ed. 2. Bolog. 1S40.
CHAP. VI. CATH. CnUECH TILL 1853. §468. LEO XII. GEEGCRT XVL 619
§ 468. The Popes lefore the Last.
{KijUe,) Eom im J. IS.'JS. Stuttg. 1SS4. E. Munch, Küm. Zustände u. Kirehcnfragen d. neuesten
Zelt. Stuttfr.lS.38. (TT. HeuehHn,) Bilder n. Skizzen a. Rom. Statt?. 1S44— J! G. Köhet-le : Horn unter
den letzton drei Päpsten, u. d. zweite Eef. in Deutsclil. I.ps. 1S4G. 3 vols. — ArUind de Movtnr, Ilist
du P. Leon XII. Par. 1<!4:3. revised \<y Ch. ScJterer, ScliatTh. 1S44.— du P. Pie VIII. Par. 1&44.— Aus
d. Leben P. Greg. XVI. Vien. 1S31. i. Beruh. Waanei; P. Greg. XVI. Sulzb. 1S4Ö.
Leo XIL (dollii Genpa, Sept. 28th, 1823-Feb. lOtli, 1829), wlio belonged
to the party opposed to Consalvi's liberal policy, endeavored to regulate the
atitiirs of tlie Cliurch beyond the Alps and the ocean, and to snj)ply it "with
bishops distinguished for piety and science. He also improved the system of
education in the Ecclesiastical States, canonized the Minorite Julianus, "who
had ordered fried birds to fly away, {a) and appointed the year of Jubilee to
be a season of general expiation and grace, in which believers from all parts
of the earth might come up to tlie metropolis of the world, to thank God
for the victory which had been obtained over the great conspiracy of this
century against all human and divine rights, and to pray for the extermina-
tion of heretics. (/') He had not been distinguished for his abstemiousness in
Germany, where ho had resided as a nuncio, but when he became pope he
was extremely temperate. On his accession, he was received at Rome with
great rejoicings, but at his death he was hated for his strictness and indepen-
dence, not only by the officials of his court and the cardinals, but by the
people. Pius VIIL (Castiglioni, March 31st, 1829-Xov. 30th, 1830), a
favorite of his predecessor of the same name, a sickly, benevolent old man,
and always afraid of the machinations of the philosophers, the Bible socie-
ties, and the Carbonari, (r) put forth his last and best energies to confer bless-
ings on his city and the world. The longings of the Italians generally after
national independence and a popular constitution, had become powerful espe-
cially in the Ecclesiastical States, quite as much in consequence of the decided
opposition made to them, as of the weakness of the government. Even dur-
ing the session of the conclave, an insurrection became formidable, and deter-
mined the vote in fiivor of Capellari von Belluno, the General of the Camal-
dolites, Grcgorrj AT/. (Feb. 2, 1831^June 1, 184G), who had once celebrated
the triumph of the holy see over the as.saults of those innovators. (-/) The
insurrection, relying upon the aid of Franco, broke out in tlie Legations,
extended be^^ond the Marquisate of Ancona, and finally reached Rome, where
its object was to compel the pope to abdicate liis temporal sovereignty.
From this he was preserved by the interference of Austria. He however
paid only an apparent attention to the admonition of the European powers,
to conform his administration to the spirit t>f the age. The rebellion had
been indeed suitjjressed, but was by no means radically exterminated, and
hence it was soon awakened to new activity (Jan., 1832). The troops sent
forth to quell it, being wholly composed of banditti and criminals, ravaged
peaceable towns and sacred spots, until finally it became necessary to call in
the Austrian military to rescue the papal government and its territory from
a) A. KZ. 1825. N. 70. V) Ibid. 1S24. N. 83.
c) EUemchmid, r«im. Unllar. Lps. 1S3I. vol. II. p. SOSss.
Trlonfo della Santa Sede. Rom. 1799. Ven. 1S32, and oft Augsb. 13*i.
320 MODERN CHÜROn HISTOKY. PKIt. VI. A. D 1648-135«.
Us own Foldici'}'. To [ircvc.it Austria from obtaining complete sovereignty
over Itnly, tlio French fleet took possession of Ancona by a single blow (Feb
23, 1832). Tlio Roman court protested against this violation of national
law, declared tlie city of Ancona under an interdict, and thus finally availed
Itself of the weak side which necessity offered. There was no denying that
tlic deficit in tho revenues Avas annually increasing. An attempt to intro-
duce a new code of civil law was defeated by tlie opposition of the provinces.
Ancona was given up by the French and Bologna by the Austrians simul-
taneously, Dec. 3d, 1838. The Legations were disturbed by an almost per-
petual guerilla war during the years 1843-44. (e) The inhabitants of Eimini
(Sept., 1845) demanded Avith arms in their hands, since every other form of
petition and complaint was denied them, the very moderate concession of the
legal forms of a civilized state. The Swiss regiments and a f^inatical band of
papal volunteers stifled this insurrection in blood, and a great part of the edu-
cated Roman youth sighed in prisons, or in the mere possession of life in foreign
lands. The pastoral epistle of Gregory (Aug. 15, 1882) is full of expressions
indicating that the author was conscious that the Roman Church stood on
the brink of an abyss, and that it could be saved only by the firm union of
all true believers in opposition to modern science and popular freedom, but
that his unshaken reliance rested upon the protection of the Holy Virgin. (/')
Gregory lived to witness, on the other side of the Alps, both defeats and
triumphs, but he seemed always to understand with firm moderation what
the papacy might according to circumstances demand or endure from others.
The festival of the canonization of five saints (May 26th, 1839), was a cele-
bration of victory and a season of excitement, (y) Gregory lived, according
to his own convictions of duty, the abstemious life of a cloister, or at least
under all the restraints of a monkish spirit, but he could not control the ava-
rice of his subordinate courtiers ; he had no confidence in his people, and
therefore put himself under the counsels of a gloomy party ; and he finally
left his personal servants and his nepotes rich, the country impoverished, and
the government distracted.
§ 469. Fills IX. {June 10, 184G) and Italy.
Pius IX. u. s. Eeforinen. Lps. 1S47. IT. Stieglitz, Erinn. an Eoin. u. d. KStaat itn ersten Jahr. sr.
Verjüng. Lps. 184S. Curci, d. Papst als Staatsoberli. u. d. Demagogie, from the It»I. of E. v. Moi/
Insb. 1S49. Fil. di Boni, Pio nono. Torino. 1850. Die Gegenwart Lps. lS49ss. vol. III. p. 149, GOi^s.
vol. VII. p. 458S.
The election was for some time undecided between the Genoese, Lambrus-
chini, who had been the real ruler during the last years of Gregory's reign,
and Mastai Feretti (b. 1792), of Sinigaglia, once a resident in Chili, and when
a prelate much interested in the establishment for the poor, and a father to
all orphans. The influence of the Roman nobility to which he belonged, and
the perilous condition of the ecclesiastical government, finally determined the
choice of the conclave on the second evening, in favor of Feretti. Fins IX.
was regarded by his intimate acquaintances as the friend of moderate progress
e) A. Z. 1S4-3. N. 2S0. /) A. KZ. 1S32. N. lS3s.
g) A. KZ. 1S3.<. N. 101. Ebcinw. Eep. vol. XXVL p. 91ss.
CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH TILL 1553. § 469. PIUS IX. GIOBEKTL 621
but his mind was raised to a consciousness of a divine vocation to be the re-
former and deliverer of the Ecclesiastical States by the enthusiasm of the Ro-
aian jieople in his belialf, and the opposition he had to encounter, llis popu-
lar manners won the hearts of the people even when his reforms appeared to
them too tardy and incomplete. An amnesty for all who had been imprisoned
or exiled for political offences was merely in accordance with what had now
become established usage on the accession of a new pope, but he pronounced
the word of grace with so much cordiality and good-natured confidence
(July 17) that an act which brought such consolation to thousands of families
filled all Italy with joy. (a) He commenced his retrenchments in his own
hou.'?ehold, allowed the press to indulge in a much greater liberty, strength-
ened the commissions previously appointed for digesting a code of laws and
forms of judicial proceedings by the addition of approved men, granted per-
mission for the construction of railroads, opened to the laity the path to the
higher civil ofBces, decided upon a general taxation of all convents in the
Ecclesiastical States, gave a liberal municipal constitution e.«pecially to the
city of Rome, invited men from the provinces in whom the public had con-
fidence, to his council of state, entered upon negotiations for the dismission
of the Swiss troops, and took initiatory steps for a confederation of the Italian
states. His kind intentions with respect to the Jewish quarters in the city
were frustrated by the opposition of the Christian population, (h) A portion
of the clergy sincerely ranged themselves on the side of the pope, his elo-
quent preacher, Ventura, j)roclaiiiied that genuine Catholic piety must neces-
sarily become reconciled with political freedom, (c) and even the Jesuits de-
clared themselves the friends of progress. But so numerous were the injuries
committed, and threats received by those who lived upon abuses, and espe
cially by those who had formerly sustained ofiices (la setta Gregoriana), and
so complete Avas the change of position from that which the modern papacy
had hitherto occupied with respect to the political parties, that an open and
a secret opposition to this " devouring germ and chief of young Italy " was
unavoidably called forth. {<I) As there were two political powers on the op-
posite confines of the Ecclesiastical states threatening his government, because
they were tlireatened by the spirit emanating from it, this opposition formed
a coalition with them. To overcome this which was magnified by the popu-
lar imagination until it assumed the character of a murderous conspiracy,
Pius ventured to place weapons in tlie hands of the citizens (guardia civica,
July 5, 1847). (e) By this act lie placed himself at the head of the Italian
national movement, and was obliged earnestly to protest against the Austrian
occupation of Ferrara, and ho seemed actually to be, what the learned Abbot
Giolerti had dreamed that the papacy might become, the head of an Italian
confederacy of prince.«, for the unity, national independence, and civil liberty
of Italy; and by reconciling faith with intellectual improvements, the peaceful
umpire among the nations, liolding up the cro.ss as the standard of freedom, (f)
a) D. A. Z. 1S46. N. 220. b) Ibid. 1S47. N. 195.
c) Eloglo funebro di Dnnlello O'Connell. Hoina 1S4T.
d) D. A. Z. 1846. N. 297. 306. e) Ibid. 1847. N. 109. 2.^8.
f) Primato morale e civile dcsrli ItalLini. Par. 1843. Dulle nondlzloni presente c ftitnro d"Itiil. Lon-
in 1848. Comp. J. F. yeigehour d. Papst u. s. Ilcich. Lps. 1847.
622 moi>i:i:n ciiukcii iiistorv. riiu. vi. a. d. ic48-i->53.
His posiuoi» with respect to the Church was strictly Catholic. "When he
camo before tho public his appearance was thoroughly sacerdotal, and he
made even the pulpit subservient to liis designs, (fj) Uis pastoral epistle
(Nov. 9, 1840) was an echo of that of Gregory, only his complaints respect-
ing tlio i)ress and popular freedom were confined to those books which tempted
men to sin, and to what he called communism. (/<) His personal inquiries
into the condition of convents and hospitals, his circulars to tho generals of
the orders (June 17, 18-47), and the commissions appointed with reference to
the convents, were intended to re-establish the canonical regulations, and to
bring the monastic life to its former flourishing state, by enlisting it in pious
offices and learned labors, {i) All the Italian states had cauglit the spirit pro-
ceeding from Rome, when the French revolution gave free scope to all the
hopes and passions of the nations. In spite of the opposition of his conscience,
the pope yielded to the importunities of his people by giving them a constitu-
tion, providing for two chambers, one chosen by himself, and the other by
the people, but reserving for his inviolable authority all matters relating to
the Catholic faith and to morals (March 14, 1848), {h) and by appointing for
his minister a layman who had just returned from exile. Gioberti accused
tho Jesuits of being the authors of all the distress and disgi-ace to be found in
Catholic nations. {I) They were generally driven from the streets by the
people, and although the pope steadily refused again to abolish the order, he
was obliged to witness their expulsion from the Ecclesiastical States. When
Lombardy rose against the Austrian dominion, and Charles Albert, the sword
of Italy, to gain the Lombard crown put himself at the head of the insurrec-
tion, Pius refused to take any part in the national war. In spite of his dis-
approbation, however, 12,000 modern crusaders (crociati) went forth to a
holy war, in which they found neither wounds nor honor. The pope de-
clared that the Father of Christendom should never participate in a war be-
tween brethren belonging to Catholic nations, and he allowed the Austrians
to enter Bologna, and the people there to defend themselves as they could.
Since tJien, the people who had so often sung hosannas before him, forsook
him, and the republican party under JIazzini, which at that time aimed at an
indivisible republic of all Italy, under the presidency of the pope, came into
power. (?«) In Lombardy national independence, and in Naples civil liberty,
were overthrown by cannons ; in Rome a club (circolo popolare), and in the
provinces unrestrained licentiousness, bore rule, when Count Bossi, once a
professor in Bologna and a fugitive because he had hoped for the freedom of
Italy, and afterwards an ambassador of Louis Philippe in Rome, undertook
the ministry, and held the parties under his firm control. . He was assassi-
nated (Nov. 15, 1848) while ascending the steps conducting to the Chamber
of Deputies, and on the next day the people demanded a democratic niinis-
g) D. A. Z. 1S4T. X. 25. Ck)nip. N. lUX
fi) Die Erwartungen d. kath. Cliristenh. iin 19. Jahrb. v. h. Stuhle. Zur. 1S47.
I) Brl. KZ. 1547. N. 67. 69. A) Ibi.l. 1S4S. N. 37.
I) II Gesuita moderno. Cosanna. 1S47. S vols.
«0 La GioviDe Itilia. 1S.32. 83. De I'ltalie dans ses rapports avec la liberto et la civilisatiou mo
(lerne. Lps. 1S46. 2 vols.
CHAP. VL CATU. CHURCH TILL 1553. § 469. AXTONELLL SICCAKDI, 623
tn', a constituent national assembly for the Ecclesiastical States and for
Italy, and a participation in tlie national war. The pope besieged and at-
tacked with cannon in the Quirinal, finally yielded with a heavy heart, was
guarded as a prisoner, and escaped into the Neapolitan territories (Nov. 25).
A provisional government ordered that the constituent national assembly
should be chosen by the popular voice, and although the pope at Gaeta ex-
communicated all who should take any part in the matter, the jjcople elected
their deputies, and the National Assembly on the night of Feb. 9, 1849,
decreed that the temporal sovereignty of the pope was at an end, that the
government of the Roman state should henceforth be a pure democracy, and
that the Supreme Pontiff should receive full security for his independence in
the exercise of his spiritual powers. All ecclesiastical possessions were de-
clared the property of the nation (Feb. 13), to be disLi'ibiited on perpetual
leases. But the European ]. jwers ofiered ilieir assistance to the holy father,
the French Republic anticipated even Austria, a French army under the
appellation of allies of the Roman republic, after an heroic defence by the
people, entered the city of Rome (July 3), and an Austrian army took pos-
session of the Legations, (n) A committee of cardinals by order of the pope
undertook the government (July 15), and began the work of vengeance. The
pope promised (Sept, 12) some municipal and provincial limitations to the
absolute authority restored to the priests, but the amnesty which he pro-
claimed was so full of exceptions that it gave opportunity for all kinds of
persecution. When Pius IX. finally returned to Rome (April 12, 1850) his
heart was embittered, the patriotic ideals he had once formed wore broken,
and the people received him in gloomy silence. His sovereignty, under the
able management of Cardinal ÄntoncUi, his Secretary of State, is sustained
entirely by French and Austrian garrisons. As an ecclesiastical prince his
feelings may have been touched during his restoration, but he received from
Tuscany a Concordat full of concessions to the ecclesiastical authorities, (o)
he has issued jubilee indulgences, (p) he has encouraged the Catholic world in
the hope that the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary to whoso pow-
erful protection he ascribes his deliverance, Aviil soon be established, (^) and he
has once more committed to the Jesuits the business of pubhc education, (r)
In Piedmont alone the Jesuits are excluded, not only by the people but by
the king (March 3, 1848). Here, where Gioberti himself in difficult times
stood at the head of the ministry, they could not bo received, for the suc-
cessor of Cliarles Albert, in harmony with the educated portion of the na-
tion, adheres firmly to the free dovclo])mont of the state as their best conso-
lation for misfortunes in tiie battle-field, (v) To carry out the article of the
constitution which jirovides for the equality of all citizens before the law,
and for the independence of tho state upon the clorgj-, the laws proposed by
Siccardiy the minister of justice, and accepted by tho chambers, abolished
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of tlie clergy in civil and criminal causes, and
n) C. Uiiscotti, la republica ßotimn.i del 1&49. Tor. 1850.
o) A. KZ. Is51. N. 120. /'t IJrI. KZ. 1S.V2. N. 2:J. <j) IbUl. 1SUI9. K. 37. 1S50. N. 4T.
r) Ibid. IsW. N. 12.
») F. Cruller, d. Kunljjr. Sardiii. (Gcgeinv. 1S5.3. vol. VIIL p. 524ss.)
024 MODKKN CIIUP.CH inSTOHY. TER. VL A. D. 1649-1S58.
their control over cliaritablo establishments, abrogated the right of asylum,
and gave some reason to exi)ect that marriages by a civil act would be recog-
nized as valid, (t) Framoni^ Archbishop of Turin, whose pastoral epistle
cc)m|)laincd of tliese laAvs as sacrilegious, was summoned before the civil
court, and on liis refusal to appear he was imprisoned and condemned to per-
jictnal exile for resisting the law of the state, and for exciting others to rebel •
lion against the civil authorities (Sept. 1850). (m) Pius IX. extolled his martyr-
dom, and protested against a legislation in conflict with legal concordats, and
the subversion of the sacred rights of the Church, (i-) Tlie government replied
that concordats were not international treaties between independent powers,
but concessions made by the state to its own established Cliurch, and there-
fore so far as related to its own department, jnigbt be revoked by a legislative
act. As the Koman court persisted in its established policy of resisting in
one country as a violation of the inalienable rig;, is of the Church as long as
any hope of success remained, what in another country had become law by
the force of circumstances, the only point on which the two parties could
come to any agreement was with respect to a diminution of the number of
festivals. The masses of the people in ditTerent places were kept in an un-
happy state of excitement against the government by the perpetual clamor
of the clerical party under the direction of Franzoni from his place of exile,
against the laws of Siccardi, against the civil marriages, under which all births
were declared to be illegitimate, against the courts which took any action
against priests, and which were immediately excommunicated, against lay
professors in the university, against even clergymen who ventured to obey
the government, and against the whole process by which they declared that
the state was to be Protestantized and unchristianized. The king himself
was threatened with excommunication, and the Church with a division, (w)
The state, on the other hand, is continually holding forth its signals of free-
dom in a seductive manner, and whenever a revolution threatens Italy, to
which Giolerti (d. 1852) has bequeathed the lessons and the hopes to be
gathered from her not altogether undeserved misfortunes, {x)
§ 470. The Gallican Church.
1. The Charter with which Louis XVIII. entered the land of his fathers,
recognized Catholicism as the religion of the state, but guarantied to every
form of public worship the protection of the government. The priests who
accompanied him, the martyrs of the Eevolution, had become by long absence
estranged from the people and the spirit of the age, and now, while they
demanded the proper reward of their fidelity, they promised to secure the
throne of their sovereign, and to regenerate their country. The youth who
had grown up in the midst of the revolutionary heathenism stood in need of
the gospel, the people longed for the blessings of the Church, even polite
usage regarded all ridicule of religion as disreputable, and De Lamartine, at
Brl. KZ. 1S50. N. 33. w) D. A. Z. 1S50. N. 226. 246.
r) Brl. KZ. ISTjO. N. 39. 51. 94.
T) 15rl. KZ. 1S51. N. 41. 55. 103. Hist. pol. Bll. 1S50. vol. XXYl. U. 6s.
a:) Del rinnovamento civile d'lulia. Par. 1S51. 2 vols.
CHAP. YI. CATII. CIIÜECH TILL 1S53. §470. FRANCE. CHARLES X. 625
that time still a knight devoted to royalty, succeeded by the pious sadnesJ of
his harmonies in becoming the favorite poet of the higher classes, (a) Be
Lamennais (b. 1781) defended the doctrine of the absolute necessity of an
infallible Church as the objective manifestation of tlie divine reason in oppo-
sition to the frenzy of this individual reason of man, contrasted his own
glowing feelings of love and hatred with the indifference which prevailed
around him, and in his honesty did not conceal his position that he regarded
the theocratic right of the i)apacy as superior to tlie foundation on which the
monarchy rested. (//) Count de Mnistre (d. 1821) proved that infallibility
belonged as necessarily to the pope as sovereignty to the king, (c) But the
clergy, instead of endeavoring to reconcile the discrepancies of the past with
the present, seemed determined to render both more prominent. Rehgious
enthusiasm once more beheld the cross of Constantine in the sky, and intoler-
ance founded a kingdom of its own in the name of God. Priests of the mis-
sion traversed the land in great pomp, contending not only for the faith, but
in opposition to every thing which Franco had purchased at such prodigious
sacrifices. {iT) Tlie principles of freedom which formerly prevailed in the
Gallican Church were now inveighed against as heresies. The apostolic con-
gregation in connection with the heir-ai)parent and the illustrious daughter
of misfortune, by persevering obstinacy, and in opposition to the inclinations
of the prudent king, obtained a Concordat (1817) by which the Concordat of
1801 was revoked, and that of 1516 was substituted for it. So decidedly was
public opinion expressed in opposition to this ghost of former times that no
one ever ventured to lay a plan of the law before the Chamber of Deputies, {c)
"Without the consent of the Chambers, however, the government did as
much for the clergy as was in its power. But no sooner had the Cathedral
of Kheims witnessed once more a royal coronation, for which even the Holy
Chrism was once more found (p. 16G), than the hierarchy received from the
chambers a pledge of its victory in the law against sacrilege (1825), which,
in the true spirit of the middle ages, threatened with terrible punishments
every injury done to the Established Church. (/) Once more, however, the
government listened to the demands of the popular will expressed even iu the
House of Peers, and a royal ordinance (June IGth, 1828) closed the schools
against the Jesuits who had intruded into them in the character of fathers of
rlie faith, ig) But Charles X. allowed himself to be hurried into violent
measures, for which he was obliged to atone by the loss of liis throne (1830).
2. Instead of a king anointed and appointed by God, a citizen-king was now
rt) Md'dltat poot Par. 1S20. narnionies poet et rel. Par. 1S.30. 2 vols.
h) Essai siir riiulltVOrcnco en nuitlcro de la rel. Pur. ISl's. cd. 4. l*2i. 4 vols. Defense do I'Essai
Par. 1S21. De la rel. dans scs rapports ovec I'ordre poUiiiiiic. Pur. 1S25. ed. 3. 1S26. Des progr6s da
la rev. et de la guerre contro I'cgl. Par. 1S29.
c) Du Pape. Par. lS2i).
<l) Die Hier. u. ihre Riindesiren. In Fr. Aar. 1S23. Coup-d'oell sur la situation actuello et los vrals
Interets de IV'gl. fr. Par. \v2r>. Otiove, lie!, u. Plill. in Fr. Gott, 1S20.
e) De Prallt, los quatre Cone. Pur. ISH. vol. IIL (Arcliiv. f KOesch. vol. IV. p. 379s3.)
/) A. K. Z. 1S25. N. 82. 44. Dti Loiret, HIsL Abrep.o du sacrilO'po. Par. 1S2.'>.
g) MoiUlosier, Memoire \\ consultcr sur un .«ystein-3 rel. ct pol. tendont i rcnvorsor la rel., la so-
ciete et le tr.,ne. Par. 1S26. With Vorw. by Paulus, Stuttj. 1S2C. A. K. Z. 1826. N. 189. 1S2T. N. 20.—
KS2S. N. 104. 14S. 174. 1S2!). X. 9. 11.
40
62G MODKRN CHUliCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 161=5-1S58.
flioson by tlio pco])lc. Tlio Jesuits and TrajJijists fled, tlie palace of the arch
hislioi», and a i'cw churches in Paris which had heen used for political purposes,
were stormed, the cros.ses together with the lilies Avere renrioved, the salaries
of the prelates were diminished, and Catholicism lost the prerogative of being
the religion of the state. (A) But an intimation from the pope (i) determined
the clergy to offer their prayers for the new kingdom, although their minds
were full of rancor toward it, and they were connected by many pious bonds
with the family of the exiled king. Louis Philippe made as great concessions
to the hierarchy as the origin of his own authority would allow, that a moral
basis and a peaceable form might be given to his own dynasty. The Arch-
bishop of Paris, IT. de Quelen (d. 1839), an honorable priest and a father to
the poor, (h) was yet willing to deny Christian burial to the honest Gregoire,
who died immovably faithful to his ecclesiastical character (1831), (?) and
the Bishop of Clermont refused the last consolations of the Church (1838) to
the Count Montlosier^ who had once heroically defended the cross of Christ,
but had appealed to the laws in opposition to the Jesuits. (?w) The recollec-
tions of all that is great in the past history of the French nation stand in
striking opposition to the views of the Church, {n) and the abyss between
Catholic and secular France is daily becoming more profound. Lamennais,
consistently with his general opinion that ecclesiastical piety is to be valued
above every thing else, perceived the compatibility of Catholicism with the
sovereignty of the people, and demanded that the clergy should not only give
up all their salaries but all interference in political matters, and so be once
more poor and free. The Journal of the Future (I'Avenir, 1830s.) was pow-
erful in France until it struck upon the rock of a contradiction between the
freedom of the mind and the Roman infallibility. Lacordairc^ the intelligent
disciple of Lamennais, submitted himself to the pastoral epistle of Pope
Gregory (§ 475), became a mendicant friar, (o) and was apparently willing to
bring the sacrifice of obedience. But in his solitude his spirit became in-
llamed, and he sent forth to the world the words of a true believer. As
Christianity had previously been abused to throw a sanctity around despot-
ism, he here attempted to give the democratic side of the gospel and of the
theocracy, that he might in anticipation of a mighty revolution, announce in
prophetic and apocalyptic imagery the overthrow of the monarchy and the
universal equality of the children of God. But even this revolutionary
prophecy is pervaded by a spirit of profound and sincere piety, (ji) As La-
mennais in his visions of the dead had never mentioned the name of the
h) A. K. Z. 1S31. N. 155. 1?82. N. 8T. 97. lG7ss.
i) After Rozet, Chronique de Juillet : Minerva. lS-33. Apr. p. SSss.
k) Klieinw. Rep. 1S41. vol. XXXIII. p. 93ss.
I) Chr. Antiromaniis. d. starb. Gres. u. d. venl. Krzb. Neust. 1531. Krüger, (p. 530) p. S'Sss.
m) A. Z. ISoS. N. 354. Append. N. C92. S39. N. 2.
M) Kunstblatt 1S37. N. 99. Acta hist ecc. 1S37. p. 67.
o) X(/<.-orrf</i/v, Memoire pour le retablissement en France de Tordre des frCres precheurs. Par.
IS3S. Augsb. 1S39.
p) Paroles dun crovant Par. 1S33. (In the Brussels pirated impression, 1S34. 12. also Bautain,
3 Eckstein & S-auite-Beuve.) Bautain, ROponso dun chretien aus paroles d'uu crovant Str.isb. 1S;J4
Baumgartfn-CruMiui, Betracht ü. einige Schriften v. de la Menu. Jen. 1534. [Article in Hcgs;"s
Cbr. Instructor, in Eclectic M.ig. for Oct 1550. p. 260ss.]
CHAP. YI. CATII. CIIUIICU TILL 1S53. § 470. LAMENNAIS. CHATEL. G27
pope, SO iu liis rejection of t!ie " "Words of a Believer " (June 25, 1834), tlio
pope never used the name of Lainennais, but as a sorrowing father spoke of
the man whom France once esteemed as the hist of the ecclesiastical fathers.
But Laraennais found himself urged on to a position in which he saw the
pontificate with its antiquated claims on the one side, and the human race
with its ever fresh religious energies upon the other, {q) Instead of the
Church he has put the universal reason of man, and instead of the pro;)itiatory
death at Golgotha, an oblation of the deity commensurate with tlio uni-
verse, (r) ' He has been declared by the civil courts guilty of attempts to
excite hatred and contempt with respect to the royal government (1840), (s)
but he has now been abandoned by free as well as by Catholic France. After
an attempt to revive the sect of the Theophilanthropists by a decree which
numbers the years from the time of the martyrdom of Socrates, the Abbe
Chatcl preached (Aug. 1830) in the spirit of an extravagant liberalism a
French Catholic Churcli. In consequence of the strong dislike felt by tho
great body of the people for tho Romish hierarchy, a few congregations were
collected together with this view ; but the modern, useless, political and nega-
tive character of this system made it soon dwindle away, and the doors of its
advocates were finally closed by the police (1842). (0 In the spirit of the
new monarchy, Guizot, an earnest Protestant literary man, once more estab-
lislicd a ])lan of national education, in which a system of schools was carried
out (1833), except that no one ventured to introduce into it the education of
the clergy, nor to assert the universal obligation of attendance on the schools.
He also proposed that France should become tlie protector of Catholicism in
every part of the world, though without prejudice to the freedom of religion
under it. The clergy demanded as the price of their reconciliation, the free-
dom of education, i. e., liberty to control it. Tlie University, Avhich had tlio
general direction of this whole business, was described by them as the Mo-
loch to whose antichristian instruction the youth of France were sacrificed. («)
When the two parties had measured their relative strength by a discussion in
the Chamber upon instruction in the gymnasium (1844), they did not venture
to come to a vote on tlie law relating to it. (e) A few bishops tlireatcned to
deprive some obnoxious institutions of the blessing and countenance of tlie
Church. On the otlier hand, the oM system of Jesuit morality which had
been used i'or the instruction of the clergy, made up as it was of ambiguities
q) Affaires dc Rome, Tar. 1S30. Le llvre du pciiple. Par. 1S8S. 12. Lo paj's ct \e gouvernemcnt.
Par. 184n.
r) l'>qnis«e d'une Plillosnplile. Par. 1S41. Svols. Par. & Lp«. 1*-11. .3 vols.— Anisclinspaiuls et Dar-
vamls. Par. 1S4.'?. Los Evangile.s. Par. 184C.
k) Hrl. K. Z. 1811. N. 11.
t) ITiii Deo. A. K. JC. 1829. N. 20G.— ProfossU.ii do f,.| do VC-^l catli. franral^o. Par. ls.?I. Catö-
cliisiiio il I'lisaire de ripl. cath. ff. Par. IS'JT. Heuchliii, p. •i'JS»». J/olsap/el, <\. K. do .Vbbo Cliatel.
(Zoitschr. f. liisL Tli. 18lt. P. 3.)
n) Code ITiiivorsltaire ou lols et rriiloniotis do ri'nivcrsHö do France, Par. 1S:V>. Pßiiii:, p. 72ss.
113. lieuchlin, p. 8i:ss. Brl. A. K. Z. 1S13. X. hi.—Dengitret», lo Monopole iiniversltairo, da-^tructour
de la rcl. ct des lois, oil la Charte et la libertu do rensolsnement Lyon. 1843. f'edrhif, simple coup
d'ooil siir Ics doulcurs ct los espörances de IVgl. aux prises avec Ics tyrnns des consciences et les vices
du XI.K. SiCcle. Lvon. 1843.
n) (0. /.'«»sv) Uec. d. betr. Solirr. In d. .Ton. L. Z. IStC. X. 33-40.
628 MODERN CIIÜRCn HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1618-1353.
and obscenity, "\v;is again bronglit to public notice. 3Ilc7iclet, to whom all the
dreams of the middle ages were quite familiar, and Quinct^ who regarded
every authorized creed as a direct promise on the part of all who profess it,
ficnt forth from their Mount St. Genevieve to the whole French nation in op-
jjo-sition to the Jesuits who had now become more numerous than under the
Re.storation, full pictures of all that these fathers had done for the destruction
of freedom, and of what other nations had become under their influence, (w)
When Thiers called up in the Chamber of Deputies the laws still in existence
against the Jesuits, they were enforced with the utmost possible mildness by
the government, and through the mediation of the pope the General of the
Jesuits was induced, apparently at least, to dissolve all the houses belonging
to the order in France, and to recall from that country all who were not na-
tives (July, 1845). {x) At this time, when the Church was not in the service
of the court, and when Affre^ Archbishop of Pari:», demanded not ecclesiasti-
cal protection but liberty, the influence of the Church became very consider-
able, in behalf not only of the hierarchy but of general Christianity, in con
sequence of its works of practical piety and spiritual learning, (y) 3. In
Feb. 1848, when France was surprised by the sudden introduction of the re-
public, the Church felt bound by no ties of gratitude to the dethroned royal
family. One party beheld in that event a mere point of transition to a le-
gitimate monarchy ; the dispersed school of Lamennais haUed in the new
watchword of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, which the state now pro-
claimed, nothing but the old principles of the Church ; the aspiring lay-leader
of the Catholic party discovered that the Catholic Church might be con-
nected with any form of civil government from which it could expect ecclesi-
astical freedom, {z) and even the priests did not hesitate to bless the tree of
liberty, and pray for the sovereign people. («) The Constitution of the Re-
public promised freedom to every creed, protection for every form of public
worship, and salaries to the ministers of every form of worship recognized
by the government. (5) The law respecting instruction (May 15, 1850) gave
the clergy so much influence in the supreme council for education, and so
much freedom in the establishment of the schools, for the formation of which
a great independent association, much lauded by the pope had been organized,
that the Catholic party willingly accepted of it as an earnest of greater fa-
vors, (c) The Archbishop Affre fell in the performance of the duties of his
vocation, at the barricades (June 28, 1848). CJiatcl celebrated Christmas by
ic) Decouvertes d'un bibliophile, ou lettres sur differents points de morale enseignes dans quelques
eiminalres. ed. 2. Strasb. 1843.— The organ of the clergy: V Universe, and that of the University:
Journal des Debats, esp. for May — Nor. lS-13. De Lamartine, Totat, Teglise, et renseignement Par.
1843. L. A. WarnKnig, d. K. Frankr. u. d. Unterrichtsfrcih. Freib. 1S45. Des Jesuites, par J//-
chelet et Quinet. Par. 1S43. in 5 ed. Uebers. by StOber. Bas. 1843. [Jlichelet, Priests, AVomen. and
F.imilios, transl. by Cocks, Lond. 1S4S. The People, transl. by Cocks. Lond. 1849. Quinet, Ultra-
montanism, transl. by Cocks, Lond. 1S45.]
a-) Der Process Affenaer vor d. Pariser Assisen. Brl. 1845. L. ITahn, Gesch. d. Anflos. d. Jes. Con
greg. in Frankr. Lps. 1S46.
y) Pflanz, d. rel. u. kirchl. Leben in Fr. Stuttg. 1830. lieuchlin, (p. 60S.)
s) C. de ifontalemhert, des interets catholiques au XIX Siöcle. Par. 1552. in 3 ed.
a) Brl. KZ. 1S4S. N. 30. 62. 1849. N. 2. I) Ibid. 1S43. X. 95.
c) Ibid. 1S49. N. 61. 1SÖ0. N. 73. 1851. N. 85.
CHAP. VI. CATII. CHURCH TILL 1S5.3. § 470. NAPOLEON IIL § 4T1. SPAIN. 629
a Socialist banquet in honor of the sansculotte who was once born in a sta-
ble. When the dread of the red republic could be so turned as to favor the
clergy on. the ground that they were friends of social order, (d) the priests
made use of it to secure millions of votes for the President and the Empei'or
by the grace of God and the will of the people. Louis Xaj)oleon increased
the salaries of the bishops, {e) richly endowed the chapter of St. Denys, re-
stored the Pantheon to the service of St. Genevieve, (/) brought the Holy
Father back to Kome, and would have been glad to be crowned by the papal
bands. Without reference to the organic articles (p. 533) the emperor re-
gards the Concordat of 1801 as having the force of law. The strict Catliolic
party are anxious to banish modern paganism by the substitution of the eccle-
siastical fathers for the classics in the schools of learning, (y) they reject all
philosophy of reason, and they advocate the government of tbo Church by the
civil power, and the government of the Church by the pope. Sibour, the
new Archbishop of Paris, took decided ground against this party, and the
" Universe," through whose columns its influence was exerted, but an open
controversy was avoided through tlie mediation of Pius IX. (//) Even under
the reign of Xapoleon I. who despised it, philosophy had desisted from the
deification of the flesh, and by the influence first of Scotch and then of Ger-
man metaphysicians, confidence was gained in the supremacy of the mind.
But the literature of each of the three revolutions, whether it be regarded as
a prophecy of the future, or a reflection of the past, has something terribly
destructive and relaxing in its nature. It is not the cold scofiing of a self-
complacent and satisfied spirit, but the oftspring of a torn and lacerated
heart. For this very reason it has much that is seductive to the present age,
and even in its general corruption is not without some germs of life.
§ 471. Spain. Portugal. South America.
{PfeiUchifUr.) Die kiroh). Zustrin<le in Span. Würzb. 1S42. Manuel razonatlo de hist y legisla-
tion de la iglesia. Madr. 1S45. 4. Block, I'Esp^ne en 1S50. Madr. 1S.")1.— (?. ßaliiß, I'America un
tempo spagnuola sotto I'aspetto rellgloso sine at 1S43. Ancona 1S45. 3 vols. Uebers. v. F. M. M. 1S4S8.
8 vols.
1, When Ferdinand VIT. tore up tlie constitution (1814), the clergy ral-
lied around the throne, tlie Inquisition was re-established, and the Jesuits re-
turned. Tiio cause of the Church tlieu represented by those who were called
the Apostolicnls, and that of liberty rei)reseMted by tlie Liberals, appeared to
be completely separated from each other. Hence, when the latter obtained
the victory (1820-23), all hierarchical measures were entirely frustrated. («)
An army for the defence of the faith was then collected by the clergy, with
a Trappist at its head, which, after the victory obtained by French interven-
tion, produced a sanguinary reaction. As the Apostolic party had connected
itself with Don Carlos^ then recognized as the legitimate heir-apparent. Queen
Christina, who desired to obtain the government for herself and her daugh-
(l) Carnot, Ic niinistOTe do Tinstraction pnbliqno ot des cnltes. Par. 1S48.
i) Brl. KZ. 1S52. N. 47. /) IlOt. ISM. N. 2. comp. 1S5I. N. 24.
g) J. Gtiiime le vor ronfrciir des socletes modernes oti le paganisme d.ms IVdiiMtion. Bru.v. 1S51.
h) Brl. KZ. 1852. N. 4S. ISM. N. 31. 32.
a) .V KZ. 1S22. N. 1. 9. 11. 10. 19. 2Ss. 53. 74.
(j^^O MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1C4S-1858.
tcr by tlio ;i])olition of tlie Salic law, was obliged (1830) to unite her interest»
with (hoso of the Liberals. After the death of the king (1833) Don Carlos,
who was ])owcrfid tlirough tlio support of the olergy, by whom much had
boon sacriliced in his behalf, made a desperate effort to obtain possession of
the throne. But some horrible events which then took place evinced thai
even the old veneration of the people for religion Avas now wavering. A
number of convents in Madrid were destroyed (July 17, 1834) by a mob ex-
citL'd by reports of poisoning during the prevalence of the cholera, and no
punishments were inflicted on the jjcrpetrators. (h) A more general insurrec-
tion broke out in the summer of 1835, in which many convents and monks
were consumed in the flames as auto-da-fes of the revolution, until finally it
seemed necessary to abolish the convents to save the monks, (c) By a decree
of July 25, 1835, nine hundred houses belonging to the several orders were
closed, that by means of their wealth and the property of the Inquisition and
of tlie Jesuits, which had previously been confiscated, the public debt might
be liquidated, (d) The government accused the clergy of sowing dissensions
among the people, and required that every candidate for future appointment
in the Church should produce a certificate from the civil authorities vouching
for his patriotism, (e) As the revolution rolled on and the necessities of the
state became urgent, all the convents were confiscated (1836) and taken pos-
session of by the government, and the sacred utensils were sold to cover tho
expenses of the civil war. (/) The Cortes abolished the tithes, and declared
that all the property of the Church belonged to the Spanish nation (1837). (g)
In the ruin of Don Carlos, which occurred principally in consequence of the
demoralization of his court (1839), a portion of the clergy were inextricably
implicated. Gregory XVI. had not recognized the queen, and had rejected
the bishops appointed by the regency, but the act by which this was done
was accompanied by an expression of desire that the existing relations of the
country might not be disturbed. But when the nuncio, who then represented
the pope, wished to guard the rights of the Church, Fspartero, the victorious
soldier who had driven away the queen-mother, ordered him to be transported
beyond the borders of the country (Dec. 29, 1840). (h) The pope hereupon
declared in an allocution dated March 1, 1841, that all those decrees of the
Spanish government by Avhich the Church had been despoiled of its property
were null and void, (i) "While Christina obtained for herself absolution in
Rome, (k) the Spanish Regent treated every recognition of the papal allocu-
tion as a crime, wished to abolish all intercourse with Eome and aU foreign
jurisdiction in Spain, because the regent in Rome was disposed to sacrifice
his secular to his ecclesiastical interests. (?) The Cortes determined upon a
new organization of the clergy, by which the bishop's sees were much dimin-
ished, the sinecures were abolished, the property of the Church was sold, and
moderate salaries to be paid from taxes which it Avas hard to collect were
assigned to the clergy, (m) Nothing now remained for the pope but to call
b) AZ. 1S34 N. 214 c) Jbid. 1835. N. 227. 23Ts.
d) Acta hist ecc 1S35. p. 25s3. e) A. Z. 1S35. N. 84S.
.0 Acta hist. ecc. 15^36. p. 51ss. 1387. p. 10. (?) A. Z. 1837. N. 223. Act.i hist. ecc. 1S37. p. la
A) A. Z. 1S41. X. 24*3. i) A. Z. 1S41. N. 70s. k) A. Z. lS4i. X. 89.
I) Bri. A. K. Z. 1S42. N. 13. m) ßrl. KZ. 1S41. N. 43. 69.
CHAP. VL CATII. CIIURCn TILL 1S53. § 4"1- SPAIN. PORTUGAL. 63 i
npon the whole Church to pray for the distressed condition of the Cliurch ic
Spain, with the promise that all who would comply should receive plenary
absolution, (n) All priests who gave attention to these acts of the pope were
deposed and banished by the regent, (o) But even the liberal prelates now
began to withdraw from tlie country, tlie afflicted Church succeeded in in-
ducing the nation to abandon Espartero, and Qneen Isabella JI., not yet of
age, was declared (1843) competent to govern. Her ministry soon perceived
the necessity of reconciling the Church with the new legal system created by
the revolution. The expelled priests were reinstated, and the pajjal right;
in Spain were acknowledged. As the price of his recognition of the queen
the pope demanded what was now sliown to be an impossibility, tlie restora-
tion of the jn-operty of the Church. But tlie sale of all that remained being
about one fourth of the whole, was now suspended, Gregory conferred the
canonical investiture upon six of the bisliops appointed by government (1846),
and Pius, in compliance with the Avislies of France, rather hastily bestowed
a dispensation upon the queen for her Tuarriage with lier cousin. After a
long period of vacillation according to the political complexion of the fre-
quently changing ministry, (p) a concordat was agreed upon (18Ö1), by which,
notwithstanding the bibles sent from England, (q) the Cathohc religion, to the
exclusion of every other form of worship, was recognized as the religion of
Spain for all future time ; the instruction of the young was committed to the
supervision of the bishops, to whom a pledge was given that the government
would co-operate in the suppression of injurious books; the country was di-
vided into new dioceses, of wliich tliere Avere six less than before; all that
remained of ecclesiastical or monastic property was restored ; all new acqui-
sitions by the Church were allowed ; and to provide against any deficiency a
support, moderate only when compared with their former wealth, was secured
to the clergy from the sale of the Church property, and from the contribu-
tions in the ditferent communes, (r) 2. It was not till the Cortes had
threatened the wealth and privileges of the clergy (.■<) that the sanguinary
reign of Dom Miguel (1829-33) was i)0ssib]e, and accordingly his principal
support was derived from that body. Hence Dom Pedro could indulge in uo
hope of gaining the patrimonial kingdom for his daughter, except in the
name of liberty. Througli the exertions principally of the clergy the people
were induced to take up arms against him, and hence, when Pedro obtained
the victory, the age of Pondjal returned to Portugal. Tlie government de-
clared all prelitic sees filled by ajipointment at Rome on Miguel's presentation
vacant, and placed all the riglits of ecclesiastical patronage in tlie hands of
the government (Aug. 5, 1883). All ecclesiastical orders were dissolved (May
28, 1834), all monastic property was confiscated, and nothing but friars truly
mendicant were left, (t) The tithes were also abolislied, and when the pas-
tors could not obtain the salaries assumed by the state treasury, they were
n) Of Feb. 22, 1S42 : Brl. K. Z. 1843. N. 22. o) Iblil. 1842. X. 31.
;>) Ibid. 1844. N. 31. 39. D. A. Z. 1844. X. 23S. 1S45. N. 61. 023. 1S4C. N. 22. ]S4r. X. 21. ISi
iS5. 29T.
g) G. Borrow, The Bible In Spain. X.?w York. 19)5. S. T^n.I. ed. 8. 194-3.
/•) 15rl. K'A. IS.'il. X. 44. 47. 87. «) \. K. Z. 1322. X. 49. 1828. X. 43.
t) A.Z. IVU. X. 173.
532 MODKKN cniTKCir HISTORY. TER. VI. A. D. 16-)S-18r,3
unfortunately <lircctc<l for tlicin to tlieir congregations, (ti) The pope threat
oned to jilaoo tlie king under tlic ban, and the exiled usurper was received hy
him as the lawful king. But the property of the convents found purchasers.
and the dioceses -were administered by the capitulary vicars. The dreac"
•which Gregory felt lest a complete separation should be produced, conspired
with the conscientious scruples of Donna Maria herself to induce both par-
lies to come to an agreement (1841) under mutual pledges. The golden rose
was presented by the nuncio Capaccini to the queen, as a godfather's present,
and a few bishops ajjpointed by the government received canonical investiture
from the pope (1843). (p) But the vast demands of Eome and the commo-
tions of an unsettled constitutional government delayed the conclusion of a
concordat. 3. As the idea of independence first awoke in Spanish America
(1810) when the mother country was oppressed by a power which had no
friendly connection with the Church, the clergy were generally partial to tlie
cause of freedom, and remained in the unmolested possession of their wealth.
In most of the republics religious toleration was proclaimed merely from re-
spect to liberty and the English, but Catholicism still remained the religion
of the state. In the mean time the privileges of the clergy necessarily came
in conflict with the demands of liberalism. In Chili and Peru the number
of holy days and convents was diminished, the Congress of Central America
pronounced monastic vows of no force in the eye of the law (1830), the Con-
gress of Mexico took into its own hands the riglit of patronage, banished those
prelates who protested against their proceedings, and seized upon their reve-
nues (1834). A powerful party, however, in the latter country, arose in op-
position to every interference of the state with the privileges of the clergy.
During the war with the United States of North America, when the necessi-
ties of the country were extreme. Congress resolved (Jan. 1847) that a por-
tion of the ecclesiastical property (15 millions of dollars) should be sold for
the deliverance of their native land, (ic) The keys of the old Jesuit College
in Buenos Ayres were presented, August 26th, 1880, to six priests belonging
to the Society of Jesus. After a brief dream of freedom, Paraguay was ty-
rannically but patriarchally governed by Dr. Francia (1814—40) with as great
a seclusion as was maintained by the former Jesuit government. This dicta-
tor broke the power of the clergy, converted all property belonging to the
convents into state property, and declared cannons better safeguards than
saints, (.r) From respect to the crown of Spain, Pius YII. was deterred from
recognizing the republics which had thrown olf its authority, and accordingly
he refused to bestow canonical investiture upon their bishops. Leo XII., as
late as the year 1824, enjoined upon all American prelates to adhere to the
V) A. Z. 1S3S. Append. N. 447.
'•) BrI. KZ. 1S41. N. 51. 54. 60. SI. 1S42. N. 5S. 1S43. N. 43. •
'" P. r. A'ohhe, Gosch. d. Freilieit.<=kaiiipres im sp.'in. u. port. A. ITann. 1332. ' K Jfuhlenp/ordt,
Schllilcrunj: d. Rep. Mexico. Ilann. 1S44. 2 vols. Ev. K. Z. 1S31. N. 25. A. Z. 1S34. N. 205. D. A,
Z. 1S47. N. 70. 77.
r) nengg^r & LimpcJiamp, d. Rev. v. Tarn?. i\. d. Dictatorialro'rierun? d. Dr. Francia. Stuttg.
18S7. B. J. P. & w. P. PoherUo'i, Letter? on Varus. Lond. 1S-3S. 2 vols. [Franci.Vs Reign of Terror
Lond. 1S37. S. Carlijlt's Essays Crit. vt Mis. p. 547, (Fur. Qnar. Rev. 1S43. & Eoloc. Mag. 1S42.
Septp. 75.)]
CHAP. VI. CATir. CnUECII TILL 1853. § 4T1. 8. AMERICA. § 47-2. BELGIUM. 633
legitimate government. But as there was danger that in tliis way the people
would become completely alienated from the Holy See, the principle waa
finally recognized at Rome (1825) that in matters relating to the Church, ne-
gotiations should be conducted with any government actually in power, with-
out thereby deciding any thing with resjject to its legitimacy. "When the
pope refused to confirm the appointed Bishop of Rio Janeiro, he was re-
minded by the Regency of Brazil that he had mistaken the age in which he
lived (1834). (y) In ISTew Grenada the priests were made subject to the civil
authorities (1845), tithes were abolished, the Jesuits were expelled (1849), all
who forsook the convents were promised the assistance of the state, the con-
gregations were required to choose their own pastors, and the Archbishop of
Bogota was banished (1851). Pius IX. held a sorrowful allocution (Sept. 27,
1852) with reference to these proceedings, and in opposition to the wild lib-
erty which every one in that country enjoyed, to publish through the press
every wild abortion of the brain. (2) But the popular faith in South America
clung to its connection with Rome.
§ 472. Behjium and Holland.
6ophronizon. lS2ß. P. 2. Tub. Qiiartnlsclir. 1S26. P. 1. Rom u. Belg. Neust 1S;31. Le livre noir.
Brux. 1S3T. 3 ed. übers, (by Bruns) m. Bemerkk. by Rlicinwald. Altenb. 1S3S. Rlieinw. Rep. vol.
XXIV. 1). 76. 1G9. 276. XXV. p. HSss. XXVI. p. 71ss. Hist pol. Ell. vol. VIL p. 627. vol. VIIL p.
45. 210. 411. 501. 731. IX. p. 7S3s8. //. Ileugh, Notices of the State of Rel. in Geneva and Belgium.
Edinb. 1844. Junius, d. Jesultisinus in Belg. Lps. 1S46.
1. Against a Protestant government which had afli.xcd the effigy of the
traitorous Bishop of Ghent to the public gallows, had closed the schools of
the Jesuits, and had attempted to educate a liberal clergy by means of a
philosophical school in the "College of the Pope" at Lou vain, the apostoli-
cal party did not hesitate, although the Concordat of 1827 was formed
according to its will, on tlic model of that of Napoleon, (n) to conclude an
alliance with the revolution by which Bthjium Avas to be separated from
Holland (1830). Catholicism was thereby obliged to accede to liberal fonns,
and to a free toleration in matters of faith as well as of education. After
the victory, however, these parties again separated, since the bishops held in
their hands the fate of the lower clergy, by the power of arbitrarily deposing
all who were sincerely inclined to connect themselves with tlie interests of
liberty. As botli partiee were well aware that ultimate victory was to be
decided by tlie education given to tlie next generation, the Liberals founded
by their own contributions a university at Brussels, and the bishops a free
Catholic university at Maline.s, which was afterwards removed to Louvain,
and was solemnly opened in the College of the Pope, that the old Louvain
might once more bo restored, {h) By the law of 1842, the clergy were
allowed to c.xerci.se mucii more than a religious inlluenco ujion popular edu-
cation, but the State-Gymnasia were guarded (1851) against it, and were
y) Brl. KZ. 1840. N. 23. e) Ibid. 18.->0. X. 68. 13Ö1. N. 48. 1S.j2. N. 70.
rt) A. KZ. 1827. N. 165. 1829. N. 109. 174s.
h) A. Z. 18:J4 Suppl. N. 465s. 1885. Suppl. N. 518. 515. Discussion de la loi snr ronseifrnonient
suporieur de 27 Sept, 1835, et de la lol sur le jury d'e.vamcn du S Avril, 1344; prOccdOe d"un nperre
list sur Tortjan. univcrsitaire en Btliri'iue. Brux. 1844. 4,
G34 moi)Ki:n cin-ncir iirsToitv. rKU. vi. a. d. icis-is-vj.
therefore deprived by the Archbi.sliop of Mechlin of tlie customary mass at
All-Saints. The Bishop of Liege refused to grant absolution to the Liberali
by -withholding it from the Freemasons (1837j, (c) and the ardent efforts made
in belialf of missions aroused all the elements in the state in ojiposition to
each other (1838), When the Catholic party, by means of the liberal law of
elections, the eflfect of which was to give a controlling influence to the people
from the country, had obtained for the most part a majority in the Chambers,
the cities collected their strength, and from the altered position of the Cham-
bers proceeded a liberal ministry (Ang. 1847), which pronounced the state
entirely a secular (laique) instituticm. The Protestant king has hitherto
understood how to govern the two parties with much prudence, by balancing
their powers against each other. 2. In UoUcnid, the Concordat of 1827 was
never fully carried out, and the Roman Catholic population, amounting to
more than a million, were called the Dutch Mission, and were under the ad-
ministration of an apostolic vicar. («7) The Constitution of 1848 secured
comjilete freedom of faith to every one, and equal protection to all religious
societies in the kingdom. Accordingly, the government declared that noth-
ing prevented a systematic arrangement of Catholic affairs under its super-
vision. But without reference to this supervision, Pius instituted a hierarchy
for Holland and Brabant, consisting of four bishops under the Archbishop of
Utrecht (March 4, 7, 1853), placed it under the conduct of the Propaganda,
and solicited for it the alms of the faithful. The consequent storm of popu-
lar rage among the Protestants accomplished only the overthrow of the lib-
eral ministry of Thorbecke. The Netherlandic government made known to the
Roman Curia the unhappy impression produced upon it by the language of the
allocution in which these proceedings were announced, and made some inqui-
I'ies respecting the oath which the bishops had taken. Cardinal Antonelli
promised to erase from the latter the otiensive passage respecting the perse-
cution of heretics. In the Hague, the opinion gained the day that protection
was to be found in a Avell-guarded system of freedom, and after some very
excited discussions in the Chambers, a law was passed, Sept. 10, declaring
that all ecclesiastical societies were entirely free to arrange their own eccle-
siastical aiiairs, and were merely bound to inform the government of their
proceedings, and were subject to the approval of the civil authorities only as
far as the co-operation of such authorities was necessary ; that the royal con-
sent should be required with respect to the place in Avhich the business of the
synods should be transacted, the place in which its supreme authority should
reside, and the acceptance of an ecclesiastical office by a foreigner, but that
this consent should generally be refused only when the public tranquillity re-
quired it; and that no ecclesiastical titles or offices should be allowed to con-
flict with the dignities or interests of the civil powers, or of the other religious
Bocieties. (<)
f) Acta hist. ecc. 1637. p. 22s. Brl. KZ. 1S41. N. 7.
il) O. yiejei; Propaganda, vol. 11. p. SOss.
e) The orij:. Docc : BrL KZ. 1S53. N. 34. S6. A. KZ. 1S53. K. "Is. 113s. 115. 121s. lOSi^
CHAP. VI. CATH. CnURCn TILL 1S5S. § 4T3. GERMAN CHURCH. 635
§ 473. Restoration of the German Church.
Neueste Grundingen d. teutsclikath. Kirchenverf. in Actenst Stuttg. 1S21. Siipplein. in Vater'»
Anbeo. vol. IL p. Clss. Orig. Docc. in Mtiitch, Couc. vol. IL Drosle-IIüluhojf, KReclit. Münst
1S28. vol I. O. Mejer, Tropaganda. vol. II. p. 8S5ss.
An ecclesiastical constitution for the whole of Germany was not perfected
at the Congress of Vienna. («) Austria had preserved her ecclesiastical con-
dition untouched, and had just quietly modified the prominent points of the
laws which Joseph 11. had given to the Churcli. (?/) The ecclesiastical rela-
tions of the small :uunher of Catholics dispersed in various parts of Saxony^
were arranged hy the civil laws. These could easily ho maintained in the
Grand Duchy in spite of the complaints of the Vicar-General at Fulda (1823),
and in the kingdom, notwithstanding the royal favor toward the Catholics
there, the acceptance of an apostolic vicar, and the displeasure of the papal
court (1827). (f) Tn other places, the legal doctrine prevailed that the eccle-
siastical constitution was to he arranged hy special treaty with Rome. The
papal court avoided estahlishing a German national Church hy negotiations
with the German Confederacy. The first power which separated from the
others was Bavaria^ hy which a Concordat was concluded in 1817, which,
after much debate whether it was consistent with the constitution of the
country, was introduced in 1821. Negotiations were entered into by Prusnia
with reference to the five millions of Catholics residing especially in the bor-
der provinces ; and in the treaty which was concluded, the mere form of a
Concordat was guarded against. ((/) This example was followed by the king-
dom of Hanover (1824). An association of the other states situated generally
in the southern part of Germany, Avas formed, after many great schemes had
been rejected, and the parties had become wearied with a series of negotia-
tions continued through many years, and was called the Ecclesiastical jiro-
vince of the Copper Ii'hinc, with five bishoprics, and Freiburg as an archiepis-
copal see (1827). When the princes made a condition with respect to tiie
Roman enactments on this subject, Teserviug every thing which might seem
to be demanded by their sovereign rights, the national peculiarities of the
Church, and the equal rights of Protestants, Pius VIII. reminded the bishops
concerned (1830), that when ojjposed by laws tending to destroy the souls
of men, they should obey God ratlier than men. {<) These treaties are princi-
pally confined to the now limitations of the episcopal dioceses, to the boundaries
of the provinces, to the endowment of the Church, and to the appointment of
the higher ecclesiastical oflicers, which was to bo divided between the sov-
ereign and the pope. The various measures necessarj' for this division of the
appointing power, was tlie i)rincipal subject of negotiation. That which
«) Klüber, üobers. d. dlpl. Verb. d. W. Congr. Abth. III. p. «Sss. u. Acten d. W. Congr. toI. 1
r. 2. p. 23ss. vol. IV. p. 810>8.
h) J. L. E. V. Barih-Burihenhtim, Oistr pcl>tl. AnicURoiili. In p-.lit. mlniln. H.zlcli. Vien. 1S4L
I') Actonstücko ü. d. Vvrli. d. katli. Glnnbensgcnosiien ini K. S^acbscn. DresiL 1S8L DrMte
Iluhhoff, p. 417. 3S2S8. A. KZ. 1S24. N. 139»s. 1S25. N. SO.
i1) Klithfr, nst. Kinriclif. d. katli. Kirchcnwes. In Prcuss. Frkf. 1822. A. Müller, Pr. u. Baicra
m Cone. ni. Rom. Neust. 1">24.
e) Eineriicliniid, niillarluin. vol. II. p. SlSsj. fg. Longner, DarsL d. Reehtaverliältnlssc d
Be»;boto in d. obiTrli. Kirclienprov. Tub. 1^4Ü.
63G MODERN CIIUKCII IIISTOKT. PER. VI. A. D. 1C4S-1«».
could liardly liave been exiicctcd at tliat time from Protestant prince«, but
"wliicli was iievcrtliolcas (leiiiandcd in tlio principal article of the inifterial depu-
tation, was accoiiiplished tliroiif^di the mediation of the pope, and the superior
clergy -were richly endowed with worldly property ; but as the Church itnelf
was not represented in these negotiations, no peculiar legal jurisdiction was
secured for it. The manner in which WcHsenlenj was abused and dispos-
Besscd of his episcopal authority, proves that no degree of merit for services
done for the Church can bo sufficient to obtain pardon at Rome for a free
and German spirit, (/) even when a quiet and genuine piety was not excluded
from the episcopal sees, {g) The whole of Protestant Germany was looked
upon as missionary ground. "When an apostolic vicar was sent by the pope
to the North, to take up his residence in Hamburg, prei)aratory to tlie erec-
tion of a bishopric of Hamburg, the governments concerned forbade all per-
sons to hold any official intercourse Avith him (1839s.), and this vicariate was
attached, as it had been at first, to a "Westphalian bishopric. (/()
§ 471. The Ecclesiastical Controversy in Fn/ssian Germany.
Loftpeyres, Gesch. u. heutige Verf. d. kath. K. Preuss. Hal. 1S40. vol. I. — / , hist. ec& ls36. p.
2C4SS. 1837. p. 879s8. Die kath. K. in d. preuss. Eheinprovinz u. d. Erzb. Clemens Aug. Frkf. 1838.
{Gieseler) Ue. d. coin. Angelegenh. v. Irenaeus. Lps. 1S38. Die uffentl. Zustände im Grossherz,
Posen. Hal. 1839. K. Hase, d. beiden Erzbisch. Lps. 1839. Personen u. Zustände a. d. kirchlich pol.
Wirren in Pr. Lps. 1840. Lit Summary: A. KZ. Lit. Bl. 1838. N. 106ss. 1S39. N. 22ss. 1340. K. 30ss.
69. 113SS. 1841. N. 40s. [Ä'. R. Ilagenbaeh, KGesch. des 18. u. 19. Jahrb. Vorles. XV. vol. IL]
Frederic William III. had bestowed upon the clergy an ample amount of
wealth, and he had established schools and built churches for them. But the
dislike felt by the Catholic Church to its subjection to a Protestant state
where it had once borne sway, was increased to new religious fervor as it
recollected tlie state of things during the middle ages, and it found an open
expression in Prussia when the ecclesiastical and civil laws came into collision
on the subject of mixed marriages. The Catholics had been in the habit of
applying to the case of Protestants the long-established usage condemning all
marriages with heretics. But after the thirty years' war, the custom of
mixed marriages had become established among the people. According to
ordinary German usage, where no marriage compact determined the matter
otherwise, the children were educated according to the faith of the parent
with whom they corresponded in sex. A peculiar legislation, based on the
principle of a certain legal equality, was gradually formed in the different
states on this subject, with respect to which nothing was said by the Roman
authorities. In Prussia, the common law was so changed, that where the
unanimous wish of the parents was not opposed to it, the children were re-
quired to bo educated m the Church of the father. By an order of the
Cabinet issued in 1825, this requisition was extended to the province of the
Rhine, and to "Westphalia, by declaring that any obligations of betrothed
/) Denksclir. ü. d. Verfahren d. rum. ITofs. Carlsr. 1918. Wess. Angel. Lps. 1820. On the contro-
versy, for and a?.iinst : Paulm, beurth. Anzeige. Ildlb. ISIS, and ncruies. 1S19. Sect 1. 1S20. Sect a
Bull later: A. KZ. 1*27. N. 175. 1S28. N. 10.
0) E. s. A. KZ. 18.32. N. 115. £. v. Schenk; d. Bischüfe Sailer u. TTittmann. P.atisb. 1883. 12.
A) Brl. KZ. 1S40. N. 4S. Jffjer, vol. II. p. 507ss.
CHAP. VI. CATH. CIIUKCn TILL 1SÖ.3. § 4'4. DEOSTE. HEKMES. 637
persons to the contrary were not binding, and any requirements made as con-
ditions of the marriage rite by the Church were nnlawful. But the cere-
mony of marriage, without a promise that the children should be educated
in the Catholic faith, had previously been performed frequently in Eastern,
and rarely in Western Prussia. ('/) In the latter country, therefore, the
Catholic clergymen now generally refused to solemnize marriage unless such
promises were volunfarily otiered. At the same time, the Catholic bride had
her scruples of conscience so excited, and was so much terrified by what she
must meet at the confessional, that she was never satisfied with a Protestant
ceremonial. When requested by the government in some way to accommo-
date this matter, the Western Prussian bishops addressed themselves to the
pope, to know whether there was any way in which they could comply with
the law of the state. Pins VIII., in an apostolical brief of March 25, 1830,'
pronounced all mixed marriages improper, but valid ; he did not forbid the
ecclesiastical benediction where securities were given for the Catholic educa-
tion of all the children, but in all instances permitted the parties to enter the
maiTiage relation in the presence of the pastor, without any ecclesiastical
rites (praesentia passiva), though without ecclesiastical censures. (/») The
government did not publish this brief, until, by a secret agreement, the bish-
ops interested in the matter had granted what had been refused at PkOme,
viz., that as a general rule, marriage should be solemnized according to the
forms of the Church, and that only in rare cases, easy to be evaded, the
limitation of the passive assistance should be applied. ('•) This agreement of
1834 was denied by the bishops in Rome, until a written confession of the
dying Bishop of Treves brought the truth to the full knowledge of the pope
(1836). Clemens Droste, the suffragan Bishop of ]'if<c?tcri?)(/, who had i)re-
viously defended the unconditional freedom of the Church, was made Arch-
bishop of Cologne (1836), after giving a promise that he would peaceably and
sincerely conform to the agreement entered into with respect to the Brief of
1880. (d) With him, however, a party came into ja-ominence, determined at
all hazards to deliver the Church from what they called the yoke of the
state, (e) When the archbishop came to know the contradiction which ex-
isted between the agreement of the bishops and the papal brief, he forbade
his clergy to solemnize the marriage rites of the Church without a promise
that the children shoxdd be educated in the Catholic faith. In vain he was
reminded by tl.e government of the promise he had made previous to his
appointment. The offence he thus gave was much increased by his informal pro-
ceedings with respect to the Ilermesians. In opposition to the doctrine of con-
fidence in authority, which it was said could never rise above doubt, Iltrt?ics
(1775-1831) had atteuipted to find proof of the doctrines of the Catholic
Church in the absolute necessities of human reason, (/) and left behind him a
school which extended itself from Boon, and prevailed in all the institutions
a) J. RntscMcfr, <1. pom. Ehon r. kath. Stnndp. Vlcn. (1S37. 1S3S.) 1941.— (7. F. Jacobnoii, i.
d. geii). Elicn in DcutschlunJ, Itisb. In Pr. Lp». 1S38. Ch. F. v. Amnion, d. gem. Ehen. Dresd.
•d. lS-39.
b) Acte hist ecc. 1S.35. p. IHs». c) Ibid. 1S.37. p. 425s8. d) Ibid. 1S36. p. SlSsa.
«•) Beitrüge z. Kirchenpesch. d. 19. Jahrli. in Donfjclil. .\up«ib. 1935.
/) Einl. in d. clir. katli. Tliool. Münst. vol. I. (1S19.) 1S.31. vol. H. (1S29.) 1SS4. Clirlstk.sth. Dog
638 MODERN CIIÜECII HISTOnV. PKR. VI. A. D. 1C4S-18Ö3.
for odnration on the Rhino. Tlio oj>ponent.s of tliis school obtained a bear
ing at Koine; nnd in consequence of a trial, the most responsililo actor in
■which was afterwards found to bo utterly unacquainted with the German
languape and literature, ((j) the -writings of tiic deceased Hermes were con-
denmed in an apostolical brief of Sept. 26, 1835. As his system had not been
explained with much precision, and a distinct deviation from the doctrines
of the Church had not been proved, the Ilermesians were not -without hopes
that they might convince the Holy Father of the orthodoxy of their instruc-
tor. Archbishop Droste impaired the intluence of the theological faculty, at
Bonn, by forbidding the students at the confessional to hear lectures from
the Ilermesians. (//) In the negotiations of the government Avith the arch-
bishop, an amicable understanding -was obtained on this subject ; but -with
respect to the mixed marriages, he adhered to the declaration that he could
comi)ly with the agreement of 1834 only so far as it was consistent with tlie
Brief of 1830. He -«-as therefore threatened with a suspension of his official
duties, imprisoned Nov. 20, 1837, and finally brought to the fortress of Min-
den, on the ground set forth in a ministerial decree, that be bad violated his
promise, undermined the laws, and excited the minds of the people under the
influence of two revolutionary parties. Gregory XVI., as early as Dec. 10,
protested against the violence thus committed against the Church, extolled
the martyrdom of the archbishop, and rejected the illegal evasion of the
Brief of 1830. (/) The Prussian ambassador declared that the measure
against the archbishop was merely a temporary act of self-defence, and ac-
knowledged the pope himself as a final judge in the case. (I) The pope,
however, demanded that before any negotiations could be entered upon, the
archbishop must be restored to his former position. Both parties then ap-
pealed to public opinion, by presenting to the world representations of the
original grounds of the quarrel. (/) O'öd'cs, as a voluntary advocate of the
archbishop, made an attack upon Protestantism, and the whole official body
of the Prussian government. (?«) The party on the other side regarded the
controversy as a struggle between German liberty and Roman dominion.
Every existing element of discontent was for the time involved in this reli-
gious contention. The sullen humor of the Catholic people on the Rhine
and in "Westphalia, was exhibited in individual acts of violence. The other
West Prussian bishops announced their renunciation of the agreement ; and
although the government refused to receive it, the Cabinet declared that it
never intended to compel a pastor, contrary to his conscience, to solemnize
matik, ed. by AchterfeldU Münst 1S34. 2 vols.— C^. G. Xiedner, Philosopliiao ITermesü explicatio et
exislimatio. Lps. 1S8S. Perrone, z. Gesch. d. Hermesianism. A. d. Ital. Eatisb. 3S39.
O) Acta bi>t ecc. 1S36. p. oO'ss. Perronius, Theologus Eomanus vapulans. Col. 1S40. Elvenich.,
d. llerinesianisinus u. Perrone. Brl. 1S44.
/() Elrenich, Acta Hermesiana, Gott 1S36. Bravnet Elvenieh: Meictemata tlieol. Lps. IS-SS.
Acta Koniana. Han. 1S3S. (by Rehfuen) Die Wahrli. in d. Uermes'schen Sache. Darmst. lS;3r Zf/4
Acta antiherm. Uatisb. 1S39.
»■) Acta List ecc. 1S87. p. 5ss. Ic) Ibid. p. 5T5ss.
T) Dar!e2;ung d. Verfahrens d. Preuss. Regierung gegen d. Erzb. v. Ki.ln. Brl. 153?. 4. Esposlzione
di fatti) dc<?utnenlata su qnanto ha preceduto e seguito la deportazione di Monsignor Drostu, boma,
1S3S. Ratisb. 1n3S.
m) Athwiaslas. EaUsb. 1S3S. 1. ed. In Jan., 4. ed. at Easter.
CHAP. VL CATII. CHURCH TILL 1853. § 474. DUMN. FItED. AVM. IV'. 639
mixed marriages, or to forbid biin to make discreet inquiries respecting the
education of the children (1838). (//) iJunin^ Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen,
had even in 1837 besougiit the government, in order to correct the abuses
^vhich bad gained ground ■\vitliin liis jurisdiction, that either the Brief of
1830 might be publislied in liis diocese, or that bo niiglit be permitted to
apply for a decision of the apostolic see. On being refused botli requests, he
secretly issued a pastoral epistle (Feb., 1838), in -which he declared every
priest suspended who should thereafter solemnize a mixed marriage without
a security that the offspring should be Catholic, {o) The government de-
prived this order of all force, promised its protection to every priest who
should be threatened on accoimt of his non-observance of it, and arraigned
the archbishop before tiio superior court for high treason and disobedi-
ence, {i') He denied the competence of the court, but coiiii)lied with a cita-
tion to Berlin. After ineffectual negotiations, a judicial decision was here
pronounced (April, 1889), which deposed him, and condemned him for dis-
obedience to a six months' imprisonment in a fortress. The king, however,
condescended to regard a letter of the archbishop as a request for pardon,
and therefore suspended the sentence of deposition, and remitted the punish-
ment of imprisonment, though on condition that lie should not leave the city
of Berlin. lie immediately fled from the city to Posen (Oct., 1839), where
he was seized, and brought to Colberg. All the churches in his diocese were
hung in mourning. {//) Frederic William IV. found this complicated state
of affairs still unsettled at his accession. All the Prussian l)is]iop3 had
adopted the views of the Roman court, except the Prince-bisboi) of Breslau,
who was compelled, by the conflict between his couvictiims and tlio circum-
stances in which lie was i)lac.d, to resign his pastoral staff (Aug., 1840). {r)
The Archbishop Dunin (d. 1842) was allowed by the king to return to his
diocese ; and having exhorted his clergy to be lovers of peace, lie gave orders,
that as they were forbidden by law to require securities for the education of
the children ; in all mixed marriages the}' should ab.stain from every act which
ooidd be construed as an as.sent to them, (.v) Tiic king established a Catholic
department in tlie ministry for public worsliij), renounced the Phtrct in mat-
ters of faith, and gave full liberty to the bisliops to hold intercourse with the
Roman see (Jau. 1, 1841). Negotiations Avere also opened with the papal
court, in consequence of which. Archbishop Droste, with his own consent,
on account of his ill health, was api)ointed coadjutor, with the right of being
the successor, to John of 6\'/.w<7, Bishop of Speyer. By an open royal letter,
the archbishop was honorably released from his conlinement, and from all
imputations of a guilty participation in revolutionary movements. (/) lie
H) A. Z. 18.SS. N. TO. Suppl. N. ST. Siiin.l.
o) A. Z. lS:iS. N. as. Supj.!.
;/) A. Z. 1>:?S. N. 2CSs. I'roiis*. Sla.it<;7, IS-^S. X. «02. A. Z. 1S39. N. a">. Ksposiziono ill tlirillo e
rti fatto eon autiiilitl <lücimionll. Koiiin, 11 Apr., ISM». Katisb. 1S39. Ilinftt, Vcrtlicldlguiig il. KrzU
Duiiln. WQrzb. 1*W.
fj) Brl. KZ. 1S39. N. S8. in2.
>■) A. Z. 1*!!». N. 20. A. KZ. 1S41. N. 81. I). A. Z. 134.^ N. 5.
*) Hrl. KZ. 1S40. N. 64. OO. T4, K Pohl. M. v Diinln Marienb. IS ».3.
l!rl. KZ. 1S41. X. 11. "J comp. 111. ISli N. 3
n to MODKUN CHURCII niSTORY. PER. VI. A. J). 1645-1858.
now (loclnroil that lie only wi.shod henceforth to spend liis life In prnylng for
his »liooo.sc (Marcli 9, 1842), (w) and as an autlior, somewhat awkwardly bnt
lioncstly (lofcndc'd the liberty of both sides, and the iniitnal friend^^liip of
Church an<l State (d. 1845). (i) The Ilermesians had already given up their
own cause; and when their two last advocates maintained at least that
Ilcnncs had not taught what the papal brief had imputed to him, on an ap-
idication from the coadjutor, they were dismissed from their offices (1844).
Even Pius IX. repelled their reference to his Circular (§ 47u) as an act of
insolence, (ir) AVith regard to mixed marriages, the most rigid interpretation
of the Brief of 1830 has been adopted as the rule of action, hut the possibil-
ity of a ceremony performed by Protestants is conceded and acted upon, (j)
In this controversy the Catholic Church has exhibited a powerful self-reU
ance, (y) which might proceed so far as to threaten once more a division or
Germany. In other countries, where the circumstances were similar to those
which existed in Prussia, the clergy were obliged to make use of the same
influences. (<) In Wurtemierff, when the ministry proclaimed that all those
priests should be displaced who refused to solemnize mixed marriages accord-
ing to the law of 1800, which provided that both Churches should be placed
on an equal footing. Bishop Keller of Eottenburg (d. 1846), an old and fsiith-
ful servant of the government, was induced to present a proposition (Nov.
13, 1841) in the assembly of the states, in which the grievances of the ditfer-
eut parties were set forth. This provided that the free exercise of those
rights which the civil authorities, in direct opposition to the essential objects
of the constitution of the Catholic Church, had exercised, should now be
restored to the Church and its bishops. In both Chambers, though in differ-
ent ways, the full rights of the government were acknowledged, and a con-
fidence was expressed that it would remove every well-founded complaint.
But an anonymous letter filled with threats was repelled with disgust even
by the Catholic party.*
§ 475. The German Church since 1848.
From the revolution, the clergy obtained charters which were partially
fulfilled even when the reaction took place, in consequence of their agree-
ment with political parties hostile to each other. Although the expulsion of
the Jesuits and their allies from Austria, and their exclusion from all Ger-
man territories, bad been resolved upon in the first glow of popular feeling,
7() Brl. KZ. 1S42 N. 26.
r) Uebor den Frieden unter d. Kirche n. d. Staaten. Münst. 1^13. 2 ed.
«•) Bonner Zeitschr. 1S4;3. P. 4. Actenstücke z. geh. Gesch. d. Hermesian. by Eltenich-, Brsl.
1?45. Stttpp, die letzten llerinesianer. Siegen, 1S41. Comp. Bruns, Eep. ISiO. vol. YIL p. 2ö9ss.—
Brl. KZ. 1S47. N. 72.
ar) BrL KZ. 1S41. N. 37. 1842. N. 31.
y) J. V. Gorres, K. u. Staat nach Ablauf d, Cölner Irrung. "Weissenb. 1S42.
e) Die kath. Zustände in Baden. Eatisb. 1S41. On Ihe other side: Keheniiu, die kath. Zuständo
in Baden. Carlsr. 1S42. Der Streit ü. gem. Ehen. n. d. KUoheitsrecht im G. Baden. Karlsr. 1547.
• A. KZ. 1842. N. 98. 103. 114-116. 123-126. Brl. KZ. 1S42. N. 6. 23. 30. 50. ^. 21. J. Hack,
Cstholica, Mittheill. a. d. Gesch. d. kath. K. in Wärt, Tüb. 1S41. Briefe zweier Freunde ü. d. Motion
d. B. V. Kott Stuttg. 1842. 2 ed. Neueste Denksch. d. Würt Staatsreg. au d. rüm. Stuhl. Beleuchtet.
Bchaffb. 1S44.
CHAP. VI. CATir. CHURCH TILL 1S53. J 4TÖ. GERMANY SINCE 1343. G41
it was regarded as a permanent law of the German nation. Jesuit missions
tlien traversed tlie country (after 1850), and penetrated districts densely
populated by Protestants, (n) With the view of forming an imposing author-
ity for determining political and social questions on Catholic principles, a
popular society was commenced at Cologne, aud named after Pius IX. (Aug.,
1848). At the suggestion of the pope, and in consequence of the altered
state of the times, though not without some resistance and occasional relapses,
the political and democratic tendency of these Pius- if n ions on the Rhine
was given up, and their general uhject became the promotion of all Catholic
interests. Branches of tliis organization were extended to a great distance,
but they had no permanent place of meeting, and their annual assemblies
itinerated from place to place, (h) But the General Assembly at Vienna
(1853) found that the masses were not attracted toward them, and that the
spectators at their meetings were always the same. (<•) The German bishops^,
at a conference in WurUburg (Nov., 1848), proclaimed that the Church, in
living connection with its Holy Father, had not abandoned the work of re-
generating their native laud ; that it accepted with confidence the assurance
that all should have liberty of conscience ; that it would now enter upon the
full enjoyment of tbe independence which had so long been crippled; and
that while it maintained its divine right to educate its members from the
common to the high school, it would devote itself to the advancement of
true progress by tlio elevation of science, the establishment of ecclesiastical
discipline, and the restoration of the synodal system. ('/) Accordingly, trust-
ing to a sacred influence pervading the present age, and which no secular
power could withstand, they put forth a series of demands upon the govern-
ments, that in spite of the existing law and the modern state, the ideal of the
canon law which had never been renounced should now be realized, (e) In
Austria^ the ecclesiastical law of the Emperor Joseph was abandoned in tlie
httempt to carry out the idea of the two Schwartzonbergs, according to
which the mutually conflicting nationalities were to bo held together under
the house of Ilapsburg by the interest of the episcopate, and all that was
Catholic in German countries was to be rallied around the throne of his
apostolic majesty. (/) The imperial patent of Apiil 18, 1850, {g) dispensed
with the requirement that all papal and episcopal edicts should have the con-
sent of the state to their promulgation, made the clergy independent of the
secular autliorities and proportionally dependent upon the bishops, and abol-
ished every thing which had impeded the exertion of the i>enal powers of the
Church. The right of nominating the bisliops w;vs reserved by the emperor
to himself, as one which had descended from his ancestors, and which ho
promised to exercise for the good of the Church, aud with the counsel of tho
rt) K. A. Leihbrand, d. Miss. d. Jcs. u. Uedeinptorlston in DoutscliL u. d. ov. Wahrli. Stuttg
IS51.
t-) nrl. KZ. 1S4S. N. M. 77. 1S49. N. 41. 61». c) D. A. Z. ISM. N. 251.
d) I$rl. KZ. 1843. N. 92. 99. 101. A. KZ. 131S. N. 2(HK
e) 0. Mfjer, d. dt. KKnlh. ii. d. künftige l;ath. I'artcl. Lps. ISIS. C. Knie», d. katii. Ulerarcliie
In d. dt, Stiiaten s. 1843. Hal. 13:.2.
/) Actonstüfko, d. blj^clicill. ViTsaminl. zu Wien betr. Wien, 1S.V). (by Lonotic») Der Josepbl*
uins u. iL knls. Vcrordn. v. 13. Apr. .\. d. Ung. Wien, 1s51.
g) BrI. KZ. 1S50. N. S4s.
41
642 MdincuN c'Hi;j:rii iiisTonv. per. vi. a. ]>. ic4i-is:<8.
hisliops. Tlio pi\)si)ect of H more perfect regulation by a concordat wüs also
lielil out. And yet sucli was tlie state of tilings during tlie wars iu Hungary
and Italy, tliat bisliops were soinetiuies imprisoned, and priests Avere hung.
in JJiicariit, the national bisliops demanded (//) tlie comiilete execution of the
concordat for the adjustment of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, for op
this they professed to think the welfare of Europe depended. For this pur
l)ose they asked for the recognition of certain rights as inalienable to the
Church, the possession of which would have threatened to render the clergy
not only independent, but superior to the civil power. In its reply, (/) the
government refused to surrender its position, that the royal assent was indis-
pensable to ecclesiastical edicts, to investitures of livings by bishops, and to
missions by foreigners, and demanded that no change should, be made in the
administration of Church property, and that every member of the Church
should have a right to appeal to the sovereign for protection against all
abuses of ecclesiastical power. Only such decisions of the ecclesiastical
courts as exercised no influence upon civil relations, were exempted from the
necessity of having the royal confirmation ; and with respect to the royal
patronage of benefices, and to the school system, it was agreed that the opin-
ions of the bishops should be consulted. The Catholic party thus found that
the government had conceded only non-essential points, and had maintained
a position which had been abandoned even iu some Protestant states. After
I'russia had proclaimed the independence of the Church (Dec. 5, 1848), the
bishops, instead of complying with the invitation of the Minister to enter
into some definite arrangement with the state, published a memorial (Aug.,
1849), (Z) in which they claimed, as the necessary result of the independence
granted ; that all Church property should be transferred to their hands ; that
the state should exert no influence in the appointment of ecclesiastical ofli-
cers ; that the complete direction of the education of the Catholic clergy, and
of Catholic schools, should be committed to them ; and that the sacrament
of marriage should be allowed to be administered without any reference to
the civil law. The Constitution (Jan. 31, 1850) left the principle of indepen-
dence as it Avas, and allowed all persons freely to hold intercourse with eccle-
siastical superiors, but subjected the promulgation of ecclesiastical edicts to
the same restrictions as were imposed upon all other publications, and relin-
quished the investiture of ecclesiastical oflicers only so far as they did not
depend upon patronage, or some special legal title. But since that time, the
government has made a sei'ies of concessions, {I) some of which relate even
to the oath of allegiance to the constitution, (in) The limitation of theo-
logical studies in foreign Jesuit institutions, and of the Jesuit missions, was
again discussed (1852), and the mildest construction given of it which the
language would allow. («) A small Catholic party was formed in the Cham-
/() Denkscli. der v. 1-20. Oct 1S50, zu Freysing versammelten Erzbiscbüfe n. Biscli. Bayerns.
.Munich, ISÖO. 4. i) Of April S, ISöO: Allg. Z. 1&52. N. IIS.
k) PrinlcU in the Katholit. Mayence, Proceoüings of the Chambers in Sept.: Drl. KZ. 1S49. X.
-l.-^. SS. S9. ISOO. N. 4.
//icc", ov. prot K. d. dt. Reichs, p. 8S9-<s. Knies, p. 13s.
»n 15rl. KZ. ISöO. N. 4. m. 203. Der Conilict d. preuss. Rej. m. d. kath. Bisch, iu Betr. d. Ver
t-issunjjseides. Livs 1S50. n) Brl. KZ. liöi. X. tö. SOs. 103.
CHAP. TL CATII. CnURCII TILL 13.Ö3. § 475. PRUSSIA. MECHLENBUPvO. 643
bers, wliich did noi scruple to connect itself with the Right or the Left,
according to circumstances ; and as the government were obliged to rule by
a part}', these were often strong enough to give the preponderance where
they pleased. But a complete independence of the clergy was not effected,
for a general dislike was felt to the establishment of an independent sacerdo-
tal power, subjeft only to a foreign sovereign, whose decisions were formed
by divine authority, and Avere regarded by the bi.^hops as their rule of right,
to wliich the heretical ruler of so many ancient ecclesiastical countries would
be tolerable only as a matter of necessity, and by which a portion of the
people would be so educated, that very soon a second "Westphalian Peace
would become indispensable. Even the complaints from Posen respecting
the non-fulfilment of the conceded right to spiritual jurisdiction, the admin-
istration of Church property, and the Protestantizing and denationalizing the
schools, («) v^'ere not regarded. "When ArnohU, Bishop of Treves, required
(March 12, 15, 1853) the jjastors under his jurisdiction to aUow of mixed
marriages only when tlie non-Catholic party promised upon oath to have all
the children to be educated in the Catholic faith, and even then to withhold
the ecclesiastical benediction, (p) a general astonishment was expressed at
this extravagant application of the papal enactment of 1830. Tlie king pro-
claimed, that every officer of his army wjio contracted marriage under such
dishonorable conditions, should be immediately dismissed from service. The
general belief that an apostolical brief of such a tenor had been issued to all
the Prussian bishops, was partially corrected at Treves ; and it was shown
that an attempt had been made to ascertain whether such a proceeding would
be then tolerated in Prussia, by such a limitation im])osed upon each bishop
by the Propaganda at the renewal of his quinquennial faculties (p. 460). (//)
In J/(Ec7/i(V(?y«/y/-Schwerin, the return to orthodoxy which was lavored by the
higher classes, was in some instances carried too far ; and a landed proprietor
who had recently become a Catholic, employed a priest of Mayence as his
domestic chaplain. This priest was conveyed, by order of the government
(Sept., 1852), out of the country, on the ground that the stated employment
of a priest was not implied in the privilege of domestic worship, and that
the Catholic wor.ship was tolerated merely by an arrangement with the sov-
ereign (1788, 1809, 1811), under certain local restrictions. (/•) A complaint
with respect to tliis proceeding, founded upon the sixteenth article of the
Act of Confederation, was sent back by tlie diet in accordance with the ex-
isting law, and by the Diet of the Confederation on tlie ground of incompe-
tency. (.'<) The five bishops of the Jicclcsiu.sticdl Province of (lie Upper
Iikine (f) disclosed also to their respective governments what they regarded
as essential to the ecclesiastical independence promised them, viz. : free inter-
o) Proiromnrin betr. d. üfelntriclit. tl. k.itli. K. im G. Posen. Pos. 1S4'J. f.
//) lirl. KZ. IS'A N. *}. 30. -ir..
<j) D. A. Z. 1S.'.3. N. ICl.— A. KZ. IS.W. N. 134.
f) (A. ir. I'. Schroetfr,) Die kntli. Pel. Uebiin? In Mcckl. Gcsclilclill. u. rechtlich. Jen.% 1S52. Or.
the other hand: J. T. B. v. Linde, Q. d. rccl.ll. Gliich.-tell. d. clir. Pel. Parteien In d. dt Bnndesst.
Insb. in Mcclcl. Giess. 1852.
*) l!rl. KZ. 1S52. N. 10Ü. 1S5.3. N. .in. I). A. Z. ls.V.>. X. 441.
t) For lliein: J/". Lieber, in Saclien d. ulierrh. KProv. ni. Actenst. Fre'.b. 1S53. F. Iiies% kirch-
641 MODERN CIItTRCII HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 164S-1«(M.
oonr.'Jo villi Koine; tlio validity of paj)al and episfojml edicts, -without thi
coiicnrrenoo of tlio states ; the unrestrained adminrstration of Cliurch pro-
perty ; the necessity of the con.sent of the bi.shop to the instruction given in
pchools of all kinds ; the establishment of seminaries under the care of the
hishoj) ; an alteration of the academical studies, and of the chapter, so as to
miikc them conform to the principles of the canon law ; a recognition of the
episcopal right to examine their clergy, to the exclusion of an examination
liy the state ; the investiture of all clerical officers by the bi.shop, as far as
was consistent with a well-established right of patronage ; the restoration of
the episcopal right to control priestly functions and popular mis,sions ; and
the unrestrained exercise of the power of punishing all members of the
Church, without being subject to an appeal to the civil authorities, (u) The
government of Darmstadt refrained from enforcing the institution of the
candidate whom it preferred for the see of Mayence, and who had been
elected by the chapter in the informal way sanctioned by a frequent Roman
usage, 0) allowed a bishop to be invested (1849) who, it well knew, would be
the leader of the opposition, and saw the very last student forsaking its own
tlieological faculty at Giessen, in consequence of the constitutional freedom
of studies proclaimed in the seminary he re-established at Mayence (1851.) {w)
When the commissioners of the government assembled at Carlsruhe made
them no reply, the bishops remarked that they would in any case act as if
their demands had been complied with (Feb. 22) ; and when these demands
were finally for the most part rejected (March 5, 1853), (.<•) they declared
that they should obey God rather than man ; and that, in accordance with
the doctrine generally received in their Church, and the laAv founded upon
it, they should oppose the regulations prescribed by the government, on the
ground that their supreme ecclesiastical head had long since condemned
them as anticatholic and illegal (April 12). (y) It was determined that an
attempt, which should be an example for all other places, should be made in
Baden, where the revolution had been most radical, and where the youth of
the ruler presented the greatest hope. Herman of Vicari, Archbishop of
Friburg, who, contrary to all precedent, had prohibited the funeral solemni-
ties prescribed by the government for the late Grand Duke, on account of
the course that prince had pursued toward the Church (1852), (5) by his own
authority nominated a pastor for Constance and an ecclesiastical council, had
the seminaries examined without a commissioner fi'om government, and threat-
ened to excommunicate the members of the supreme council of the Church, un-
less they would either act according to tlie episcopal memorial, or resign their
offices. He was admonished by the ministry (Oct. 31, 1853) to revoke these
)icli-pol. Blätter a. d. oberrh. KPr. Stnttg. 1S53. Ag.'iinst: S. B. Leu, Warnung v. Neuer u. Ueber-
treibungen. Lnz. 1S53. Bisdiüfl. Theorien u. posit llecbt Stuttg. 1SÖ3.— Z. A. VTarnkönig, ü. d.
Conflict (1. Episcopats d. oberrh. KProv. Erl. lSr>3.
") Memorial of March, 1S51, in Liehet: p. :Sss. Abstract: Brl. K2J. 1951. N. 45.
r) Leop. Schmid, ü. d. jüngste Mainzer Biscbofswahl. Giess. 2 ed. 1850. Comp. Ibid. Geist d.
Catholicism, o. grundl. d. chr. Irenik. Giess. 1S4S. vol. I.
u) Brl. KZ. 1851. N. 45. a-) Decree of the Baden Gov. in Lieber, p. 47ss.
;/) Brl. KZ. 1S53. N. S3. Tue reasons for the Act of June IS: Denksch. d. Episcopates d. oberrb
KPr. in Bezug a. d. Würt Bad. Hess. u. Nass. Entscbliessung v. 5. Marz. Freib. 1S5-3.
z) Brl. KZ. 1S5-:. N. SSs, 40. 59.
CHAP. VI. CATII. CIIURCn TILL 1S53. § 475. BADEN. § 47Ö. SWITZERLAND. 645
acts, wliieli were opposed to the laws he had sworn to observe, and the eccle-
siastical constitution which had been peacefully in force for half a century ;
but he replied, that he could no longer yield obedience to laws in conflict with the
right of ecclesiastical self-government guarantied by international treaties, and
which annihilated the order Christ had bestowed upon the Church. The
govorninent then appointed an otHcer (Xov. V), whose indorsement was made
indispensable to the validity of all archiepiscopal edicts; those clergymen
who ventured to obey such edicts, regardless of this arrangement, were threat-
ened with punishment by the police, and those who obeyed the government
were assured of its protection. The archbisliop dismissed the oflicer of tlio
government with his excommunication (Nov. 10); published a hauglity pastoral
epistle (Nov. 11), in whicli he expressed a desire of martyrdom ; openly chal-
lenged the ministry — though, as was proper under a constitutional govern-
ment, only the ministry — to a war; protested against this ministerial inter-
ference, proceeding from Protestant views, with his holy office ; uttered an
excommunication, to be read from every pulpit, against each member of the
supreme ecclesiastical council (Xov. 14) ; and gave orders that this matter
should be explained to the people in the pari-sh churches on four Sundays, on
the basis of the episcopal memorial and the pastoral epistle, (a) The govern-
ment did not venture to lay hands upon the aged archbishop, but the subor-
dinate executors of his will were fined and imprisoned. These imprison-
ments, however, often involved the members of the congregations, and could
not be carried out against the multitude. Contributions also flowed in
from abroad, amply sufKcient to make up for all tines, and fur any retention
of revenues. But the Catholic people could not be aroused by the fanatical
pamphlets scattered an)ong them, (h) to make any very imposing demonstra-
tion ; the councils of the congregations, and even clergymen, prayed to be
excused from the not very edifying four discourses, and the archbishop was
obliged to depose a number of deacons. The pope, however, higldy extolled
his remarkable firmness against a government which was continually worry-
ing the Church ; (c) and almost all German, Belgian, and French bishoi)s
have expressed their joyful api)robation of the archbishop's course, and
joined with him in directing that solemn prayers should be ofiiired up in
their churches against the persecutors of the Church.
§ 470. The SicUs.
I.. Snell, C. ir. Giricl; u. A. Ifenne, iirnt'in. Erzälil. «1. kirclil. Erclpi. in <1. katb. Pcliw. M.innb.
1 W>^. 2 vols.— Die rum. Curio ii. d. kirclil. Wirren il. Sdiw. OlTonb. \<n. Die Pcliwelz.r Josuilon-
IViige in Staats- u. volkerrcclitl. Indent. (Scbwesricr, Jalirb. 1S45. II. 8.) Gcscb. d. Jesuitonkampfes in
d. Schwolz. Zur. 1S.J5.— Tnb. Qiiartalschr. 1S35, P. 4. F. I/urttr, d. Befeindung d. katb. K. in d.
Scbw. 8. 1S31. SclialVb. 1S42.N 4 Ablli.
According to ancient u>age, the.Swi-^s had a metropolitan connection,
some with Besan<jon, and others with Mentz, and of course sympathized with
these churches in their tendencies to freedom. The connection of the former
portion in the western part of Switzerland with the Gallicaa Church, was
rt) Orig. Docc. : D. A. Z. 19.'.«. N. 251?. 2C8. 27:1. 279. Append. 2s0. .303. A. KZ. lSöi3. N. I?6s8.
h) " Katbollki'n, liabt acbt ! "
c) Alldeiition of Dee. 10: D. A. Z. 1S54. N. .V
bir, MODKUN CIM'IICH lIISTOnT. I'KU. VI. A. D. 1C4S-195!>
broken ort" liy flie revolution. Tlie most important part of the confederacy
belonfrod to tlio bishopric of ComUrncf^ and had received from tliat source
not onlv nn ocoiioinical administration of their affairs, ])ut protection against
tiio clainis of the ntmcio at Lucerne. The people in tliis part were now en-
joying much prosperity under the influence which Wcssenburg exerted for
the iini)rovcment of the people and the clergy. Hence, when a political
reaction took place in 1814, the nimcio thought a favorable time had come
for etlectiug a separation of Switzerland from Constance. Pleased vrith the
promise of nn independent national diocese, the Confederates applied for a
division at Rome, and in violation of every canonical form. Pius VIT. hastily
rent asunder a connection which liad existed for a thousand years. («) As
olmost every canton was anxious to have the national bishopric within its
bounds, and hopes were secretly encouraged in each, the administration of
ecclesiastical affairs came into the hands of a vicar-general appointed by the
poj)e, the Jesuits got the control of all education in Freiburg and in the
Valais, and Switzerland became the headquarters of the hierarchy. Keller
of Lucerne, who about this time swore that this party should never obtain
the victory as long as he continued a magistrate, was soon after found dead
in the waters of the Eeuss (1816). After tedious intrigues, it was decided
that a few small dioceses should in some instances be continued, and in oth-
ers be newly formed (1828) ; and all of them, instead of being placed under
nn archbishop, were made directly dependent upon Rome. This victory soon
became of but little importance, in consequence of the revolution of 1830.
In the midst of many controversies between the lay and the clerical author-
ities, the cantons of the progressive party united at Baden (1834s.), to effect
by common measures the establishment of a national archbishopric, or the
formation of a German Metropolitan connection, a powerful supervision of
the Church by the state, a free national education, and the appropriation of
the aid of the convents to pious objects of general utility, (b) Gregory XVI.
condemned these articles adopted by the conference as an attempt to subject
the Church to the laity ; (c) the nuncio withdrew from Lucerne, and took up
his residence at Schwitz (N"ov. 14, 1835), and Catholic associations excited
the people against the new constitution of the state. But the Roman party
found in the decided popular will which had been awakened by this agency
among the Catholic or mixed cantons, a pious but rude sovereign, while in
the overthrown aristocracy of the reformed cantons they found an important
aUy. The Catholic insurrection in Pruntrut (1835) was suppressed by Berne.
The Catholic clergy in Glarus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the
new constitution, except with a reservation in favor of their ecclesiastical
obligations, which was finally allowed to them (183T). (f7) St. Gall unani-
mously abolished the convent of Pfaefer (1838), the Catholic population
merely insisting that the property of the convent belonged exclusively to
their charitable institutions, {e) Aargau undertook the administration of the
property of its convents ; and when the convents protested against such a
a) Arcliiv. f KG. vol. II. p. CSlss. V) Acta hist, ecc 1S35. p. 4.Sss.
c) Ibiil. p. 3ss. (f) Ibid. IS-ST. p. 125ss.
t) A. KZ. ISSS. Jf. 45. A. Z. 1S3S. Sfuppl. N. 21". Brl. A. KZ. 1S89. N. 101.
CHAP. VI. CATII. CllUßCn TILL 1353. § 476. SWITZ. SONDEEBUND. 647
course as an injury to tliemselvcs, the government replied that this yvas
apparently the tirst step for the aholition of convents which had been guaran-
tied in the treaty of the league (1837). (,/') But an insurrection of the
Catholic minority, in opposition to the constitution revised so as to make it
conform to the views expressed in the articles of conference, was made use
of as a reason for taking possession, by a decree of the great council (Jan,
20, 1841), of eight convents, especially of the wealthy monastery of Muri,
which had been founded by the house of llapsburg. It was alleged that
these convents were used as places of rendezvous for those wlio were en-
gaged in insurrection, and their revenues were now appropriated to objects
connected with education and charity, (g) The complaint and petition for
the re-establishment of the convents was under discussion for a long time in
the diet with doubtful success, until more than twelve cantons declared
themselves satisfied with the concessions made by Aargau for the establish-
ment of tlirce nunneries (Aug. 31, 1843). On the other hand, Lucerne, at
the head of those cantons favorable to Rome, protested against them, on the
ground that they were an infraction of the terms of the league, (//) For in
Lucerne, at the revision of the constitution, the Eomish party, under the
influence of the robbery of the convents of Aargau, had obtained the as-
cendency (May 1, 1841), and the nuncio returned with great pomp (Jan. 22,
1843). Switzerland was now divided into tAvo hostile parties, distinguished
by their apparently external, though really internal affinities and antipathies
of Jesuitism and liadicalism. In the Vulais^ the liberals were overthrown at
Trent (May 1, 1844) in a sanguinary battle by the sacerdotal party, and the
aflairs of the canton were then directed according to the wishes of the vic-
tors. (/) In Litceme, also, a majority of votes was obtained by means of the
country people, in favor of a recall of the Jesuits, and intrusting the theo-
logical schools to their instruction. (/.) The party which had previously held
the suiiremacy, was now supported by the voluntary assistance of thoso
Catholics who were of the same views, and by Protestants from all the can-
tons. This undisciplined liost of volunteers, which attempted to wrest Lu-
cerne from the possession of the Jesuits by a single blow, Avero entirely dis-
persed (Dec. 8, 1844, March 31, 1845) by the army of Lhe original cantons,
and all domestic opposition was overthrown. (/) In view of this victor}', as
well as of the dangers which threatened them. Lucerne innaediately con-
cluded a military alliance Avith the three original cantons, and Avith Valais,
Freiburg, and Zug, for mutual protection against invasion or internal commo- "
tion, and the allies then demanded in a threatening manner the restoration
of the convents of Aargau, (m) The liberal party demanded the general
./O Acta liist. ecc. 183T. p. ISTfs.
g) Die Aiifliebung d. Aarg. Klüstcr. Donksclir. an d. Lidgeniiss. Stiinde. Aarau, 1S41. 4, (Kliciiiw.
Rop. vol. XXXIII. I). 170. 2C4.-S.) I5il. KZ. 1S41. N. 14.
h) Ibid. 1843. N. 103. A. Z. 184-3. N. 173. 24T. 297. 034.
«■) Die Ereignisse im AVall. Tran.sl. of the work: !a contrc-revnl. en Valais, by J/". Jitrrnidiii), willi
Introd. by L. Snell, Ziir. 1S44. (a partisan piil;l.)
k) Brl. KZ. 1844. N. 03. 1840. N. 1.
I) D. A. Z. 184-1. N. 352. Erl. KZ. 1S1.5. X. 31. Dji-s rotlio Lücldoln o. d. Frelfüluiaronziif: Bern
\SKj. m) D. A. Z. 1S4C. N. 27.
548 MODERN CHUUCII IIISTOPwY. PEU. VI. A, D. 1C4S-1858.
expnlsion of tlie Jesuits as indispensable to the tranquillity of tlie Confed-
eracy, and after many negotiations, the diet declared (July 20, 18-4Y) by ?
small majority that the separate alliance (Sonderbund) -was inconsisteat with
the general confederation, and was therefore dissolved, and that the seven can-
tons should be held responsible for its continuance. («) To this division into re-
ligious parties was added, on the one side, a struggle for a more efficient unity
of the states, and on the other, for the maintenance of the sovereign rights
of the separate cantons. Pius IX. still exhorted them to the cultivation of
peace, (o) but he did not venture on the recall of the Jesuits as the measure
most likely to reconcile all parties, but it appeared probable that a decision
could be attained only by a civil and religious war. A superior army was
called into the field by the diet, and the miraculous pennies purchased from
the Jesuits to secure the immediate protection of the Virgin against the bul-
lets of the enemy, (jj) were found insufficient. The foreign aid was too
scanty; Freiburg capitulated; the small affair near Gislicon (Nov. 23) be-
came as important for the Protestants as that at Oappel once was for the
opposite party, and all the cantons were obliged to renounce the Sonderbund,
and submit to the diet. The Jesuits universally had fled, and from the pro-
perty they left, the conquered cantons paid a part of their quota for the
expenses of the war. (q) These events produced an important change in the
administration, for in Lucerne, in consequence of a revolution in public sen-
timent, the party which had for years been trampled under foot now gained
the ascendency, and in Freiburg, the faction which had long governed merely
by the aid of foreign arms, was now obliged to defend itself against a series
of revolutionary attempts. In 1848, Switzerland availed itself of the oppor-
tunity, when Austria and France had enough to do at home, to form itself
into a confederacy. In the new constitution, Avas secured liberty of con-
science for all the confessions recognized by the state, and equal rights for all
citizens ; the order of the Jesuits was excluded from the country, and every
governmental guarantee for the monasteries was withdrawn, (r) The federal
authorities, by a special law respecting mixed marriages (1850), have entirely
divested them of ecclesiastical restrictions, have made the education of the
children dependent upon the will of the father, and in every instance have
permitted a Protestant clergyman to solemnize a marriage, when a Catholic
priest has refused to do so. (s) In many cantons, monasteries have beer
either abolished, or condemned to die by a gradual process. Freiburg, in
connection with the four cantons in its diocese (Lausanne), concluded a con-
cordat containing the essential principles of the articles of the Conference
of Baden, (t) The Bishop Marilley sent forth secret and public admonitions
against the new constitution. "When asked if he would unconditionally sub-
ject himself to it, and submit his public acts to the approbation of the gov-
ernment, he replied that he would prefer death to such a servitude. Chillon
became once more the prison of an illustrious captive (Oct. 29, 1848), who,
«) D. A. Z. 1845. N. 8T. 1S4T. N. 20S. 252. 297. 299.
o) Ibid 1S4T. N. 803. p) Ibid. 1S4T. N. 850.
q) Ibid. N. 344. r) Art. 44-lS. 5S.
s) Brl. KZ. :850. N. S3, but comp. 1S51. N. 39. i!) Ibid. 1S4S. N. 86.
CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH TILL 1S53. § 477. IKEI.AND. 649
however, soon exchanged liis confinement for banishment. («) The holy
father wept with him, (y) appealed to the federal law with respect to freedom
of conscience, to justify his att«Qpt to secure the independence of his clergy,
and protested against all aggressions since 1847 upon the rights of the
Church, (w) For the sake of a general reconciliation, the Bishop of Basle
recommended what had also been proposed in a popular society, that the
remainder of the debt for the war of the Sonderbund should be paid by a
voluntary offering, (.v)
§ 477. Ireland and England.
Irische Zustünde. (Klieinw. Ecp. vol. XIIL p. 2C3ss. XIV, 6Sss.) F. I/(urter), Irl. Zustand. (Tub.
Quartalsch. 1840. H. 4.) la. F. Vogel, pragni. Gesch. d. pol. u. rel. Verb. zw. Engl. u. Irl. Lps. 1842.
R. Murray, Irel. and her Church. Lond. ed. 3. 1845. 3 vols. — 0. Mejer, d. Propaganda in Engl.
1851. — O. de Beavmont, Tlrland sociale, politique et rellgieuse. Par. 1839. 2 vols. [Ireland, from the
French of Beaumont by Taylor, Lond. 1840. 2 vols.] — J. G. Kohl, [Travels in Ireland, from the
Germ. New York. 1844. 8. F. v. Jiaumer, Engl, in 1835. in Letters from the Germ. Lond. 1836. 8.]
The iniquity of the fathers had descended in the form of a curse of mis-
ery and hatred to the sons both of the spoilers and the spoiled. The im-
portance of reconciling seven millions of its subjects to the state under which
they lived, was fully acknowledged by the government. But the first attempt
which it made to relieve them of their burdens, led to an insurrection in
London (1780). Every mitigation of their lot was obliged to be carried
through Parliament with the utmost difficulty, in opposition to the selfishness
of the privileged classes, and the passions of the Protestant multitude. Tlie
Irish people were under the direction of O'^Connell (1809-47), a demagogue,
but one who aimed at what was indispensable. By the aid of the priests, he
kept the people in a state of tremendous excitement, which he alone could
restrain within the bounds of the law. The spirit of justice finally obtained
the victory in the bosoms of the English nation, while the aristocracy were
alarmed at the threatening state of despair in which they beheld the Irish
people. Constrained by this necessity, Wellington was able and was obliged
to accomplish what even Canning could not eflect with all the magic of his
eloquence in behalf of universal freedom. An act of Parliament, passed April
13th, 1829, presented a citizen's oath compatible with the Catholic faith, by tak-
ing which, every Catholic became eligible to a seat in Parliament, and with few
exceptions to all offices in the state and parish, (a) But a people who lived
as tenants in their own country, with a foreign hierarchy and aristocracy,
and in terror of starvation every winter, could see only a distant hope in
concessions like tliis. When they found the fulfilment of this hope still de-
layed, the whole nation entered into an open conspiracy (1831), the tithes
were refused, and whoever dared to act contrary to the known will of the
people, was secretly tried and executed. The expense of collecting the tithes
was greater than they were worth. The government received extraordinary
■it) Snell, vol. n. 2. p. 509ss. Der Terrori,<nuis im K. Freib. (Hist. pol. Bll, 1850. vol. XXXI. p.
I45SS.) V) Brl. KZ. 1S49. N. IS.
ID) Ibid. 184S. N. 80. 103. 1851. N. 23. «■) Ibid. 1852. N. 20.
a) Wi/se, Hist, of the late Catli. Assoc. Lond. 1329. 2 vols. A. Theiner, Samir.l. wicht. Actenst
z. Gesell, d. Einano. d. Kath. in Engl Mavence, 1835.
G50 MODKUN CIILTUCII HISTOUY. I'KR. VI. A. D. ICIS-IS»!
powers fruiii rarliiimcnt (1833) for jjiitting down tlicse violent proceedings,
and proposed to reform the Protestant Oliurch of Ireland. The changes con-
templated in this reform, Avere : the aholition of taxes for the erection of
chnrches ; the transfer of the tithes, with an abatement of their amount,
from the tenant to the projirietor ; the diminution of the number of tho
bishoprics ; a tax upon all livings according to their vahie, and the abroga
tion of all sinecures. (I) In the House of Lords, however, the inviolability
of the property of the Church Avas resolutely maintained. The cause of free-
dom in general became identified with that of justice for Ireland. The lib-
eral ministry was divided upon the proposition (May 27th, 1834) to apply the
suri:)lus of ecclesiastical property to objects of general utility in the state,
under the direction of Parliament, (c) Even the Tory ministry under Sir
Kobert Peel acknowledged the necessity of a reform, but contended that it
should be Avithout depriving the Church of its property. The tithes were
again collected at the point of the bayonet, and the only son of a Avidow Avas
shot doAvn (Dec, 1834). (d) The Peel ministry retired, and then Russell earned
a proposition in the loAver House (April 7th, 1835), (e) which required that all
ecclesiastical property not really needed for the support of the established
Church, should be applied to the education of the people. This principle of
appropriation Avas rejected in the upper House as a robbery of the altar, and
a commencement of the work of destroying the establishment. When the
Irish Church Bill Avas returned to the lower House, it Avas so mutilated, that
this body preferred to leave every thing in an alarming uncertainty to
attempting any change then practicable (Aug., 1836). (/) Lord Lyndhurst
Avished to knoAV nothing of justice in behalf of aliens in faith, in blood, and
in manners, {g) The tithe bill was finally passed (Aug., 1838), without the
clause for the appropriation of the surplus. It transferred the tithes in the
form of a ground rent, with an abatement of 25 per cent., to the proprietor
of the soil, and the previous arrears were to be paid from the treasury of the
state. (A) Even O'ConneU advocated this laAV, although it was merely an
adjournment of the question respecting the existence of a Protestant Church
supported by a Catholic people. To assist the people in the work of deliver-
ance by their own exertions, the Dominican Father Matthew (since 1840) has
excited a prodigious enthusiasm in favor of total abstinence from aU intoxi-
cating drinks, (0 and during the spring of 1843, O'Connell was able to collect
around himself hundreds of thousands of people, at Avhat he called his mon-
ster meetings. The object of these assemblies Avas to demand justice for
Ireland, with threats that if this were denied them, the xmion of the legisla-
ture of the two countries shoxild be legally dissolved, and the jurisdiction of
the Anglo-Saxons should be thrown off (repeal). For language used on these
occasions, he Avas sent to prison by the House of Lords, but Ireland Avas nc
less governed by him in his confinement than before. The ministry of Si]
V) A. KZ. 1S33. N. 88. 48. A. Z. 1S34. N. 220. 229.
c) A. Z. 1S3-1. N. 155. d) A. Z. 1S35. N. 4. Suppl. N. 9.
e) A. Z. 183"). N. llOs.
/) A. Z. 1S35. N. 245. 1S3G. N. 223. A. KZ. 1836. N. löG. g) A. Z. 1S36. Suppl. N. ST7.
/i) A. Z. 1S38. N. 191. 199. 206. 208. 212. 232.
J) Brl. KZ. 1S40. N. 4. 16. A. Z. 134^. Supplem. N. 143s.
CHAP. VI. CATII. CnUECn TILL 1S53. § 47T. IRELAND & ENGLAUfD. 65 1
Robert Peel introduced the Legacy Bill, wliicli allowed the Catholic Cbarcli,
with the exception of the monastic orders, to acquire property in its own
name, (l) and carried through an act for bestowing a splendid endowment
on the seminary at Maynooth, for the education of tlie Catholic clergy
(1845), (/) A system of common schools supported by government, but care-
fully avoiding all distinction of churches, liad been some time before (183-i)
established, and now four royal colleges were founded by Parliament (1847)
for higher education, but no provision was made for religious instruction,
each sect being left to secure its own foundation for that purpose by volun-
tary efforts. The opinions of the Irish episcopacy were divided respecting
these schools, but the Archbishop of Tuam excited the prejudices of the
pope against them on account of their destitution of religion, and they were
rejected (1851). (m) Even the proposition of the government, after having
abolished the last of the old penal laws against Catholic worship, (n) to grant
a salary to their prelates, on condition that it should have a right to an influ-
ence in their election, was declined. Emigration to the Xew "World since
the last famine has entirely removed the surplus population from the coun-
try. The real estate of the great landholders, which had been brought to a
public sale in consequence of enormous poor rates, came to a considerable
extent into the hands of a Protestant middle class. A mission of a hundred
preachers, belonging to different Protestant sects from London, in the sum-
mer of 1853, and preaching in the streets as in a heathen country, was the
occasion of more offence than of edification to the people, (o) But some per-
manent missions have labored during the last ten years with no inconsidera-
ble success, by scriptural instruction from house to house, by the distribution
of tracts, and by schools in different sections of the country ; although, in
consequence of their supply of food and work to a hungry people, the con-
verts were stigmatized as soup-eaters by the Catholic population, and many,
whose consciences had not been carried, returned after a plentiful harvest, or
when dying, to the Church of their fathers, (p) The hopes of the Catholics
in England were much awakened in consequence of the ecclesiastical stand-
ing of some Puseyites who went over to them, and the popular basis supplied
by immigrants from Ireland, for the number of these converts was for oppo-
site reasons much exaggerated by Protestant and Catholic public journals.
Relying upon such hopes, Pius IX. once more took possession, as it Avere, of
this lost territory, by appointing, instead of the four apostolical vicariates
Avhich had previously governed the English Catholics, a complete episcopal
hierarchy for all England (Sept. 29, 1850), under Cardinal Wiseman, the
learned and ingenious defender of his Church, as the Archbishop of West-
minster, (-7) and contributions were invited for the erection of a splendid
church of St. Peter in the very heart of London, (r) Parliament could not
but yield to the indignation of the Protestant community produced by this
k) D. A. Z. 1845. N. 11. 14. T) A. KZ. 1845. N. 82.
m) A. D. Z. 184T. N. 300. Synod of Thurles: Brl. KZ. 1S50. N. SO. 85.
n) ßrl. KZ. 1S4T. N. 23. o) A. KZ. 1853. N. 104.
ji) Ag.iinst one-.sided Trot, nccounts, but still not lees onc-.M<led itself: Ilist pol. Ell. 1S53. TOl
XXXIl. H. 6. comp. Ev. KZ. 1852 N. 92. Brl. KZ. 1853. N. 10.
if) 1)1-1. KZ. 1S50. N. 90. r) Ibid. 1S5I. N. hr,.
652 MODEEN CIIUUCII lIISTOUr. PEU. VI. \. D. 1G43-.85Ä.
proceoding, (■<) but it was difficult to devise any legal measure against tli«
papal aggression which woidd not apply equally to Ireland. After a pro-
tracted contest, however, the matter was terminated by the adoption of Rus-
scU's proposition (1851), providing that all papal edicts, and all jurisdictions,
rank or titles created by them in the United Kingdom, should be null and
void ; that every person who, without legal authority, accepted of any eccle-
siastical title derived from the name of any place in the kingdom, should be
fined one hundred pounds for every instance in which he should make use of
it, and that complaints might be received from any private individual with
respect to offences of this nature, (t) A serious difficulty, however, appears
to have been discovered in the way of substantiating such a charge. (»<)
§ 478. Forms of Catlwlicis)n,
The special friends of the Eoman Curia and of the bishops have become
more decidedly opposed to one another, under the name of Uliramontanists
and Liberals. The former defend the infallibility of the pope, and the im-
possibility of improving the Church, by planting themselves on the groimd
of established usages, and of the necessity of an external universal authority.
This Eomish Catholicism Avas not long since popular among the lower classes
in Spain, and was there embraced with all the earnestness and energy of the
national character. But in consequence of the festivals of the inquisition,
and the political parties of the day, it there assumed a gloomy and passion-
ate character. It appeared in the most harmless form, until the revolution, in
Italy, especially in the south, where even the personal ridicule heaped upon
the hierarchy, and the more dangerous opposition of the commercial inter-
ests, were not generally prejudicial to the ecclesiastical system. The sensu-
ous form of a system of saint-worship was there a matter of necessity.
Illuminations, rockets, and the roar of cannons, form necessary parts of
divine worship, and the miracles must annually be repeated at the joyful
festivals. The Epistle of the Virgin Mary to the people of Messina must be
X'ead, ((i) the domestic animals must be sprinkled with holy water under the
direction of St. Anthony, Q>) and the lambs from whose wool the pallium is
woven, must receive a benediction at the altar of St. Agnes. Every thing is
there connected with some joyous festival, and Mary's tears are regarded as
at least equally efficacious in the work of atonement with the blood of
Christ. The Church has not done much for the intellectual improvement and
morals of the people, but it has kept up a certain kind of discipline, pro-
tected cheerful and pleasant customs, and never repressed the natural talents
of this highly intellectual people. The clergy, with their olBcious but pleas-
ant inefficiency, are only the culminating points of the popular life, and as
long as they are undisturbed, they are kindly disposed. But in Germany and
France, where this party, as a peculior section of Catholicism, has been made
«) Brl. KZ. 1S50. N. 92s. 94. 101s.
Kccksiaslieal Titles Act: Brl. EZ. iS51. N. 55. u) Ibid. N. 70.
«) Deutsche Zeitschr. f. chr. Wiss. 1S52. N. 49.
h) A. KZ. 1S2S. N. 192. The matter was pretty much as it is there related, although I sav\- notn
tng " blasphemous "' in it.
CHAP. VI. CATII. CHURCH TILL 1S53. § 473. ULTKAMONTANISTS. LIBERALS. 653
to feel that the spirit of the times is fatnl to its interests, it has come inta
conflict with every kind of intellectual freedom, and every where is abhorred
DV the friends of liberty. Hence the Ultraraontanists look with horror upon
all universities, +he freedom of the press, pliilosophical studies, and the read-
ing of the Scriptures, and they often intentionally encourage superstition, or
at least mere excitements of the fancy. (') In consequence of old traditions,
much impaired however by modern intelligence, Bavaria became the prin-
cipal home of this enthusiasm, and after 1838, its ministry fell completely under
its sway. The mild earnestness of the dying Bishop Schwaebl, and of the king
himself, was sometimes indeed aroused against the rigid Ultramontanism of
this ministry, when its zeal against every thing of a Protestant nature did
violence to their feelings, but it was not till 1847 that it was overthrown by
a travelling danseuse. {d) The Liberals possessed much influence in conse-
quence of the education which the clergy of Germany received at universi-
ties where Protestants and Catholics were taught together, the protection of
the governments, and the total disinclination of the spirit of the age to all
forms of mental slavery. They demanded that public worship should bo
conducted in the language of the people ; that the Scriptures should be freely
circulated ; that instead of inculcating dependence upon mere outward forms,
the education of the people should receive a spiritual tendency ; and that
national churches and synods might be so constituted, that the rights of the
pope might remain merely honorary, or definitely determined by the consti-
tution. Such views were sometimes expressed only in literary works, and
Bometimes through petitions and associations. From Silesia, they generally
came connected with disclosures of all kinds of abuses, by the learned
brothers Theincr^ the theologian and the canonist. (<•) The principal object
against which almost every kind of disposition and plan was directed, was
the celihacy of the clergy. Petitions for its abolition have been presented to
the episcopal authorities by pastors in Silesia (1826), and associations have
been formed against it in Southern Germany (1830). These efforts, however,
have been sternly repelled by the bishops and by the government of "Wurtem-
berg. (/) The chambers of Southern Germany (since 182-i), to whom ad-
dresses on this subject were sent up, declared that they had no jurisdiction
in the case ; until finally the Chamber of Deputies in Baden recommended that
the government (1831) should adopt suitable measures for the abolition of the
law relating to celibacy. (;;) In France, priests were married who had pre-
c) Miraculous Medals: Pflanz, d. rel. L. in Frankr. p. 222. On the other side: Acta hist. ecc.
J8.3T. p. 314. 6. Benedict's pence: D. A. Z. 1S47. N. 120. comp. § 430.
d) S. Sugenheim, Baicrns K.- a Volks-Zuständc, Giess. 1S42. Brl. KZ. 1&41. N. 22. 41.47. C&
1S45. N. 32. D. A. Z. 1S4C. N. IS. A. KZ. 1S47. N. 40.
e) If. Amman, Bestreb, d. Hochschule Freiburg im KRechte. Freib. lS.32-6. 2 Bcitr. (We/iaen-
herff,) Die deutsche K. (Zur.) 1815. Fetser, Deutsdil. u. Rom. Frkf. 18.30. Kopp, d. kath. K. im
19. Jhh. Mentz. 1330. J/«/-»y, sind Reformen in d. kath. K. nothwcndig? Beantw. v. d. Pastoral-
confer, zu Offenburg. 13.32. 2 ed. verm, durch Belciicht. des darauf erfolgten Erlas.«es des erzb. Ordi-
nariats. Oflenb. 18-33. (Ant. u. Aiig. Tfieiimr,) Die kath. K. Schles. Altenb. 1S26. and often, comp.
Ant. Theiner, ref Bestreb, in d. kath. K. Altenb. 1340. P. 2. p. 66ss.-V: R Ilaßn, Möhler u. We».
Bcnb. o. Strengkirchlichk. u. Liberalism. L'lin. 1342.
f) Erster Sieg des Lichtes u. d. Finsterniss. Han. 1S2C. Merkw. Umlauftchr. d. Furstbisch. v.
Bresl. Han. 1927. Uebcr d. Bildung e. Vereins f. d. kirohl. Auf lieb. d. C .iibatge-. Ulm. 1S31. A. KS
'.331. N. 70. 121 174. 193. g) A. KZ. 1323. N. 73. 103.-1S31. X. 174s. ISl. 133. 1832. N. 3. 14T.
654 MODERN CHUKCII HISTOUT. PER. VI. A. D. 1619-1S53.
viously taken tho vow. The French courts declared, that even the marriage
of priests who had given up the duties of their oflSce was invalid, (h) Tlie
Lihernls, in some instances as Protestant Catholics, were the first who took
part in Protestant literature and science. As Febronius had assailed and
sliaken the fundamental principles of ecclesiastical law, JJlau also undermined
the princijiles of ecclesiastical foith. (/) In place of the only saving Church,
he wished to substitute the only saving religion found in every pious heart. {/.)
Others labored with honest intentions in behalf of Catholicism. Instead of
the religion of the monks and the virtues of the saints, Wcrlmeister (d. 1823),
who had acquired an education of an entirely Protestant character in the
Benedictine convent, held up the religion of the gospel and the moral system
which Geliert had taught. (/) Eincher presented the simple faith of the
Bible, in contrast with the scholastic system of the Church, but he submitted
to the papal judgment upon his treatise for the reconciliation of the Catholic
Church with the science of the present day, (w) Hug vied with the Protes-
tant theologians in ingenious investigations with regard to the canon of the
Xew Testament, (/;) and Scholz turned attention once more to the manuscripts
which had been recently obtained from Constantinople, (o) Occupying an
intermediate position between the Romish and the Liberal form of Catho-
licism, inclining sometimes toward the first and sometimes toward the latter,
according to the personal preferences, {p) the position, or the sincerity of the
individual, an Ideal school began to make its appearance, which pointed out
the religious ideas involved in the Catholic dogmas and usages, and endeav-
ored to reconcile Catholicism with modern science and improvements, (q) It
proceeded from France in the form of a poetic and artistic glorification of
the Church (§ 444:). German philosophy was, sometimes in the spirit of
faith, and sometimes in the allegorical strain, incorporated with the Catholic
doctrines. (;■) G'örres (b, 1T76), who possessed powerful original talents, and
united with them a poetical and philosophical temperament, attempted, with-
out regard to historical truth, once more to conjure up the spirits of the mid-
dle ages. "Wherever a thorough theological discipline was permitted, this
Catholicism vindicated itself by showing what the Church had been to past
ages, and what it always may be to the human mind. In Germany, this ten-
h) A. KZ. 1S29. N. 13. 33. 1S3. 1833. N. 44. 65.
i) ETritische Gesch. d. kirchl. Unfehlbarkeit Frkf. 1791.
k) (KtU€i\) KathoHkon. Für alle unter jeder Form das Eine. S ed. Aarau. 153'2.
An d. unbescheidenen Verehrer d. Heiligen, bes. Maria. Hanau. ISOl. Predigten. Ulm. lS12ä3
S vols.
in) Ue. d. Verh. d. Ev. zu d. theol. Scholastik. Tüb. 18-23. Die kirchlichen Zustände d. Gegenw.
Tub. 1849. 3 ed. Brl. KZ. 1350. X. 16.
n) Einl. in d. Schrr. d. N. T. Stuttg. ü. Tüb. (1308-21.) 1326. 2 vols.
ö) Gesch. d. Testes d X. T. Lps. 1323. X. T. gr. Lps. 1830-5. 2 Th. 4.
p) TzHchirner, Briefe ü. Eel. u, Poliük. Lps. 1S2S. Kühler, Beitr. z. d. Versuchen, den Kath. zu
idcalisiren. Kngsb. 1323. A. KZ. 13^32. X. 155.
q) P. B. Zimmer, phil. EeligionsL Landsh. 1305. G. Jf. Klein, Darst d. pl"''- Ee'- «■ Sittenl,
Bamb. 1318. F. Baader, specul. Dogmat. Stuttg. lS28ss. 2 P. F. A. Staudenmaier, Encykl. d.
theol. Wiss. Montz. 13:J4. [J. A. Moehler, Symbolism, or Expos, of the Doct Differences betwees
Protestants and Catholics. Lond. 8vo.]
r) Page 56. & 111. Symbolik. Mayence. 1832. ed. 4. 18-35. Tub. Qaartalsch. 133S. H. 3,
CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH TILL 1S53. § 47S. IDEAL SCHOOL. 655
dency was represented by Moeldcr (1796-1838), who had been aroused by
Schleierniacher, and at one time had been pervaded by enthusiasm in behaU'
of free investigation, but gradually he had been mastered by the majesty of
his Church, and now infused a confiding spirit once more into the department
of science. In France, since Lamennais has retired from the public scene,
its principal representative has been Bantam, who learned to distrust his
reason in the school of Kant, until he was prepared to surrender himself to
the direction of the Scriptures and of ecclesiastical tradition, the infinite
nature of whose principles was unfolded and evinced by their power in the
human heart. In opposition to him, the Bishop of Strasburg defended simply
scholastic reason (since 1834). (.v) Günther wished to substitute for the hea-
thenish philosophy of the scholastics and the ecclesiastical fathers, a Chris-
tian philosophy, whose mystical and proft)und spirit would play about its
rational nature in the manner of Jacob Boehnie, like an aurora borealis or
an ignis futuus, and might be regarded as the equal sister of the system of
fiiith found in those established doctrines of the Church which always ap-
proach nearest to the truth. But this " Romish Court Pliilosophy " of Treves
was forbidden by an order from Rome (1852), and was threatened by German
denunciations from the same quarter, {t) The same disposition and views
wliieh originated and sustained an old orthodoxy in the Protestant Church,
were here also favorable to the Roman Jesuitic Catholicism; and now when
the hierarchy, with its extensive possessions, had lost also its splendid posi-
tion, it received, instead of the distinguished worldly prelates it formerly pos-
sessed, and who often opposed the pope, were very independent, and were
restrained only by tlieir political position, a class of bishops Avhose personal
characters were eminent, who were entirely dependent upon Rome, and who
used the unbroken power of the episcopacy to educate a clergy of a simihu'
spirit. The literary conflicts of these three parties were especially exhibited
in the German periodicals, («) since in countries where every Church was
protected by law, the privileges of the Catholic Church were snfiiciently
upheld by a censorship of the press and deposition from office. Rome did
not prove itself the seat of any very extraordinary theological learning, and
wlierever it allowed itself to be drawn into literary controversy, it interfered
by means of rather rough weapons, (j) Still even the pope prohibited only
the reading of certain books, and exhorted all to collect their energies against
a) Bi'utain : tie rcnseigiiement de l.i pliil. en Frnnce. Strasb. 1S33. Pliil. ilu Cliristianisme. Str.
1S:35.— Acta hist. ecc. 1S35. p. 3(i5ss. 1S37. p. CSss. C. F. Junge, L. I5aut (Zoitsclir. f. hist Tli 1S3T.
vol. VII. p. 2.) Brl. KZ. l'=42. N. 35.
A. Günther : Vorscliule z. spec. Tli. Vion. (lS2Ss.) 184?. 2 vols. Der letzte Syniboliker. Vicn.
1S34. and Pahht; Jaiuiskoi)fe. Vieri. 1S34. and Veilh, Phil. Taschenb. Vicn. ISlÖs.— OJAcAnij/er, d.
clir. Phil, verticidigt. Munich. 1SÖ3. F. J. Clemens, ü. spec. Th. Günthers. Colo:;. 1S53. Brl. KZ.
IS5.\ N. 61.
«,) 1. Kirehenfreund by Benkerf, Atbanasia, d. Katholik by Weis. kath. Lit. Z. by Kerz, Luzerncr
KZ., Sion, hist. pol. Blätter, by Philipps, J. Gi rres, J. E. J< r?, deut.sehe (Kölner) Volkshalle. 2.
Froim. Blatter ii. Tlieol. n. Kirclientli., by Pflanz, kan. Wächter by A. Müller, conslit. K. Z. by
LerehenmuUer. Stimmen a, d. kath. K. Deiitschl. 3. Tub. tlicul. Qtiartalschril't, Zeitsch. f. d. Erzb.
Freiburg, K. Z. by Senirler, Jalirbb. f. Tlieol. u. Phil.
r) linuin, d. Lehren d. Ilermes-ianismus gutgeheissen ii. die entfreL'eii.'teh. Ansichten verworfen
v. d. Bischof v. Stras>b. nebst e. Breve Greg. XVI. Bonn. 1S35. F. Baiulei; ii. d. Eniancip. d.
Katholie. v. d. rim. Plctatur. Numb. 1S39. ,
656 MODEKN CHURCH niSTOUY. PKR. VI. A. B. 1048-1853.
those wlio for selfish ends, but under the pretence of reform, had conspired
against ecclesiastical and divine rights, (w) A few were wise enough to bc-
ooiuo reconciled in a proper manner ; others did not return until t>'ey were
obliged to do so as penitent forlorn children, and still others f(„ out entirely
with the Church, (.c) The Great Union of 127 Catholics at Dresden (1831)
declared that the gospel, explained by the light of reason and of the age,
was the only rule of their faith, and among their festivals they reckoned one
for the Sun, but none for the resurrection of Christ. On the other hand,
Carove insisted upon the literal acceptance of the ordinary doctrines, drove
Catholicism back to its principle of an infallibility by which alone men could
be saved, and then tormented himself and others by practical difficulties in
the way of it. (?/) The Abbe liehen of Brussels, in the spirit of the Cath-
olic apostolic Church, exhorted men to turn from the Eoman Antichi-ist to
Christ, but it was not long before he died, abandoned by all, and with no
confidence even in himself (1842). {z)
§ 479. German Catholicism.
Eduin Bauer, Gescli. d. deutsch-kath. K. Meiss. 1845. W. A. Lampadius, d. deutscb-kath. Be-
weg. Lp9. 1846. — Katli. KReform, Monatschr. ed. by A. Maut: Midler, Brl. s. 1S45. Für freies rel.
Leben. Materialien z. Gesch. u. Fortbild. d. ehr. Gemeinden insb. d. freien kath. ed. by T. Ifofferich-
ter and F. Kampe, Brsl. s. 1848. Literary Gen. View : by Hase and Schwarz : Jen. A. L. Z. 1S46. N.
131. 183. 221. 28S. 299ss. 1847. N. 53ss. 1348. N. 13Tss. [Saml. Laing, Notes on the Rise, &c. of the
Germ. Cath. Cbb. Lend. 1645. Gervimts, Mission of the Ger. Catholics, transl. from Germ. Lond.
1S46. DubL Univ. Mag. (in Eclectic Mag. Jan. 1846.) Oct 1845. art. on Germ. Cath. Chh.]
The Prussian ecclesiastical controversy was finally celebrated in the
Cathedral of Treves (Aug., Oct., 1844), by the festival of the seamless coat
of Christ (§ 200). More than a million of people went thither to adore this
garment of our divine Lord ; and when the grand niece of the Archbishop
of Cologne had experienced a partial cure there, thousands made trial of its
miraculous power, with a few instances of apparent success, (a) The rejoic-
ings occasioned by this pilgrimage (J) were in some degree disturbed by a letter
from Laurahütte against the idolatrous festival at Treves, and addressed to
the resident bishop as the Tetzel of the nineteenth century, (c) The vigorous
and bold tone, and the signature of a Catholic priest which this letter exhib-
ited, made it a standard at which both friends and enemies directed their
attention. The writer of it was John Ronge (b. 1813), a chaplain who had
been suspended for disobedience, and excommunicated by the episcopal au-
w) Gegen Otfenbnrg v. 4. Oct. 1883: A. KZ. 1834 N. 174.
a-) Chr. Fuchs: Schweiz Republikaner, 1834. N. 78. (comp. Alois Fuchs ü. s. Suspensionsgesch.
m. Actenstücken. Rappersw. 1833.) Aug. Theiner, Gesch. d. geistl. Bildungsanstalten. Mayence.
1S35. A. KZ. 1835. N. 23s. C. A. v. lieichlin-Meldegg : A. KZ. 1832. N. 59. Flacker : Brl. KZ.
1S41. N. 15.
y) Die grosse Einb. d. 127 antirüm. Kath. Lps. 1831. A. KZ. 1832. N. 5. J. W. Carove, d.
alleinsel. K. Frkf. 1826. Die letzten Dinge d. rüm. Kath. Lps. 1S32. Rom. Kathclic. in d. Papststadt.
Lps. 1851.
s) Ev. KZ. 1833. N. 101. Brl. KZ. 1843. N. 11.
a) J. Marx, d. Ausstell, d. h. Rocks. Treves. 1845. [John Ronge, or the Holy Coat of Treves.
New York. 1S45. 18.] V. ITansen, aetenmäss. Darst wunderb. Heilungen b. Ausst d, h. Rocks.
Treves. 1845.
I) J. V. Görren, d. Wallf. v. Trier. Regensb. 1845.
c) At first in the Säclisische Vaterlands Blätter, of Oct. 10, 1844.
CHAP. VI. CATII. CHURCH TILL 1S53. § 479. GERMAN CATHOLICISM. 657
tliorities at Breslau. After these proceedings against him, he had published
at Breslau some polemical writings against Romish abominations, and in favor
of the establishment of a German national Church. His style was rather
declamatorj-, but his sentiments had all the pathos of a decided convic-
tion, (d) In Schneideraühl, a town belonging to Prussian Poland, the vicar
John Czemltl (b. 1813) had been suspended because he would not renounce
a young Polish lady to whom he was attached. lie however now gave
notice (Aug. 22, 1844) that he would hold no further connection Avith the
Roman court Church ; and without renouncing his Catholic priesthood, he
proceeded, with some members of his congregation who believed as he did,
to establish what he called a Christian apostolic Catholic congregation, (e)
On the plan of this congregation, many Catholics dissatisfied with their
Church collected around Ronge at Breslau, as Christian Catholic congrega-
tions (March 9, 1845). (/) Persons of similar sentiments in nearly twenty
of the towns of Northern Germany presented addresses of concurrence to
Ronge, and united together as German Catholic congregations. They were
agreed in their opposition to the Roman Church, against which the Reforma-
tion had protested from the very first, so far as to demand a free use of the
Scriptures and an administration of the affairs of the Church by the congre-
gation. But those congregations which were established by Czerski firmly
adhered not only to the fundamental principles of old ecclesiastical ortho-
doxy, but to some institutions peculiarly Romish in their origin, while those
which proceeded from Breslau were of a rationalist tendency. To give unity
to this Church, without much previous concert, a council was held at Leip-
sic on Easter, 1845, at which deputies appeared from fifteen congregations,
and provided especially for the liturgy to be used, and the general order of
the societies. The papal hierarchy was unconditionally renounced, and the
Holy Scriptures were recognized as the foundation of a faith which must be
modified by the spirit of each successive age, and explained and compre-
hended by a reason pervaded by the general Christian idea. Nothing was
retained of the second article of the modernized Apostles' Creed except a
declaration of faith in Jesus Christ as our Saviour, and a special stress was
laid upon works of love as the true evidence of laith. (f/) Czerski consented
to this triumph of the Breslau party, as the particulars of tlie creed were
left to the free choice of each congregation ; but at home he adopted a con-
fession which embraced the doctrine of the divinity of Christ and the Apos-
tles' Creed, and renounced the companions of the Leipsic confession as the
worshippers of reason and the enemies of Christ. (A) During two tours
which Ronge took as f;ir as the borders of Switzerland, he founded many
congregations. A few attacks were then made upon him, but generally ho
d) An (\. niedere kath. Geistliclik. Jona. 1845. An d. katli. Lehrer. Alteub. 1S45. Eeelitfertl^
Lps. 1S15. An meine Glaubensgenossen u. Mitbürger. Altenb. 18-15.
e) Eeohtfert. meines Abfalles v. d. riim. Ilof kirclio. Bromb. 1S45. Ollenes Glaubensbek. d. chr. ap.
kath. K. zu Schneidern. Danz. 1S45.
f) Die christkath. Gemeinde zu Breslau. Eresl. 3 ed. 1845.
g} Die erste allg. KVersatnml. d. deutsch-kath. K. zu Leipsic, ed. by I!. JBhtm and F. IVigard.
Lps. 1S45. [A d.^y with Ronge. Dubl. Univ. Mag. (in Eclectic Mag. April. 1S4G.) Jan. 1S4G.]
h) Csertski, Sendschr. an alle chr. apost. kath. Gemeinden. Landsb. 1S45.
42
658 MODKKN CHUltCH HiaTOUY. PER. VI. A. I). IC-lS-lSöS.
was compllineritod along his journey with public dinnei-.'^, as if he were a
second Lutlier. (/) Ozerski, whose believing tendencies found acknowledg-
ment only in a much more limited sphere, and even there came sometime.»
unpleasantly in contact with some of Eonge's adherents, ih-) was induced, at
a conference a.ssembled at Eawicz (Feb. 3, 1846), to acknowledge his other
fellow-combatants as brethren. This he did notwithstanding his undeviating
and cordial adherence to the standard of the unabridged apostolic Creed, on
the ground that it might tend to confirm religion to recognize the common
basis on which their faith rested, and with the hope that they might recog-
nize each other again as brethren. (/) The congregations which acted on
these views at a synod convened at Schneidemilhl (July, 184G), adopted a
simple biblical confession, with the concession that the old Apostles' Creed
might be used in the churches and schools, although they acknowledge that
it contains some historical matters of minor importance for the Christian
heart. (??<) In England, a short time after thi.s, Czerski himself avowed that
his views on this point had been radically changed, («) but the only congre-
gation which thoroughly represents his theological system, is one which has
been collected at Berlin for the very purpose of a protest, and which has even
gone beyond his exclusive position. (0) Eonge, on the other hand, anxious
to ennoble Christianity, and exalt it to a complete religion of humanity, has
shown himself inclined to unite with the free Protestant congregations
(§ 467). (/») The proposal for such a union, however, was quietly laid aside,
when it was made in the tAvo ecclesiastical assemblies held in Berlin at Whit-
suntide, 1847, representing a hundred and fifty-one congregations, and
thoroughly adhering to the Leipsic resolutions, {q) German Catholicism has
carried out its forms of public worship and its constitution in smaller synodal
associations, (r) -the former with Protestant simplicity, and the latter with a
decided stress laid upon the rights of particular congregations, not only with
respect to their own pastors, who are supported by voluntary contributions,
but with regard to the powers of synods, and in some instances the women
possessed an equal right with others to vote. A few clergymen with their
adherents, who went over to the new association, were excommunicated by
the bishops under whose jurisdiction they had lived, but generally the con-
troversy was merely of a literary, though sometimes of a disgraceful charac-
ter. (*) Eonge has proposed himself as a reformer even to the Protestant
Church, where the chief point of his reformation consists in bringing Christ
down to the brotherhood of human poverty and suflfering. {t) A few licen-
i) Konsre's erste Rundreise. Brsl. 1845. (Schtimaiw,) Ronge's Fahrten. Rudolst. ]S4C.
k) J. II. F. ßomherff, d. Spalt d. clirist-liath. Vereins zu Bromberg. Bromb. IS^ö.
I) Czemki, zweites Sendschr. an alle christ-kath. Gemeinden. Bromb. 1S46.
m) Brl. KZ. 1S46. N. G3. 6S.
n) Kath. KReform. Nov. 1S46. p. 141. Ev. KZ. 1S4T. N. 8Ss.
o) Glaubensbek. der nach J. Protest, v. 15. Mai zu Berlin sich bildenden christkath. Gem.
Brl. 1S45.
p) Brl. KZ. 1S4T. N. 8. 11. 15.
q^ Die zweite christkath. KVersamml. zu Berlin, ed. by li. Blum and F. Wigai-d, Lps. 1S47.
r) Grundzüge d. Glaubens!., d. Gottesd. n. d. Verf. genehm, v. d. Syn. zn Breslau. Brsl. 1S45
Organ. Statut f. deutseh-kath. Gem. v. F. Wig.ard. Dresd. 1S45.
.«) Offenes Sendschr. der Witwe Anna Czerska an ihren Sohn, den .suspend. Priester. Ratisb. 1S45
i) Range. Neue u doch alte Feinde. Bess. ISl.'i. D. Wesen d. freien ehr. K. Ilainb. 1S4T.
CHAP. VI. CATir. CIIUKCII TILL 1853, §479. GERMAN CATHOLICISM. 659
tiates found an earlier field of labor in German Catholic congregations, and
two Protestant congregations in the country found it convenient to connect
themselves Avith the German Catholics on account of diflSculties in their local
circumstances. But the Protestant population has almost unanimously offered
the new Church the joint use of their own churches, a considerable assistance
in money, and the power of their daily press, with no wish to draw away its
members, and at first with great expectations of national results, (u) So far
as their relations to the state were concerned, the German Catholics claimed
all the privileges which had been conceded to the Catholics, without modifi-
cation. By prohibitions and expatriations, the governments of Austria and
Bavaria nearly succeeded in entirely excluding the sect of Eonge from their
territories. The smaller Protestant states allowed the Catholic dissenters to
proceed without molestation. The governments of Hanover. Saxony, Baden,
and Wurtcmberg, opposed them ; the two latter impaired their rights of citi-
zenship, and in Hesse Cassel they were oppressed with still greater severity.
In every country, however, their rights were sustained by the lower legisla-
tive chamber, (c) At first, Prussia declared that it would not then interfere
in their favor, or in opposition to them ; afterwards, the displeasure which
it felt at the peculiar Christianity of the age was stronger than its pleasure
in seeing the injury to the hierarchy, until finally the natural current of
affairs brought it around once more to the policy of non-interference, (w)
German Catholicism has prevailed almost exclusively among the middle
classes of society, but the learned Ecgenlrecht^ a professor of canon law at
Breslau, gave in his adhesion to it when the congregation was formed in that
city, and Theinei\ at the frequent solicitation of different parties, contributed
his established reputation to tlie new movement, (.r) Both these men, how-
ever, have since been estranged and separated from all connection with any
congregation, principally in consequence of the course which Eonge has pur-
sued, (y) jSTear the end of the year 1846, it became evident that the leaders
in this movement were beginning to sink in public estimation, and that their
cause was deficient in religious energy. It could not therefore be concealed
that the movement itself had come to a dangerous pause. The new Church
then numbered about 60,000 members, nearly half of whom Avere in Silesia.
Where the Catholic population was compact and unbroken, scarcely any
inroad was made upon it ; but the remnants and advanced posts of the Cath-
olic Church in Protestant countries, which had been gained or maintained
with difticulty for centuries, were either lost or much endangered, and seri-
ous apprehensions were entertained at Eome that another Eeformation was
about to proceed from Germany. March, 1848, brought complete freedom to
«) Gei'vinus: d. Mission d. D. Katholiken. Hdlb. 1S45. \Gervi7ixin, Mission of tlie Gfinn. Catho-
lics. Lond. 184G. 12.] {D. Schenkel, d. prot. Geistliclil^. u. d. IX Katholilien. Zur. 1S46.) D. prot Geist-
lichlj. u. d. DKatholiken. Ileidelb. 1846.
V) Die Sprecher f. d. DKath. in d. s-iclis. Stindevers. Lps. 1S45. 2 P. F. ITecker, die staatsrechtl.
Verh. d. DKathol. in. bes. Hinblick, a. B.aden. Iloidelb. 2 ed. 1845. C. Friedi-ivh, Die deutschkatli.
Frage in Kurhessen. Lps. 1847.
tc) Cab. Ordre v. 30 Apr., Minist Verf. v. 17. Mai, Cub. Ordre v. 8. Juli, 1S45. L. JiicMer, d.
Staat u. d. DKatholiken. Lps. 1S4C.
a') Krkl. d. Prcf. Re^enbrecht an d. I'istli. Verweser ü. s. Ausscheiden a. d. rr.m. K. Brsl. 1845.
inion Theinet; d. ref. Bestrebungen in d. kath. K. IJrsl. lS45,s. 2 P. y) Brl. KZ. 1S47. N. 15.
6G0 MODERN CnURCII IIISTOET. PER. YI. A. T>. 1643-1353.
the new Clnircli : in Saxony it was recognized as a civil corporation ; (z) the
most rigid Catliolic countries were thrown open to it ; in Vienna and Munich
it was received with a curious interest ; in Austria it was tolerated, and in
Bavaria it was recognized, though the Archbishop of Freysingen would not
allow German Catholicism to be i)roperly either Catholic or German. It was,
lioAvever, soon found that the religious element within and beyond the con-
gregations became less and less prominent. Eonge, as a deputy of the demo-
cratic unions, published a manifesto, in which he denounced the election of
an irresponsible imperial officer as an act of treason to the people ; and
Dowiat perhaps did injustice to the excitements of his youthful fancy, when
he. declared that he had looked upon the religious movement as only the
means of a social agitation, but that he now regarded such a mask as need-
less. The authorities of the Silesian congregations were anxious to guard
against the power of mere brute force, but they wished also to sanctify
democracy, and make socialism a religion, (a) Pi-obably no complete congre-
gations, but some individual preachers who had some Hegelian views, hoped
to find on the ruins of the Catholic and Protestant churches their new reli-
gion of humanity, a true theocracy in democracy, and God himself in tho
congregation, (l) The German Catholics, and those attached to the free con-
gregations, naturally felt a sympathy with each other, and had therefore
associated together to a considerable extent, (c) before the proposition for
their union had been discussed in the third German Catholic council, and a
free-congregational diet at Leipsic-Coethen (May, 1850). Some hesitation
was felt by the German Catholics on account of the freedom from all forms
which characterized the free congregations ; and the free congregations
were not altogether pleased with the want of freedom which prevailed among
the German Catholics, but they were finally united in the presence of the
police of both cities, so as to constitute a religious association of free congre-
gations for mutual assistance in their religious eflTorts, but on the basis of a
complete independence of each congregation. These were to have an execu-
tive committee, to be chosen by a triennial assembly of deputies, but to have
no power except to express its opinions, and to make proposals to the congre-
gations. {(T) Most of the congregations which had originated in the Catholic
Church refused to agree to a union of even this loose character, (ß) They
could not therefore escape the fate of the free congregations (p. 584). The
peculiar turn which events took in Catholic countries was such as to render
this result inevitable. In Austria, after a long delay, the government refused
(Jan., 1850) to recognize the Free Christian congregation at Vienna, on the
ground that the negative character of its confession gave no satisfactory evi-
dence that it was called for merely by the religious wants of the people. (/)
When all women and minors had been excluded from the German-Catholic
z) Law of Nov. 2, 1848 : Brl. KZ. 1S4S. N. 96.
«) Of Sept. 15, 1849: in Kampe, (nt I.) p. 816ss.
h) F. F. Kampe, cL Wesen d. DKath. m. bes. Eücts. a. s. Verb. z. Politik. Tub. 1S50.
c) A. D. Z. 1S4T. N. 311.
d) Th. Jlofferichter, d. UnioL d. freien Gemeinden d. Katli. ii. Prot. Lps. IsSr». Br!. KZ. 1950
N. 46. 4S.
e) Ibid. IS50. N. 6S. So. 1851. N. 16. /) Ibid. 1350. N. 20. 45. 1J51. X. 5. 103.
CHAP. VI. CATir. ClIUECn TILL 1S53. §450. SAILER. EMMEEICH. 6ÖI
congregations of Bavaria, they were dissolved as political associations (Xov,,
1851). {(/) But even in Protestant countries, the dread of the evils of reli-
gious libertj^, or a desire to please the hierarchy, generally led to their sup-
pression. In Prussia, where the constitution rendered any measure to pro-
duce their general abolition impossible, individual congregations were dis-
persed, and 'their preachers were expelled from the country by the police,
and contributions from the common fund, even where the}' had been granted
for a series of previous years, were withheld, because the government pro-
fessed to have discovered that they were political rather than religious asso-
ciations, aiming at the subversion of civil and social order, (fi) In Hamburg,
the concession which had once been made them, was revoked on account of
their departure from the confession of t\iith adopted at Leipsic. (0 Internal
dissensions, the return of their ministers to former connections, and a want
of worldly means, or a want of liberality in the use of what they possessed,
have hastened their gradual decline.
§ 480. 2/>/stics and Wonder- Woi'l:6rs.
A circle of yoimg persons was at one time assembled around Bishop
Sailer (1751-1832), whose Christianity was confined to the simple doctrine
of salvation, and whose religion consisted wholly of certain fervent exercises
of feeling. They therefore had no very high regard for ecclesiastical forms ;
they earnestly commended the works of Fenelon and Lavater, and were
much attached to the Pietists of Wurtemberg. As they were persecuted by
the Romanist, and despised by the Liberal party, some of them became dis-
satisfied with the Church itself (I796ss.) tV'hen PoescM^ a pastor settled near
Linz, Avas compelled to leave his congregation, every other minister was
rejected by the people, and on Good Friday, 1817, a young girl was actually
killed, that she might thereby follow the example of Christ, in dying for her
brethren and sisters. Sailer humbled himself before the hierarchy, and
renounced mysticism, but even as a bishop he never ceased to make efforts to
extend the kingdom of love, {a) The wonderful prodigies in which some
believed were the result either of harmless and sickly excitements, or of a
settled purpose. Emmerich (1774-1824), a sister belonging to the Convent
of Agnetenberg, within which all her desires were bounded, gave herself
completely up to the contemplation of the sufferings of Jesus, from whoso
hands she had selected the crown of thorns which she bore upon her body,
just as St. Francis had borne the five wounds of our Lord ; and frequently,
when those days recurred on which Christ's passion Avas celebrated, the
wound was opened, (i) That which appears to have been effected here by
an active and phistic imagination, in other instances was evidently the result
of deception, with or without the knowledge of the subjects of them, (c)
g) Brl. KZ. 1S51. N. 99. h) Ibid. N. 14. 38. 1S52. N. 14.
t") Ibid. 1S53. N. 17.
o) J. it. Sutler, simtl. Werke. Salzb. 1S30-35. 26 vols. Suhit, ü. Myst. in. bi-t, Aiif-cblüssen 0.
My ft. in Baiorn. Sulzb. 1S'2'2. Comp. § 474. nt. ff.
h) (f. V. Brentano,) Das bittre Lelilen unsors Herrn. Nach den lietrr. d. fei. A. C. Emm. nebst
d. Lebensumständen dieser l!e?nadicrtcn. Sulzb. 1S33. ed. 1S42. Tholiick-, verm. Schrr. vol. I. p. Ulss,
vol. ir. p. 477s.— Volkslieiligc iw Kaltern : A. KZ. ISiS. X. 1"k I5rl. KZ. 1S40. X. 99.
c) ßrl. KZ. 1849. N. 73. 1S40. N. G2. C7.
oG2 MO.)KnN CHUUCII HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. ]ftl9-1353.
Tlio miraculous cures accomplislied by Prince ITohenhlie Caboiit 1820, d
1849), llion a canon at Bamberg, were, it is true, much ext(^llod among tbo
common people, but they liad too little importance and character to mako
much way against the police and the prosaic spirit of the present age. In
Kome, the conversion of a wealthy Jew was effected by an appearance of
the Virgin Mary (1842). {rl) . She also made her appearance in other places.
In Rimini, thousands of pilgrims were convinced, to their great edification,
that the Mother of mercy moved the eyes of her image there np and down,
and even some partisans of Mazzini were converted from their errors by the
sight, ie)
§ 481. Orders.
jSTapoleon remarked, that the holy zeal of the Sisters of Charity led them
to bestow a much better and cheaper attendance upon the hospitals, than the
rewards which he could offer to mercenaries. lie therefore collected their
scattered numbers into a general chapter, over which the mother ot the em-
peror presided (1807), provided them with a rule, and supplied them with all
needed assistance. The predilection which tlie pious sisters exhibited for the
conversion of Protestant patients, prevented their introduction in some
instances into the German hospitals. ((/) But more especially in France,
where a convent for nuns had become an habitual want, they were renewed
in various forms, (b) When the last monk of St. Maurus died a member of
the Institute of France, a few friends of Lamennais, under the protection of
the Bishop of Mons, purchased the old abbey of Soleme (1833), that they might
revive within its tranquil seclusion the devout learning of the congregation
of St. Maurus. (c) A congregation was established at Eome for the purpose
of rescuing the orders which had been despoiled of their property, and in
some of the concordats a number of convents were promised ; but the pious
wishes of the several governments were generally thwarted, when an attempt
was made to restore the property which belonged to them. In Bavaria alone
more was accomplished than had been promised in the concordat. {(T) The
various orders of knights had for a long time entirely lost all importance
with respect to the Church. The Knights of St. John ceased to possess any
power when Malta passed from their hands (1T98), and in the treaty of Paris
(1814) was recognized as a fortress for the protection of English com-
merce. ((') The German Masters (Teutonic Knights) also lost all their politi-
cal importance in consequence of the loss of Mergentheim at the peace of
Vienna (1810); and although their application for its re-establishment was
seconded by the general voice of all Europe, their appeal to the European
fl) Bri. KZ. 1S42. N. 67. 1S43. N. 46. «) Bri. KZ. 1S50. N. 43. 51ss. 69s.
a) {C. V. Brentano,) Die barmli. Schw. Cobl. 1531. Ehcinw. Rep, vol. XVIII. p. 236ss. C. £us&,
d. O. d. barrah. Schw. Scliaffh. 2 ed. 1S47.
h) Renchlin, Christenth. in Frankr. p. 226ss.
c) A. KZ. 1833. N. 145. Acta liist ccc. 1S37. p. 5. Spicilegium Solesmense, cur. J. B. Pitra,
Par. 1S52. vol. I.
(J) Acta liist ecc, 1S37. p. 354. Bri. KZ. 1S46. N. 15.
e) Vic. de Tillenein-e-Bargemout, Monumens des Grands-Maitres de Vordre de S. Jean. Par
1S29. 2 vols. [i. de Boisgelin, Anc. and Mod. Malta, and 11. of the Knights of St. John. Load. 1804
3 vols. 4.]
CHAP. VI. CATII. CIIÜECH TILL 1553. § 431. OKDEES. § 452. MISSIOXS. 663
Coiigress for tlie restoratioa of their possessions was disregarded. (/) These
orders are now kept up, and in some places are re-estabhshed, especially in
Austria and Italy, merely for the decorations and pensions which the nobility
derive from them, (f/) Such Knights of St. John are to be found since 1812
in Prussia, but no longer as a Catholic institution. They have been obliged
to return (1852) to the care of the sick, in accordance with the original de-
sign of the order, but they are allowed to do this by the payment of money
for that object, (h) An order of Templars attracted some notice in Paris
since the commencement of the eighteenth century, as a secret lodge, but
since 1831 it has publicly claimed to be the original Christian Church. (/)
According to them, an original revelation was conveyed and cultivated in
the Greek and Egyptian mysteries, from which it was derived by Moses, was
renewed and re-established by Jesus, and was transmitted to John as the head
of the Church, and to his successors, among whom are the Grand Masters of
the Temple. This revelation was a religion of reason, and proclaimed that
God consisted of three Powers, viz., Existence, Act, and Consciousness, and
that the world was distinct from God, but uncreated and divine. A gospel
of St. John accommodated to this view js in the possession of the order.
Avhich possibl}- had its origin in the fourteenth centmy. (/•) The order, how-
ever, has nothing in common with Catholicism but a hierarchy to Avhich the
most imposing titles are given. It knew also how to give the most enlight-
ened interpretation of the vows of the old Templars, (I) and announced that
it would at some future period overthrow the Roman Church. For a while
the Parisians were much amused by the splendid costumes which the male
and female members of the order exhibited in their processions.
§ 482. Spread of Christianity,
As the Catholic nations of Europe were distracted by the revolutions of
that period, they lost their colonies, and were obliged to curtail but not en-
tirely to abandon thsir missions. When the Church began to recover its
strength, the desire to promote missions to the heathen revived. The Society
of the Faith at Lyons, which became more influential than even the Propa-
ganda, grew up from a very humble origin (after 1820) by means of trifling
weekly contributions from a small circle of persons who read the Annals of
the Propagation of the Faith, until the annual income it expended for mis-
sions amounted to nullions. (a) The first object of the missionaries for the
establishment of the external Church continued to be the baptism of the
heathen. China was adhered to with the utmost tenacity, even when all
/) A. KZ. 1S22. N. CG g) Bri. KZ. 1S40. N. 13.
/<) Ibid. 1S53. N. 2. S. D. A. Z. 1S53. N. 130.
i) (Manuel des Chevaliers do I'ordrc du Temple. M. S. Par. 1S2.'. 12.) Leviticon. Par. 1S31. £clläe
clirct primitive. Lettre pastor.ile de M. Icvequo do Nancy. (VllOtc.) Nancy. 1S32. — Curove, d. Mes-
si.inismus, d. neuen Templer. Lps. 1834. J. P., Peclierclios hist, sur les Templiers. Par. 1S35.
k) Munter, Notitla cod. graeei Ev. Jo. vniialuin poiitinentis. llufn. IS'28. Thilo, c<k1. apocr. vol.
I. p. SlOss.
/) r.rl. KZ. 1S39. N. SS.
(i) The receipts for 1S45 were 3,575,775 franc?. Annales dc la propagation de la fol. lS.'>4s?. piibl.
»Iso in the Genn., Engl., Flemish, Ital , Siiaiilsh, Povtug., and Dutch l.mgu.oges. A. KZ. 1S43. N. 100.
BerL KZ. 1S17. N. 52.
ÖG4 • MODKUN CIIUKCII IIISTOUV. VKK. VI. A. D. 1C4S-1SM.
reason for liopo with respect to it seemed extinct. Once more the Church
began to enlarge ics territories there, when a map of the country, wliich the
missionaries intended to send to Rome, was intercepted. Tliis produced a
renewal of the persecution (180G). Bishop JDufrcsne was helieaded (1815).
A martyrdom quite unfavorable to enthusiasm was inflicted l)y means of the
bamboo and the gangue. The missionaries were subsequently persecuted or
tolerated, accordmg to the caprice of the government. The crime punished
was not so much a profession of Christianity, as a connection with foreigners.
At last, however, the victories of the English gave protection even to the
Catholic Church. The priests are generally natives, some of whom are edu-
cated in the seminaries of the country, and others at a branch of the Propa-
ganda at Naples. About one in two thousand of the population of Central
China have been baptized, (h) From the Bast Indies, where frequently the
conversions consisted principally of mere changes back and forth betAveen
the Catholic and Protestant missionaries, the candid Dulois returned to
Europe (1823) with the conviction that life was uselessly spent in labors to
convert the people, and that there was no ground for hope that the gospel
would ever overcome the prejudices of the Hindoos, {c) The King of Cochin
China, where Christians, under the French Bishop Adran had attained con-
siderable political importance, extolled the wasdom of the Emperor of Japan,
who had got rid of the European doctrines, and accordingly, in particular
instances, he oppressed them after 1831. By a decree of Jan. 6, 1833, a gen-
eral persecution, modified indeed by the local authorities, raged especially
against the priests until 1842. The memory of the martyrs in this persecu-
tion was celebrated at Rome by the pope, (d) The Abbe Schoeffler, at the
head of a mission to the interior, died like Cyprian in 1851. Under the free
toleration enjoyed in iSTorth America, the Catholic Church has acquired con-
siderable strength principally by immigrations from Europe, but also by its
judicious management of its internal aftaii's. {e) The AJgonquins and Iro-
quois made (1831) a present of a piece of wampum and some moccasins of
their own Avork to the holy Father, who had sent to his children of the wil-
derness the man in the black coat, by whom they had been instructed and
induced to acknowledge the unknown God, and to live in peace with one
another. (/) A French diocese has been formed (1838) in Algiers, and an
arm of St. Augustine was solemnly brought back to Hippo (1842). {g) Id
the islands of the South Sea, a missionary bishop has attempted to gather
the harvest where others had sown the seed (§ 473). — The Catholic Chiu-ch
numbers about a hundred and fifty millions of adherents, organized into
seven hundred and sixty-three bishoprics, (/t)
h) Gesch. d. kath. Miss, in Cliina. Vien. lS45ss. Elicinw. Eep. vol. XXYIII. p. 281ss. XXX.
ISSss. D. A. Z. 1S45. N. 224.
c) Dubois, Letters on the State of Christ, in India. Lond. lS2o. ii. v. Hoffmann, Nenst. 1S24.
Comp. KHist Archiv. 1S24. P. 3. [Dubois ^as answered by Hough, To-nnley, and others. Set
1>. 472, nt. a.]
d) A. Z. 1S35. Suppl. X. 103. 1S43. X. 143. BrI. KZ. 1S39. N. TS. A. KZ. 1S40. X. 90. 203.
e) Vogt, d. kath. K. in d. Verein. Staaten. (Tub. Quartalschr. 1S41. V. 1.)
/) A. KZ. 1S32. N. 50.
g) Eheinw. Eep. vol. XXIII. p. 7Ss. a. KZ. 1S39. N. 63. 1S43. X. 2.
/<) Chavlesqf St. Alo>jx,A.Vs.t\\.K. in ihrer ireirenw. Ausbr. a. d. Erde. Eatisb. 1S45. öffOi
Petri, Gcmrchia .leli.a s. Cliiisa c.itt np(.)st. '.lom.nna. I.-iS '.?ö!.
CHAP. VII. 0KIP:NTAL CllUPwClf. § 483. MECIIITUARISTS. NESTOPJANS. 065
CHAP. VII.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
§ 483. Catholic, and Protestant Influences.
Greek and Armenian congregations composed of exiles or of persons en-
gaged in mercantile pursuits in Catholic countries, were obliged to purchase
public protection by an acknowledgment of the papal primacy, and of the
procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as from the Father. In
return for this the pope conceded to them the usages of their country, to-
gether with the cup for the laity, and the marriage of their priests. Among
the Armenians the Mcchitharists were confirmed by Clement XI. as Benedic-
tines (1712), and after the fall of Modon (s. 1717), in imitation of their
founder Meckithar (Comforter, 1076-1749), they founded a monastery at St.
Lazarus among the lagoons of Venice, which was designed to be a medium
of literary intercourse between their native country and Europe. A branch
of it was established at Vienna, Avhich lias confined its pious literary views
to Germany, (n) In Transylvania tlie Wallachians were induced by the Jes-
uits to enter the Union (s. 1697), but a holy monk who came over the moun-
tains (1744) filled the people with horror at this alliance, (b) As soon as the
liberty for which the Hungarian Protestants had contended (§ 470), was con-
ceded also to the United Greeks, the result was likely to threaten their union
with the Roman Church. When the American missionaries opened schools
(since 1831) among the Armenians in Constantinople and Trebizond, and dis-
tributed bibles among the people, many have been opposed to all worship of
creatures, and to some other portions of the Armenian forms of service, and
have finally been excommunicated (1846). Separate congregations were
therefore indispensable, and when formed they experienced the most bitter
persecutions, in consequence of an order from the patriarch requiring that all
persons should Avithhold from them the ordinary intercourse of social and
commercial life. But, in consequence of the intercessions of others in
their behalf, and the favor of the Turks toward a form of worship dispensing
with images and pictures, they have gradually attained a tranquil state, (o)
The American missionaries have likewise succeeded in confirming (since
1833) in the knowledge of the Scriptures tho.se remnants of the Nestorians
which still exist in the mountains of Kurdistan, and whicli had become mere
petrifactions of the Church of tlie fifth century, and so far as they had not
become subject to the pope, established them as the Protestants of the East, (a)
In many other countries where the Oriental Church prevails, schools have
been established and tlie Scriptures have been distributed by Protestant mis-
a) (Kiuver) Vita dell' Abate Mochitar. Yen. ISIO. Compendiose nothie sii)la congrcgazione dei
Mccliltaristl. Yen. (1S19.) 1S25. WinrUachmann i\. J. in d. Tub. Quartnlsclir. 1S35. P. 1. Elicinw.
Itep. vol. XXVIII. p. 1G2SS. XXX, 157ss.
V) Acta liist. ccc. vol. X. p. llOs.s.
(•) Brl. KZ. 1S4C. N .35. 77. 1S47. N. 3G. 42. C5. A. KZ. 1S47. N. 13i;.<.
d) A. Grant, Tlie Nestorians, or The Lo.st Tribes, New York & LonJ. ISll. 12mo. (On the otliei
hand: E. Rohinsov, [in Bibl. Pep. for 1S4I.] Review of Grant's Nestor. New York. 1S41.) [O. P
Ji<ulfjer, Nestorians and their ritn.als, kc. Lnnd. 1S5I. 2 vols. S.] Bruns. Rep. 1545. vol. I. p. lS5ss. II,
flOss. Ill, S4.-^s. 1S4G. vol. v. [.p. 107, UN, 2it'.>ss. VI, SGss.
66G MODKUN CIIUUCII mSTORV. PKR. VI. A. T). 104^1W3.
sionaries, until tlio Oriental Christiuns li.ave themselves bepuri to test the doo-
trines of their Church hy the Word of Gf)fl, and complaints have been inad*
that the authority of the Church has been impaired, (e)
§ 484. Hmsia. Cont. from § 418.
King, Tlio ritos of tlio Greek Churcli in Russia. Lond. 1722. 4. Uijr. 177.3. 4. (.Vcta hist. ecc. no»-
Iri temp. vol. I. p. 1. lS7ss.) llupel, kirchl. Statist, v. lluss. (Nord. Misc. Riga. 17SC. Sect. lls.s.) Beller-
inann, Abr. d. Kuss. K. Erf. 17S8. A. de Stourdza, Considerations surla doctrine et l'e.»prit de I'ogl.
ortliod. Weim. ISIG. ii. by Kotzehue, Lps. 1817. Pinkerton, Russia. Lond. 1S33. (!•>. KZ. 1834. N.
7Iss.) Briefe ü. d. Gottcsd. d. morg. K. a. d. Euss. (by MurawiefiP) by E. v. ifurdH, Lps. 1S.33. with
Krlilar. Anhang als Lexidlon d. morg. K, by Ibid. Lps. 183S. \_A. Nie. Murawieff, Hist, of the Cliuroh
of Russia, trans), (from the Russian. Pctorsb. 183S.) by Blackmore, Oxf. 1S42.] Die Staatslc Russl.
iin J. 1839. by a priest of the Oratory. Schafi'h. 1844. Die Bedeut. d. russ. K. für d. gegenw. (Deutsche
Yiertelj. Sehr. 1842. N. 19.) Klose, Russl. kirchl. Statist. (Reuter, Rep. 1S.50. II. 1.) Ilefole, d. rus.5.
K. (Tub. Quartalscli. 1853. H. 3.) A. v. Tlaxthausen, Studien ü. d. Innern Zust. Russl. Ilan. 1347. 2
vols. [/>e Custine (Marquis), The Empire of the Czar, or, Obss. on the Soc. Pol. & Rel. state and
Prosjiects of E., from the French. 3 vols. 8. Lond. 1847. R. W. Blackmore, Doct of the Russ. Church,
transl. from the Slavono-Euss. Originals. Aberdeen. 184.5. 8.]
The orthodox emperor was now the natural protector of the orthodox
Oriental Church, with a power in both hemispheres such as no successor of
Constantine ever possessed. After the death of the patriarch, Hadrian
(1702), Peter the Great allowed his see to remain vacant until the people had
become accustomed to see its duties performed by a college of prelates, which,
under the name of the Holy Synod, was declared to be the supreme author-
ity in the Church (1721). (a) This synod is dependent upon the emperor,
but the dignity of the clergy and the peculiarities of the ecclesiastical polity
are determined by the national character. But Catharine first took posses-
sion of all the property of the Church, and then settled upon nearly all eccle-
siastical offices and institutions a permanent but very moderate revenue. On
the other hand the convents were relieved of the charge of invalids, and sem-
inaries were established for education. The clergy are in the habit of filling
their ranks from their own families very much as if they were a spiritual
caste. Sermons were at one time prohibited, so that no new doctrines might
be propagated among the people, but many primitive and symbolical usages
have been tenaciously preserved in the affections of the people. The eccle-
siastical language is the old Sclavonic. Many persons were dissatisfied on ac-
count of the innovations made in the liturgy by the patriarch, Nicon., and
Avithdrew from the Established Church (166G). By those from whom they
thus separated they were denominated Bosl'olnili, but by themselves they
were called Staroverzi. They conscientiously adhere to aU the institutions
of their ancestors, abominate the fashions and articles of luxury which have
been introduced in modern times, and do not recognize the Czar as the con-
secrated head of the Church. Many new sects have sprung from them, and
in consequence of the persecutions they have endured, many of them have
become the victims of a gloomy fanatical spirit. The Duchoborzi believe in
no ecclesiastical connection except that which exists between kindred minds,
but they are friends of the strictest morality. Others have adopted a modt
e) Hist pol. Bll. 1853. vol. XXX. H. 5.
a) Kllist. Archiv. 1323. vol. I. sect. 4. p. 87ss.
CHAP. TU. ORIENTAL CHURCH. § 4S4. RUSSIA. ALEXANDER. GG7
»f worsliip intermediate between the extremes of abominable lust on the one
hand, and of eunuchism on the other, (h) While endeavoring to elevate the
intellectual character of his people, Alexander did much to improve the con-
dition of the National Church. On all lands belonging to the crown village-
schools were established, the seminaries were improved, and the priests were
exempted from the punishment of the knout. The national struggle against
Napoleon subsequently became a war for religirn. In mature life the pecu-
liar fortunes and plans of the emperor inclined him (since 1812) to a melan-
choly style of piety, (c) "When the British and Foreign Bible Society was
formed in London, at the emperor's request a general auxiliary Avas established
at Petersburg (since 1813), and under the supervision of the Holy Synod an
edition of the New Testament was published in the Russian language (1821),
and was afterwards gradually sent forth in almost every dialect of every na-
tion in the empire. With simple confidence the Bible was placed by the
people among their sacred pictures, but an ecclesiastical opposition was ex-
cited against it throughout the nation, which was strengthened by observing
certain erroneous applications of passages of the Scriptures made by the peo-
ple. The emperor was therefore finally induced to abolish the Bible Society
in Paissia (1826). (d) And yet the imperial government felt constrained to
do something for the conversion of his heathen and Mohammedan subjects in
three distinct quarters of the world. Ecclesiastical institutions were estab-
lished for the education of missionaries, and inducements were held out to
those who might become converts to Christianity. Under Nicolas a plan has
been formed and generally favored by the people (since 1825), according to
which the whole Russian nationality is to be civilized by efforts from within
itself, and all the tribes subject to its government are to become one in lan-
guage and in creed. By the conquest of a portion of the Persian territories
(1828) Russia obtained possession of a great part of Armenia, including the
convent of Echmiadzin, the principal seat of the Catholicus of the Armenian
Church, by whom alone the bishops and the holy oil could be consecrated.
Measures were however taken by the Armenian Church to prevent its incor-
poration with the Russian, {e) Peter I. gave freedom of worship to both
Catliolics and Protestants, but this indulgence was confined to those foreigners
wl\o resided in the country, and were needed in the public service. "When
Catharine II. acquired possession of the Polish Russian provinces, a part of
the population became members of the United Greek Church (p. 482), and
another part united with the Russian. But even those who were deeply im-
bued with the Roman element finally yielded to the prevalent inclination, and
h) Strahl, Scctenw. d. raw. K. (KHist Arcliiv. 1S24. Sect. 4. p. 2Gs3. 1825. Sect. 1. p. 425S.)
Lenz, de Dncliobor/.is. Dorp. 1S29. P. L (Jen. L. Z. N. 16Gs.) Evr. KZ. 1S2S. N. 52ss. 1S35. N. lOss.
Elieinw. Rep. vol. XXII. p. 270.S9.
c) Especially P/;i^-^Wo7i ; ILL. E. Notlz ü. Alex. .Tcna. 182S. [Lond. W(!okly Rev. for M-iy.
1S29. (in Littell's Rel. Mac. vol. IIL p. 502ss. Pliil.nd. 1829.) Schnitsler, Seer. U. of the Court A
Gov. of Russia under Ale.v. & Nicolas. Lond. 1S4T. 2 vols. 8.]
d) Esp. rinkerion : A. KZ. 1S22. N. 70. 1840. N. 40. llOss.
e) Vittet\ Anbau, vol. II. p. llL-'s. KHist. Arch. 182.3. P. I. Kurze hist. Darst. d. gegenw. Zust d.
arm. Volks. IVtorsb. 1821. Smith & Dwirjht, Researches in Arm. Bost. 1833. 2 vols. Tfwliu-1% lit
Anz. 1S.32. N. 17. [.V. Chamich, II. of Armenia, transl. & cont. to the present time by J. Anfall,
Calcutta. 1827. 2 vols. 8.]
GÜ8 MÖDKRN CHiniCII IIISTOIJV. PER. VI. A. \). 1C-IS-1S53.
after much prciianition, tlie higher clerf,^y of Litliuania and White Russia at
tlie Synod of Polotsk (Feh. 12, 1839) declared that their people wore anxious
to return to the ancient Tnothcr Church. By order of the emperor the Holy
Synod received them, together with their congregations, as those who had
been separated by violence and were now reunited hy love, (f) Gregory
XVr., after having condemned the Polish insurrection (1831) and having suc-
ceeded in persuading Gutkoroski, Bishop of Podlachien, (</) who had been
imprisoned for his fidelity to the Russian Church, to abandon it (1840), now
beheld the schools in Poland closed against all ecclesiastical influence, the
confiscated property of the Church given to a Greek nobility, the real estate
which had belonged to the hierarchy taken possession of by the state, all in-
tercourse between the bishops and Rome prohibited, and the Catholic princi-
ple with respect to mixed marriages turned against the Catholic Clmrcli.
Nothing was now left him but to lift up his lamentations over the distressed
condition of the Church, and the loss of two millions of Catholics, and to
expose to the world the means by which this had been accomplished, (h)
Macrena Mieszlawska, the late Abbess of the Basilian convent at Minsk, ap-
peared at Rome with a shocking account of these means, but there were
enough who knew how to render it doubtful whether she was a martyr or an
impostor, (i) But the pope and the emperor had occasion to enter into an
agreement (184:7s.), according to which a new diocese of Cherson has been
formed, whose bishops are to be chosen by the emperor, but canonically insti-
tuted by the pope ; Avhose consistorials and teachers of seminaries are to be
appointed by the bishops, but with a reference to the pleasure of the govern-
ment. These bishops had also the management of the spiritual affairs of
their diocese in canonical dependence upon the holy see. Other matters re-
specting Avhich they could not then agree were left, in hope of some future
arrangement. (Ä) A constitution has been given (1833) to the Lutheran Church
by the emperor, which is well fitted to preserve order and exclude all innova-
tion, (l) Protestantism, although secured in the interior of the empire by
long established concessions, and in the German provinces on the Baltic sea
by treaties, must nevertheless lose ground with each generation on account
of the many laws and civil proceedings in favor of the Established Church. (??/)
In the year 1845 when the Letts and Esthonians were reduced to extreme dis-
tress, a rumor became current among them that those who would pass over
to the orthodox faith should obtain possession of the landed property of their
/) Ue. d. Wiederverein, d. Uniaten m. d. reclitgläub. K. (froTii the Nonlisclicn Biene) ü. v. A. v.
OUlekop. Statt?. 1S40. A. Z. 1S39. Suppl. N. 82S?s. 1340. N. 151.
(7) A. Z. 1840. N. 15T. 1C9. 171. A. KZ. 1840. N. SO.
7i) Allocution of Nov. 22 : A. Z. 1839. N. 337. of July 23 : Brl. KZ. 1842. N. 65. Esposiiiione cor-
rcdata di documenti sulle Incessanti cure della stessa Santitä sua a rip.aro dei gravi niali, da cui e af
flitta la rel. cattolica negli imperiali e rcali doininii di Russia e di Polonia. Eom. 1S42. f. Einsied
1842.— (.4. Theiner) Die neust Zust. d. katb. K. beider Ritus in Polen u. Eussl. s. Kathar. II. Angsh
1841. 2 voK {Sausen) Der Czar u. der Nacbfolger d. li. Petrus. Mayence. 1343. Rruns; Rep. 1S45
vol. I. p. 179ss. II, 2T3ss.
i) D. A. Z. 1846. N. S6. Suppl. 57. 70. 113s.
k) Alloc, of July 3, 184S: Brl. KZ. 1843. N. C2. A. Z. 1848. N. 203. Suppl.
I) Ev. KZ. 1831. N. 5?s. li.Vir, Pr. Bibl. 1334. P. 4. p. 557ss.
m) Comp. A. Z. 1S40. Suppl. N. 153s. 1633.
CHAP. VII. ORIENTAL CHUIICII. § 4S5. GREKCE. 669
German landlords, and some fanciful hopes were held up to them connected
with the Grand Duke Michael (accordin<? to Daniel XI, 39. XII, 1). Fifteen
tliou.?and peasants were accordingly confirmed, and churches were built by
the government for these new converts in all parts of the country. («) Ger-
man princesses, when they became connected with the family of the Czar,
were obliged to convince themselves that the Evangelical Church was in
error, (o)
§ 485, Greece and TurTccy.
Keander, Progr, d. Blbolges. BrI. 1830. Kist, de Ecc. grafcca, div. providentlac teste. Liigd. 1S31.
ITartle]!, Researches in Greece. Lond. 1331. (Ev. KZ. 1S32. N. 129s.) F. Fenger, om det Xygracske
Folk og Sprog. Kjöbenh. 1832. (Ev. KZ. 1832. N. 37s.) F. Thiersch, Essai snr I'etat actnel de la
Grece. 1833. 2 vols. G. L. v. Maurer, d. griech. Yolk in iiffentl. kirclil. u. privatr. Bczieli. Ileiillb.
1S35. 2 vols. J. M'enger, Boltr. z. Kenntn. d. gegenw. Geistes u. Zust. d. gr. K. in Gr. u. d. Türkei.
Bii. 1839. Rlieinw. Rep. vol. XV. p. 183ss. XVII. 185. 255ss. XVIII. ITTss. XXVII. 172. 27Gs3. (Ac-
cording to Brandis. Lps. 1842. vol. III.) XXXVIII. p. 1S7. 2G9ss. L'egl. ortliod. d'Orient. Atben.
1SÖ3.— ir. KloKe, d. Christen in d. Türkei (Zeitseh. f. liist Tb. 1350. 11. 2.) [S. G. Howe, Hist. Sketch
of the Gr. Rev. New York. 1828. 8. T. Gordon, II. of the Gr. Rev. &c. Lond. 1812. 2 ed. 2 vols. 8.]
In the spring of 1821, Avhen the Greek people awoke from their long slum-
ber, the bishops pronounced their blessings upon the insurrection. The exe-
cution of the aged patriarch, Gregory^ on Easter Sunday, before the gates of
his own palace, tore asunder the last link which connected a down-trodden
people with their tyrants. It is true that a policy quite foreign to all Chris-
tian sympathies prevented an earlier termination of their sanguinary and
tedious troubles, and allowed Greece to receive boundaries whicli nature
never intended for it ; but it soon entered unavoidably into the magic circle
of European improvement, and with all the energy of an independent nation
endowed with noble capacities were produced the first shoots of an ecclesi-
astical literature, {a) In the zeal of the people for liberal views, the civil
and judicial authority of the episcopal court was speedily broken down. Qj)
As it was impossible that the Church should continue dependent upon a pa-
triarch appointed by the sultan, an assembly of bishops at Syra (Aug. 1833)
was directed by tlie government to declare, that the orthodox Church of
Greece acknowledged no head but Jesus Christ, that the administration of the
Church belonged to the king, and was to be carried on under the direction
of the sacred canons by a Synod of Bishops permanently appointed, but an-
nually renewed by him. (<■) By this measure on the part of a Catholic gov-
ernment, and by the abolition of the inferior convents, to obtain an ecclesi-
astical and school fund (1834), the feelings of the nation in behalf of its
Church wore Avounded. The first exhibition of its displeasure with respect
to the new improvements was made against the schools and books of the Eng-
.ish and American missions. {<!) The conspiracy of the orthodox Hetairia
n) A. Z. 1815. N. 218s. Brl. KZ. 1845. N. 89. 100s. 1S4C. N. 4. 1347. N. 67. 1349. N. 97. 99.
o) E. g. Rhcinw. Rep. vol. X.XXIII. p. 8Gss.
a) liizo Neroidos, Coiii-s do lituraluro grecque in<Mlorne. pubL par J. Humbert, Gen. 1827. Wie-
deranfiinged. thool. Lit. in Griechenl. (Stud. u. Krit 1841. P. 1.) 'S.uvrayfxa twv ädaiv Kai Upüiv Ka-
yövcov, cd. G. A. ütdlii et M. liOÜis, Athen. 1852. 2 vols. 6) Geih, (p. 857.) p. 113.ss.
c) A. KZ. 18:33. N. 191.
d) A. Z. 1837. Suppl. N. 184. A. KZ. 18.37. N. 82. D. .V. Z. 1345. Suppl. X. 802. Tlio chief organ
>( evayyf\iKi] aaXmy^, edite<l by the monk Gernianos.
570 MODEUN CHUUCIl IIISTOIIV, TEU. VI. A. 1). 1C4S-190^.
was designed to destroy every thing of a foreign nature which had been forced
«pon the nation, and to place the Church (1839) under tJie jurisdiction of the
patriarch Gregory VI. (e) This prelate published a challenge against Lu-
ther, proliibited the circulation of translations of the Scriptures, (/) and for-
bade the nuptial benediction upon mixed marriages in the Ionian Islands. For
these proceedings he was, at the request of the English ambassador, deposed
(1840). (g) The revolution of 1843, professing to act in the name of national
freedom, threw away all the supports of German education and improve-
ment. The Constitution of 1844 recognized the orthodox Oriental Church
as established by law, required that the successor to the throne should be a
member of that Church, and while it gave free toleration to other forms of
worship, it forbade efforts to proselyte in their favor. The ecclesiastical sta-
tute of 1845 gave to the Synod a position much less dependent upon the
government. (A) It was recognized by the Patriarch of Constantinople
through the mediation of Russia (1850), on the condition that its holy oil
should always be obtained from the mother Church, but it was itself to be
chosen by the clergy, and the Bishop of Attica was to be its perpetual presi-
dent. (0 The city of Athens, then the principal town, was dedicated to an-
other Virgin, (k) but there is a prophecy current among the people that at
some future day the cross will be fixed upon the Church of St. Sophia. A
tranquil existence has finally been secured to the Christians under the do-
minion of the sultan, in consequence of his enfeebled condition, the European
reforms which he has introduced, and the depe"ndence of his empire upon
Christian powers. By the Ilattisherif of Gfilhane (1839) a promise was given
that the life, honor, and property of all should be secure, and that Moslem
and Rayah should be equal in the eye of the law, (I) but the government is
sometimes unable to prevent individual instances of abuse from the corrup-
tion of the inferior authorities, and the fimaticism of the people, (m) It is,
however, the power under which all the different parties of the Oriental
Church, and the Franks under their respective consuls, find a residence, with
no power to injure but only to hate each other. The position of the porte
even with respect to the holy places, for the keys of which Russia, in behalf
of the newly acquired rights of the Greek Church, and France, in behalf of
the long established rights of the Latin Church, contended with each other,
is only that of a mediator, (h) But when Russia claimed to be the perma-
nent protector of the orthodox Christians who constitute a large majority of
the population of European Turkey, it has, relying upon the aid of Christian
powers, indignantly repelled the demand as a virtual requirement that it
should resign its sovereignty, and the Czar has therefore proclaimed against
it a holy war (1853).
«) A. Z. 1S40. N. 27. 30. /) Acta hist. ecc. 1837. p. SSlss. ff) A. KZ. 1840. N. 86.
!i) A. D. Z. 1S45. N. 198. i) Brl. KZ. 1S51 N. 80. k) A. KZ. 1S22. N. 48.
Beitrr. z. e. Gesch. d. neusten Eeformen d. osm. Eeiches. In Verbind m. Kauiis Efcndi. ed. bj
Petermann. Brl. 1S42.
w) (C. Paczei;) Die Christen in Bosnien. Vienna. 1853.
«) Brl. KZ. 1850. N. 94. 1851. N. 32. 1852. N. 93. 1853. N. 44. comp. 47.
CnAP. VIII. GENERAL AFFAIRS. § 4SC. CATHOLICISM & PROTESTANTISM. 67 1
o:iAi'. Yiii.— coMMo:^ details and mutual kelations.
§ 486. Catholicism and Protestantism.
In Germany and in France where the Catholic and Protestant churches
stand side by side in the enjoyment of equal rights, and where the national
character has no decisive inclination for either, there must naturally be an
intellectual conflict between them, frequent attempts at accommodation, and
mutual aggressions of a proselyting spirit. In the polemical writings of Prot-
estants, Catholicism is represented as a system of priestcraft, or at best as an
antiquated form which could have had no existence except when the mind of
man was in a state of pupilage. The Catholics call the Eeformation the
second fall of man, and revive the old but now especially obnoxious reproach
that the Eeformation must necessarily end with a revolution. On the other
hand, the advocate of Protestantism shows that whatever is true in this as-
sertion threatens no danger to any legal form of civil government, but only
to Catholicism, and that as far as it is untrue facts show that the liome of
revolutions is in Catholic countries, (a) This subject was discussed with
more calmness by literary men among Protestants, since, instead of contem-
plating it simply as a polemical matter, they investigated the respective
creeds, taking a purely historical view of the different systems of faitli, and
regarding them as points of development for the Christian spirit. The learn-
ing of a Church which regards all beyond itself as only a fiilsehood, and un-
der condemnation, could never entertain such a train of thought except in
appearance only, (b) Besides, that was often attacked which no one ever
defended, on the one side unchangeable Lutheranism, and on the other an
infaUible papacy. The controversy was also much embittered by the exagger-
ated ecclesiasticism which prevailed in both parties. Even a Judas-literature
became connected with the controversy between the two churches, (c) To
such as had become dissatisfied with the creeds of both sides it seemed easy
to become reconciled. Such was the origin (1797) of a party, Christo sacrum,
in the French Reformed Churcli at Delft, the object of which was to form a
common ground on which all miglit unite, by setting forth a few general doc-
trines relating to the divinity of the Scriptures, and redemi)ti()n by Christ,
without requiring any to renounce the Churches in which thoy had been re-
spectively born. It went indeed so far as to assemble after its public recog-
nition (1802) a few members of different churches in their house of worship,
but it was universally rejected by all churches, and never became any thing
but a very inferior sect, {d) The Freemasoiu' Lodges originated among the
Societies of architects of the middle ages, and even in the new spiritual-
ized form which their craft received from England, where it was ex-
tensively propagated (1717), it kept aloof from all the contentions of the dif-
rt) Tsschirner, Prot. u. Kntli. a. d Stnndp. A. Politik. Lps. 1822 4 eil. 1S24.
I) Moelder, (p. Grö.) .On tl)e otlicr liaiul : Biiur, Nitzscli, Marlicinelie.
c) Der Pi-otosiantisimis in s. SclbstauUösuii^'. SfliülVli. (lS4o.) 1S4G. 2 vols. cmnp. Drl. KZ. 184Ö,
N. 03.
</) Aroliic f. IvOi'sch. vol. I, sect. 2. p. ITOss. sect. .3. p. 155ss. KHist. Arcli. 1S23. sect. 1. p. T2s&
FlUdnrr Colloc'tcnn.-i>c. vol. 1 1, p. 574ss.
G72 MOl^KUN CIIUUCII IIISTOUV. PER. YI. A. D. 164S-1S53.
ferent dmrclies, and professed in a region far above them to cons'raot tho
temple of Humanity. For this very reason it was condemned (p. GS4) iii va-
rious papal decrees (1738, 1751, 1829,) which were, however, enforced only
in Southern Europe, (e) The Evangelical Church Journal also condemned
them, and received an answer through an act of the royal fiimily (Nov. 5,
1853). (/) The Kationalists on account of their Pelagian tendency, and the
Pietists on account of their rigid ecclesiasticisra, were accused of an approxi-
mation to Catholicism. A few regarded every kind of union as impractica-
ble except by the absorption of one party into the other ; (y) some believed
in a higher development of the present ecclesiastical system, in which the
distinctions between the two parties wei'e to be forgotten ; while many looked
upon these distinctions as salutary in their influence, and indispensable to the
completeness of the Christian spirit, (A) Persons were frequently induced to
pass from one Church to the other by the prospect of some personal advan-
tage, or under the influence of false views. Such instances were tolerated
especially in the Catholic Church, on account of their relation to future gen-
erations. Others were governed by considerations altogether foreign to
Christianity. Such was Winhelmann (d. 1768), who thought that the great
object of his life, which could be pursued only at Rome, was well worth a
mass ; especially as he, with all his recollections of pious youthful impressions,
was neither a Catholic nor a Protestant, but a contemporary of Pericles, {i)
But some were really anxious to correct by their own free act what they
honestly believed to be the false position in which the accident of birth had
placed them. The primary occasion for most of the conversions to Catholi-
cism was that exalted state of artistic or poetic feeling which, when it became
depressed, fell into pietism, but which found in the Catholic Church a pleas-
ant and splendid form of life, or at least found deliverance from a state of
mere irony, and a position in the earnestness of reality. Another cause was,
a natural disposition which was annoyed by the perpetual conflicts and com-
motions which prevailed in the Protestant Church, and sought peace in a sen-
suous nearness to the divine, and in an external and infallible authority. It
was to this disposition that the faithful Voss^ who mistook its more profound
motive, opposed in a violent manner his Dutch common sense. (Jc) There was
also an historical and political spirit, imposed upon by the mediaeval splendor
and perfect constitution of the Catholic Church, which might not only be
mistaken, but stimulated to further misapprehensions, and so finally conducted
to a path which terminated at Eome and Vienna. (?) A few aristocrats hoped
e) Kraiise, d. drei ältesten Kunst-Urk. d. F. M. Brädersch. Drsd. (1810.) 1819. F. W. Lindner
Mac Benac. Lps. ISIS. Sarsena, Gesch. d. F. M. Ord. Bamb. 1820. 5 ed. Lps. 1S35.— M. Bull, Eoni.
vol XVIII. p. 2123. Ili-^t pol. Bl. vol. YIII. p. 65ss.
/) D. A. Z. 1854. N. 23.
0) {J. A. Slai-l;) Theoduls Gastmahl o. ü. Vereinig, d. Eeligionssocietüton. Frkf. 1S09. 7 ed. 1823.
h) Planck, Worte d. Friedens an d. kath. K. gegen ihre Vereinig, m. d. prot Gütt. 1809. Vom
Streite d. Kirchen, an den christl. Adel deuts'jher Nation. Lps. 1827.
i) BrL Monatschr. vol XII. p. 56ss. Goethe, Winkelm. u. s. Jahrhundert. Krech, Erinn. an W
Brl. 1835. 4.
A-) Wie ward Fritz Stolberg ein Unfreier ? (Sophronizon. 1819. vol III.) Bestätigung d. Stolb
Cmtriebe. Stnttg. 1S20.— ^. McoU^ciug, Fr. Leop. G. zu Stolb. Mayence. 1846.
V) F. Ilurter, d. Antiites II. u. sogen. Amtsbrüder. Schaffh. 1840. Zehnder. Ant II. u. s. yerun
CHAP. Tin. GENERAL AFFAIES. § 4S6. CONVERTS. 673
they could get rid of the revolution by forsaking the Reformation. Hack-
neyed authors, who before knew nothing of religion, found in the Catholic
ritual that which interested and satisfied their excited religious wants, (m)
Sacerdotal Puseyism, and even zealous Lutheranisra, estranged as it is from
the present Protestant Church, have sometimes conducted their lost sons back
to the holy father, (n) On the other hand, there were two ways by which a
Catholic might be conducted to the Protestant Church. The first was the
same feeling which at one time moved the Eeformers, a painful sense of sin
which found no relief in the works and penances of the Church, and finally
betook itself to a simple faith in the Scriptures alone. The other was a de-
velopment of the spirit of religious independence, Avhich, when it could no
longer find complete truth in the doctrines which it had been taught, felt
compelled to break loose from an infallible Church. The former path con-
ducted to the old, and the latter to the more recent form of Protestantism.
The latter was therefore followed by individuals of a speculative turn of
mind, or such as thought themselves to be so, while the former was entered
upon as in the time of the Reformation by whole congregations, pervaded at
once by the same feeling. In some cases, however, where the feelings of such
congregations had not become clearly defined, and the ecclesiastical authori-
ties treated them with mUdness, they could sometimes be reconciled with
the old Church, (o) From the nature of the feelings thus defined we should
of course expect to meet with persons of more distinguished reputation
among the converts to Catholicism, (jj) For it was necessary to the pacifica-
tion of those consciences which were inclined to Catholicism that the pre-
cise form should be complied with, and that the person should be a member
of the only Church in which salvation could be expected, while the Protes-
tant spirit generally felt that it was every where in the spiritual Church, it
would naturally hope to exert a more powerful influence in behalf of truth
in its original sphere of life, and it would dread the severe shock occasioned
by a change of ecclesiastical relations. Hence generally only such priests as
apprehended some overwhelming act of oppression from their ecclesiastical
superiors, effected an escape by connecting themselves Avith the Protestant
Church.
glimpftcn Amtsbr. Sob. 1S40. — Schenkel, Zerwürfen in SchafTli. u. llurter"s Uebcrtritt. Bas. 1841.
Harter, Geburt u. Wicdergeb. Schaffh. (1S45.) 1S47. 2 vols.
m) Ida Griifln Ilahn-Ildhn, von Babylon nach Jerus. Mayence. 1S51. [From B»bylon to Jern-
ealem, from the Germ, of Countess Ida v. Ilahn-IIahn. New York. 1352.] F. v. Florencourt, meine
Bekclir. z. clir. Lelire u. K. Paderb. 1S52.
n) Lütkemüller, unsre Zust v. Todo z. Auferst. Lps. 1S52. Brl. KZ. 1S52. N. 8C.
o) Geschieht!. Darst. d. Bekehrung d. Fürsten v. Salm-Salin, from the Fr. (Par. 1826.) Jen. 1826.—
GoHsner, Martin Boos, Lps. 1826. [Life & Persecutions of M. B. transl. by Bridges. Lond. 1828.
Lond. Chr. Ob.s. Jan. 1S2S. (in Littell's EoL Mag. vol. I. p. 2S9ss.)] I/enhqfer, cnr. Glaubensbek,
ileidlb. (1823.) 1824. TMchirner, Rückkclir. kath. Cliristen in Baden z. ev. Christenth. Lps. 1S23. 4.
ed. 1824.— Bericht u. Karlsliuld by Pächtner vor d. Sammhing ev. Predigten. Barmen. 1837. — Helfe'
rich, christl. Glaubensb. Friedb. 1835. On tlio other side: Urkundl. Darst d. piet Umtriebe d. vor-
mal. Pfar. Ilelf. Mayence. 1835.—^ J. Mawrette, d. Papst u. d. Ev. from the Fr. lleilbr. 1844. 3 ed.
iS4<5. E. Bruitte, m. Abschiedswort an Rom. from tlie Fr. Schleiz. 1844.
p) F. ^y. P. V. Amnion, Gallerie d. morkw. Personen, welche v. d. ev. z. kath. K. übergetreten.
Erl. 1833. J. Hoeninghuus, chronol. Verzeichniss d. denkw. Bekehr, v. Protest, z. kath. K. Ascliaff.
1837. Ifitssch, Ü. d. Ursachen d. sich mehr. Uebertritte z. riini. K. (Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. W. lS6l
N. 29.)
43
574 MODERN CIIUUCII IIISTOKY. PER. YL A. D. 1048-1853.
§ 487. The Fine Arts. Cont. from § 378, 390.
Art has generally risen superior to all distinctions of creeds, altliougli the
populace of Strasbourg would not tolerate a bust of Luther on the monument
of Guttenberg, (a) and even some painters have supposed that they could do
better justice to the saints when they adored them. Rome became once more
the home of the arts of design, when, from the time of Clement XIV., a beau-
tiful temple was opened for the remnants of the old Olympic world, with
such an enthusiasm for the arts that it did not shrink from even a sacrilege
upon the sarcophagus of the Scipios and of St. Helena. Thorwaldsen was
directed by Consalvi to erect a lofty monument on the tomb of the Holy Fa-
ther Pius VII. in St. Peter's Church. (Jb) When the more recent popular life
had been developed, the Church could no longer give existence to the art from
its own materials, but it was obliged to be a mere participator in it. By a
profound study of the monuments of heathen antiquity, WinTcelmann rescued
the taste for the arts from degenerating into a trifling mannerism. "What he
could only express in words Thorwaldsen embodied in brass and marble.
Grecian power and beauty, it is true, were found reproduced in living fresh-
ness in his studio, but as an expression of the eternal beauty of nature they
were exalted to their most significant form when employed in the utterance
of Christian ideas. Gods and heroes were therefore to be seen there by the
side of our Lord and the apostles, (c) At a still earlier period Dannecl-er
gave a sublime representation of Christ in the character of the world's
teacher ; his John is a son of thunder reflecting upon the mystery of the
Trinity ; and finally he is himself exhibited, when an old man, contemplating
the smile of a Christian angel of death, (d) After some literary attempts to
discover the general basis of all art in piety, (c) an association of German
painters was formed at Rome (s. 1810) which endeavored to revive the art
in the Christian feelings and ecclesiastical forms of the middle ages. There
is a kind of spectral life in the exaggerated productions of this Romantic
School. But the great masters of it have each in his own way revived the
splendors not only of the middle ages but of antiquity. Thus Overbeck has
presented a delicate pious fervor, and Cornelius, cheerfulness and sublimity.
These were followed by Henry Hess, who added beauty to the old ecclesiasti-
cal style ; Kaulbach, who has painted the minds and general thoughts of
men ; and Lessing, who has exhibited Protestantism in the persons of its fore-
runners. A German Union for religious art in the Evangelical Church (1851)
evinces an inclination to pay a long standing debt of Protestantism. (/) In
connection with this interest in the middle ages the art of painting on glass
has been once more discovered. The Cathedral at Milan was completed by
Kapoleon. Louis of Bavaria restored the old splendor of the cathedrals of
«) A. KZ. 1S40. N. 128. 1842. N. 204s.
fc) Noticed indeed in A. KZ. of 1830. N. 27, but not erected until 1831.
c) Iniele, Thorwaldscn's Leben u. Werke. Lps. lS32s. 2 vols. f.
(0 J. J. Ileus, Ü. Danneckers Cliristus. Zur. 1820. C. Grüneisen u. Th. Wagner, Dann. Wcrka.
Elamb. (1842.) 4.
e) II. // ]\\icl-enroder, Herzensergiesiungen e. kunstliebenden Klosterbr. ed. trTieck. BrL1797.
/) Drl. KZ. 1852. N. 20. 24. 32.
CHAP. Till. GEXEEi\X AFFAIRS. § 4SS. CHUKCII AECIIITECTURE & MUSIC. 675
his kingdom, and had all the different forms of the ecclesiastical styles of
former times represented in the churches of his capital. Frederic "William III.
had the Cathedral of Cologne once more repaired (since 1824), and Frederic
William IV. laid the foundation stone for its completion (Sept. 4th, 1842),
that it might he a work of brotherly love for all Germans, {g) Isaac's
Church of Petersburg raised its cupolas and granite pillars more proudly than
any other church of Greco-Roman architecture. The three great masters of
instrumental music at Vienna have contributed none of their peculiarities nor
their highest efibrts to the Church. HaydrCs Creation, great as it is, is never-
theless only a great opera, in which the Lord God with his angels are repre-
sented. (Ä) Mozart did not compose his Requiem until he was dying, {i) and
Beethoven^ in his own exalted sphere, felt that he was a priest of God, but not
In an ecclesiastical sense, and his Christ on the Mount of Olives and his Sec-
ond Mass were indeed a Creation, but they never reached their seventh day.
Felix ITendelssoJm, who had been educated in the rigid school of Sebastian
Bach, and amid the glories of Handel's art, has given a harmonious expres-
sion to the direct Word of God, combining profound devotion.al earnestness
with cheerful artistic beauty, especially in the lyrical strains of his Psalms,
and in the more dramatic works Paul and Elijah. Like Raphael, however,
he was taken away from earth (1847) before he had realized in his language
the complete ideal of his Christ. While the friends of art in Protestant Ger-
many, though generally without reference to the Church, labored to promote
an understanding and love of the old ecclesiastical muse, (Jc) the Italian
churches resounded with the most frivolous opera melodies. The papal
chapel alone preserved the old serious style, though much of tlie skilful per-
formance of former days was lost. When the mode of singing hymns in
quartettes, which, in some Reformed churches, and particularly in Switzer-
land, was an inheritance from their ancestors, was first introduced by an as-
sociation in Stuttgard, and recommended by the Synod of Wurtemberg (1823),
many voices were raised against it on the ground that such a style of singing
was too artistic for a congregation. (?) Liturgical forms of divine service
were brought into use first at Berlin, and afterwards in other places, in which
the old Catholic as well as Protestant masters of Church music were re-
vived, (m)
§ 488. Emancipation and Conversion of the Jews.
Riemer, der Jude. Alton. lS32ss. O. W. Böhmer, Gleichstellung der Juden. Gütt 1S33. Jost,
neuere Gesch. d. Israel. 1815-45. Brl. 1846. 2 vols.
Since Moses Mendelssohn (d. 178G) and Lessing gave to each other tha
hand of fellowship the Jews have participated with much eagerness and Sue-
s') Brl. KZ. 1842. N. T3. 1843. N. CO. 1849. K. 80.
[/<) L. A. C. Bombet, Life of Haydn, in Letters. Prov. 1820. 12.
»■) E. ITolmex, Life & Corr. of Mozart. New York. 1845. 12.]
Ä-) {Thihaut,) Ueber Keinhcit in d. Tonkunst. Ilcidlb. (1825.1826.) 1851.
Ö Kocher, d. Tonk. in d. K. Stuttg. 1823. X. KZ. 182-3. N. 7. 105. 1S25. N. 45.— 132i N. 122. 18231
K. 28. 60. 1826. N. S2.
m) Ev. KZ. 1844. N. 51s. 1845. N. 15. 105. 1851. N. 48.
676 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 161S-1853.
cess in the improvements of modern times. («) A rational tendency has ffcua
been formed which exhibits a piirely biblical literature, and withdraws tho
mind entirely from the Talmudic institutes. In its struggles against the old
Rabbinism it has founded a new Temple with a simple form of public wor-
ship in the language of the people. Some attempts to accomplish a stiL
more extensive reform were made, and it was found that in doing so either
the Mosaic system without circumcision (to which, however, Christian gov-
ernments compelled the Jews to adhere) might be made consistent with an
unlimited progress in improvements (Frankfort, 1840), or their national dis-
tinctions might be abandoned, and they could still adhere to the religious
character peculiar to Judaism (Berlin, 1846). (I) The educated Jews on the
west of the Vistula have generally given up their religious national peculiari-
ties, and are not prevented by their adherence to Moses from believing also
in Christ. They stand therefore, with respect to Christianity, precisely
where Moses Mendelssohn stood. It was natural that persons in this condi-
tion should begin to demand a complete equality of civil rights. The watch-
word — civil and religious freedom for all the world ! gained a powerful party
in favor of such an emancipation. Napoleon called a meeting of the great
Sanhedrim (1806), (c) and completed the work of Jewish emancipation. His
enactments on this subject have continued in force until the present time in
Holland and Belgium. In North America their complete equality follows
from the essential nature of the Constitution. Even in German countries the
civil condition of the Jews has been much improved in various ways since
the time of Joseph II. .^ but their complete equality with other citizens has
never been conceded except for a brief period while the French were masters
of the country. Against such an equality it has been urged by a party which
on other subjects has shown a liberal spirit, that the Jews are still in every
sense foreigners, and therefore entitled to hospitality but not to the rights of
citizens, and that the governments of the country were founded upon Chris-
tian principles, which, if not endangered would at least be denied by the pro-
posed concession. {S) The assemblies of deputies, as far as they were not in-
fluenced by the fear of the Jewish spirit of speculation, were inclined to
concede to them their full rights of citizenship. The Prussian law of 1847,
although it commenced with the principle of equal duties and equal rights,
made many exceptions in consistency with what were supposed to be the de-
mands of a Christian state, and concluded with a special provision for the
separate existence of a foreign nation in exclusive Jewish communities, (e)
a) J. Heinemann, M. Mendelss. Lps. 1S31. Sieinheim, M. M. u. s. Schule. Hamb. 1S40. B. Auer-
bach, d. Judenth. u. d. neueste Lit. Stuttg. lS-56. [M. Samuels, Mem. of M. M. & Corresp. with La-
vater. Lond. 182T. 2 ed. 8.]
b) IT. A. Francolm, d. rationale Judenth. Brsl. 1S40. Nethiboth Olara. Vergleich zw. d. modernen
Judonth. u. d. Rel. Mosis u. d. Proph. (from the Engl.) Frk£ 1839.—^. Fränkel, d. mod. Judenth. ; d.
Frankf. Ref. u. d. neue Zeit Eeutl. 1844.— D. A. Z. 184C. N. 41.
c) Precis verbal des seances de Tassemblee des deputes franc, professant la rel. juive. Par. ISOS.
Revue des deux mondes. 1852. Sept 15.
d) Paulus, die jüd. Nationalabsondrung. Heidlb. 1881. On the other side: Kruff, Henoticon.
Entw. e. Eeligionsgesetzes f. christL Staaten, i^ps. 1S36.
e) D. A. Z. 184T. N. 161. 219. Jf. Veii, d. Entwürfe. Verordn. f. d. Verb. d. Juden in Preusseu,
Lps. 184T. StaU, d. christl. Staat u. sein Verb. z. Deismus u. Judenth. Brl. 1847.
CHAP. VIIL GENEEAL AFFAIRS. § 4SS. JEWS. § 489. SLAVEItT. 677
The National Assembly in St. Paul's Churcli, over which on one occasion a
Jew presided, granted by an almost unanimous vote full rights of citizenship
to the Jews ; (/) but the execution of this enactment has been almost uni-
versally prevented in the German States by Christians belonging to the edu-
cated and the ignorant classes, (g) In England, Parliament has removed the
civil disabilities of the Jews (since 1829), but the oath of adherence to the
Christian faith required of all members of Parliament has prevented their ad-
mission there. And yet the city of London has repeatedly chosen a Roths-
child for its representative (since 1847). The Lower House has more than
once adopted Russell's proposal to change the form of this oath, but the
Lords have hitherto rejected it, on the ground that the admission of a Jew
would be an insult to the Son of God, and the commencement of an atheistic
government. (A) While the rationalist party took no special interest in the
work of converting rationalist Jews, (i) the pietists entered upon it with pe-
culiar zeal. Societies of the Friends of Israel were formed for this purpose
in England (1808), in America, and in some of the German cities, {h) The
result of these efforts proves that aside from those Jews who live in countries
not professedly Christian, and those who are already seeking salvation, and
therefore need instruction or protection, more may be expected from the
power of Christian improvements in Europe, under the influence of which
the Jews reside, than from any direct attempts at conversion, against which
they have such prejudices. The inhabitants of the Ghetto in Rome were
compelled once more in 1823 to listen every Sabbath to a sermon for their
conversion, (l) In the East the legend of the middle ages with respect to
the fanatical use of Christian blood was now revived, and used to justify
every kind of cruelty and horrible outrage against the Jews (1840). {ni)
§ 489. Abolition of Slavery,
E. Biot, de I'abolition de I'esclavage ancien ea Occident. Par. ISiX Tii. F. Buxton, d. afrik Scla
venhandel u. s. Abhülfe from the Engl, by Julius. Lps. 1S41. [The African Slave Trade and its abe»
tors. Lond. 1S41. S.]
The Church has always endeavored to mitigate the evils of slavery (p. 138),
and as soon as it possessed the power, to restrain them by legal enactments.
But it was not until some time in the middle ages that the last remnants of
European slavery were abolished by law. After Europe had for three centu-
ries gathered up the riches of America by means of the newly introduced
slavery of the African (p. 338), the great principles of universal liberty com-
bined with those of the gospel in demanding the emancipation of the negro.
'* A party of the Saints," as they were called in derision, which had sprung
/) Stenograph. Bericht. 1848. vol. III. p. 1754ss.
g) A. KZ. 1S51. N. 119. BrI. KZ. 1S5I. N. S.3.
h) A. Z. 1534. N. 184. lS:i6. N. 331. (.Jewisli Disabilities Bill.) D. A. Z. 1S4T. N. 362. 1S49. N. 167.
{) {Friedländer) Scndschr. an Tellern von einigen UausvUtern jüd. Rel. BrL 1799. comp. TUo-
luck, verm. Schrr. vol. II. p. 126.
k) Rbeinw. Rep. vol. XXHI. p. 84, 1S6<?. vol. XXV. p. 82, 274ss. vol. XXVIII. p. 273ss. Die
Freunde Isr. Naelirichten v. d. Ausbr. d. Reiches G. Bas. 1841. 3 P. Guussen, d. Verkünd d. Ev
unter d. Juden, from the French. Ilanib. 1844.
I) A. KZ. 1S23. N. 41. m) A. Z. 1S40. N. 140s. & others.
678 MODERN CIIURCn IIISTOET. PEE. VI. A. D. 1648-1S53.
from the Mothodistic movement, contended for a long time almost hoijele.sslj
in Parliament against the existence and the necessity of slavery in the colo-
nies. Their speeches awakened hopes among the slave.'', Avhich, in some in-
stances led to insurrections. During one of these, among the negroes of De-
marara, the passions of the people became so inflamed that a missionary
whose name was Smith was condemned, and died in confinement (1824)
before the king's pardon arrived from England. When the tumults among
the slaves of Jamaica had been quelled, the chapels of the Baptists and Meth-
odists on the island were demolished, and the lives of their preachers were
in peril because they had preached that all the children of God were free, (a)
The abolition of the African slave trade by political treaties (1830) was found
to be entirely inadequate to effect the object at which it aimed, as long as
slavery itself enjoyed the protection of the laws, (b) After years of prepara-
tion in various ways, the English nation made an offering of a hundred and
twenty millions of dollars to indemnify the masters, that after a certain time
of preparation by instruction the slaves might be introduced to the privileges
of citizens, and that all of them might be declared free in the colonies of
England after the 1st of August, 1834:. As the slaves had become Christian»
ized by such means and by previous efforts, their emancipation was found to
be practicable and safe, (c) An Order was established by the Abbess Javohey
for the purchase of negroes in the French colonies with a view to educate
them, and thus prepare them for civil freedom, and its efforts have been at-
tended (s. 1838) with some degree of success, (d) A society for the extinc-
tion of slavery was formed at Paris (1835). The constitution of the Eepub-
lic of 1848 abolished all slavery on French territory, and the National Assem-
bly of 1849 decreed that all losses of the owners of slaves in consequence of
emancipation should be compensated from the public treasury, Denmark de-
clared that all children of slaves born after the passage of the act of manu-
mission should be free, and fixed upon a certain year (1847) as the definite
limit beyond which all slavery was to cease throughout its colonies, (e) In
the Southern portion of the United States the material interests which would
be seriously injured by the abolition of slavery, came into violent collision
with the enthusiasm which demanded that all who had been redeemed by
the blood of Christ should, at all hazards, be set at liberty. The sovereign
people began (1835) to hang those clergymen who preached against slavery,
and the negroes who listened to them, in accordance with their own forms
of justice (Lynch's law.) (/) Gregory XVI. having reviewed the decrees of
his predecessors, condemned the trade in negroes as utterly inconsistent with
Christianity (1839; ; (g) but instead of being diminished, its horrors becam«
more dreadful.
a) A. KZ. 1824. N. 93. Ev. KZ. 1882. N. 93. &) A. Z. 1835. N. 142.
c) Abschaffung d. Sklav. in d. Colonien. (Ausland. 1834. N. 855ss.)
d) A. Z. 1S35. Suppl. N. 140s. e) D. A. Z. 1S4T. N. 252.
/) A. Z. 1S35. N. 244. g) A. KZ. 1840. N. 19.
CHAP. Till. GENERAL AFFAIRS. § 490. ST. SIMON. SOCIALISM. 679
§ 490. St. Simonism and Socialism.
As civil liberty triumphantly advanced, and taught men that they had an
equal right to the natural productions of the soil, and as at the same timt
industry became freed from its trammels, and, by the progress which it
caused in the natural sciences, produced reciprocal advantages, the wealth of
the world accumulated in the possession of the few, and threw the masses of
society, on the other hand, into a state of the most hopeless want, (a) Under
these circumstances, the idea arose with great power, especially m the minds
of many in France and England, either by a social revolution to introduce
a community and a just distribution of goods (Communism), or by an organi-
zation of labor into free associations for trade and subsistence, to assist those
portions of society which have been oppressed, in obtaining a proper share
of the enjoyments and improvements which are now exclusively in the pos-
session of a few (Socialism), (l) Christianity was found compatible with
such efforts, and even countenanced them to some extent, by the aid of such
facts in its primitive period as the compassion of Jesus for the poor, his indig-
nation against the wealthy, one attempt at a community of goods, and in the
history of its orders and sects having much to say of a voluntary surrender
of wealth, and a community of goods in a variety of forms, (c) But as
Christianity Avas interwoven with all the existing relations of society, and
Pantheism had now made the idea of renouncing the pleasures of this life
intolerable, by destroying all hope of another world, Communism has, in the
person of its first leaders, who fell under the guillotine of a merely political
revolution in France, (d) for the most part renounced all connection with
Christianity, (e) But as the unavoidable necessity of some kind of religion
was perceived, the idea was adopted of making it the basis of the new order
of things. Accordingly, in France, Count St. Simon gave to his plan for
improving the condition of laborers by elevating industry to the highest pos-
sible privileges, the name of a religion — a new Christianity. (/) When he
died, in consequence of an attempt at suicide (May 19, 1825), a sinffle disciple,
Olinde Rodrigues, stood by his death-bed. The new worldly gospel which
had been introduced in the midst of the liberty and the excitements imme-
diately following the revolution of July, was proclaimed by sermons, mis-
sions, and polemical treatises sent forth from Paris. It declared that Catho-
licism was in its dotage, that Protestantism was a mere negation, that Christ
a) Tbe Claims of Labor. Lend. IS 15. Engels, d. Lage d. arbcit classo in Encrl. Lps. 1S4,5.
h) L. Siei7i, d. Social ii. Commun. d. lieutlgen Frankr. Lps. 1843. {Bluntnc?iU,) Die Communis-
ten in d. Schweiz nach d. b. Weitung vorgefund. Papieren. Comniissionsboricht Zur. 1S4:?.
c) C. B. Huivleiihafjen, d. Commun. n. d. nseetische Socialreform im Laufe d. cliristl. Jalirlih.
(Stud. u. Krit. 1&4.5. II. 3s.) J. P. liomang, d. Uedeut d. Coinm. a. d. Gcsiohtsp. d. Christenth. u. d.
sittl. Cultur. Zur. \'i-i~.— Proud hon, d. Sonntagsfcier. a. d. Fr. Katisb. 1850.
d) F. N. Bcthoeiif, le tribun du peuple. Par. (1795.) F. Buonarotti, la conspiration de Baboeuf.
Brux. 182S.
e) (P. 554s,) Comp. Gencralbericht an d. Staatsr. v. Neuclmtcl ft. d. gob. deutsche Propaganda,
Zur. 1S4G. Ev. KZ. 1S4C. N. 93.
/) Introd. au.\ travaux scientlflqucs du 19. S. Par. 1807. 2 vols. 4. Reorcranisation do la societ«
Kurop. Par. 1814. CatOchismo des industriels. Par. 1S24. Le nouveau ehristianlsme. Par. 1825
'.Oeuvres p. 0. Rodrigues. Par. 1832, 2 vols. Extracts in Buohholz neuer Monatschr. vol. 2ls. 84s,)
680 MODKRN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1C45-1S53.
hail provided only for the spiritual portion of our nature, and that St. Simon
was about to reinvest the flesh in its rights. Simonism became, on the one
hand, a deification of the world, and on the other, a consecration of industry
as a series of operations upon the divinity itself. Its general law was, that
after the law of inheritance had been abolished, every individual should
receive from the common stock in proportion to his capacity, and every
capacity according to its works. Tliis principle was to be carried out under
the direction of a hierarchy, whose arbitrary power was concealed under
tirades about love and self-sacrifice, (ij) Even noble minds were sometimes
captivated, by the unsparing manner in which the evils of the present state
of society were laid bare, by the substitution of merit for the accident of
birth, and the reinvestiture of the disinherited son of European society in
the rights of a man. The boldest language which this spirit of the age ven-
tured to use, was that in which an exclusive attention to material interests
was dignified with the name of religion. But when Fnfcmtin, one of the
leaders of this party, a stately and energetic but narrow-minded man, in his
character of the highest revelation of the Deity, bestowed his j)rincipal atten-
tions upon women, and, as their Messiah, made woman free by destroying
the restraints of marriage, and aiming to attain privileges like those of Mo-
hammed, a schism was produced (Nov., 1831), and Kodrigues proclaimed that
Simonism had apostatized from St. Simon. The saloon of the Simonists was
closed by order of the government, and they were themselves arraigned be-
fore the legal tribunals for propagating principles dangerous to morality.
Their condemnation (Aug., 1832) was a convenient kind of martyrdom, and
the supreme Father Enfantin still continued the object of a confiding venera-
tion to all true believers, (h) But the public prominence which their hier-
archy and morality had attained, destroyed, all public confidence, and their
monastic seclusion, their costume, and their phraseology became a matter of
general ridicule. (/) liobcrt Owen (b. 1772), a benevolent manufacturer of
England, became convinced, by observing the poverty and unhappiness of
those around him, that man had been conducted by the present system of
civilization to the very verge of an abyss. After vainly attempting to regen-
erate human society on his own possessions in England (since 1800) and ii:
North America (1828), he turned his attention, by means of lectures, tracts,
and missionaries, to the neglected portion of the English nation. He con-
tended, that instead of standing in the way of one another, men should co-
operate and enjoy the fruit of their common toil ; that instead of the present
system of unnatural marriages, there should be a free choice of kindred
spirits ; and that instead of families, there should be congregations. So fai
as our knowledge at present extends, we have no certainty that the existence
g) Doctrine de St. Sim. Par. 182S. ed. 3. ISSl. vol. I. Communion generale de la famille de St. S
Par. 1S31. J. Le Chevalier, rel. St. Simonienne. Enseignement central. Par. 1S81. (Zeitschr. £ hist
Th. vol. I. Part 2.) Association Universelle. Par. 1831.
/() Le Chevalier, sur la division. Par. 1S32. Proces des St. S. Par. 1832.
*) Cari»\i, A. St Sim. u. d. neuere franz. Pliil. Lps. 1S31. Bretschneider, d. St 9. u. d. Chris.
tenth. Lps. 18.32. M. Veit, St Simon u. d. St Simonisten. Lps. 1834. Matter, iu d. Stud. u. KriU
1832. P, 1. Kupff, in d. Tub. Zeitscli. 1S32. P. 2.
CHAP. VIII. GENERAL AFFAIRS. § 491. HOLY ALLIANCE. 681
of man is protracted beyond the present life, and hence every religion "which
leads the mind beyond this world is a delusion. Men are responsible to no
superior being; but should they be placed from childhood in right cir-
cumstances, without the perverting influence of poverty and ignorance, they
would be animated by a spirit of kindness toward every living thing, which
would render any division of property entirely unnecessary. (A,) This scheme
of Socialism found great favor (since 1836) among those who were engaged
in manufactures. Siraonism had been utterly ruined by the laughter of the
French people, and it was perfectly safe for the government to confide the
rectification of Owen's theories to the sound sense of the English people.
But the dangerous spirit of Communism is still undermining the foundations
of European civilization, and has not yet been allayed by the higher authority
of the State, nor by the benevolent power of Christianity. (I)
§ 491. The Holy Alliance.
Krug, la saintc All. o. Denkmal d. h. Bumles. Lps. ISIG. (Gesamm. Schrr. vol. III.) Archiv d. h.
Bundes. Munich. 1S18. Notiz ü. Alex. Jena. 1S28. p. 29ss. Eylert, Friedr. Wilh. III. voL H. Abtli.
2. p. 2-4SSS.— if. F. Fleck, d. Krieg u. d. Ewige Friede. Lps. 1849.
Under the influence of the Emperor Alexander, then consoling himself
for his lost ideals, and seeking religious instruction in the society of Madame
de Krudener (p. 595), {(i) the princes of Europe, with the exception of the
King of England, the Pope, and the Sultan, organized a Holy Alliance (1815),
that the members of it might become a great Christian family, in which,
regardless of the various ecclesiastical divisions, the law of Christian love
might be made the supreme law of nations. The statesmen of Europe smiled
at the strange language; the Holy Alliance in its actual operation, soon
turned out to be very much like other holy leagues of former times, and it
finally dwindled imperceptibly away (since 1830). Monarchs belonging to
the three Churches of Christendom in 1840, even conquered the Holy Land
for the Turks. And yet this ideal thus involuntarily recognized, or in the
commotions of an extraordinary period rapidly vanishing, is an everlasting
truth, and a prophecy of a future reality. For the ticcomplishment of what
Henry IV. and Elizabeth once had in view, {li) and respecting which many
philosophers have dreamed, an annual Cougrcss of the friends of peace has
been formed (since 1843), under the influence of an American association of
Quakers (since 1815). TJic advocates of this movement declare, that the
welfare of Europe is sacrificed to sustain the expense of an armed peace
establishment ; that the principles of Christianity utterly forbid war ; and
that all the disputes which arise between different governments, may be
k) Ev. KZ. 1889. N. 43. A. KZ. 1840. N. 31. 50. Brl. KZ. 1840. N. 22. Ehclnw. Rep. 1841. vol.
XXXII. p. 179ss. 242ss. {li. D. Owen, Book of tlio New Mor. World. N. York. 1844. New View
of Sociely. N. York. 1825. 12. Debate with Campbell. Cine. 1S30.]
T) P. 591. Jürscher (p. C54.) A. Vinet, d. Social in s. Princip. from the Fr. by Hofmeister, with
Vorw. by A. Nettndet; Brl. 1849. //. Mera, Ariiiuth u. Christenth. Stuttg. 1849. //. Arnim-Blum-
berg, d. höhern Stände wie sie sein sollten lu wie sie sind. Brl. 1851.
fl) C. U. Eynard, Vie de Me. de Krudener. Par. 1849. 2 vols.
I) G. G. GervinuB, Einl. in d. Gesch. d. 19. Jahrh. Lps. 1853. p. 194s. [Introd. to the Hist, of th«
19th Cent., from the Qtrm. of Qervinus. Lond. 1853. 12. p. 75.]
682 MODICKX CIIUIICII IIISTOliY. I'EIl. VI. A. D. 1C4S-1S.'A
brought to an amicable termination by the decisions of arbitrators, (c) Tlie
declamations of tliis Congress, and Elihu's pipe of peace, have been made the
subject of general derision, for even Christ has brought a sword into our
world ; but the gospel, attended by an advancing civilization, holds up this
Peace of God, this holy alliance of the nations, as the great ideal which it
perpetually strives to attain.
c) A. KZ. 1850. N. 121. [K Burritt, Thoughts and Things at Home and Abroad, with Life, by
Mary Ilowitt. Boston. 1S53 12. T. C. Up/uan, Manual of Peace. N. York. 1S36. 8. C. Sumner, The
Grandeur of Nations. Boston. 1847. (Orat. and Addresses. Bost. 1950. 12.) J. Dijmond, Accordanc«
of War with Chr. Phllad. 1836. 12.]
^ ./'.'. . ^ . , . '^■
>f^
APPENDIX,
[Some of the first pages of this translation were stereotj-ped before the seventh
Gtmian edition was announced in this country. The folio-wing is nearly all the
additional matter in the course of those pages, and all which seemed of importance.]
P. 7, the author says of Matthias Flacius and Caesar Baronius, that they
" were agreed in acknowledging the authority of the primitive Church and
its dogmas, and in regarding the history of the Church as a conflict between
Christ and Satan ; but according to Baronius, Christ, though sometimes slum-
bering in his little vessel, has conducted it safely through every storm;
while, according to Flacius, Antichrist has set up his seat of power in the
midst of the Church itself."
Add to the last sentence of § 11 : " The necessities of modern times have
been provided for especially by the graceful work of BerauU Berncastel, (a)
by the compilation of Ilenrion, (b) and by HohrlacJici', (c) whose labors dis-
play a considerable sympathy with the researches of German scholars."
Near the middle of p. 10, Neander is said to have given to the pietistic
school before represented by Milner, " a scientific character, by uniformly
referring to the original authorities, by entering heartily into the peculiarities
and earnestly developing the doctrines of past times, and by giving promi-
nence to long-neglected representations of the Christian life, as they were
variously exhibited in particular individuals of uncommon talents. lie dis-
plays a confidence in Christianity as a divine leaven, which must gradually
pervade all human affairs ; and though affectionately attached to the Church
as the fellowship of the saints, ho is tolerant toward all who oppose it on
merely doctrinal grounds, and he clothes his descriptions with an ample and
devotional, but unassuming, simple, and natural oriental drapery, (d) In the
same spirit, Jacohi has commenced a Text-Book, in which genend principles
a) nist. do Tcglise. Par. 1778-91. 24 vols. "With Contln. by Pelier de Lacroiof, liobiano, etc
V) New ed. Hist. eccl. depuis la creation jusqu'au pontiticat do Pio IX., publice par Jligne, Par.
1S52. vol. I. (To be completed In 25 vols.)
c) Hist. Universelle do Tegl. Par. 1812-48. 29 vols.
(I) The Gth vol. of Ncander's Hist of llie C'lir. Pel. until 1517, was left in a ft-ftfjmentary state, and
has been ed. by A'. F. T. Schneider, 2 ed. 1-4 vol. 1S42-47. [and has been transl. by Torreij, N. T.
\S:>i.]'-Ifagenhach, Ncand. Vcrdiensto uni d. KQosch. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S51. H. 3.) Jacobi, z. Erino.
an Neand. (Deutsche Zoitsch. f. chr. Wiss. 1S41. N. 20ss.)
684 APPENDIX. INTRODUCTION. LITEEATDEE.
aro presented in an abstract classification of events, and in isolated charac-
ters, and Schaff a more extended work, in which he endeavors to give the
German Church in America the results of German theology." (a)
P. 10, "the later editions" of GuericTce's Church History are said to have
" gradually become a careful collection of interesting characteristic traits of
the piety of our forefathers. The revival of the spirit of the various con-
flicting creeds of former times, has necessarily had some influence upon eccle-
siastical history. Lindner has attempted to show that the position of the
Lutheran Church is correct, by showing that the law of spiritual life is not
progress, which he regards as a purely mechanical and an unscientific idea,
but development, and has collected an abundant store of materials, with not
much criticism or exactness, but with considerable moral judgment and pious
benevolence. Kurtz's School-Book has finally become a learned manual, in
which the language and the descriptions are vigorous, and almost popular ;
the Lutheran is set forth, with as much criticism as the circumstances allowed,
as the only true ecclesiastical system of doctrines ; and the co-operation or
resistance of men is exhibited in a scheme of salvation founded on the merits
of the incarnate Redeemer on the cross, and under the fostering care of the
Holy Spirit advancing to universal dominion. Notwithstanding the exclusive
ecclesiasticism of the two last-named writers, both founded their division
into periods on the national elements of the Graeco-Roman and the Germanic
civilization, and Kurtz went so far as to sepai*ate many things which for the
time at least belonged together. (J) Niedner, on the other hand, investigat-
ing and philosophizing with perfect freedom, though with obvious inequality
in his execution, and in a style which is rather dry and scholastic, but with a
strictly logical connection, has collected a great abundance of particular
views. He was followed by FricJce, with great designs and much labor
attempting to compose a Text-Book, in which Church History was to be
delivered from those petty details which are so painful and even fatal to
many minds, and addressing himself to his work with youthful ardor, but in
a peculiar and frequently distorted style, and in an unnatural order of logical
development." (c)
At the close of § 12, Gf rarer is said to have " pointed out the immense
importance of the mediaeval Church for the German states."
Add to the close of § 22 : " And yet the necessity of supernatural aid,
and with this a confidence in its reality, had been vividly felt even in more
fortunate times. The unconscious longings of the Roman people were ex-
pressed by their poets in hopes full of anxious forebodings, and by their his-
torians in gloomy presentiments, (d) Among the oriental nations, a hope
a) J. L. Jacoli, LB. d. KGesch. BrL 1S50. 1 vol. till 590. PhU. Schaf, Gesch. d. ehr. K. Von
ihrer Grund, b. a. d. Gegenw. Mercersb. 1S51. 1 vol Apost Zeit (Intended to be in 9 vols.) [Hist.
of the Apost Church, from the Germ, of P. SchaflE; by K D. Yeomans, N. York. 1S53.]
h) Bruno Lindner, LB. d. chr. KGesch. m. bes. Berücks. d. dogm. Entw. Lps. 184S-52. 2 Abth.
& 3 Abth. 1. H. (till 1648.) J. IT. Kurtz, (LB d. KGesch. Mietau. 1S49. 1850.) HB. d. allg. KGeecU.
(as 3. ed.) Miet 1S53. 1 vol. (Intended to be in 2 vols, in 4 Abth.)
c) 0. W. Medner, Gesch. d. chr. K. LB. Lps. 1846. P. G. A. Friche, LB. d. KGesch. Lps. 1550.
I vol. (till 7CS.)
d) Virgil, Eclog. IV, 4-10.— Z). TP: BotUcher, proph. Stimmen a. Rom. o. das ChristL in Tacitiu
Hamb. 1S40. 2 vols.
PHILO. STEPHEN. PAUL JOHN. ^B
then extensively prevailed that salvation would come from the East, and
proceed in every direction from Judea, where the fulfilment was already
approaching. This expectation, though known to the Roman court, was
regarded as trivial, and of no political importance." (a)
Add after Philo, p. 21, line 5th from the bottom : "a weak thinker, but
with an exalted moral and a profound religious spirit."
Near the middle of p, 25, Stephen is said to have been " probably a Hel-
lenist, whose ardor had rendered him prominent in the controversy. Such a
controversy, however, shows that he had broken through the ordinary bar-
riers of the Christianity of that period, and portended the doom which then
threatened the unbelieving Jews. But the angelic aspect he exhibited in
view of death could not save him," &c.
The first sentence of § 31 continues : " and from the synoptic gospels we
have reason to conclude that there were some churches on the shores of the
sea of Galilee."
In the sentence closing with " (64) " p. 29 : " Paul did not survive the per-
secution under Nero."
After " sinfulness," on line 10th, p. 30 : " Paul had been brought involun-
tarily and with violence to Christ ; and in the profound consciousness of the
utter nothingness of all creatures before God, he believed that man's destiny
was arranged by an immutable decree, and it was in this way that he solved
the mystery of a temporary rejection of God's people, until the Gentiles shall
have entered the divine kingdom."
Before " Paul," near the close of § 33 : " Yet the new man is necessarily
produced by faith, through which the behever dies and rises again with
Christ."
P. 31, on line 4th, instead of " Eome," read : " the Roman Church, which,
according to the epistle to the Romans, was founded neither by Peter nor
by Paul."
On the first line of p. 33 : Paul "held up to those in Corinth (1 Cor. 15),
who protested against the resurrection, not on the ground of the old He-
brew and Sadducean, in opposition to the Pharisaic arguments, but on that
of inferences from Grecian literature (Acts 17, 32), the simple fact that Christ
had actually risen from the dead ; and he showed from his Pharisaic position,
that an opposite opinion would, if consistently carried out, lead to the sensual
life of an Epicurean." After the close of the section, it is said that the sim-
ple gospel " naturally developed itself in his mind, until in contrast with
those various orders of spirits, he placed the Redeemer as the Son of God,
who had not only lived before, but had actually created the world." (b)
On p. 34, line 8th, the conflict beyond which John appears in his later
writings to have lived, is defined to be that between Christianity and " Juda-
ism, and which seemed to him as the great crisis of the conflict between
light and darkness in the world, already in the past."
a) Tacit. Hist. V, 13. Suet. Yesp. c 4. According to JosepM Bell. Jud. "VI, 6. 4.
h) Col. 1, lä-17. is only the most pointed expression of the development proceeding by means of
the epistles to the Colossians, Epliesians, and Phi!i[ipi:ins. For their Pauline origin : Jieims, Gesch.
L H. Schriften, vol. I. p. lOlss. 119s3. Against it: Banr, Paul. p. 41Tss.
C86 APPENDIX. APOSTOLIC CIIUUCIL
§ 39 is rewritten : " The -writings wliich have come down to us from the
apostolic Ciiurch, originated not in a love of authorship, but from the reli-
gious exigencies of the times. They were circulars in which Paul continued
after death to communicate Avith tlie congregations he had establislied, recol-
lections of the earthly life of Jesus, and proplietic glimpses of the end of the
world, for the consolation of those Avho were to live in the approaching
troubles of the Church. An inclination toward the popular language of the
Greeks naturally followed when Christianity passed beyond the limits of the
Judaism of Palestine, though an oriental coloring and a profounder religious
meaning was necessarily imparted to many of its words and phrases. Among
the epistles by an unknown hand, is that which was addressed to the Hebrews,
Its style of thought is that which prevailed in the Alexandrian school, and
■was adapted to Jewish Christians ; the allegorical mode of explaining the
Scriptures is used to show that the whole temple service which then existed
in its glory, was an unsatisfactory, shadowy form, whose rites needed to be
continually repeated, and had now attained their true reality in Christ, the
everlasting High Priest, and the perpetual sacrifice for sin ; and saving faith
is shown to be a confidence in things unseen, and a development of the divine
trust exhibited in the Old Testament, (a) A sudden rupture from the living
spirit of former writings is immediately perceptible when we enter upon the
productions of the apostolic Epigonoi, who lived until near the middle of the
second century, and were honored by the Church as Apostolic Fathers. A
doctrinal treatise, ascribed to Barnabas by the Alexandrian doctors of the
third century, has a considerable resemblance to the epistle to the Hebrews,
though its historical views appear to have had no dependence upon the
canonical gospels (Life of Jesus, § 122, nt. f). "When referring, however, to
the ruins of the temple, the author seems to have regarded Judaism not only
as then rejected by God, but as already broken when Moses, in anger at the
idolatrous people, dashed in pieces the tables of the law. He appears also to
have looked upon the whole popular practice of the ceremonial law as found-
ed upon a misunderstanding of the divine intention, according to which it
was merely a prophetic image, whose particular parts are referred with a
playful fancy to Chi-ist as a new lawgiver, and whose true interpretation con-
stituted a complete gnosis, (b) The epistle of Clement was written in the
name of the church of Rome to the church of Corinth (80-90), for the pur-
pose of effecting, through the influence of former friendship, a reconciliation
between the several parties which had broken out in the latter, and we find
that it was read as a sacred book in the Corinthian Church in the second
century, (c) It contains no reference to the Jewish law, introduces many
notions then current among the Greeks, and enforces the doctrine of salva-
tion through faith and good works, (d) The She^yJio-d also had its origin in
a) After the Introdd. to the Commentaries (osp. of D. Schulz, Bleek, Tholuck) : T. A. Se'/farih,
de Ep. ad H. indole peculiari. Lps. 1S21. Ilase, ü. d. Empfanger d. Br. an d. H. (Winer's n. Engelh.
Journ. 1S23. vol. II. II. 8.) Baumgarten-Crusius de orig. Ep. ad H. Jen. 1S29. TT. J. Hiia; in d.
Stud. u. Krit. 18.S9. n. 4.
b) Comp, ne/ele in d. Tub. Quartalsch. 1S.39. H. 1.
c) Dionys. of Corinth, in £us. H ecc. IV, 23. 6. Ire». Ill, 8,
d) RitwfU, p. 252ss. against Schicejler, vol. II. p. 125ss. Comp. C. E. Francice, ii. Lehre d. Clem.
CLEMENT. HEEMA3. ECCLES. ANGELS. 687
the Roman Church, (a) After the middle of the second century, it was
regarded in many congregations as a sacred writing, and from its many
primitive but offensive oeferences, we conclude that it may belong to the
close of the first century, though Rermas, the brother of Pius I., Bishop of
Rome (142-157), was the first who collected these inspired dreams, visions
of angels, and parables together, and gave them his primitive name (Rom.
16, 14). (b) It consists principally of admonitions to a strictly moral life,
and recognizes on this very account the rights of those who had fallen away,
but had penitently returned after baptism. In the allegorical form in which
the Church is there presented, Christianity appears almost exclusively as a
foith in one God, and a renunciation of the world, and Christian Judaism as
a trust in the meritoriousness of works, and as a mere theological form."
After the first sentence on p. 39 : " But the seven stars of the angels of
the churches of Asia Minor, do not designate the overseers of those con-
gregations, but in the style of the inspired prophets, the genii by whom
the distinct character of each church is supposed to be represented, like the
national spirits mentioned in Daniel (ch. 10), and hence they are sometimes
addressed as personal beings, and sometimes as identical with their respective
churches." (<■)
The second sentence on the same page is continued thus : " and were
ordained by the imposition of the hands either of the whole congregation, or
of the distinguished teachers belonging to it." (d)
After the second sentence on p. 40 : "All were full of tlie expectation
of something supernatural, and they therefore put confidence in what claimed
to be manifestations of divine power, although no one felt that he could ad-
vance any claims upon it for personal aid. Every natural talent according to
its peculiar nature," &c.
Before " Fastings," middle of p. 40 : " even the women took occasion to
lay aside those marks of propriety which Avere then generally observed." (e)
Before " All hope," near the close of § 43, the previous sentence con-
tinues : " the gospel had already shown bow it could quietly exalt societj'
above the utmost limits of the ancient world. (/) And yet some admoni-
tions to bo obedient for conscience' sake to those who were actually in au-
thority, were not altogether superfluous for the new royal priesthood, (g)
which had no conception of the labor and patience needful before its true
historical development would be attained. It is true that," itc.
IZeitseh. f. lutli. Tli. 1841. II. 3.) An epistle claimin? to be llie 2(1 of Clement wjw found with the 1st
in tlie Codex Alex., but is a doubtful fragment of a generally devotional cliaraeter.
a) Iren. IV, 3. Schicegler, vol. I[. p. ,32Sss. lUUdd, p. 29Tss. Lücke, Kinl. in d. Off. d. Job. p.
387ss. (as belonging to tbe first balf of the 2d cent.)
h) Fragm. de canone in Murat, Antiqq. Ital. vol. III. p S5.3. It may after all have been intended
only lor a Montanistic object. (TVriH^. do pud. c. 2 : illo apocryphus Taster nioeclioruin.) Comp.
Thiersch, d. K. im Ap. Zeita. p. 251.ss.
t) Rev. 1, 20. 2, 1. S. 12. 18. 3, 1. T. Xeithor «itli Guhler. (1. c. p. 14ss.) Agents and at the same
time personifications of tlio Churches, nor with liothe (p. 42.3s.), ordin.iry bi.-hops, but which ex-
isted originally in the plan of the apostles, nor with Thiersch (K. in Ap. Zeita. p. 2;Ss3.), superior
pastors, a kind of bisliops. Comp. De Wette, Offenb. Jo. p. 413. d) Act} 6, 6. 18, 3.
e) 1 Cor. 11, 1-15.
/) Ep. ad Philrmon. Gal. 3, 2S. g) liom. 13, 1-7. 1 Pet. 2, 18-lG.
686 APPENDIX. CONFLICTS OF CIIEISTIAIIITr.
In the first sentence of § 44 : " The devotional exercises of the Christian
assemblies, like those of the Jewish synagogues, consisted, in addition to an
attendance in tlie church at Jerusalem upon the temple service, generally of
prayers, singing of psalms and even of the first strains of the Christian
hymns, (a) the reading of the proper sections of the Old Testament, and
discourses founded upon these." It is also said, that " Apostolic epistles
■were sometimes exchanged between different congregations (Col. 4, 15s.),''
and that "in Greek congregations, baptism was sometimes administered to
those who stood as proxies for the dead. (J)"
On p. 45, after what is said of Sept. Severus : " but the process of trial
by torture, to induce the accused to deny their faith, which had been author-
ized by Trajan, and after the time of Marcus Aurelius had been practised
with increased severity, was strictly enforced by the courts, at least in
Africa, (c)" After what is said of Alex. Severus : " and yet, in the code of
laws which Ulpian collected for the use of the proconsuls, were included the
penal enactments against the Christians. («Z)"
On p. 56, after the first word at the top : " Thus the story of the massa-
cre of the Theban Legion in a narrow pass of the Vallais (287), was, accord-
ing to its earliest traditional form, merely that of the martyrdom of Mauri'
tius, with seventy soldiers, in the East ; and the more extended form of it
which has since been propagated in the "West, was made known near the
middle of the fifth century, at the same time with the coming to St. Maurice
of the sanctuary of this martyr-legion, with which the local services of the
different places became connected in the cities of the Lower Rhine, (e)"
On p. 57, respecting the Ap. Constitutions : " The 7th and 8th books
Avere independent collections, entii'ely revised with respect to their language
in the fourth century, and supplied with some later ecclesiastical usages, but
not in a sense specially favorable to the Arians. As a complete collection,
they have never attained the authority of law, and they have been put
together variously in the different national churches of the Roman empire.
In its primitive form, it was especially the compilation of the church of
Alexandria. (/)"
On p. 58, " Choir-leaders (x/raXrai) (ö^)" are mentioned among the semi-
clergy, and it is added : " Widows and deaconesses were also appointed for
the service of the church ; the latter as virgins, but yet distinguished from
the former, (a.)"
a) Col. 3, 16. EpJi. 5, 19. Comp. Plinii Ep. X, 90.
b) 1 Cor. 15, 29.
c) Teritd. Apol. c. 2.
d) Domitlus Ulp. de officio proconsulis, libro VII. According to Lactant. Instt. Y, 11.
e) Theodoret. (about 427.) Graecar. affectt, curat, disp. 8. (0pp. vol. IV. p. 923.)— Vita S. Eomani
after 460, &c. For a solution of tlie story : Eettberg, KGescli. Deuischl. vol. L p. 94s8. Ä. J. Sin-
terim, Kalendarium Ecc. Coloniensis S. IX. ad illustr. Hist. Ursulae et sociarum virgg. Col. 1S24. 4
O. ffagen's Reira-chronik der Stadt Cülln, ed. by Groote, Col. 1S34. Comp. Eheinwald's Eep.
1885. voL IX. p. 201SS. Reitberg in Ibid. p. lllss. Respecting Massa Candida: Prudent. Hymn. 13.
TiUemont, vol. IV. p. l'öss.
/) Note a. p. 57. Stinaen, Hippolytus, p. 418-527.
g) Eits. H. ecc VI, 43.
Ä) Coric. Carth. in Statuto Ecc. Afrlc. c. 11. Ccmst. app. VI, 17. comp. Tertul. de poenlU «i IS>
de virgg. vel. c 9. Burisen^ Hippol p. 4S6.
CALLI9TU9 I. MAEEIAGE. CUILIASM. 689
On p. 59, after the first sentence in § 59 : " The congregation were
directed to obey the bishop as Christ, and the presbytery as the apostles. («)"
After "interchangeably," middle of p. 59, insert: "traces of the resist-
ance of the presbyteries to the new anthority are discoverable in both centu-
ries ; and this," &c.
On p. 61, after the words, " her subsequent empire," insert : " Even a
swindler and a fugitive s.ave snatched from suicide, was able, after seeking by
violent means a martyr's death, to obtain complete control over Zephyrinus,
a Bishop of Rome, but unacquainted with ecclesiastical laws, and to become
his successor, CalUstus I. (219 — about 224). lie was disposed to grant par-
dons for all kinds of sins, and gave ofience to his opponents in the presbytery,
by asserting that a bishop could never be deposed by a presbytery, nor be
compelled to resign his office, though guilty of a deadly sin. (by
On p. 63, after " Luke " ; " but the laws of the Church were not yet
agreed with regard to the exclusion of women at certain seasons from public
worship, in accordance with the requirements of the Old Testament, (c)" —
After " severest penances" : "Adultery was the only ground on which mar-
riage could become void ; death alone could sunder the nuptial bond, and a
second marriage was called a decent adultery. ((?)"
The following is added at the close of § 63 : " But the sacrifice of all
earthly joys, which th-e whole Church looked upon as indispensable to its
true ideal of religion, found ample compensation in the belief in a millennial
kingdom, founded upon a perverted notion of the Messiah revealed by tradi-
tion, and the Revelations of John, (e) This kingdom, which the returning
Christ would establish after the subversion of the Roman empire, and the
brief dominion of the Antichrist whom they regarded as the returning matri-
cide, was to be earthly, according to its essential nature, but its images of
sensuous pleasure were also symbols of religious bliss. The fjiithful who
died before the fulfilment of these hopes, were consoled with the prospect
that they should be raised again to participate in the glories of this kingdom.
Such was the faith of the whole Church, (/) until the common ecclesiastical
doctrine became suspicious on account of the extravagances of a party (§ 67),
and it was opposed by the school which contended that none but spiritual
blessings were of any importance (§ 85). And yet this old and popular faith
of the Church was never surrendered to individual enthusiasts, until, instead
of the vainly expected and sudden overthrow of heathenism by a miraculous
advent of Christ, the Church experienced for a long period the historical
power of Christianity, and the clergy at least beheld the dawn of the earthly
kingdom. (;/)"
a) Tgnat ad Trail, c. 13. ad Sm3rrn. c. 8.
I) (Orig.) Pliilosophumcna s. llaeres. Rcftit cd. Miller, I. IX. p. 2Slss.
c) In favor of tlic.in : Dioni/s. Alex. Ep. canon. (TJou^A, Etdiq. sacr. vol. II. p. 892.) Against
them: Conntit. app. VI, 27s.
d) Atheiuig. Deprecat. c. 28. On the other side still, ITermae Pastor II, mand. 4, 4.
e) Ret. 20. Iren. V, 33. 3.
/) Papias: Euh. H. ecc. Ill, 39. JiiJitin. c. Tryph. c. SO. Iren. V, 32s.
(7) (Corrndi) KriL Gesch. d. Chiliasm. (Frkf. ii. Lpz. ITSlss.) Zur. 1794. 4 vols. Sfüntcher, hist
Entwurf, d. L. V. tiusendj. Kcich in d. 3 ersten Jhh. Hlenke's Mag. vol. VI. Tt 2.)
44
690 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CnURCH.
Beginning of § GO : " Candidates for admission to the Clnircli xaTrjxov
ufvot), from the number of wliom all persons connected witli any employment
in the heatlien temples or tlie theatres were excluded, (ay — After " pro-
tracted to the end of life," insert : " Near the end of the third century, fixed
forms of penance were devised, as steps by "which offenders might return to
the full communion of the Church."
Before the last sentence in § GO, insert : " though many rigid persons
established the conviction in some congregations, tliat the Church could
admit of no penance or pardon for particular sins, or at least for their repe-
tition. Among these were included those sins which were called mortal, (b)"
On p. 67, the title of § 68 is altered so as to read : " The Novatian and
Meletian Schisms " ; and before the last sentence in the section : " About the
same time a schism was created in Egypt in consequence of the ambition of
Mdetlus, Bishop of Lycopolis. This man had been a confessor in the time
of the Dioclesian persecution, and now raised the watchword that the pen-
ances to be imposed upon those who had fallen ought not to be determined
until a period of tranquillity. He interfered with the hitherto undefined pre-
rogatives »f the Metropolitan of Alexandria, by consecrating, in the place of
many living priests, a large number of others whose salaries could not be ob-
tained witliout the establishment of an opposition Church. The bishops of
this new Church were recognized at Nicaca as the future successors of those
of the legitimate party ; but as they took part, to a considerable extent, with
the defeated party in the council, they shared also in its subversion. Sorao
remnants of them, however, were found as late as the fifth century."
Eeferences for § 69 :
''Neander, ü. Veranlass, u. Bescbaffenh. d. iilt Passalistreitigkeiten. (Kllist Arch. 1S23. Pt. 2.)
lieUberg, die Paschastreit. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Tb. 1832. vol. II. Pt 2.) Gieseler, in d. Stud. u. Krit
1S33. H. i.—ScIiwegler, Montan, p. 191ss. £uu>; kan. Evv. p. SS-lss. — Ä'. L. H'eitzel, die Passahfeier
A. ersten Jhh. Pforzli. 1S48. (On the other side: Baur, in d. Th. Jahrbb. 1S4S. H. 2. UUgenfeld,
[bid. 1S49. U. 2.) Hid. z. Passahfeier d. alt K. (Stud. u. Krit 1S4S. II. 4.)"
The sentences (p. 68, line 6) on the Paschal Controversy are altered thus:
" In Asia Minor, the saving Passover {n. a-cnTTjpioi', a-Tavpöio-ifJiop) was kept with
a love-feast, as a festival of rejoicing for the* accomplishment of the work of re-
demption, at the close of the great fast on the evening of the fourteenth of Xisan.
* In other parts of the Church, the Resurrection of our Lord (tt. dvaa-racniiov)
was celebrated on the Sunday after the full moon in the spring, and the pre-
ceding week of the fast was observed as a representation of the Passion- week.
When Poll/car]) visited Rome (about 160), this difference in reckoning was
discussed, though without injury to Christian unity. But the Roman bishop.
Victor, attempted to excommunicate the Asiatic congregations as heretics
(196), for their course in this matter. Public opinion was in favor of the
Roman usage with respect to this festival, but it could not sustain the violent
measures of the Roman bishop against those who differed from him only
upon a ritual observance. Polycratcs^ in behalf of the Asiatic bishops, ap-
pealed, as Polycarp had done, to the example of John, who had observed the
a) Consult, app. VIII, 32. Comp. Bansf.n, llippolyt vol. I. p. 492.
h) Herrn. Pastor I[. iiianj. 4, 1. Tertul. de pudio. c. 12. Cone. lUiberit. c. Is. T. etc.
PASCHAL CONTEOVEEST. WORSÜIP. BAPTISM. 691
Passover in their way among them and their ancestors, (a) But in Laodicea
and the country around it, the churches continued to eat the paschal lamb in
the Jewish manner, as a type of Christ's sacrifice. A remonstrance against
this was presented (about 170) from Alexandria, from Home, and even from
Asia Minor, on the ground that it was inconsistent with the whole represen-
tation of John in his gospel, in which Christ was never said to have par
taken of the paschal supper according to the law, because he was himself the
true Lamb of God. (b) The Roman usage finally prevailed in the third cen-
tury, and even then those who contended, though in ignorance, that this
festival should be kept according to the Jewish law, were spoken of in Rome
among the heretics, (c) But there were still some deviations, in different
parts of the Church, from the general usage of reckoning the Easter Sunday
from the course of the moon. (J) The fifty days," &c.
Near the close of § 70, instead of the " cock and anchor :" '• and tlie palm ;
symbols taken principally from the Old Testament, but of typical import.
From the use of these in their houses, Christians were led to use them ir.
ornamenting their tombs ; and as Avorks of art in fresco or mosaic, they
were gradually introduced from the catacombs into the churches. But
even,'' &c.
Instead of the first sentence of § 71 : " On the basis of the apostolic wor-
ship, and under the influence of obscure recollections of the services of the
temple on Zion, a solemn form of worsliip was gradually intro«luced, though
some peculiarities prevailed in the different metropolitan districts whicli pre-
vented entire uniformity in its details, (f) Prophetic and apostolic writings,
in the most extensive sense of these words, and the acts of the martyrs, dif-
ferent according to local usage and interest, were read in the public assem-
blies. The homilies which followed were delivered principally by the bishop
alone ; they were in the East constructed and uttered in a rhetorical style,
and they were therefore, even in the third century, extemporized by those
whose peculiar talents fitted them for such an exercise. The songs in honor
of Christ as a God, in which the oldest hymns that have reached us were
used, had a resemblance to the Pindaric odes, and show an Alexandrian
spirit. (/)"
In the same section, the bread and wine presented by believers are called
'•'• oblation es ;'''' "the consecrated bread taken home by tljem, or sent to the
absent, was eaten every morning before any thing else ; " (y) " baptism was ad-
ministered usually by immersion tlircc times, to the sick by sprinkling (B.
clinicorura), with reference to the death of our Lord, and in the name of the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; " " anointing (xpiafxa)^ as well as irapo-
a) Eux. n. ecc. V, 23-25. JerUd. <le praoscr. (Append.) & 53. Socrtit. II. ecc. V, 21.
I) Eus. II. ecc. IV, 2C. Chronicoii punch, cd. Diiidorf, vol. I p. 12s8. (.Melito, Bp. of Sardo,'*
Clemens Alex., Apolllnnris, Bp. of Ilierapolis, lliiipolytiis.)
c) {Orig.) llaercs. Refut p. 2T4ss.
cl) F. Piper, Gesch. d. Osterfestes. BrI. 1S4.5.
e) Conytiti. (ipp. VIII. Comp, tlio Alexandrinn view according to Tattam's representation in
Bansen, Ilippol. p. 494s.s.
/) C'eni. I'acd. Ill, 12. {Clem. Hymn, in Sidv. ed. Plpei;Oi,it liS.";.) Ucbers. b. JfUnter,
Blnnb. ii. Ktinstvorst. p. IGs.
ff) Tertid. ad u.\or. II, 5. comp. Tiunsfn, lllppil. p. 504.
692 APPENDIX ANCIENT CHUECH.
ßition of hands, was the consummation of baptism ; and corifirmation (coD-
signntio) became finally a distinct rite."
P. 71, instead of the sentence commencing with "Justin": "The
memorabilia of the apostles, quoted by Justin^ correspond essentially with
the history given in the synoptic gospels. But some deviations from it can-
not be fully explained by allowing that they were written from an indepen.
dent recollection. They rather imply that he could not have made use ol
these synoptic gospels, but that he must have had besides them, or instead
of them, such a revision as was in use among the Jewish Christians, like the
Gospel of the Hebrews, or the Gospel of Peter. (/?)"
After the ninth line on p. 73 : " In these respects they entirely correspond
with the Martyr- Acts of Ignatius, (b) The feelings of humility and of self-
respect, as well as the desire to die, shown in them, were very possible in a
character highly esteemed in the age in which the martyr lived, and the
abuse of the soldiers, and his free intercourse with his fi'iends, were consistent
with the Roman laws on imprisonment. But not only have we indubitable
evidence that the more extensive text has been revised, {c) and that other
epistles have been added to the original seven, but even the shorter text dis-
covered again in the seventeenth century, has not proved to be perfectly
genuine, {d) The newly-discovered Syriac translation of three epistles, in the
briefest and the rather less hierarchic text, produces the impression that it
can be only 'an extract, {e) But if even the germ of these epistles should
prove to be spurious, and not essentially the same with the fundamental ideas
in the more extended work we now have, they would still be an important
document of the middle of the second century. (/) The Epistle of Polycarj,
to the Philippians is a modest admonition to morality, was written with
reference to the actual circumstances of their Church, makes several allusions
to Paul, and is pervaded by the same spirit as the first epistle of John, and
the pastoral epistles. The obvious reference to Ignatius is probably of a
later origin, {g) Papias^'^ &c.
The title of § 74 is changed into "Apocryphal Literature." References are :
a) Note &. p. 71. Semisch, d. app. Denkw. d. Just. Goth. 1S43. Uilgenfelcl, krit TJiiters. ü. d.
Ew. Just, d. Clem. Homilien. u. Marcion's. Hal. 1S50.
h) (After the editt. of the Patres app.) Corpus Ignatlanum by Will. Cureton, Lend. 1S49. Iguatii
quae feruntur Epp. cum ejusd. martyrio, coll. editt graecis, versionibusq. syriaca, armen., lat reo. J.
n. Pelerinann, Lps. 1S49. M. J. Wocher, d. Brr. d. h. Iga. übers, u. erklärt Tub. 1S29.
<•) On the other hand only paradoxically : JT. Meier, d. dopp. Eec. d. Brr. d. Ign. (Stud. n. Krit
13;K. H. S.)
d) Against the genuineness: J. Dnllaeus, Bartr, J. E. C. Schmidt, (abridged in his KGesch.) and
Ketz, (as referred to In Note a. p. 78.) &;ÄtCf^ter, nachap. Zeita. vol. II. p. 159ss. (respecting a
Pauline as a counterpoise to the Petrine Clementines in Rome after the middle of the 2d cent)
For the genuineness: Pearson, Toss, lioihe, Iluther,snd Düsterdieck, {as referred to in Note a.
p. 73.)
«) Note b. p. 73. C. E. J. Bunsen, Ign. u. s. Zeit 7 Sondsch. an Neander. Die 3 ächten n. 4
unachten Brr. d. Ign. Ilmb. 1S47. 4. On the other side: Biiur, Die Ign. Brr. u. ihr neuester Kri-
tiker. Tub. 1S4S.— Ä Benzinger, ü. d. Aechth. d. bish. Testes d. Ign. Brr. Würzb. 1S49. G.
Uldhorn, d. Terh. d. syr. Rec. d. Ign. Brr. z. d. kürtzern griech. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. ISöl. H. 1.)
/) (Polycarpi, Ep. c. 13.) Iren. V, 2S. Orig. in Luc Hom. 6. (vol. III. p. 93S.) Eus. H. ccc
m, 86.
g) Note c. p. 73. For the genuineness, with the exception of interpolations (but more yigorouf
than Dallaeus and Bunsen) : RitscM, altkath. K. p. 604äs.
G^:osTICISM. saturninüs. ophites. 693
" J/bs/ieiHi, de causls suppositt. libror. inter Christt. (Dss. ad II. ecc. vol. I. p. 21Tss.) Lücke,
Einl. in d. OUenb. Job. ed. 2. 1S48. p. C6ss. Reim, Gesch. d. II. Schriften N. T. ed. 2. Abth. L
p. 23.'is5."
Add to § 74 : " Commencing -with the "written controversy Avith heathen-
ism (§ 52), tliis kind of ecclesia.«tical literature was now developed in a con-
troversy with the heretics, and penetrated deeply not only the sense of the
Scri[)tures, but the spirit of the Chnrch itself. It is divided into three
schools, according to local traditions, but in con.sequence of the intercourse
which then prevailed in the Church, these traditions were very extensively
diffused."
Kef. § 75 : Scliliemann is to be corrected with respect to Ebionism, by,
" RiUchl, altkath. K. p. 1028s."
After " apostate" (line 17), p. 75 : "According to Roman accounts, they
trusted to the law for justification, as they believed that Christ was justified,
and became the Messiah by completely fulfilling it. {a)
On Gnosticism (p, 76), after the reference to Kitter :
n. Rossel, Gesch. d. Untersuch, ü. d, Gnost. (Th. Schrr. eingcf. v. Neander. Bil. 1W7. vol. 1.
p. ITGss.")
In the first sentence of § 76 (p. 76), after " infinite " : " and indeed re-
specting the origin and development of the divine existence"; and at the
clo.se of the same sentence : " which combined all the speculations and fan-
cies of earlier and contemporaneous philosophies, and endeavored to pene-
trate all the mysteries of the divine, as well as of human history."
P. 77, Saturnimis is said to have had "a special relation to Menander,"
and to have held, that " Satan was the original ruler over matter (rX»?)" ;
that the seven planetary spirits, " with the view of founding a kingdom for
themselves, wrested from Satan's kingdom the materials of the present uni-
verse," and that " the God of the Jews put himself at the head of the plan-
etary spirits, and to assist them, raised up a series of prophets. But as their
God could not prevail against the demoniac powers, one of the highest
Aeons (voCy), as Christ in the semblance of a body, came to redeem the supe-
rior human race from tlie power of Satan, as well as of the planetary spirits.
To effect this, he gave them the Gnosis and the Law, which directed them to
abstain from every thing by which men became subject to matter. The fol-
lowers," &c.
§ 78, on the Hellenistic Gnostics, commences thus: "1) The Ophites
{'Smmarjvo'i) Constituted the transition from the Oriental to the Hellenistic
Gnostics. They originated probabl\' in Plirygia before the time of Christ,
and called themselves simply Gnostics ; but in Egypt they adopted Christian
notions, though they always remained openly hostile to Judaism. They pro-
fessed to believe that the Son of Man emanated from the Original Source
(/^uSoi), in which the male and female powers were combined, and that the
Mother of Life {rrvtvßa ayiov) sprung from him and his parent. From her
connection with the former original types of humanity, Christ was born, and
from the excess of light then sent forth, was produced Sophia^ i. c., the prin-
a) {Orig.) Haeros. Kefut p. ill.
tJ'J4 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CUUKCn.
ciplo of redemption and of creation. AVhen Sophia, the imperfect and
adventitious offspring of this connection, aspired to be like God, slie phinged
into chaos, and gave birth to Jaldahaoth^ i. e., the son of chaos. This being,
that he might create a special kingdom for himself, brought forth the seven
planetary spirits ; and when those also aimed at independence, in great rage
he threw himself into the slime from which the universe was formed, and
the outward image of his wrath became quickened into the serpent-spirit
{o(})i6fxop(f)os). To supply the planetary spirits with employment, be, with
their assistance, formed man in his own image ; and after Sophia had given
inspiration to this work of his hands, he animated it with his own spirit to
have dominion over divine things. But in this process he had parted with
his highest powers, and now saw with terror that his creature was superior
to himself. To prevent man from becoming conscious of these exalted pow-
ers, he commanded him not to eat of the tree of knowledge. Sophia, having
been brought by the apostasy of her offspring to repentance for her fault,
and to a consciousness of her divine nature, now endeavors to attract to her-
self and to purify the spiritual light-poAver in the world created by Jalda-
baoth. Availing herself of the enmity of the serpent-spirit against its
parent, she induces man to transgress the prohibition respecting the tree of
knowledge. Hence, what is called a Fall in the books of the God of the
Jews, was in fact a transition to a higher mental state. In gi-eat wrath the
Creator of the world now throws men down to the lowest material world,
and harasses them with all the pains and temptations incident to matter, but
reserves a chosen people for his own special possession. Individual persons,
endowed with high intellectual powers, are raised up by Sophia, but she
vainly strives to free them from their bonds, until the Aeon Christ unites
himself with the Messiah sent by the Creator of the world, and brings to
men the saving knowledge of the true God. Jaldabaoth had his own Mes-
siah crucified, that he might thus destroy the superior being connected with
him, but who had previously departed. In the end, Sophia, with her pneu-
matic followers among men, will be led back to the blissful fellowship of
God; and the God of the Jews, deprived of the light of all the pneu-
matic powers, will gradually sink into the abyss of annihilation. The ser
pent," &c.
" 2) Basilides of Alexandria (120-130) completed, and at the same time
transcended the Gnosticism which professed to be an esoteric doctrine pre-
served by Matthias. The Ineffixble (to appTjrov), the Deity who exists not
merely for time (6 ovk av 3edj), has the germ of every thing in himself, and
gives existence to every thing not by emanation (npoßoKrj), but as Jehovah
does to the light. In this germ of the universe {navcriTfppia roC KÖanov) ex-
isted a threefold sonship {viörqs Tpi/iepr;s), which the Original Being produces
by the attractive power of his beauty. The first mounts directly up to him-
self, and constitutes the happy world of spirit (irX^pwpa) ; the second forms
the confines of this heaven, and is represented by the Holy Ghost (to ^eSopjo».
nvfipa) ; and the third remains in the original germ of the universe, and
needs purification. From this last sprung the first and the second ruler of the
world ((ip;^a>i'), each of whom, in accordance with the decree of the Origina.
GNOSTICISM. BASILIDES. VALENTINUS. 695
Being, gave birth to a superior son. The first of these created for himself
the upper, and the last the lower planetary heaven. From the germs of these
vras developed the lowest world with the race of man. Until the time of
Moses, this was tlie kingdom of tlio lower Archon. But Moses made known
to it the higher Archon, by whom the prophets were commissioned. The
great Archon supposed himself to be God ; but Avhen through his Son ho
received the gospel from the Holy Ghost, he reverently submitted himself to
its revelations. Hence, in due time, the son of Mary in this lower world was
enlightened by the gospel, and his nature was jjuritied from all worldly ele-
ments by the necessary process of his sufferings. Accordingly, these elements
were left on earth ; his physical part remained at his ascension in tha plan-
etary heaven, and his pneumatic part ascended to the pleroma as the type of
all the redeemed. In the end, when all who are susceptible shall have
attained their destiny, this lower world will be again covered with ignorance,
and all things will be confirmed in the permanent state of existence for
which they are naturally fitted. This Roman account, (k) founded upon the
writings of Basilides and his son Isidore, and confirmed by the fact that they
used the term faith to designate the reception of salvation, and yet maintained
the necessity of the redemption ofthat which is divine from a nature originahy
alienated from God, seems to imply that the materials of the universe are
independent. The revelation of the Original Being in 365 kingdoms of
spirits, according to astronomical relations indicated by tlie mystic watcli-
word Ahruxas (or ußpaad^), may find a sufficient place in tlie doctrine of the
threefold sonship, but in other accounts was looked upon as an emanation
from the Original Being, or a gradual deterioration of his essence, until the
seven angels of the lowest spiritual world, with the Archon, the God of the
Jews, at their head, created the world from the materials which they found,
and furnished their men with all kinds of worldly powers, and with such
spiritual powers as they themselves possessed. To elfect the deliverance of
this spiritual power from its connection witli matter, tlie first-born celestial
power (roüy) united himself with Jesus at his baptism. Though this Jesus
was a perfect man, ho needed an atonement for himself, and it was he alone
who sufiered and died. In this manner, it is possible that even the B(ui-
lldeans adopted the peculiarities of Gnosticism, and, especially in the West,
caiTied the idea of freedom from tlie law so f:ir that it amounted to moral
indirterence, ascribed to the Eedeemer only the semblance of a body, and
hence may have regarded a denial of him as of no importance. In this state
of elevation above all positive religious forms, tliey maintained an existence
until late in tlie fourth century."
" 3) Valentiniis," &c. The scheme of Valentine is said to be (p. 78) " a
lofty religion of the spirit, founded on the religion of nature professed among
the heatlien."
After the word " events " (line 5, p. 79) : " in an ascending scale of
forms, possessing a material, ])sychical, and pneumatic nature, in accordance
witli tins mingling of inllucncos, and tlie variable moods of the Sophia."
a) llaer. Kofiit p. 225-244.— Basil, philosoplil gnostlcl sententlae ex IIIppol. libro lllustr. ed. J.
L. Jacohi, Ko^^ioin. 1SJ2.
696 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHUECII.
After tlio word " century," tenth line from the foot of p. 79, continue the
Bciiteiicc : " divided into au Oriental and an Italian school. Tlie former held
that tlie body of the Saviour was pneumatic, because the Holy Ghost over-
t^hadowed Mary ; the latter contended that it must have been psychical, since
tlic higher principle did not come upon him until his baptism. According to
the Iloman account, («) Heracleon and Ptolemaeus belonged to the latter
school, and ascribed to external works no other importance than that of
sensibly expressing our spiritual unity with Christ. The gospel of John has
been very seriously and piously explained by Heracleon, who fully believed
that it corresponded with his views, and sometimes his interpretation is sim-
pler than that of Origcn. (h) Ptolemaeus is &&.d to have regarded the Aeons
which Valentino," &c.
P. 80, after the first line : " Finally, Marcus, who boasted that he had
given a proper direction to this school, has indeed enlarged the number of
Aeons by poetical allegories and a literal application of Pythagorean num-
bers, and has described the universe as an utterance of the Ineffable, or a
gradual decadence of the divine essence ; but the gorgeous system of the
Marcosian worship, with its twofold baptism, its change of wine into blood,
and its attractions for women of eminent talents, gave occasion to scandal
about philters, magic, and juggling, (c)"
4) " Carpocrates,^'' &c. After, "The same was true of," (line 5, p. SlJ :
insert : " the son of Joseph, who carried with him in a pure state through all
earthly things, the recollections of what he had witnessed in a superior
state, and overthrew the law of the mundane spirits."
Additional references to § 79 :
"4) Tertul. adv. Hermogenem. Haeres. Eefut p. 2T3s. Theodofet, Ilaer. fabb. I, 19. comp. Euh.
II ecc. IV, 24.— (?. Boehmer, Herrn. Africanus. Sund. 18-32."
The sentence (p. 81, last line) ending with "concealed," continues: " in a
])ody net formed of earthly materials, but fitted for activity and suffering
among men. (t?)"
Note (Z, p. 79, reads :
" They are the principal topic of Iren. (I, Iss. II, 1. Haer. Eefut 177-91) and of Tertul. (adv. Tiü-
cntinianos), but the reiiresentation ■which tbey give was even then that of Ptolemaeus. Some par-
ticulars in Clement. Orig. in Jo. toin. 13. Epiph. llaer. "Is. Munter, Odae gnosticae, thebaicj et
lat Hafn. 1S12. The Coptic MS. Sophi.a, preserved in the Brit Museum as a trans, of the lost prin-
cipal treatise of Valentine (lat fee. M. G. Schicnrse, ed. Petermann, Ber. 1S51.) is an unimportant
Kter production of the Marcosian i)arty.— Ä Hassel, d. System Val. (Th. Schrr. p. 250ss.)"
At the close of § 79, add : " 4) Hermogenes of Carthage (about 200) came
upon Gnostic ground, only when he taught that the Deity in creation acted
upon the wild chaotic mass from which the world was made, and which was
like himself, eternal, as it were Avith the power of beauty, and thus formed
from it the natural world and mankind ; and that even deformed and wicked
a) Eefut. llaer. p. 105. h} Extracts in Orig. torn, in Ev. Jo. comp. Epiph. haer. 36.
c) Cren. I, 1.3-21. Ilacr. Eofut p. 200. (Scarcely any thing but Extracts from Iren.) Epiph
haer. 34.
d) The Eonian account (llaer. Eefut p. 2.53s.) is confused, since the doctrine of a later Marcionite
named Pre/nin. according tn which the Eedeeiner himself, as tlie Mediator between the good am'
evil principle, was only rcbteous, is made to imply a cliange of views in ^larcion himself Comp
<4ie correct derivation from Cerdon. (Ibid p. 'J.i;!.)
HERMOGENES. EBI0NITE8. IRENAEUS. 697
things now enter into the universal sj-steni as a resisting remnant {iiKoa^ov)^
but will, after the development of all -which is capable of improvement, sink
back into chaotic nothingness. Tertullian vented his wrath against Hermo-
genes by an attack upon the imitative arts, and aU liberal culture in the
Church."
§ 80 is entitled " Gnostic Ebionites," &c.
About the middle of p. 8-1, the sentence beginning, " The Homilies," may
read: " The Homilies were never the creed of the Roman Church, but were
composed or revised in Rome about the middle of the second century, to
reconcile the Jewish Christianity, which was not yet denounced, but was de-
clining there, with" &c. (a)
P. 85, 8th line, after "baptism," read: "and in addition to this, highly
commended circumcision to Jews by birth."
At the close of § 80, add : " At the commencement of the third century,
a book of this sect was brought from Syria to Rome, which claimed to have
come from the hand of a gigantic angel. It required circumcision, but of-
fered pardon for even the most unnatural sins on a second baptism, and was
rejected by the Roman Presbytery. (Ji) Origen knew of this party even in his
day, and speaks of their selection from the law and the gospel, their book
which feU from heaven, and of their new forgiveness of sins, (c)"
P. 85, last line, after " appreciated," read : " but the fantastic nature of
their dogmas, their partial adoption of pagan notions, their high-wrought,
or, sometimes on the contrary, variable system of morals, and the position
which they endeavored to maintain in the Church, {d) or at least their ordi-
nary connection Avith Catholic Christianity, render a judgment respecting
them at the present day on various accounts, a matter of difficulty, (e)"
§ 83 is entitled — " I. The Asiatic-Roman School," and reads : " A Chris-
tian theology was produced especially in the controversy witli the Gnostics,
in which an attempt was made to adhere to the historical basis of Christian-
ity as the common property of all, and to appreheud its practical relations in
a scientific manner. While therefore philosophy was recognized, true Chris-
tianity was looked upon as consisting in the writings and traditions which
had been preserved from the apostolic times, and those things which were
intelligible to the connnon people. Ircnaeus v/as the principal agent in intro-
ducing this scliool to the West. lie was a disciple of Polycarj), and in conse-
quence of the intercourse between Asia and the congregations recently estab-
lished upon the Rhone he became a presbyter in Lyons. During his absence
on a mission to the Roman bishop, Eleutherus, to eftect an accommodation
with the Montanists (177), he escaped the mjissacre under Marcus Aurelius. (/)
The same year, however, ho became the successor of Potliinus, the martyr-
«) According to tho genuine epistle of Clement, the Pastor of Hennas, and tlie writing of Jus-
tin in opposition on tlio one hand, to SdiicegUr, nacliap. Zeita. vol. I. p. -liiiss. nuJ on the other to
Dorner, L. v. d. Person Chr. vol. I. p. Vi6. Comp. Ititachl, altkath. K, p. 253s4 Jlilgenfekl, Evv.
Justins, p. 2'20.
b) Haer. Refut. p. 292ss.
c) In F.tis. II. ecc. VI, 3S.
d) Comp. § (9. Tertul. c. Valent c. 4.
e) E. g. Voplsciis, Vita Saturnini o. •.'. .lu^t. Apol. I. c. 26. /) Ens. II. ecc. V, 4.
698 Ari'KNDlX. AXCIKNT CIIUUCIT.
Mshop of ninety years of ago, and soon restored tlio agitated congregation tc
its former prosperit}^ The only proof of liis own martyrdom (about 202;
consists in some remembrances or wislies which existed at a much later period
in the Frankish Church, (a) The recollections of his youth went back nearly
if not quite, to apostolic times, (h) and he was therefore strenuously opposed
to Gnostic si)oculations and all "attempts to. explore the abyss of Deity, (r)
His confidence in the writings of John was no less than his Aimiliarity Avith
them, .ind we therefore find him using the most glowing imagery of Asiatic
tradition, and maintaining that the Holy Spirit was still poured out upon the
Clmrch, (d) and that the millennial kingdom was near at hand, (e) He was
practically inclined to nothing in Montanism but the moral earnestness which
he found in it, and though he rebuked the assumptions of the Roman bishop.
he was accustomed in the spirit of peace, and in opposition to tliose who
would rend the glorious body of Christ on account of a mere difference in
the mode of apprehending Christian truth, (/) to point the whole West to
the Eoman see (§ 62, nt. e, § 69, nt. 5). His writings were to his people as if
composed in a foreign land, and consequently were but little known among
them ; with respect to their peculiar meaning they soon became to a consider-
able extent foreign to the whole Church, and the principal part of them were
therefore at an early period lost, ((/) The Roman presbyter, Caius, in an elo-
quent dialogue with Proclus, the principal advocate of Montanism at Rome,
presents us with a good representation of that system, and the arguments
urged against it (202-18). (A) "With the moderate feelings of a Roman con-
versant with the trophies of apostolic martyrdoms, this distinguished presby-
ter presumes to reject not only the Phrygian prophecies but the notion of au
earthly millennial kingdom, the authorship of which he transfers from an
apostle to a heretic, (i) Hijrpolytus^ who calls himself a disciple of Jrenaeus,
has left some allegorical explanations principally of the Old Testament, and
some works against heretics, which were regarded as very valuable. (]c) The
nature and style of these writings, as far as the titles and fragments we have,
atFord us the means of judgment, (?) the general acquaintance with them
which the Syrian Church possessed, (?«) and the veneration as a martyr
which was given him at Antioch, indicate that he resided in Asia, but his
statue found near Rome in the old Tiburtine street (1551) with a catalogue
of his writings and the Easter-cycle engraved upon his cathedra, {n) and a
a) Greg. Turon. II. ecc. Franc. I, 29.
h) Ep. ad Florinum : Etcs. H. ecc V, 20. c) Iren. II, 28. 6.
il) Ibid. Ill, 11. 9. e) Ibid. Y, 25-86. /) Ibid. IV, 3-3. 6.
(7) Note b, p. 8S. L. Duncker, d. h. Iren. Cbristol iin Zusammenli. m. dessen tlieol. u. anthrop.
Grundl. Gott. 1843.
h) Eus. n. ecc. II, 25. YI, 20.
i) This sense of Eus. II. ecc. II, 23 can no longer be disputed, since tlic account of Dionrsios
Alex, has been compared with it
A) Phot cod. 121. Eusebius (II. ecc. YI, 22 comp. 23.) thought that the period of his literary ac-
tivity was only just before that of Origen, and from this Jerome (Catal. c CI.) has inferred that h«
exerted a direct influence upon the latter.
S. Hipp. 0pp. cd. J. A. Fabricius, Hamb. lTlG-18. 2 vols. f. Gallandii Bibl. vol. IL
m) Ebedjem in Ansemani Bibl. or. voL III P. 1.
ri) Note g, p. 96. A horrible engraving of it is given in Fabric, vol. I. p. 36, but a better lifho
graph Is before Bunsen's, [Hippolytus and his age, new ed. Lond. 1S54. 2 vols. W. E. Taylor, 111»
pol. & the Chr. Church of the Sd cent Lond. 1SÖ3. 1?.]
A8IATIC-E0MAN SCHOOL. HIPPOLTTUS. 699
Roman festival in which a great annual feast was observed by the people to
his honor in the fourth century, imply that he must have resided in a Roman
territory. Not only does the most ancient testimony favor this Western resi-
dence, but it would seem tliat the Portus Romanus mentioned as his see can
be no other than the Roman harbor opposite Ostia, (a) As he was one of
the most distinguished astionomers of liis day he made the first calculation
of Easter for the West, (h) As was naturally to be expected, the tradition
from Irenaeus through the Roman clergy, if not a moral sympathy with the
Montanistic tendency, produced in such a man a strong partiality for the
Revelation by John, and for a kingdom of Christ at the second advent, though
the time for it was placed far in the future, (c) The work against all here-
sies found in 1842 on Mount Athos ('7), lias been partially and arbitrarily
abridged, and many passages in it have been in various ways corrupted. As
the first book had long been known under the name of the Pholosophumena
of Origen, the whole work was published under the same name, (e) but it
bears unquestionable evidence of having been composed by some distinguished
member of the Roman Presbytery under Zephyrinus and his successors. (/)
The representation of the 32 heresies is to some extent literally borrowed
from Irenaeus, with the omission merely of declamatory expressions, but it is
also enlarged by accounts from original documents. The heresies themselves
are traced to the philosophy of the Greeks, to the systems of magic, and to
the ancient mysteries ; they are assigned to these philosophical schools in a
rather violent manner, and these schools are described so as to favor such a
division. The whole is pervaded by moral seriousness in contrast with an
easy submission to Oallistus, the Roman bishop, who is described as the
l)atron of all heretics (§ 62). The authorship of it must be referred to either
Caius or Hippolytus, and as it contains nothing which reminds us of the po»
lemics of the first ; as the writer acknowledges himself the author of a
work on the Universe, (g) which on the cathedra is ascribed to Ilippolytus,
and as no witnesses speak of a treatise against all heresies except by him, (A)
a) Peter, the Metropolitan of Alexandria about 30G, in the Prooemium of the Chron. paschnle p. 12 :
^wiffKOiros riopToi» ■K\-t)T'i.ov TTJs 'PüJ/u7)y. E. J. A'immel, do Hipp, vita et seriptis. Jen. 1S39. P. I.
L. F. ^V. Seinecke, Leben u. Schrr. d. U. (Zeltsch f. hl»t. Th. 18-12. IL 3.) On the other hand : since
Le Moyna lias written imich in favor of Portus Koin. in Arabia, now Aden ; C. F. ITaenell (de
Hipp. Gott 1834. 4.) is in favor of Hostra, in consequence of a misunderstanding of iicravTuis
In A'lis. II. ecc. VI, 20. Comp. Dornet; Lcliro v. d. Person Clir. L p. 604s8.
h) Canon paj^chalis, a cycle of IG years seven times repeated from tlio year 222, in the treatise
'A7rd56i|is Xf"^""^" '''Ol' nairxu.
c) On the Cathedra: "Xi^fp rov Kara 'IwävvT)!' euayyfXiov Kut airoKa\v\pfui. Perhapsalso:
riepl xa.pKTfj.artiiv awocrr. irapaSoffts, belongs here. Tltpl 'AvTixp^cfTov Is preserved in: FahHc.
vol. I. p. 4ss. In Ehedjesu ; Kt(pa\äia trpus rdioy.
d) In the context rejrularly : 6 Kara iraaOiv alpfafuv i\iyxof.
e) Origenis Philosophumena s. omnium Haoresiuin Kefutatio. K. cod. Parlsino ed. i'mrnonwe;
Miller, Oxon. 1S51. The 1st Book is from the works of Orig, the 2d A 3d are wanting, and the lOtb
& without tlio conclusion.
/) Prooom. p. 3. 1. IX. p. 2T9. 235. 289.
g) p. .334: l\fp\ TTJs rov iraj'Tbj oualas. Photius alono mentions Calus as the writer, on the
authority of a gloss uncertain to himself.
/() Etis. II. ecc. VI, 22. X\po% anäaa.% xav ai'pf'iTfis, in like manner Jerome; on the calliedra it
was perhaps intentionally omitted.
TOO APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHURCH.
the question must be decided in his favor. («) Tljo earlier or even contem-
poraneous see of a neighboring bishop within the bounds of the Roman i)reä'
bytery is consistent with, and explains the more recent ecclesiastical order
As Ilippolytus on the one hand refers the Roman oi)ponent3 of the essential
divinity of Christ to the authority of the Holy Ghost in the Scriptures, and
replies to their objection that this doctrine was an innovation, by appealing
to well-established Roman traditions ; (h) so, on the other hand, he announced
the mysteries of Christ's human Godhead in lofty parables, in opposition to
those who exalted this divine nature until the pre-existent personality of
Christ was destroyed, (c) Prudentius has sung (d) the martyrdom of an Hip-
polytus, whom he calls a much esteemed Novatian presbyter, and who, in
prospect of death, returned to the Catholic Church, and says that after his
execution near the mouth of the Tiber, his remains were conveyed to the
Roman catacombs, and that afterwards a stately chapel Avas erected to him
on the spot where his statue had been found. Ilippolytus could hardly have
lived to witness the Novatian schism, and the last historical notice of him
mentions his transportation with the Roman bishop to Sardinia, where con-
demned persons were doomed to die (236) ; (e) but it is very possible that
this member of the Roman clergy who was so learned in the Scriptures, and
who was so unsparing in his treatment of a Roman bishop, asserted princi-
ples which were afterwards called Novatian, and was therefore regarded as
belonging to that schism, and yet that his reputation in the congregation at
Rome as an author and a martyr was justified by the legend of his return to
the Church. Julius Africanus also appears to have had an Asiatic educa-
tion, to have resided and been highly esteemed in the ancient Emmaus (Nico-
polis), and to have been a friend of Origen, though more advanced in age (d.
about 232), He attempted to harmonize the history of the world as given in
the Scriptures, especially in its chronology, Avith the researches of Greek
writers, and from his epistles he appears to have been a liberal critic of the
sacred history, and yet to have defended its essential facts against the attacks
of still bolder assailants. (/) In this tendency we perceive the germs of a
new school of Scriptural learning."
The next section is entitled — " II. The Roman African School," and com-
mences thus : " The only literature which the Latin Church possessed," &c.
a) J. L. Jacobi in the Deutsch. Zeitsch. f. chr. Wiss. 1851. N. 25ss. £. C. J. Bumen, Hipp. n. s.
Zeit Lps. 1S52. vol. I. On the other hand iu favor of Caius : Feasler in the Tub. th. Qaartalsch. 1S52.
p. 299SS. Baur in the th. Jahrbb. 1S53. H. 1.
b) In the fiiKphi Aaßvpiväo-; {Kara rris 'ApTfuwvos alpeffeuT Aoyot) which the ■writer of
the treatise on the Universe (nt. ff, last p.) quotes as his own work, and from which the passages in
.£■««. H. ecc V, 2S. are probably taken. Comp. Theod. Ilaer. fabb. II, 5. Kiceph. H. ecc. IV, 21. On
the other hand : Plwi. cod. 4S. as the work of Caius.
f) ripbs NofiToi/. (Fabric, vol. II. p. 5ss.) d) Peristeph. hym. 11.
e) In the Catalogns Liberianus of 321, and in the Liber pontiflcalis; see Its newly discovered text
In Bunson, p. 156s. The fact that some one of the name of Ilippolytus bore a message or epistle*
from Dionysius of Alex, is the only reason for supposing that his life was protracted longer.
.0 XP'^^oypa^iSiv irivTe (TTrouSoffyuaTo (preserved only in Eusebius' chronicle). 'ETrttrT. irtfi
TTjs Kara Sourroi'vai' tfrropiar, with an apologetical answer in Origen. 'En-tiTT. irphs 'ApicrTfiSr]i'
Harmony of the Genealogies of Jesus. Eits. H. ecc. I, 7. VI, 31. ITl6>: Cat. c. 63. Roiith, ßellq
!aer. vol. II.
ROMAN-AFRICAN SCHOOL. TERTULLIAN. CYPRIAN. 701
After " Rome," 4th line from the foot of p. 88 : " was amply educated in
Greek general learning," — and it is said : "his wit was sometimes very natu-
ral but sometimes far-fetched," — and " he supplied the African Church with
the watch-word that Christ calls himself the truth, not usage." (a)
The 11th line on p. 89 continues thus : " The Montanistic spirit is percep-
tible in them all, but in the earliest of them it holds up the simple noble na-
ture of Christian morality in opposition merely to an effeminate form of civi-
lization, gradually it proceeds to still severer demands, and shows an increas-
ing consciousness of its pneumatic nature in opposition to those who were
merely psychical Christians, (I) and finally it was especially hostile to the
Eomish Church, in proportion as the latter ceased to favor Montanism. For
it was not so much Tertullian as the Roman bishop who changed his views (c)
with reference to that sj'stem, and wo need not be surprised that a liberality
like that which sprung up under Zephyrinus, and an act of pardon like that
which Callistus proclaimed for all who had been expelled for licentious con-
duct, should have made this church in the eyes of the stern disciplinarian
worse than a den of robbers, (d) And yet the West continued so tolerant
toward Montanism that a number of female martyrs adhering to that system
have been canonized in the African Church, (c) and Tertullian, to wliom the
Paraclete was rather a restorer of apostolical order than an innovator, and
religious ecstasy was rather a theory than a principle, became so prominent,
that he was looked upon as the model for the Latin theology. This theology
was then disinclined to any philosophical theories respecting divine things ;
it spoke of Athens and the Academy as irreconcilable with Jerusalem and
the Church, and turned its whole attention to questions respecting the con-
dition of the Church, and things essential to salvation. A congregation 'of
Tertullianists in Carthage could have had nothing but a local importance, and
reunited with the Catholic Church in the time of Augustine. (/) Thascius
Caecilius Cyprianus may be regarded as the personal representative of the
Catholic Church in his day. (g) Having enjoyed," &c.
After " assistance," p. 90, 8th lino from the bottom : " and to encourage
others to a similar course he extolled such acts as an expiation for all the sins
of believers." (A)
Instead of the sentence beginning " Cyprian had now become," p. 91, line
7th, read : " Cyprian was now pledged to die a martyr's death," (z) — and at
the close of § 84, p. 91, add: ''Both leaders in the African Church died in
the assurance that they would soon bo raised again from the dead by the
a) De vlrgg. vel. c. 1.
h) De poenit. c. Tss. comp. Ue pudic c. 1. comp. 16. Ad u.tor. I, 8. comp, de fug» In persecut — D«
virgg. vel. c. Is.
c) Note c, p. 69.
(/) The cdictiim peremtorlutn Tert do pud. c. 1. has now its complete explanation : (Orig.) Haer
Rcfiit 1. IX. p. 2yos.
e) Note/ p. 89. /) Ang. haer. IC.
g) Vita Cypr. per Pontiiim, ejus Diaconum (Cypr. 0pp.) Among the Actis Martyrii arc tlic two
elder beginning: Cum Cypr. and Imp. Valeriano.— ,/. Pearson, Annales Cyprianlci, before Fell's cdi
tlon. F. W. Rettberg, Cypr. nach s. Leben u. Wirken. Gott. 1S31. Rudelbach, ehr. Biographie. Lps
1850. vol. I. 1.
h) De Opore et Eleeinosynis (251.) ») De cxliurtat. nnrtyril ('252).
702 APPENDIX. ANCIKNT CHUPvCn.
voice of their returning Savior, but Tertnllian's views were more ardent and
fanciful, since his eye was fixed upon a kingdom of intellectual and spiritual
blessing-* indeed, but a kingdom where every thing which believers lost or de-
spised in the i)rescnt life would be recompensed by terrestrial enjoy
ments." ('/)
The next section is entitled " III. The School of Alexandria," and in-
cludes the two following sections.
After the third sentence of the section read: '•'■ Athenngoras the Apolo-
gist (p. 51), who ventured to invoke philosophy to the defence of the doc-
trine of the resurrection, (5) is regarded as the founder of this school."
The sentence near the middle of p. 92, commencing " His superior," «S:c.,
is altered thus : — " The works of Clement were alone capable of assisting his
higher development, nothing but his position as a teacher took him to the
school of Aramonius Saccas, and he never was concerned m transmitting the
New-platonic traditions with a rank equal to that of Plotinus himself." (c)
The sentence ending with the word " traditions," p. 93, 4th line from bot-
tom, continues thus : " and is conditioned by an exaltation above aU mutable
interests."
To the section closing on p. 95, add : — " Ilis zeal in this respect was ex-
ceeded by Ilicracas^ whose contemporaries had not yet learned to regard
such views as heretical. This founder of an ascetic association near Leonto-
polis, was the means of exciting a high degree of literary activity, the re-
sults of which have been entirely lost. He wrote in the Coptic popular lan-
guage, and taught that the Fall of the soul was the direct result of its efforts
to free itself from corporeality. He thought that the only distinction be-
tween the old and the new law consisted in the prohibition of marriage by
tlie latter. To his allegorical explanations of the Scriptures belongs his incar-
nation of the Holy Ghost in Melchizedek. There was nothing repugnant or
hopeless to the Alexandrian doctrine of freedom in his denial of salvation to
children even when baptized." {<!)
After the word " churches," line 10, p. 97 : " 1) Gospels of the Child-
hood, the Passion, and the Resurrection of Jesus, (e) 2) Acts of the Apos-
tles^ especially of Peter, and an account of the unknown fortunes of the
twelve, filled with fanciful stories of their miracles. (/) 3) The Clementine
IlomiUcs contain the controversial discourses of Peter, especially with Simon
Magus, which, in opposition to the many internal and external parties col-
a) Tertul. do orat. c. 5. Adv. Marc. Ill, 24. (De spe fiilelium is lost) Cypr. de e.xhort mart, c
1. De mortalit. c. 2. Do unit Ecc. c. 16.
h) rifpi avaffriaiois twv viKpwv, ed. Rechenherg, Lps. 1GS5.
c) Only the former assertion follows from Origen's Epistle in Eits. H. ecc. VI, 19. and the othei
must rest upon the authority of Porphyry, (Vita Plotini c. 2ss.) who certainly knew this father in his
youth, and upon that of Longinus, who may be styled another Origen among the heathen. Note c,
p. 92. R. T. Schmidt, Orig. des Neu-Platonikers Schrift uri ixhvoi noirjTris b BatriXeus. (Stud. u.
Krit. 1S42. II. 1.)
d) Kpi/th. haer. 67.
c) K. I/ase, Leben Jesu. § 11. Also, Evv. apocrypha ed. C Tischendorf, Lps. 1S53.
/) Note c, p. 97. Fragmm. Actuum S. Jo., ed. Thilo, Hal. 1847. Acta App. apocr. ex XXX. cdd.
graec. ed. Tischendorf, Lps. 1S51.— Kripuy^ua, npa^fis, 'ATroKa\i;>(/is Tiirpov. Eus. IL ecc. III, a
Credner, Beitrr. vol. I. p. 85lss.
APOCRYPHAL LITEPvATURE. 703
lected at Eome about the -middle of the second century, endeavored to recon-
cile the various tendencies in the Church on the basis of a peculiarly colored
Jewish Christianity, and -were mingled with the romance of Clement. («)
Tlie continued embellishment of this story, but with a still further removal
of the doctrine into the background, and with a greater approximation to
the popular faith of the Catholics, is found in the liecognitions {uvayvaxreii)^
translated by Rufinus. (h) In the first half of this work, reference is made
to another composition from Palestine, probably The Preaching of Peter
{KYjpvyfxa), of which Peter was the hero. Of the two epistles to James pre-
fixed to the Homilies, the first was written in the name of Peter, and the
other in the name of Clement, but in coinjiliance witli Peter's last directions
It is not yet quite clear whether the Catholic Church attempted to make use
of the historical portions of the fictitious Homilies by means of the Eecog-
nitions, (c) or whether the llomilies were formed from the Recognitions for
party purposes, or whether both were not independently formed out of a
still older work, {d) In their confused references to the consular and first
bishop of Rome, both evidentl}' claim to be the comjjosition of Clement, who
sprung from the imperial family, and after many unsuccessful philosophical
inquiries after truth, found not only peace, but the lost members of his family
in Peter's church. 4) Jewish imitations of earlier prophetic visions were
sometimes used by Christians with their own interpretation, and sometimes
were imitated by them, in many cases Avith a meaning hardly reconcilable
with Christianity, and in others to complete the Messianic prophecies by facts
from the life of Jesus, {c) Thus the Ascension of Isaiah mingles together
Jewish- Christian and heretical elements in its two principal parts ; the Be-
loved one descends from the seventh heaven to accomplish in human form his
work on earth, and the prophet ascends that he may behold the future course
of the Messiah's kingdom, until the final judgment and the glories of the
divine Father, and dies under the saw, for and according to his own
prophecy. {/) The l\stamcn(s of the Twelve Patricnrfis contain the moral
exhortations of the sons of Jacob on their dying beds to the Jewish nation.
The work professes to have come from a period before the Mosaic law, and
to contain prophecies of a Christ from the tribes of Levi and Judah, the
High Priest and the King of an everlasting kingdom. ({/) Its fundamental
principles indicate that it was written by a native Jew of the second century,
(i) Ta KAT}U€«/Tia, KAi7/ue»'T0j, tÜu Ufrpov twihifxtwv KripuynaTuv ivirofxri. After tUo
editt. by Cottlirius (Patres ajip.) aiul Gallaiiiii: Clem. Itomaiii quae feriintur Iloiniliao, rccogn. A.
Sc/iweyler, Stiitl;:. 1S47.
h) After the editt by Cotelcrliis ami Gallamli: S. Ck'iii. Horn. P.ocogiiitioncs Kufmo iiitcriirt'te,
cur. £. G. Oerndor/, Lps. iSSS.
c) J). V. Colin. Cleiiiciitina in d. IIoII. Eiicykl. vo). XVIII. p. 8Gs.s. A. SMUmanti, d. Cleincn-
Uiicn nebst den verwandten Sclirr. u. d. Ebionitisin. llanib. 1S44. nt c, p. 84.
d) A. lliliievfebl, d. Clem. Rec»!.'. u. Iloniilleii, nacli Urspr. u. Inhalt Jena. 1S4S. liitsM, alt-
kath. K. p. 153>.s. (making the Kery^'ina nsainst Uasilides about 120, the Recoijnilions ngain.st Valon-
tiiio about 140. and the llomilies iijrainst Marciim about 160.) Comp. Uihjenf. d. Kvv. Just p. 307s8,
(who makes the i;eco;:n. oriirinal only in .^ubstaiice.)
e) Note (/. p. 97. /) Ibid, last part
(?) Ibid. Fahr. Cod. ii?oU(I. vol. I. p. 400ss.— .<. Kiii/ser, d. Te.-t. d. IJ Putr. (Slrassb. Deitrr. Jena.
1361. U. 3.)
704 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHUKCH.
but by ono wbo liuiiibly submitted to the counsel of Jehovah, and recognized
in tbo last npostlo of tbe tribe of Benjamin a chosen instrument of Provi-
dence, (ii) 5) The lost prophecies ascribed to Ilystaspes, an ancient Persian
eeer, gave the Asiatic Christians a native prophet of the Messiah, (h) 6) "When
the Hellenistic Jews appropriated to their own use the prophetic voice of
nature, mythically personified among the heathen in the Sibyls, many Chris-
tian Sibyllists arose to express in this poetic form the confidence they felt in
the ultimate victory of their cause, and their wrath toward evil men ; and
the Christian apologists appealed to these divinely inspired voices of pagan-
ism as witnesses among the heathen themselves of equal rank with the Scrip-
tural prophecies. The eight books of the Sibylline Oracles, gradually collected
after the second century, contain a heterogeneous mixture of heathen, Jew-
ish, and Christian poems, the Christian commencing soon after the eruption
of Vesuvius (79), and throwing out fresh shoots until some time in the fifth
century, (c)"
§ 90 is entitled " The Son of God," and additional references for it are :
"Ji A. Dorner, Entwicklngsgesch. d. L. v. d. Person Chr. vol. I. Is on the first 4 centt Stuttg"
(1889). 1845. {irase) Chr. Dogm. p. 201ss. 513ss."
In the sentence beginning " According to," the little regard for the Holy
Ghost is qualified by the clause " except among the Montanists."
The sentence near the middle of p, 99, closing with the word " Tertul-
lian," continues : " who reproached him with having performed two of the
devil's works in Rome, viz., driving away the Paraclete, and crucifying the
Father. But Theodotus the Tanner, who came about the same time from By-
zantium to Rome, excused his denial of Christ by saying that he only denied
a man, and he was driven from the Church by Victor. Theodotus, the
money-broker, honored Melchizedek, a heavenly Redeemer, more than the
earthly. Koetus of Smyrna, and probably a presbyter of Ephesus, was ex-
cluded from his church (about 200) as a Patripassian, notwithstanding his
denial of the charge, and the charge itself is to be explained only on the
ground that he held to the second kind of Monarchianism, But as Praxeas
was favored by Victor, {d) the doctrine of Noetus, which was propagated in
Rome by Cleomenes, was favored by the bishop Zephyrinus under the in-
fluence of Callistus, who regarded the Son as only a human manifestation of
the Father by the divine Spirit in Christ, so that the Father as such did not
sutfer, except in connection with the Son. Callistus called those presbyters
who resisted him Ditheists (Si'Seot), and they retorted against their bishop
that the heresy of the Callistines originated with the principle of Ileraclitus,
according to which every thing may be its opposite, {e) The party of the
first Theodotus was distinguished for secular learning, treated the Scriptures
as merely human producticms, and was powerful enough to elevate a confes-
sor to the episcopal see. It was not long, however, before their bishop was
o) Test Benjamin c. 11. b) Note f, p. 97.
c) Note/, p. 97. C. Alexander, Par. 1841. 2 vols. Friedlieb, Lps, 1852.— /tie?, de edd. SlbylL
inss. in usum nondum adhibitis. Vrat 1847.
d) Terlul. adv. Pras. c .5,3. e) {Origen. nacres. P.efutat p. 279s9.)
8ÜB0ED1NATI0NISTS. ECCLES. LITERATURE. 70c
attacked in the night by divine or episcopal emissaries, and compelled to ab-
dicate at the feet of Zephyrinus, and Artemony who maintained that the doc-
trine which tlie ai)0stle3 had preached, and which had always prevailed in
Rome, was that the Son of the Virgin was superior to all other men, merely
on account of his righteousness, and that this had been corrupted first under
Zephyrinus, was exconmiunicated. («) Tlius these three contradictory opin-
ions were then (218-23) openly maintained at Rome, but the merely human
view had been already condenmed, and its opposite extreme was represented
by a bishop Avhose reputation had been tarnished. In Arabia the bishops
took decided ground against their colleague Beryllus of Bostra, who de-
nied," «&c.
The sixth sentence of § 92 reads : " All these wrote on the same stand-
point as Eusebius, in the spirit of the dominant Church." It is said that
^'•Philostorgius found and honored the Catholic Church in the vanquished
party," — that " Evagrim was mild in his general judgments, but in his par-
ticular application passionate for orthodoxy," — and that " of the 5 last books
of Niceiih. CallUt. nothing now remains but the table of contents."
To the references for Chap. I. p. 103, add :
" E. Chastel, Hist de la destruction du paganisme dans remiiire d'orient. Par. 1S50."
For § 93 :
" J. Burckfuirdt, d. Zeit Const d. Gr. Basel. 1853."
Near the middle of p. 103 : " the consulting of oracles as well as the of-
fering of sacrifices was prohibited, but ineftectually," — and " the emperor
stamped upon his coins not only the emblems of Christ but of Apollo."
For § 94 an additional reference is made to
" F. Strauss, dor Romantiker a. d. Tlirone o. Julian d. Abtr. Manli. 1347."
And for § 98 to
" Ifefele d. Akten d. ersten allg. Syn. zu Nie. (Tli. Quartalscli. ISjI. II. 1.) Ibid. Entstell, u. Cha-
rakterist d. Arian. (Ibid. H. 2.) "
To the second sentence of § 102 it is added, that Arius thought the Son
of God " miglit also be adored as God."
Substitute for the word "question," after tlie middle of p. 112: "matter
which threatened to tliwart his two great aims, the uuity of the Church, and
of the empire."
It is said (p. 114) that Aetius and Eunomins "denied that Christ pos-
sessed any tinderived divine nature," — in § 104, that Marcellus " declared that
the Logos was the eternal wisdom of God, and manifested itself as the power
which created the world, but did not become the only begotten Son of God
until the Incarnation," &c. — and that his deposition was " at Constantinople."
In the first sentence of paragraph 3d, p. 115, instead of " a sensuous na-
ture," read : " the mere incarnation of the Logos."
The sentences at the top of p. 117 are changed, and read : " The whole
theological literature was under the direction of two schools ; that of Alex-
o) JCus. II. occ. V, 23.
46
70b APPENDIX. ANCIENT CnUECIf.
andria, witli tlic new tendency which it received during tlie ecclesiasticaj
controversies, and that which had recently 8[)rung up at Antioch. In tha
former i)reviiiled an earnest etlbrt to comprehend in one the finite and the
infinite, an allegorical mode of interpretation, the general spirit of Origen,
though " &c. From the Alexandrian school proceeded " none but the repre-
sentatives of the theology which had then become ascendant in the Church."
Athanasius (middle of p. 117) "was full of wrath against all who wished
to rend the indivisible coat of Christ." — Basil the Great was " the admirer
of Libanius as weU as of St. Anthony." — Synesius (2d sentence in § 107)
" was powerfully impressed by the principles of Christianity, but remained a
faithful disciple of Ilypatia."
For the first word of § 108, read " Many."
Add to the references for " III. The Pelagian Controversy."
" Jb. Geffcken, Hist, semipelagianistni antiquiss. (till 434.) Gott. 1S26. 4. J. G. Voigt. De tbeoria
Augustiniana, Semipel. et Synergist. Goett. 1S29. LenUen, de Pelagianor. doctr. principiis. Colon.
1S33. J. L. Jaaobi, d. L. d. Pel. Lps. 1S42."
To those for § 110 :
'^ Foujöuhit, Hist, de S. Aug. Uebers. v. Ilurter. Scbaffh. lS45ss. 2 vols."
§§•111 and 112 are arranged in one section, and entitled : " Augustinism
and Semipelagianism."
Nestorius (p. 126, after " orthodoxy ") " attacked the honor paid to a
mother of God as a new paganism."
After " epistle " (4th line, p. 128) : " Christ is o?ie person, in his divinity
eternally from the Father, in his humanity from the virgin mother of God,
with ttco natures, inseparable but without confusion," «Sec.
§§ 121 and 122 are united and entitled : " The Eoman Empire."
Before the last sentence of § 122 : " For although in the East the emperor
himself was looked upon as invested with a kind of sacerdotal character, the
people regarded it " &c.
After the first sentence of § 123 : " It took from slavery its confidence in
its own equity, and every act of manumission was encouraged by the Church
as a work of piety : but, on the other hand, those Avho refused to acknowl-
edge the owners of slaves as Christians were rejected, slaves were admonished
to render obedience for God's sake, and masters to regard their slaves as
brethren redeemed by the same price as themselves." (a)
After " protection " (line 8, p. 138) : " Laws were enacted to sustain the
sacredness of marriage, but the old Roman penal laws against coelibacy were
abolished even in the time of Constantine."
The sentences at the foot of p. 139 should read : " Institutions of benevo-
lence of every kind to mitigate the miseries of a gradually decaying social
condition originated in the Church. (&) Its wealth contributed to its power
«) Greff. M. Ep. Xl. 12. Chrysost. ad Philem. (vol. II. p. 773.) Hier, ad Marcel. Ep. 10.— Cone
Gangr. cau. Z.—Xeander, Denkw. vol. II. p. 153ss. [Memorials of Chr. Life, transl. by liylanJ,
Lond. 1S52. p. 3o5.] Moehler, Aufbeb. d. Sklav. durch d. Christenth. in d. ersten 15 Jbb. (Tub. Quar-
talscb 1S34. II. 1.)
h) E. Cha^t'.:, Ktulos hist, siir rinSuenco de l.i cbaric; durunt les premiers siec'.es cli rot. Par. IS.'iS
SARDICA. CHARITIES. HERMITS. 707
and freedom. The management of its funds was under the superintendence
of the bishop through a steward (oIkovoiios), the distribution — " &c.
The application of the 2d sentence in § 126, should be limited to " the
East."
The sentence beginning in the 6th line from the foot of p. 140 should com-
mence : " In the fourth century female presbyters disappear, (a) and the ordi-
nation of deaconesses," &c.
The sentence before the last on p. 142 should read : " On account of these
divisions the council of Sardica (347) committed to Julius, Bishop of Rome,
a judicial cognizance of tbe reception of appeals in the case of bishops. But
when this decree was presented to the African Church as a regulation coming
from the Nicaean Synod, it refused obedience, and threatened every one who
should appeal to any ecclesiastical authority beyond the sea." (b)
Before " Synods " in line 2d, p. 143, insert " first." ,
In the last sentence on p. 145, Gregory is said to have improved Church
music " by simplifying its style, and by his school."
After " charms " in the last line of p. 147 : " the Church contended con-
tinually against superstitions derived from paganism, but unconscious of their
origin." (c)
Before " The Church," line 10th, p. 148 : " The Christian duty of bene-
ficence which was even then performed with a munificent generosity, was
enforced by preachers on communistic principles, appealing to the avarice of
men." (tJ) After " Spirit," a few sentences beyond : " and even the old idea of
the millennial kingdom had to yield to the interpretation, that it meant ouly
the spiritual influence of the gospel." (e)
The 2d sentence of § 134 reads : " The necessity of some fellowship
brought the hermits together in a community of neighboring huts (XaCpa).''''
Instead of " Amun in the desert of Nitra " in the next sentence, insert :
" Macarius in the Sketic desert." (/)
The date near the foot of p. 150 should be " 422."
" Add to the sentence ending on line 7, p. 152 : " and in the African
Church offerings for the dead were laid upon their graves," (g) — and to the
last sentence of the same section: " seeking edification from the vestiges of
past ages." (h)
Add to the references for § 139 :
" A. Z. Zentennann. die antiken u. chr. Basiliken. Lps. 1S47. J. Kreuaei; d. clir. KBaii, s. GcscK.
Symbolik, BiMnerei. Bonn. 1S51. 2 vols.—/'. Kurier, IIB. d. Gesch. d. Malerei s. Coiistintin. 2 cd.
Brl. 1S47. vol. I. p. 1-107."
a) Conv. Laodic. can. 11.
b) Cone. Afric. Ep. ad. Bonlf. {Comtant, p. 1013s.) Cone. Jfilevit, can. 22. {Codex cann. Eec.
Afrio. 0. 23.
c) Syn. Trull, c. CI. 62. C5. Comp. Ohaatel^ Destnict. du Pagan, p. 309ss.
d) Chryoost. IIoiii. in Act, XL 2-t (0pp. vol. IX. p. 93.)
e) Aug. De civ. Del XX, 4s9.
/) Jfacarii Aepyptii Epp., Ilomill.irnin loci, preccs, cd. /T. J. Floss, Col. 1S50. Comp. Tischen-
dorf, Reise In d. Or. vol. I, p. 119s.
ff) Aug. Confess. VI, 2.
/i) Already £i<s. VI, 11.— Itinernriiun Ilierosolyniit.innm, a. 533.— t/! If. Heidegger, de peregrlna-
ännib, rol. Tiir. 1070. liuhimon, Palestine, vol. II. p. 20Sss.
708 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHURCH.
Tho last clause of the 2cl senfence in this section is limited to " the "West*
ern Church."
Before the last clause of the 3(1 sentence, insert : " the central portion
elevated about the height of the windows above the side aisles," «fee.
Before the last clause of the 5th sentence insert : " where monuments
Avere usually erected," &c.
A few sentences after, " the Roman temple-form," should read : " built in
the form of the Rotunda for temples and baths."
After " Salvator^'' line 2, p. 156 : "surrounded with emblems of the sal-
vation of man, and in the midst of the apostles, whose countenances were
serious and dignified, and whose persons were in the ancient Roman costume.
In the seventh century, however, this style ceased to be popular, for then a
general decline took place in all the arts, and the Byzantine style which origi-
nated in Constantinople, and showed a sympathy with this corruption, pre-
vailed with its inherited skilfulness, but its complete want of nature."
After " chosen " in line 7th, p. 156, the sentence continues : " and Chris-
tian and pagan symbols were mingled together, especially in the reliefs of the
sarcophagi." {a)
After the 1st sentence of § 142 : " At its foundation lay also the question
which had then become so prominent, whether the whole influence of the
priesthood was derived from the personal character of its members, or from
the general grace communicated through their order."
The first sentence of § 143 : " Audius (Udo) broke oflT from the Church
in Mesopotamia because it would not listen to the exhortations to repentance
which the zealous layman gave it," &c.
After the last sentence in § 143 : " A class of persons who arrogantly
called themselves Apostolical» (also 'ATrorawtKoi'), from their little corner in
Asia Minor claimed to be the only true Church, and held out no hope to
those who possessed property or lived in marriage. They agreed substantially
with the tendency which proceeded from EustatTiins^ the honored Bishop of
Sebaste, according to which there was no special merit in martyrdom, which
proudly or restlessly separated from the great Church, and were finally cut
ofl: from it at the Synod of Gangra (between 362 and 370)."
An additional reference for § 144 :
" ^i/>^. haer. 52. August. 'hh^r.ZV
After the 1st sentence of § 144: "Their worship reminds one of the
Adamites, who were followers of a pupil of Carpocrates, and were first men«
tioned during the last part of the fourth century, under the imputation, by
common report, of wishing in their grotto churches to bring back a state of
paradisiac innocence, by means of a paradisiac style of dress. They there
fore rejected all relations founded upon distinctions of sex. The condemna
tion of the Priscillianists was obtained at the synod." &c.
After " letters " in 2d line of § 147 : " and in the modern legislation."
In the middle of p. 164 : " Thor is the god of thunder who overcomes
a) Piper, Gesch. d. Osterfestes. (Berl. lSi5.) vol. I. p. S8. 7:s3.
THOR. THE GERMANS. SPANISH CHRISTIANS. 709
winter and all the powers of nature hostile io man, and is the hero who is
especially the friend of the people."
After " unmolested," line 4th, p. 166 : " The conquerors revered a saint
lilxC Severimts (d. about 481) of unlinown origin, who, without oflScial dig-
nity, but claiming to act by the divine command, with an extensive spirit-
ual influence, ameliorated the miseries of the national migrations in the
countries along tlie Danube. The German — " &c.
After " sect," in the last sentence of § 153 : " some sought martyrdom
by reviling Mohammed, others despaired of Christ," &c.
INDEX.
Aargau, Convents in, 646.
Abel Ministry, 5T3, 653.
Abelard, 241, 333.
Abderrhaman, 16S.
Abgarus, 35.
Abraham a St. Clara, 5203.
Abraxas, 78, 695.
Absalon of Eoesbilde, 249.
Abubekr, 110.
Abyssinia, 103.
Acacius, 114, 12S.
Academy, Platonic, 17, 323.
Acbamoth, 79.
Acta Apostolorum, 97.
Adelbert of Bremen, 214; of
Mentz, 185, 199; of Prague,
250.
Adamites, 70S.
Adiaphoristic Controv., 397, 405,
409.
Adoptionists, ISO.
Advent, 154 ; Second, 40, 94.
Advocatia, 216.
Aegidius of Viterbo, 234.
Aelia Capitolina, 42.
Aelianus, 47. ,
Aeneas Sylvius, 2S0s.
Aeons, 76ss.
Aerius, 159.
Aetius, 114, 705.
Aft're, Archbishop, 628.
African Churches, 62, 610.
Agabus, 33.
Agapae, 41, 153.
Agatho, 132.
Agenda Controv., 5G7s.
Agnes, St, 152.
Agobard of Lyons, 233.
Agonistici, Circumcellix)nes, 153.
Asricola, 397, 403.
Agrippa, 25.
'AKfcpaKoi, 128.
Albanians, .356.
Albericus, 183.
Albert of Bmndenbursr, 375 ;
of Mentz, 363, 372, 392; of
Itiga, 251 ; of Strasbourg, 264.
Albert Diirer, 306, 445.
Albertinus Mussatus, 264.
Albertus Magnus, 320.
Albigwisian War, 255s.
Albornoz, 274.
Alcuin, 179, 130.
Aloander, 371.
Alexander Severns, 46.
Alexander of Alexandria, 112;
of Hales, 320; of Eussia, 667,
681.
Alexander IL. 192; III., 202s.,
214, 216; v., 276; VI., 232,
853; YIL, 512, 517; VilL,
513.
Alexandria, Bishopric, 61, 141.
Alexandrian Theology, 91ss.
Alexandrian and Antiochian
schools, 117, 126, 706.
Alexiani, 318.
Alexias Coranenus, 262.
Alfadur, 165.
Alfred the Great, 234.
Algiers, 664.
Allegri Gregorio, 465.
Allemand of Aries, 280.
Alliance Evang., 592 ; German,
605; German Diet, 574; Ho-
ly, 681s.
All Saints, 154.
All Souls, 224
Alogi, 99.
Alombrados, 519s.
Altar, 69.
Altenburg, 865, 563.
Altenstein, Minister, 566.
Altorf. Socinians, 4-S5.
A 1 varus Pelagius, 34.3.
Alzog, 12.
Amalrich of Bena, 840.
Ambrosius, 118, 133, 153, 159.
America, 338, 475 ; North, 601ss.
664.
Ammianus Marccllinus, 102.
Ammonius Saccas, 43.
Ampulla Sacra, 166, 625.
Amsdorf, 380, 392, 406s.
Amyrald, 490.
Anabaptism, 70, 90.
Anabaptists, 431s. 610.
Ananus, 26.
Anastasius, 128, 132.
Anathematisnis, 12Ö.
Anderson, 418.
Andraea Jac, 409 ; J. VaL, 449.
Andronicus, 354.
Angel Brethren, 50S.
Angela of Brescia, 463.
xVngelica of Port Royal, 5173.
Angelico of Fiesole, 305.
Angels, "Worship of, 152.
Angelus Silesius, 52'.).
Anglican Church, 421a., 442, 497a_
5933.
Anglo-Saxons, 167. 172.
Anhalt, 413.
Anna Lee, 576.
Annegarn, 12.
Anomians, 114.
Ansegisus, 209.
Anselm Cantab., 195, 239; of
Laon, Glosses, 243.
Ansgar, 245.
An.spach, Gen. Synod, 574.
Anthimus, 129.
Anthropomorphites, 121, 153.
Antidicomarianites, 152.
Antinomian Controv., 402s.
Antioch, Bishopric, 61.
Antiochian School, 117, 120.
Antitrinitarians, 432.
Antonelli, 623, 634.
Antoninus Pius, 45 ; of Flor-
ence, 264.
Antonius, Hermit, 64; of Pailua,
298; Hospitallers of St.,22S.
Antony Ulrich, 493.
Aphthartodoeetae, 129.
Apocrypha, 71, 96, 614, 702ss.
' AiroKa.T(iaTa(ris, 79, 94.
Apollinaris, 115, 116.
Apollonius, 45; of Tyana, 47.
Apollos, 32.
Apologists, 50ss., 335. 500.
Apology, Augsburg Conf., 333.
Apostles, 25, 38.
Apostolicals, 341s. 703.
Apostolic Brethren, S41s. ; Can-
ons, 57s. ; Church, 24.S. ; Con-
gregation, 617 ; Constitutions,
573. ; Fathers, 36s.,723. ; Vicars,
Appeals to Gen. Councils, 291.
Appenzel, Reform, 886.
Appropriation, Principle, 6.50.
Apuleius, 47.
Aquarii, 64.
Arabians, 108s.. 168. 235.
Aranda of Spain, 527.
Arcesilaus, 17.
Archbishops, 2443., see Metro
politans.
Archdeacons, 141, 215.
Architecture, Eccles., 155ss., 803
675s.
Arcli presbyters, 141.
Arelate Synod, 114.
INDEX.
711
Arianism, Ills?., Ißö.
Aritntnuin Synod, 114.
Aristides, Apologist, 50.
Aristotle, 16s.. 230, 320.
Arins, 11-J, 119.
Ariiicnians, G2. 108, 131. 260, 065.
Arminiaiis. 415ss., 491, 010.
.\rn:mUl, 517.
AiiKlf. 44j.
Arnoblus, 52.
Arnold, S; of Drescia, 200; if
C'iteaux'. 25i;.
Arnnlf, Eniperor, IS"; of llheims,
1^9.
Arseniu.<i, 3.54s.
Artenion, 99, 705.
Arts in MidiUe Ages, 302.
Asa, Doctrine of tlie, 1C4.
Ascensio Jesaiae, 703.
Ascetics. 63.
Ascliatlenburg Concordat, 2S1.
Asiatic- Koman School, SS, 697ss.
A.sses, Festival of, 221.
Asylum, 13S.
Atlianarich, ltx5.
Atlianasius, 113s., 11.5, 117.
Atlienagoras, 51, 95, 702.
Athens, 110.
Atho.s, .354.
Attila, 144.
.\udiiis, 15S, 70S.
Augsburg Confession, 3S3 ; Diet,
363.
Augusti, 10.
Augustine Eremites, 316.
Augustinism, 122ss, 330, 509.
Augustinu.s, 100, 122ss., 138, 1.55,
176; of Canterbury, 167.
Augustus of Saxony, 408.
AurcManus, 40.
Auricular Confession, 14S, 170,
Aiis'tii.1, Catholic, 03.5, 640 ; Prot-
estant, 417s., 493.SS., .54S, 606.
Avignon, 273, 274, 275, 525, 520,
531.
B
Daanes, 100.
IJabylunian Exile, 272, 363.
IJacli, J. Sebastian, 43.5.
Bacon, Uoger, 320; of Verulam,
439.
Baden Conference, 040 ; Contro-
versy, 044 ; Disputation, 387 ;
Synod, 572.
Balirdt, 537.
ISajns, 467.
Haldnr, 105.
Baldwin, Elandr., 197, 207.
Balsainon, Theodore, l;j5.
Ban. 176,311.
üaptisMi, 41, 70. 2.52, 691.
Jia|iti.iteriuni, 155; of Florence,
304.
Baptists, 43Is., 00.3, 610.
Barartai, Jacob, 131.
Bar Cochbft, 42.
Bardas, 25S, 26it.
J5ardesanes, SJ.
Barla.ani, 3.54.
Barlctta, Gabriel, 300.
Barnabas, 23, 30.
Itaroniu-s 7.
Bartholomew's Night, 420s.
Bartolomeo Fra, 305.
Basedow, 51.5.
Basilica, l.%5, 303.
Basilides, 73, 094s., C94ä.
Basiliscus, 123.
Bixsillns, 2.58; Magnus, 117,149,
706.
cJasle. Council. 279,291, 350; He-
furmation, 337 ; Society at, 539.
Basnage. 10, .361.
Bassi, Matteo de, 462s.
Bauer. Bruno, 553.
Baur. 24. 594s.
Bautain, 6.5.5.
Bavaria, 375, 392. 527, 538, 572,
005s., 6.35, 612, 653.
Bavie, 361, 4903.
JJeätification, .307.
Beatoun, Card., 424.
Beaumont, 519.
Becket. Thomas h. 20.3.
Bede Venerabilis, 161, 179.
I5eethoven, 67.5.
Bugharils, Beghines, 31S.
Belgium, 633.
]?elTannine, 453, 46Ss.
Bells, 153.
Bena, Amalricli of, 340.
Benedict, Levita, 135. 209: of
Nursia. 151 : III. 130; VIII.,
190; IX., 190; X.. 192; XI.,
272; XII., 274; XIII., 276,
513; XIV., 514, 519.
Bengel, 491.
Bequests to the Church, 139.
Berault-Bcrncastel, 633.
Berengarius, 237s.; II., 1S9.
Bernard of Clairvau.x, 139, 200,
229, 240, 242.
Berne, Deception at, 801; Ke-
formation, 337.
Bernini, 464.
Berno of Clugni, 226.
Berti lier, 532.
Berthold of Calabria, 23CI; of
Katisbon, 800.
Berulle, Petrus de, 462.
Bervllus, lOo, 7u5.
Bes'^ari 3.50.
BethiiiaiiM-llollweg, 590.
Beza. 402, 417.
Bezieres, 256.
Bible Hours. 445; Prohibition,
243, .332, 670; Societies, 012ss.,
667; Versions, 3318., 373.
Biblia Pauperuni, 332.
Bickell, 562s.
Biel, 322.
Bilderdvk, .596.
Birgitte, 309, 317.
Bishop of Bishop.s 01.
Bishops, 83, 59, 214,293a.; Suf-
fragan, 293; Protestant, 4433.,
507.S. ; Three Great, 61s.
Blandrata, 434.
Blau, 6.54.
Blood Baptism, 70, 31.3.
Boccaccio, 327.
Boekelsen, 431.
Bodin, 522.
Boehme, Jacob, 443.
Boehmer, J. II., 492.
Boethius, 133.
Bogomiles, 262.
Bohemians, 243s., 347s,'>., 477.
Bohemian Bretlircn, 350s.
Boii'shms, 249.
Bollu-broke, .500.
Bologna Univer-ify, 230.
Bonaventura, 297, '325.
Bonifacius (Winfre.i), 168, 173,
176, 179; Vlll.. 271.230, 301.
Borgi.i, Caesar, 232»., 234 ; Bod-
erigo, 232.
Borromeo, Charles. 461.
Bossuet, 8, .300, 51.5, .520.
Bourbon.'», 426ss., 0073.
Bourdaloue, 510.
Bourignon, 519.s.
Bouthillier de la Hance, 521.
Bradwardiiia, 3:'.:}.
Brahuiinism, 471s.
Bramantes, 304.
Brazil, 033.
Bremen. 245, 41.3. 504.
Brentz, 3S9s., 391. 403.
Breslau Union, 509; German
Catholics at, 657.
Bridaine. 516
Briuin, 53, 167 173.
Brown, 423.
Brethren, Bohemian, Moravian,
3.50 ; of Christian Schools, .521 ;
of the Free Spirit, 340; of tha
('oinmon Life, 313.
Bru-'Ier Sect, 509.
Brunellesco, 3o4.
Bruno, Carthusian, 227; Jord.,
443.
Bucer, .390.
Buddeus, 491.
Buddhism, 473s.
Bulfon, .523.
Bugenhagen, 3S0, 419.
Bulirarians, 256.
Bullinger, 361.
Buonaparte, 5-32.
Burclianl of Worms, 210.
Bursundians, 165».
Burial, 69.
Buttler, 510.
Byzantines, 258, 260s.
Caecilianu.s, 157.
Cainite-, 80.
Cajetanus, 271 ; and Luther, 364
Caius, Presbyter, 099.
C.ilas, John, 543.
Calasanza, 463.
Calcutta, Bishopric, 615.
Calderon, 464.
Caliphs, 110.
Calixtines, 850.
Calixtus of llehnstadt, S, 4S6s.
IL, 199; III., 231.
Callenberg. 511.
Callistus, 039, 704.
Calovius, 43.5, 430.
Calvin, 401s.s. 447.
Calvinism, 412ss. 5D5s. ; Saxon
407.
Camaldoli, 227.
Cambray, League of, 234.
Caineel, Sultan, 266.
Camisards, 495.
Campaiius, 4'<3.
i Campeglus, 376.
1 Camus, 529.
Canon of tlie N. T., 71s., 447.
Canones Apostolici, 57.
Canonici, 177, 213s., 292s.
I Canoni>sae Saeculares, 317s.
Canonization, 213, 307.
Canossa, 195.
I Canute the Great, 246.
Capaecini, 632.
Capellus, 490.
Capito, 399.
Capuchins. 463.
Caracalla, 4,5.
Caracci, 404.
Carbea.s, Paulician, 202.
Cardinals, 213s., 290.
Carlos Don, G29s.
Carlstadt, 365s., 872, .380, 33d
Carmelites, 229s., 316.
("ariioades, 17.
CariH.oratians, sOs., 696.
Carle.-iu.s 4^9.
Carthusians, 227s.
Carthage, Synod. 124.
Casas, Barth, de la, 333.
Cas.sander, 463.
Cassianus, 125.
712
INDEX.
Cnssloflorus. 138 151.
Castellio, 447.
Casuistry, S^'S»., 454s.
Catacombs, 69.
Cataphrj'gos, ()6.
Catccliisiii of France, 534 ; of
I leidilbcr^', 413; Lutncr's, 3S2 ;
liornaniis, 400.
Catecl)uine?is, 05.
Catharine do Born, SSO; rle Me-
dici, 4-27; of Russia, 606; of
Siena, .Sds's.
C.-itliarists, 'i.^.lss., 34'2.
Ciitliedrals, 141, 304, 074.
Catliolic Ciiurch, 62, 146.
Catholicism, 63, 147, 151, 460,
052 ; and Protestantism, 40Ss.,
4S0ss. •
Catliolicus, 62, 607.
Cellitae, 31S.
Celsus, 49.
Censorship of Books, 2S3, 4005.
Centuriae Magdeb., 7.
< 'onion, 81.
(A-rinthus, 34.
Ceveimes, 495.
Chalcedon, 127.
Clialdean Christians, 127.
Chalmers. 597.
Cliantal Francisca, 463.
Cliapters, 214,292; Controv. on
Tliree, 130.
Charles Albert, 622.
diaries Alex, of Wurtemb., 493;
the Great, 169, 173,174, 179;
Augustus, 540 ; the Gross, 187 ;
tlie Bald, 187; of Anjou, 268,
270; Martel, 168, 172'; Stuart
I., 425; II., 497s.; IV. of Spain,
274 ; v., 370s., 414s., 429 ; VIII.
■ if France, 282, 352; IX., 428;
X., 625s.; IX. of Sweden,
418s.
Charter, German, 573 ; Imperial,
418.
Chateaubriand, 534.
Cliazars, 256s.
Chemnitz, Martinus, 393s., 409,
410.
Clierbury, 409.
Cliieresrati, 374.
Children, Baptism of, 70, 224,
431.
Chiliasm, 40. 94, 293s., 707.
Chilperic, 173.
China, 108, 333, 4743., 521s., 016,
663s.
Choral, 446.
Cliorepiscopi, 60, 214, 293.
Chosroes, 107.
Christian I. of Saxony, 410s. ; of
Mayence, 221.
Christians, 26.
Christiern 11., 419; III., 419.
Christina of Spain, 630s. ; of
Sweden, 512.
Christma.s, 154.
Cliristopher, 152.
Christo Sacrum, 671.
Olirist Party at Corinth, 32.
Chrodegang of Mentz, 170.
Chrysoehei-es, Paulician, 202.
Chrvsostom, 120s.
Cliubb, 500.
Church, 1 ; Ideal of, 437s. : El-
ders of, 571 ; Architecture,
155s.; Alliance Evang., 590;
Conference, 587 ; Singins, 153,
30ÜS., 445s., 675s.; History,
Idea of, 1 ; Province. 2 ; Value
-if. 8: Property, 210; Music,
465. 485, 67.J. "
Cimabue, 305.
CIrcumcelliones, 168.
Cistercians, 228.
Civil Marringc, 624.
Clara of Assisi, 290.
Clarendon, Diet of; 203.
Claudius, Emperor, 37; of Tu-
rin, 233 ; of Wandsbeck, 542.
Clausen. 561.
Clausenburg, Diet of, 417.
Clemangis, 325, 344.
Clement of Alexandria, 9l8. ; of
Pvome, 36. 57 ; Droste, C39s. ;
Flavins, 37: 11,190; III., 196;
IV., 268, 270; V., 272s., 311;
VI., 274; VII., 275, 376, 890,
421, 450; VIII., 456, 466, 467 ;
IX., 512, 518; X., 512; XI.,
513, 51S; XII., 514; XIII.,
524; XIV., 525.
Clement, Dominican, 428.
Clementinae, S3s., 286, 702s„ 697.
Clergy, 57, 140, 176, 193s., 201s.,
314.
Clermont, Synod, 196, 197.
Clovis, 166.
Clugni, Congregation, 220.
Cocceius, 490.
Cochin China, 064
Cochlaeus. 360.
Cock, De, 596.
Codex Dionys., Theod., and Jus-
tin, 1.35s.
Coelestine III., 205 ; V., 270.
Coelestius, 122, 124.
Coelibaev, 63, 148, 176 193. 222,
314, 653, 706.
Coelicolae, 107.
Cola di Rienzo, 274s.
Coligny, 428.
Collegialism. 492, 572.
Collegiants, 432.
Collins. 499.
Collyridiani, 1,52.
Colombino, 317.
Colonna Sciarra. 272.
Columba, 167, 177.
Columbanus, 168.
Columbus, 838.
Commines, 264.
Cominodus, 45.
Comreni, 201, 262, 3.55
Communism, 679, 707.
Conception, Immaculate, 224,
801.
Concord, Book of, 410; Form of,
409.
Concordat, Aschaffenburg, 281 ;
New German, 035 ; French,
285. 533s., 025; Tuscan, 623;
of "\Vorm.s, 199.
Concordium of Wittenberg, 899.
Condillac, 523.
Confessio Augustana. 883; Hel-
vetica, 416; Tetrapoiitana,
390.
Confessions, Augustine's, 124s.
Confessors, 56, 90.
Confederation, 590; Swi.ss, 3SSä.
Confirmation. 70, 692.
Confucius, 474.
Confutatio Conf. Augsb., 3S3.
Congregatio de Auxiliis, 467.
Congregation Apost., 617.
Congregations, 445.
Congretrationalists, 603.
Conradlll., 201 ; of Hochstede,
303 ; of Marburg, 294, 308.
Conradino, 268.
Consalvi, 533, 674.
Conscientiarians, 501.
Consistories, 441 ; Prussian, 586.
Consistory, Suproine, Frencli,
60S; Pfiissif.n, 578.
Constance, Council. 277s., 291
848s. : Bisiiopric, 646.
Constatis II., 132
Const antia of Sicily, 20,3, 200, 270
C(instantin(jple, Synod of, 11.5.'i.
130, 132, 150, 2.59,355; Storm
ing of, 207, 856.
Con.'-tantinus Magnus, .5.5, 103
113, 152, 1,57; Donation of.
184; Copronymus, 156; Pi>>
gonatus. 132; Sylvanus, 159.
Constantius, 114; Chlorus, 55.
Constitution Unigenitus, 518 ;
Civil, of French Clcrg}', 581.
Constitutiones Apostolicae, 57.
Contarini, 393.
Convent Life, 149s., 225s., 81Cs.
402s., 6628.
Convertites, 470,672s.
Convocations, 442.
("onvulsionaires, 519.
Copernicus, 489.
Copts, 181.
Coquerel, 609.
Coran, 109, 110.
Corday, Charlotte. 531.
Cordicolatras, 521.
Corinth, Parties in, 82.
Cornelius, 674; Rom. Bishop, 67
Corpus Christi Festival, 301.
Corpus Evangelicorum. 492.
Corpus Juris Canonici, 286
Correggio, 464.
Coscia, Cardinal, 513s.
Cöthen, Assembly at, 579.
Covenant, Scottish, 424
Cramer, 9.
Cranmer, 422.
Crell, Kic, 411.
Crescens, 51.
Crescentius, 1S9.
Cresconius, 136.
Cromwell, 426.
Cross, Elevation of the, 154.
Crucifixes, 150.
Crusades, 190, 220 ; End of tha
269.
Crypto-Calvinism, 407.
Culdees, 167.
Cumberland Presbyterians, 604.
Cu p. Withholding of the, 224s.
350.
Curialists, 289, 47S.
Cyprian us, 4:3, 89ss., T01.
Cyran, Abbot of St., 517.
Cyrilhis of Alexandria, 120, 133
(Constantinus), 24S; of J er»
salem, US; Lucaris, 480.
Cvrus, 131.
Czechen, 606.
Czerski, 057.
D
Dalbers. 536.
Damiani, 192, 221, 224, 312.
Damietta, 268.
Dancers, 313s., 446, 605.
Dandolo, 207.
Danneeker, 674.
Dannenmayr, 11.
Dante, 320s.
Danz, 10.
Darby, Oil.
Darnistadt, 644.
David of Dinanto, ,340.
Deaconesses, 39, 140, 707.
Deacons, 33. 58.
Death, for Heresy, 158, 430.
Decius, 46.
Decretals, False, 184 ; Gregorian
286.
Deists, 49SS.S.
Demetrius of Alexandria, 92.
INDEX.
713
DemocrltUB (Dippel), 601.
Denmark, 245, 246, 4l9s., 5Gls.,
678.
Denuntiatio Evangclica, 215s.
Des Cartes, 4S9.
Desiderius, l!t6.
Deventer, .318, 330, 519.
Devil. 221, 440.
De Wette, 549.
Aiaairopä, 21, 108, 505.
Diderot, 523.
Didyinus, US.
Dimitrij, 4SI.
Dio, Jo. (li, 463.
Diocletianus, 54
Diodorus, llSs.
Diognetus, 51.
Dionysiiis Alex., 9.5, 100; Are-
op.agita, 132, 177 ; E.xi^'uiis,
135 ; lionianus, 100.
Dioscurus, 127, 144.
Diospolis, Synod of, 124.
Dippel, 501.
DJsciplina Arcana, 70.
Dissenters, 497s., 59Sss.
Dissidents, 420, 434, 494.
Divorces, 71.
Dooetae, 35.
Dodwell, 500.
Dolcino, 342.
Dollinger, 12.
Dome, 303, 304, 674.
Dom Gerle, 529.
Dominicus Dominicans, 29Css.
Domitianus, 37.
Domililla, 37.
Donatello, .304.
Donation of Constantino, 183s. ;
of Otho, 190; of l'ipin, 173.
Donatists, 157s.
Donauwörth, 476.
Dort, Synod of, 4153., 442, 596.
Dositlieus, 27.
Droste, 637s.
Druids, 53.
Dubois, Cardinal, 51S; Mission-
arv, 664.
Duclioborzi, 666.
Duels, 231.
Dufresne. 664.
Dulon, 564.
Dnnin of Posen, 639.
Duns Scotus, 321.
Dunstan, 221.
Dutch lit'formed Church, 604.
]•:
Easter Clironicle, 102; Contro-
versy, 6S, 154 : Laughter, 300.
East Indies, lOS, 47Uss., 510, 522,
Ol.i, 664.
Ebcl of Koenissberc. 560.
Eljionitos, 74, s:is., 69->.
Eckard, Doiiiiiiioan, .322.
EcolesiiLsiicid I>aw, Docc. on, 56,
170s., .210, 2S03., 34.3, 440,s.,
893s., 492, 571ss. ; DioL«, 59iis. ;
Assemblies, 60, 146, 29ils. ; Dis-
cipline, 65, 1478., 175s., 222s.,
311s., 4:»; Propertv, 139s.,
171s., 216s., 443s.; Architec-
ture, 155s.
Eck, 865s., 370, .387.
Edda, 163, 164.
Edelmann, 501.
Edessa, 53; School at, 127.
Edward I. of England, 271 : III,,
346; VI., 422.
E?ede, Hans, 51Ü.S.
E::inhard, 161.
Eichhorn, Minister, 5S0; Pastor,
E/fSf o-tr. 131.
Elders, 38, 58, 572s.
Eleutherus, 699.
Klias of Cortona, 29S.
Eliot, 510.
Klipandus, 180.
Elizabetli of Rngland, 422; of
Brunswick, 493 ; Saint, 308.
Elkesaites, 85, 698.
EUer, Elias, 509.
Elvenich, 63S, 640.
Elzevir Press, 465.
Emancipation of Jews, 675ss. ;
of (Jatholics in Irtdand, 649s. ;
of Slave-s 677s.
Emblems, Sacred, 69, 691.
Eiiiniericli Nun, 661.
Empire, 136, 174, 210, 5-33; Ko-
maii, 136; Uom. German, 174,
210: Latin, 207.
Ems, Punctation at, 523.
Encratites, 64, 83.
ICncyclojiscdia, 52S.
Enfautin, 68ti.
EnKclhardt, 9.
England, 167s., 203s., 208, 421s&,
497s., 649ss.
Enlightcnmeut, Age of, 537s.'5.
Eon, 253s.
Eperies, Massacre at, 494.
Ephesus, Synod, 127, 12S.
Ephraem, IIS.
Epictetus, 47.
Epicurus, 17.
Epiphanes, 80s.
Epiphanias of Constantia, IIS.
Epiphany, 68.
Episcopacy, 598. ; Constantino's,
137 ; of Prot. Princes, 441.
Episcopal System, 59s., 289 ;
Protestant, 441.
Episcoi>alians in U. S., 602.
Episcopi in Partibus Intideliura,
293.
Episcopius, 416.
Episcopus Universalis, 141.
Erasmu.s, 330.s., 331, 345, 3793.
Erastians, 425.
Erdmansdorf, 606.
Eric, St., 250.
Erigena, 231, 2U.
Ernest the Pious, 484.
Ernesti, .538.
Erwin of Steinbacli, 803.
Es|)artero, 630.
Kssenes, 22 ; Christian, 26.
Este, 457; Duchess of, 429.
Estlionlans, 251, 66S.
Ethelbertof Kent, 167.
Ethics, 147, 333.
Eucharistie C<introv,, 234s., 237,
3V.I, ;«)'j.s.. 401 s.
Euchile-i, 15-<, 262.
Eudo lie Stella (Eon), 253s.
Eudo.xiiv, 121s.
Eugeiiiuslll, 200; IV., 279.
Eunomians, 114, 705.
Eusebians, 113.
Eu.<ebius of Caesarea, 14, 0.5. 102,
111, 117; of Emlsa, Us; of
Nicomedia, 113.
Eustathius, 159, 703.
Eutyches, 127.
Eutliyinlus Zigabenus, 261.
Evagrius, 102, 705.
Evangilia Apoiiyph.i, 692.S.
Ev»ii;.vlic:il A IliarR-c, 592; Church
Alli;iiite, 5;io ; Conl'eretice, 5S7 ;
S.iciftv, .59.5, 60S; KZeitung,
5.55, 562, 579.
Ev«n:.'elists, 38, 60S.
E.xcDimnunication, 65, 176, 311,
5S4.
E.xorcism, 70, 411.
Extravagantes, 2S6.
Eyck, Van, 3U6.
Faber, Stapulensis, 882 ; of Con
stance, 386.
Fabricius, 496.
Fncultiites Quinquennalcs, 460,
613.
Faith, Rule of, 72.
Falckenberg, 834.
Farel, 4(10.
Fasts, 07s., 1.54.
Fathers of the Faith, 625.
Faust, 810.
Faustus, 125.
Febrouius, 528. -
Felicissimus, 90.
FeH.\- of Urgel, 180; of Valois,
230; IL, 128; V., 280.
Foticlon, 515, 520.
Fenlinand I., 392,417,468; IL,
477; VII., 629; the Catholic,
287.
Feretti, 620.
Feudal Law, 171 ; Mon.irchy, 192.
Feiierbach, 554.
Fichte, 54;J, 552.
Filioque, 116, 253.
Finns, 250.
Kirtiiian of Salzburg, 49-3.
Firmilian of Caesarea, 91.
Fisher, 421.
Flacius, lllyricus, 7, 406, 447ss.,
469.
Flagellants, 812.
Flavianus, 127.
Flechier, 516.
Fletcher, 506.
Fleury, A. H., 518; Claude, 8.
Florence, Synod of, 2S0, 355.
Fontainebleau Concordat, 535.
Fontevraud, Order of, 228.
Fools, Festival of, 218.
Formosus, 1S7.
Forlunatus, 90.
Fox, C. J., 599 ; George, 502.
France, Protestant, 426ss.. 494s.,
6'i7s , comp. 627.
Francia, Dr., 632 ; Francesco,
306.
Francis L of France, 285, 870 ;
of Pari.s, 51Ss. ; of Sales, 461.
Franciscans, 296s.
Franciscus of Assisi, 295s. ; De
Pauli^ 317.
Francke, A. IL, 487.«.
Frank, Seb.astian, 4S6.
I'rankfort, Svnml of, 178, ISO.
Franks, 166,'l72.
1- rans<ini. 624.
Fratres de Cominunitate, 298;
iMinores, 296; i'raedicatores,
296.
Fratricelli. 299.
Frederic L, 2o2, 204; IL. 205ss..
2ii6, 265SS., 340; IIL, 2S0; the
Great, .501, 53S, 547 ; the Wise,
864s., 371. 375; I. of Deiim.irk,
419; III. of the Palatinate,
412; v., 477; of Austria, 273 ;
Augustus ofSaxony, 492; Wil-
liam I.. ofSaxony, 411; IL,
540 ; III., .540s, .566, 6.36, 675
IV., 576, 5S0, 5S2s., 639, 675.
Freemasons, 303, 6:U, 671.
Friars, .Meiidicaat, 295.
Friends, 6o,5.
Fritigurn, 16.5.
Froissart, 264.
Fron to, 49.
Frumectius, lOS.
714
Fry. li:iiziibcth, 60S.
Fryth, 421.
]''ulco of Nciiilli, 2o7.
Fulda, WX
F'lilk'eiitius Forrandiis, 13C.
Funk, G., 404.
«iailor of Kaiscrsber^', 300.
Galerius, 54.
Galileans, 25.
GaliU-i, 460.
Galilean Clinrch, 53, 173, 26S,
2S7, 514SS., 425, 624.
Oallienus 46.
Gall us, 46, 16S.
(Jamallel, 22, 2S.
Ganganelli, 525s.
Gangra Synod, 708.
Gasparin, 608.
Gassner, 527.
Gaston, 228.
Gebliard of Cologne, 476.
Geissel, Coadjutor, 639.
Gelasius IL, 190.
Geliert, 541.
General Synods, 146. 290 ; Gen.
Germ. Library, 539.
Geneva. 400, 595, 610.
Gennadius, 356.
Gentile Christianity, 31.
Gentilis, 433.
George of Saxony, 875s., 391.
Gerbert, 189, 236.
Gerhard, 412, 469; Groot, 318;
Segarelli, 341.
Genn. Catholicism, 656; Church,
lOOss., 635s. ; Order of Knights,
232, 330s., 662; Theology, '322 ;
Reformed Church, 604.
Germanic Church, 160ss., 635.
Gerson, 276, 277, 325s., 344.
Gessius, Florus, 37.
Geysa of Hungary, 250.
Gfriirer, 11.
Ghibellines, 206 ; Heretical, 340,
Ghiberti, 304.
Gichtel, rm.
Gie^^eler, 10.
Gifts of Grace, 40, 63.
Gioberti, 622, 624.
Giotto, 305.
Glass, Painting on, 303, 674.
Glosses, 287.
Gnosis, 76, 93s.
Gnosticism, 76a., 095ss., 697.
Gobat, 576.
Gobet, 435.
Goch, .John of, 351.
God, Friends of, 344; Judgment
of, 218.
Godfathers and Godmothers, 70.
Godfrey of Bouillon, 197 ; of
Lorraine, 192 ; of Strasbourg,
244.
Goerres, 638, 654.
Goethe, 542.
Goinarus, 415.
Gorham, 600.
Gospel, Everlasting, 299.
Gotinc Architecture, 302s.
Goths, 165.
Gottschalk, 235; Prince of the
AVends, 249.
Gratnmont, Order of, 227.
Granvella, 893.
Gratianus, Emperor, 105s., 158;
Decretals of. 2(l9s.
Gravamina of the Germ. Nation,
372, 374.
Gray League, 387, 475, 479.
Gr"t Britain, Ueformation, 421ss.,
598SS.
Greece, Ancient, 15.ss. ; Modern,
669s.
INDEX.
Greek Church, Schism, 259s. ;
Union, 355, 005, 667.
Greenland, 247, 510s.
(iregoire, 529s., 626.
Gregorius Ilium., 62 ; Nazienzcn,
115, 117; Hysxti, 117; Turo-
nensis, 161; Thaumaturgus,
95; Festival of, 224.
Gresory the Great, 142, 14.5s.,
1 67; 1 v., 184 ; V„ 189 ; V L, 190 ;
VIL, 18.3, 191s., 193SS., 221, 238,
243; Vin.,199. 204; IX., 266;
X., 269; XL, 275, 346; XIL,
276; XIII., 428, 451s.; XV.,
457s.; XVI., 619s., 630, 638,
668; V. of Constantinople, 669 ;
VI., 670.
Gribaldo, 433s.
Griesbach, 592.
Groot, Gerhard, 31S
Grandtvig, 561.
Gualbert, 227.
Guelphs, 196, 206.
Guericke, 10, 569, 570, 579.
Günther, 05.').
Gützlaff, 616.
Guicciardini, 265.
Guido of Spoleto, 1S7.
Guinefortis, Sainted Dog, 220.
Guise, Dukes of, 427.
Guizot, 672.
Gunpowder Plot, 425.
Gustavus Adolphus, 478 ; Socie-
ties, 588 ; Vasa, 418.
Guyon, 520.
II
Ilaco the Good, 240.
Hadrian, Emp, 45. .50: I., 174,
178; II., Iö7s. ; IV., 2Ul, 202,
873s.; VI., 3733., 451 1.
Hague, Societies at, 539 ; Synod,
597.
Hageii, 361.
Hagenbach, 801.
Hahn, 562. 570.
Hall, Siiabian, -340.
Halle, 454, 483, 502.
llaller. Berthold, 386.
Hamann, 542.
Hamburg, 245, 563s., 610s., 636.
Hamel, 467.
Hamilton, Piitrick, 424.
Handel, 485.
Hanno of Cologne, 192.
Hanover, 473, 496.
Hans Sachs, 374.
Harald Haarfager, 240 ; of Jut-
land, 245.
Harmonists, 553.
Harms, 561.
Hauge, 547.
Havdn, 67.5.
Haymo, 2*3.
Heart of Jesus, 521.
Heathenism, Germ., 162s., 169s.,
175, 247; Greek Eoman, 13
46.
Heber, Eeginald. 615.
Hebrews, Sect of, 5u9.
Heerbann, 171.
Hegel, 551, 579.
Hegesippus, 14.
Heimburg, 345.
Heine, 554.
Helena, St., 1.52, 674.
Heliogabalus, 45.
Hellenism. 21.
Helmstadt, 486.
Heloise, '242s.
Hclsen, 056.
I Helvetu Kefurm., 384, 399.
lle.votlus, 523.
Hemmins, 837.
llenimerlin, .344.
Flengstenberg, 555«., 570
llenke, 9.
Henkel in Hesse, 463.
Henoticon, 115.
llcnrion, CS3.
Henry I. of Germany. ISS ; III,
190; IV., 192, 19:{, 19%; V.,
198; VI., 205: VIL, 237; I.
of England, 198; IL, 203;
VIL, 287; VIII, 877, 421;
III. of France, 428 ; IV., 428,
401 ; of Brunswick, 392: Lion.
249 ; Monk, 253 : of Walpot.
232.
HeracleoD, 096.
Heraclius, 1U7, 131.
Herder, 541.
Heresy, 74, 342.
Hermann of Cologne, 392, 896.
Hermas, 36.
Hermesians, 637s., 640.
Hermias, 51.
Hermits, 150.
Hermogenes, 696s.
Herod Agrippa, 25.
Herrad of Landsperg, 248.
Herrnhutters, 424.
Hess, 674.
Hesse, 3Sls., 440s.. 562s.
Hesshusius, 408, 411.
Hesychasts, 85.5.
Heterodo.xy, 539.
Hetzer, 433.
Hicks, Elias. 503, 603.
Hieracas, 702.
Hierarchy, 20, 57s, 137s.. 132,
617s.
IHerocles, 50.
Hieronymus. See Jerome, 317.
Hieronymites, 317.
Hilarion, 149.
Hilarius, 113, 144; of Arelate.
144.
Hildebr.and, 191ss., 233.
Hincmar of Laon, 137 ; o'
Ptheims, 137, 233, 235.
Hippolytus, 95s., 693ss.
Hippo Kegius, 123, 604.
Hirsau, 227.
Hirscher, 654.
Hobbes, 499.
Hochsteden, Conrad of, 303.
Hochstraten, 329.
Hoenigern, 509.
Hoffmann, 486.
Hohenlohe, 548 ; Alex.. 602.
Hohenstaufen, 202, 267s. ; Over-
throw, 267.
Holbach, 523.
Hollan.l, 596, 634.
Holstein, 561.
Holy Alliance, 234, .391. 631;
Land, 152, 196, 07ü; Scriptures.
71, 111, 3;31s., 373, 446s.. 465s.,
592s.; Spirit, 115; Le.igae,
428.
Homberg, 382.
'Onoovaios, 100, 102s.
'Ojuoiouffioy, 113.
HonoriusL, 131; IL, 192, III
265, 296.
Hontheim, 528.
Hormisdas, 134.
Hortig, 12.
Hosiusof Cordova, 112.
Hospitallers, 228. comp 232.
Hottinger, 7, 361.
Huet, 515.
Hug, 654.
INDEX.
715
Huso Capet, 1S9 ; de Payens,
23-2; Grotius. 415; of Prov-
ence, ISS; of St Victor, 240.
Iliisuonots, 427, 494s.
Jluinaiiisin, 554.
Humanists, 32T, 323, 41T.
Kiiine. 500.
Humiliate?, 231.
Hungary, 250, 417, 479, 493, 548,
6il6.
Iliirter, 205, 4.34.
lluss, 347ss.
Hussites, 349s.
Hütten, Ulrich von, 329, 367.
Hutter, 413.
Hyp;^ti!^ 106.
Hv[isistarians, 107.
Hysiaspes, 97, 693.
I
Ibas, 127. 129, 130.
Iceland, 247, 420.
Iconoclasm, 1563., ITS.
Iglau, 350.
Ignatius, 45, 59, 72, 692; Patri-
arch, 25S; de Loyola, 4523,
Isnorantius, 52).
llanz, Disp. of, 3S7.
Illuminates, 527, 530.
Illvria, 142, 14:B.
Images, 156, 178; Tumult about,
156s., 17S.
Imitative Arts of the M. A., 302 ;
Protestant, 444». ; Later Cath.,
4649. ; most recent, 6743.
Impostors, Three, 267.
In Coena Domini Bull, 311, 453,
023.
Incorruptibility of Christ's Body,
12'.», 130.
Indop.'ndents, 423s., 4253., Oil.
IndiK Prohibitorum, 461.
Indulgences, 222s., 301, 312, 351,
303.
Infallibility of the Church, 147,
344; of the Pope, 212, 2SS.
Infant Baptism, 70, 152, 224, 431.
Ingeburge, 207.
Inuocentius I., 121,124,143; II.,
200; III.,20.5ss., 2-30, 231,255;
IV., 207; VI.,274; Vin..232,
310; X.. 511; XI., 512s., »IS;
XII., 513; XIII., 513.
Inquisition, 2933S., 414, 429, 400,
629.
Interdict, 223, 311.
Interim, 396s., 405; Leipsic, 397.
Investiture Coitrov., 193, 199.
Ireland, 167, 422, 049.
Irenaeus, 83,236, 699s.
Irene, 157.
Irinin^ul, 16-3.
Iriurius, 216.
Iroijuois, 004.
Irving, 55 >s.
Isabella of Spain, 6:51.
Isenbiehl, 527.
I.^idorus of Pelnsium, 1.32; Ilis-
lialls, 134, 136, 173; Pscudo,
l54; Gnostic, 095.
Islam, 110, 163, 835.
Itncius, 153.
ltal.1. 111.
Italy, 1733., 211s., 2S7, 53.'5, 017i,
6203. ; Protestantism in, 429.-=.,
009.
Ivan Basilowitz, 4SI.
Ivo of Chartres, 210.
J
Jacob Baradai, 131
Jacobi. 543, 0S3s.
Jacobins, 296.
Jacobites, 131s., 261.
Jaenicke, 013.
Jagello, .337.
•Jamblichus, 48.
James the Just, 25. 173; of Ba-
den, 470; I. of Ensland, 425;
II., 498; »le Voragine, 307.
Jansenism, 516.
Janssen. 509.
Japan, 473.
Javohey, Abbess, 073.
Jean Petit, 3:i4.
Jen:^ 4o5, 540, 54-3.
Jeremias II., Patriarch, 430.
Jerome, 120, 124, 159 ; of Prague,
343s.
Jerusalem, Bistiopric, 576 ; Con-
quest i)i, 37, 197 ; Patriarch of,
141.
Jesuates, 317.
Jesuits, 452ss., 5243., 617s., C25,
040s.
Jesus Christ, 24.
Jewish Christians, 26, 81, 74.
Jews, 20s., 363. 423., 335s.
Joachim of Flores,29Ss.; of Bran-
denburg, 392.
Joanna Pupissa, 136 ; of Naples,
27.5.
Joasaph II., Patri.irch. 430.
Johannic Christians, 77.
Jolm of Antioch, 126; Apostle,
33. 34; Baptist, 154; Festival
of, 154; the Constant, 375;
F.a.ster, 1-35, 142 ; of England,
203; Damascenus, 134; of Je-
rusalem, 124 ; Prester, 3.37 ; of
Laski, 407 ; Matha, 230 ; of Ne-
pomuk, 477; of Salisbury,
241 ; of Vicenza, 300 ; of Philo-
ponus, 1.33; Scholasticus, 56,
135; Zonaras, 260; Sigismund
of Bran<lenburg, 413 ; Frederic
the Magnanimous, 891, 397 ;
VL,4S4; III. of Sweden, 413;
Knights of St., 232, 319, 662s. ;
VIII., Pope, 136. 259; X.,
133; XL, 13S; XIL. 13Ss.;
XXI., 186; XXII., 273, 299;
XXIII., 278. 339.
Jonas of Orleans, 233.
Joris, 434.
Jornandes, 161.
J()se[.h II., 527, 513, 070.
Jovinianus, 159.
Jubilee Indulgences, 023; Tear,
301s., 019.
Julia Mammaca, 40.
Julianists, 129.
Julianus Apo.stata, 104s.; Cardi-
nal, 279, 345; of Eclanum,
124; Minorite, 019.
Julius II,, 2■^;!s., :;o4, 885; III.,
451, 'i-')')-, Africanus, 95, 700;
Severus, 42.
Jumpers. .'>4ii.
.(un^'Stillintr, .542.
Jurisdiction Eccle?., 13Ss., 215,
467.
Jus Spollae, Eegallae. Stolae, 210.
.Iu.slitioation, 3;i2, 46T.
Juslinianus I , lnii. 129, 139.
Justiuus I., 12S; II., 130; Mar-
tyr, 4-3, .50s., 71, 692.
Justus Jonas, 330.
K
Kant, 543.
Katerkamp. 12.
Kaulbaeh, 074.
Keller in Lucerne, 046; Bishop,
040.
Kellner, 570.
Kepler, 411.
Kerz, 12.
Kettler, Conrad, 420.
Kiew, 257, 431.
Kni'.'lits, Orders of. 281s., SIS,
481 ; of St John, 232, 318, 4SI.
Knox, 424.
K nutzen, 501.
Koeniff, 435.
K.Mlde^, 432.
Köhler, 509.
Koorlanil. 420.
Ki>ran, 109, 110.
Kornthal, Cong, of, 557s.
Krudeuer, Mad. de, 595, 631.
Krummacher of Bremen, 504.
Kuhlmann, 5oS.
Kurtz, .594, 084.
Kutteuberg, Diet of, 350.
Labadie, ,503.
Labarum, lo.3.
Lachmarm, .592.
Lacordaire, 626.
Lactantiu3, 96.
Laden berg, 533.
Lady Days, 154.
Laesarc, .^47.
Lainez, 45.3.
Laity, 57. 1403., 4408.
Lalande. 523.
Lama, 33L
Lamartine, 024s.
Lambert of AschafTenbnrg, 1S2;
of Avignon, 882 ; of Spcleto,
137.
Lamennais, 625, 626.
Lanfranck, 237.
Lange, 10.
Langlon, 203.
La[)lace, 490.
Lapland, 337. 510.
Laiisi, Cos., 07, 90.
Las Casas, 833.
Lateran Synod, 132. 193,199; II.,
200, 2oS, 238, 234-285.
Latitudinarians, 491.
Laud, 420.
Laurentius, 01 ; Talla, 327, 331.
Lau.sanne Disp., 400.
La Valette, 525.
Lavater. 542.
Law and Gospel, 403, 409.
Lay Brethren, 2253.
Lazarists, 46:}.
League, Holy, 428.
Lee, Anna, .546.
Legacies, 140.
Legate, Nuncio, 213. 528.
Le:.'end, Golden, 3o7.
Legends, 4.
Legio Fulminatrix, 45.
Leiinano, Battle of, 20.3.
Lelitdn, Hermann, 670.
Leibnitz, 4y.l3., 490.
Lei-htouu. 498.
Leipsio Apost, Svmbol, 505s.
Disp., 805, Ö62 ; Synod, 653.
Lent, 154.
Leo I., Emperor. 128; Isauricus
150; Juda, 880; the Great
123. 143; IIL, 174; IV., 130
VIIL, 189 ; IX., 191 ; X.
23.J3., 312, 364, 809, 450; XII,
019.
Leopold of Tuscany, 523s.
Less, 467.
Lessins, 541, 074.
Libanius. loO.
Libellatiei. ,'i6.
Liberal Catholics, 602, 6.'»3.
Liberi us, 14-3.
Libertines, 40l.
716
INDEX.
Licir.'.us, fiS, 103.
LiKht, Friends of, 579, 5S1.
Llsuori, 521.
Lindbcrg, 502.
Linilner, CS4.
Lindsey, 611.
Lippc, 560.
Literature, Revival of, 82Cs.
Lithii.inia, S'-Ms.
Liturgy, 224.
Livonia, 250, 420, 66S.
Locherer, 12.
Locke, 4S9.
Logos, 22, 34, 94, 9S, 112.
Loke, 164s.
Lollards, 318.
Lombardus, Peter, 289.
Longiibards, 166, 173.
Lord's Supper, 70, 153, 224s.;
Bull of, 311, 458. 623.
Loretto, Holy House, 5Ü9s.
Lorsch, Annals of, 161.
Lothaire II., 187, 2U0.
Louis the Bavarian, 273 ; of Ba-
varia, 653, 674; the German,
187; the Pious, 184; Saint,
26Ss. ; of Anjou, 275; VII.,
201; XII., 284; XIV., 494,
512.513, 514,518; XV., 518;
XVI., 435; XVIII., 624; Phi-
lippe, 626 ; Napoleon, 608, 629.
Louvain, 633.
Love-Feast, 41, TO, 153.
Lucerne, 334, 647.
Lücke, 593.
Luitprand, 182.
Lullus, 169, 3:34.
Luneville. Peace of, 533, 536.
Luther, 361s., 37Ts., 394s., 399s.,
440, 446.
Lutherans, 361 ss., 390s , 569, 604.
Lutheranism, 402ss., 569ss.
Lvndhurst, Lord, 650.
Lyons. Soc. of Faith at, 663;
Svnod at, 125, 267, 355.
Lyra, Nie. de, 331.
Mabillon, 5\n.
Macarius, 707.
Machiavelll, 328.
Macedonians, 115.
Macrena Mieslawski, 6GS.
Madagascar, 616s.
Madiai, 6o9.
Macdeburg, 565.
Magic, 48, 309.
Magna Charta. 208.
Maimbourg, 360.
Maimonides, 335.
Mainottes, 107, 256s., 356s.
Major, 405s.
Majorinus, 157.
Maistre, De, 625.
Malachias, 290.
Mandeville, 499.
Manfred of Sicily, 267s.
Manichaeism, S6"ss., 123 ; of Mid-
dle Ages, 252s.
Manuel, 386.
Marburg Colloquy, 390; Free
Congg., 581.
Marca, Petrus de, 515.
Marcellinus, 61.
Marcellus,114.705; II., 451, 465.
Marcianus, 127.
Marcion, 71, 81s.
Marcus, 696: Aurelius, 45.
Marirarotta Peter, 559.
Marheineke, 10, 360.
Marv, Worship of, 152, 215, 221,
224, 807, 521 ; the Catholic,
422 ; Stuart, 424.
Maria of Portugal, C31 ; The-
resa, 526.
Marriage, 63. 70s., 139, 176, 225,
706 ; Double, 4S9s. ; Mixed,
636s.
Mariana, 4.58.
Marienburg, 8.37.
Maronites, 132, 260, 482.
Marozia, 188.
Marquesas Islands, 615.
Marsilius Ficinus, 3.35.
Martin of Tours, 151. 177; L,
132 ; IV., 270 ; V., 27Ss.
Martyrs, 55s., 69, 154.
Ma.sora, 3S1.
Mass, 146, 300.
Massalians, 107, 158.
Massillon, 516.
Master Song, 315, 446.
Matilda, Countess, 194, 196, 198.
Matteo de Ba.=si, 462s.
Matthew, Father, 650.
Matthew Paris, 264.
Matthias, Emperor, 418, 477.
Matthiesen, *J1.
Maulbroun, Disp. at, 413.
Maur. Monks of St., 462, 4SI.
Maurice of Hesse, 413 ; of Sax-
ony, 893, 895s., 396, 397; of
Orange, 415s.
Mauritius, 6SS.
Maury, 530, 585.
Mauvillon, 537.
Maximilian I., 870; II., 417; of
Bavaria, 477.
Maximinus, 55; the Thracian,
46.
Maxim us, 155.
Mayence, 169, 280.
Mayer, Chancellor, 345.
Maynooth, 651.
Mazzini, 622.
Mechatharists, 665.
Mecklenburg Catholic 643.
Mediolanum, Synod of, 114.
Meinhard, 250.
Melancthon, 366s., 873, 378, 38-3,
391, 393, 404s., 439s., 446s.
Melchizedekians, 99, 702.
Melchites, 131.
Meletius, 690.
Melito, 51, 71.
Men ander, 27.
Mendaeans, 77
Mendelssohn, Felix. Moses, 675.
Mendicant Orders, 295s.
Mennas, 130.
Mennonites, 432, 610.
Menzel, 360 (.Errata).
Mercy, Brethren and Sisters of,
463, 662.
Merle d'Aubigne, 361.
Merlin, 310.
Messias, Klopstock's, 541.
Methodists, 505, 595, 604.
Methodius, 95, 248, 256.
Metropolitans, 60s.
Michael, 177; Cerularius, 259;
Palaeologus, 269, 854, 355 ; of
Cesena, 299 ; Angelo, 304, 305.
Michaelis, 538.
Michelet, 628.
Miguel, Dom, 631.
Milner, 10.
Miltitz and Luther, 365
Milton, 498.
Minimi, 317.
Ministerium, 58.
Minnesingers, 244.
Minorites; 297ss., 318.
Minucius, Felix, 49, 51.
Mirabeau, 531.
Miserere, 465.
Missa, 188, 146; Marcelll. 465.
Missions, Inner, .091 ; Catholic
663s. ; Priests of the, 40.3, 025
Missionary Societies, 612ss.
Moehler, 14, 655.
Mogila-s, 481.
Mohammed, 108ss. ; II., 356
Molay, 319.
Molina, 467.
Molinos, 520.
Momiers, 595.
Monarcbia Siciliae, 196.
Monarchians, 9ss., 196, 704.
Monasticism, 149, 1.50, 22.").
Monastic Life, 149, 150, 316,
462s.. 481.
Mongols, .S37s.
Moi)od, Fred., 608; Adolphe,
609.
Monophvsites, 123, 130s.
Monothelites, 131.
Montalembert, 625.
Montanism, 66s., 89s., 701.
Monte Cassino, 151.
Montesquieu, 52.3.
Montesquiou, 530.
Montlosier, 626.
Moral Science, 147s., 83.3.
Moralities, 802.
Moravia, 248.
Moravian Brethren, 350, 005.
Morgan, 500.
Mormons, 612.
Morrison, 616.
Mosheim, 9.
Mozarabes, 168.
Mozart, 675.
Muckers, 559s.
Muhlberg, Battle of, 896.
Müller, Daniel, 508; Henry. 449.
Münster, Anabaptists of, 431s.
Müuzer, Thomas, 878.
Muri. 647.
Murillo. 404.
Musa, 168.
Music Eccles., 153, 465, 675.
Mvconius, 360.
Mysticism. 239s., 822ss., 344,5'«>,
555s., 661.
N
Nabe, 10.
Nantes, Edict of, 428, 494.
Naples, 529.
Napoleon. 532, 533, 548, 676.
Nassau, 413.
Natal is, Alexander, 8.
Natalia, 68.
Naturalism, 49Sss.
Nationiil Cliurehes, 292.
Naumburg Bishopric, 592 ; Prin-
ces' Diet at, 404.
Nazareans, 25, 74.
Nazoraeans. 74.
Neander, History, 10, 6So ; Bish-
op, 508.
Neri, Philip, 462.
Nero, 37.
Nerva, 85.
Nestori.ans, 126s., .335. 665.
Nestorius, 124. 335, 706.
Netherlands, Reform, 414; Lu-
cent State of, 596s.
Neuberg, Count Palatine, 476.
New Israelites, 547.
New Jerusalem, 506ss., 605.
Newman, 599s.
New Platonism, 47ss.
New Testament, 71, 592.
New Year's Day, 154.
Niebelungen, Lay of, 243.
Nicaea, Synod of, L 1126S.; IL
157, 178.
I
INDEX.
717
Nicephoras Callist., 705.
Is'icephoras, lo2.
Nicetas Choniates. 201.
Nicolas of Claiiicn^is, 325, 844 ;
of Cusa, 345 ; of the Flue, 803 ;
of Lyrn, 331 ; Methone, 261 ;
of Eussia, 667s. ; I., 1S5, 1S6,
26S; IL. 192; V., 231.
Nicolai. 539. .
Nicolaitan?, 35.
Nicon, Patriarch, 6C6.
Niedner, 11.
Nielson Hauge, 547.
Nihiis, 469.
N'ismes, 42S, 607.
Kitzjch, 5S6.
Noaillcs, Cardinal, 51S.
Nobili, Jesuit, 472.
Nobility of the üernian Nation,
367.
Noetus, 100, 704.
Nogaret. 272.
Nosent, 242.
Nollbrethren, 31 S.
Nominalism, 239, 321i5.
Nomocanon, 135, 260.
Nonconfurmists, 423.<.
Nonintrusionists, 597s.
Norbert, Praemonstrant, 229s.
Nonlhausen, 581.
Normal year. 479.
Normans, 246s.
North America, 417, 510, 601ss.,
617, 664.
Norwegians. 246, 420.
Notarii, Paulicians, 160.
Notker Labeo, 236.
Novalis, 555.
Novatians, 67.
Nuremberg, Diet of, 373))., 876;
liel. Peace, 3S4.
Nuncios, 213, 459.
O
Oak, Svnod of the, 121.
Oberlin, 546.
Obscure Men, Letters of, 329.
Occam, 821.
Occhino, 4(>%
O'Connell, 649, 650.
Oilense, iJict of, 419.
Odin, 164.
Odilo, 226.
Odo, 226.
CEcolampadiua, 8S6, 8S9.
Oicuinenius, 261.
ffioumenical Councils, 146 ; Pa-
triarchs, 142s.
Octinner, .507, 539.
Otlicials, Episcopal, 292.
Offlciutri of the Virgin, 224.
Olat St, or Olau», St, 247 ;
Schooskönig, 246; Trygv&sen,
247.
Olavides, 527.
Oldenbarneveldt, 41.5.
tdileiibur^'. Church Got., ?75.
».Hd Testament, 71.
Olevianus. 4\i.
OUveüms 317.
Olga, 257.
Olsliausen, 570.
Oncken, Missionary, 610».
O[)hitos, 80, 693s.
Orange, Svnwi of, 125.
Oratory, Priests of the, 462, 465.
Orders, 22.\ 295, 462s8., 662.
Organs, 153. ' ■'
Oriiren, 52, 71, 92,.130, 703.
Original Sin, 122.'
Orleans llcgcnt, 513; Dynasty,
626s3.
Oroslus, 106, 12L
Oslander, 403.
Osseni, 85.
Otho of Bamberg, 249 ; of Frey-
singen, 1S3; I., 1*9, 249; 111.,
189; IV.. 206, 216.
Overbcck, 674.
Owen, 680.
Pachotr.ius, 149.
Pack, Otho von, 381.
Pasanism, 104.
Pa-i. 8.
Painting, 69, 304s., 445. 464, 674.
Pajon, 490.
Pa'lamas. 35,5.
Palatinate, 392 ; of Bavaria, 492,
52S.
Palestrina, 465.
Palavicini, 360.
Pallium, 15.3. 173, 212.
Pamphilus, 95.
Panoplia, 261.
Pantaenus, 91.
Pantheism, .^51s., 554.
Pantheon, 152, 464.
Papacy, 61s., 142s., lS3s., 195,
26.188., 2SSs., 450s., 511ss., 524s3.,
617SS.
Paphnutlus, 148.
Papias, 73.
I'aracelsus, 448.
Parasuar, 475. 524, 632.
Paris Univ., 236. 276, 320 ; Synod
of, 178, 340, 535.
Parma, 525.
Parson's Letter, 288.
Pasagii, 252s.
Pascal, 517.
Paschal Controv., 68, 154, 691.
Paschalis II.. 197ss.
Pascliasius lladbertus, 224, 234.
Passau, Treaty of, 898.
Pastors, 293.
Paterini, 252.
Patriarchs, 141 ; of Constantino-
ple, 356s.
Patricius, 167,190.
Patripa.«sians, 98.
Patronage, 214.
Paulus, Apostle, 27s., 31s., 40 : of
Bernried, 193; Gerard, 4S4s. ;
of Samosata, 100 ; of Thebes,
64s.; the Simple, 150; II.,
2Sl3.; III., 890, 395, 450, 4.V>,
454; IV., 451, 462; V., 457.
467; "Warnefrid, 161, 179; of
Heidelberg, 54t
Paulicians, 159s., 261.
Peace, Kvcrlasting, 681s, ; of
God, 21)8, 217 ; of Linz. 479 ;
of Westphalia, 479 ; of Vien-
na, 417s. ; of St. Oerui.iin, 427.
Peasant's War, 877s.
Pedro, Dom, 631.
Peel, 6lX).
Pclairlan Controv., 122. 3.38, 467.
Pclflgius, 122 ; Kom. Bishop, 130.
Pella, 37, 74.
Penances, 65. 17.5s.. 222.
Penitential Convulsion», 487s.
PenitentiaK 292s.
I'enn, William, 502.
Pentecost, 24, 68.
Pepiiziani, 66.
Peripatctic^ 329.
Persians, 107.
Perugino, 306.
Pestalozzi. .'►45.
Petavius, 51.5.
Peter D'Ailly, 277, 344; of
Amiens 197; of Aragon, 207,
270 ; of Bruys, 253 ; of Castel-
rau, 256 ; de Murrhone, 270
de Spinels. 266, and Paul, Fes-
tival of, 154 ; the Great, 666.
Peters Church, 3W.
Peterson, 418.
Petrarca, 827.
Petrus Alexandrinu.% 65; Apos-
tle, 26, 80, 31, 154 ; Fullo, 128 ;
Lombardus, 224. 239; Mogilas,
4SI ; Venerabilis, 229, 242 ;
Waldus, 254.
Peucer. 40S.
Pfaff of Tubingen, 492.
PfeflVrkorn, 329.
Pfelhnger, 406.
Plhig, Julius von, 892, 893.
Phanaroea, 160.
Pharisees, 22.
Philalethes, 553, 581.
Philip L of France, 194, 196,
19s; Augustus, 2(14, 207 ; tho
Fair, 271, 819s. ; of lle.'^e, 875,
3S2, 390, 891, 396, 398; of »la-
bia, 206; II. of Spain, 414, 429,
461.
Philippisfs, 404.
Philippopolis, 262 ; Synod ofi
114.
Philippus the Arabian, 46.
Philo, 21.
Pliilofionus, 133.
I'hilustorgius, 102, 705.
l'liilostratu.s, 47.
Phocas, 142.
Photinus of Sirmium. 114.
Photius, 258. 2611 ; Heathen, 1069,
Phthartolalrians, 129.
Piarists. 463.
Picards, 341.
Picts, 167.
Pietism, 487, 491 ; Orthodox,
555.
Pilisirin of Passan, 2.50.
Pilgrimages, 152, 213.
Pipin, 172, 173.
Pisa, Synod of, 276s., 284, 291.
Pistoia, Synod of, 528s.
Pius II., 281 ; IV., 451, 455; V.
451, 467; VI., 526. »31, R32j
VII., 533, 617. 6;32, 646; VI H.
619, 635, 637; IX., 620s3., 633;
Unions. 641.
Planck, 860.
Plastic Arts, 304.
Plato, 16.
Platonism, 47, 93, 823.
Plays, Sacred, 302.
Pleroma, 73, 694.
Plelho, 3.55.
Plinius, 44.
Plotinus, 48.
Plutarch, 47.
Plymouth Brethren, 611.
Poeschl, 661.
Poissy Conference. 427.
Poland, 249, 420, 494, 663.
Polentz, George, 375.
Polotik, Synod of, 663.
Polycarp, 45. 73, 690, 69«.
Polycratcs, 6903.
Pomaro II., 614.
Pombal, 524, 631.
Ponierania, 249.
Pomponazzo, 828.
Pontifex Maximus, 108.
Pontius, Abbot, 229.
Pornocracy, 188, 333.
Porpliyrians, 118.
Porphyrins, 48, 50.
Portiuncula Indulgences, 29S,
Port Koyal. 510.
Portugal, 524. 527, 629.
Possevino, 4SI.
7iS
INDEX.
Podiinns, cm, «09.
I'i)us,sin, 4ii4.
I'riigiic liishoprlc, 2-19; Univer-
sity. 820. 31 s.
Priisiniitic tjaiiction, 2CS, 281,
'2 SI, 'jsr).
rra.\i-jis, 09. 704.
]'ii:ioliiiif; J'liar.s, 290.
]'ivilc>tiiian;iiis, 125, 235.
I'lv.lcMinati.in, 122,225,370,401.
I'rciiKiiistraiits, 229.
I'lVsliyttTcssos, 89, 707.
I'lopliytork's in Bavaria, 572s.
I'resliytcrians, 423. 49S, 597, 004.
I'le.-byters, 39. 58, 140.
I'rcscntia Passiva, 037.
Tröster Jolin, 337.
Pri.rias, 303.
Priesthood, .07, 130, 137, 13S, 443s.
Priestley, Oil.
Priinasius of Adrymetum, 133.
Priscilliamis, 15S.
Probabilisni, 334, 454, 517.
Proclus, 4S.
Procopiiis, 13.3, 161, 350 ; Ga-
zaeus. 183.
Professio Kidei Tridentina, 4ÖG.
Proli, 558.
Propaganda, 470.
Propliecy, Messianic, 20s.
Prophets, 38; Little, 495.
Proselvtes, 23, 072.
Proselytisin, 470, 072.
Protestant Friends, 578.
Protestation of Speyer, 3S1.
Protestantism, 437s. ; Develop-
ment of, 54SSS. ; and Catho-
licism, 4ÖSSS., 671ss.
Protesting Parties, 159, 251ss.,
839s.
Provincial Synods, 00, 290s., 531.
Pnidentius, 110, 700.
Prussia, 330, 375, öOOss., 57Gss.,
e35s., 030s., 642.
Pseudo-Isidorus, 184.
Ptolemais, 269.
Ptolemaeus, 096; of Lucca, 265.
Public Worship, 153s., 177s.,
223ss., SOOss., 444ss.
Pulcheria, 127.
Purgatory, 146.
Puritans, 362, 364, 422, 601.
Puseyism, 599s.
Q
Quadragesima, 68.
Quadratus, Apologist, 50.
Quakers, 502, Oo5.
Quartodecimani, 154.
Quelen, 626.
Quenstedt, 485.
Quesnel, 518.
Quietism. 519s.
Quinet, 628.
Quinisexti, 134.
E
Pabanus Maurus, 233, 234.
liabbi Akiba, 42.
Paliliinism. 4'.;s.
lia.lbod. KiiiL' of Frisons 1C3.
lladicalisni, 563, 647.=.
Painmohun Koy, 615s
llaiike. 860s.
Raphael, 3ua
l:api.. 558.
Kathorius, 236.
iiaiionalism, 500s., 5ü7s., 544,
5508.
Ratisbon, Alli.'ince of, 376 ; Diet,
393, 412, 477.
Ratramnus, 234, 2.35.
Uaunicr, 583.
Pavaillac, 423.
Kawicz, 058.
IJayinond of Reziercs, 250 ; de
Pennaforte. 286; de Sabunde,
825; du Puy, 232; of Thou-
lou.^e, 256.
Raynal, 523.
liavnaldns, 8.
Headers, 547.
Realists, 239, 821s.
Recognitions of Clement, 692,703.
Redetnptorists, 521.
Redeemer, Order of tlie, 317.
Reformation in Catli. Churcli,
276s., 338, 843; Forerunners
of the, 351; Protestant, 36U;
Introduction of, 336.
Reformed Church, 384s., 899s.,
595s. ; Presbyterian Churcli,
604.
Regalia, 216, 2s7.
Regenbrecht, 659.
Regino of Pruem, 210.
Rehm, 10.
Reichlin-Meldegg, 12.
Reimaru.s, 537.
Reinhard, 545.
Reynard us, 24Ss., 815.
Religion, Prussian Edict of, 540.
Religious Peace of Augsburg,
39Ss. ; of Nuremberg, 384.
Relisiosi, 225.
Reliques, 151s., 220.
Remigius, 106, 23.5.
Remonstrants. 415.
Repeal Meetings. 650s.
Reservatum Ecclesiaslicum, 899.
Reservation, 288.
Restitution, Edict o^ 479.
Retractations, 123?.
Reuchlin, 329.
Reversales, 607.
Revivals in America, 601.
Revolution, EnsL, 497s. ; French,
I., 529SS.; ll.>25ss.
Reynard the Fox, 315.
Rhenish Bavaria, 568, 572s.
Rhenius, 613.
Rhense, Electoral Alliance of,
274, 287.
Ricci. Jesuit, 474s.
Richard Coeur de Lion, 204s. ;
Simon, 515 ; of St Victor, 240.
Rielielien, 428.
Richer, 460.
Rienzo, Cola de, 274s.
Riga, 251, 420.
Robber Svnod. 12S, 144.
Robert Guiscard, 192, 195; of
Arbrissel, 228 ; of Citeaux,
228; Stephens, 405.
Robespierre, 531.
Robinson, 423.
Rodrigues, Olinde, 670.
R ihr, 545, 501.
Rönnow of Riskilde, 410.
Roger of Sicily, 196, 200.
Rohrbacher, 6S8.
Roman Catholics in the U. S.,
602.
Rome, Pagan, 17ss., 48s. ; Bish-
opric of,' 61, 142s. ; Republic,
622SS.
Romantic School, 555, 674
Romualdo, 227.
Roncalian Plains, Battle, 202.
Ronge, 656s.
Ronsdorf, 509.
Roothaan, 618.
Rosary, 3ti0.
Roscellinus, 2.39.
Rosenkranz, 553.
Ilosicrusians, 449.
Uoskolnici, 006.
Rossi, Count. 622.
Roswiiiia, Ü3.')s.
RotliM'hiM, 677.
Rousseau, .V23.
Rovaard, 11.
Royko, n.
Ruben.s, 464.
Ruchat, 361.
Rudolph of Ilapsbiirg, 209s.; a
Suubia, 195; II., 417.
Rügen. 249.
ItuHo, Cardinal, 5-35.
Rutinus, 9.3. 120.
Ru|pert of Deutz, 24-3.
lUipp. 580, 5s4. 589.
Russell, Lord, 6oo. ChO.
Russian Church, 257, 481s., CC6.
Russia, Protestantism in, 579.S.,
668.
Ruttenstdck. 12.
Ruvsbroek. y-J3.
Rvswick, Peace of, 493.
Saiib.atarian.s 447, 610.
Sabel Ileus, 265.
S.'ibellius, 100.
Sacerdotium, 58.
Sacharelli, 8.
Sacraments, 224.S., 369, 389.
Sacramentarian Controv., 2348.,
237. 8S9s., 399s., 401.
Sacrificati. 56.
Sacrilege, Law on, 625.
Sadducees, 22.
Sailer, 661.
Saints, Worship of, 151s., 223,
3o7s., 620.
St. Germain, Peace of, 427.
St. John, Knights of, 232, 319s.;
Disciples of, 77.
St. Martin, 534.
St. Maurus, 462, 481.
St Simon, 679.
Saladin, 204.
Sales, Francis of, 461.
Salisbury, John i.f, 241.
Salle, Baptist de la, 521.
Salvianus, 149.
Salzburg, Evangelicals of^ 493.
Samaritans, 23, 26s.
Samosateniani. 100.
Sampsaean.% 85.
Samson, 385.
Sancho I., 2o7s.
Sandwich Islands, 614s.
San Graal, 244.
Sardica, Synod of, 113s., 142
707.
Sarpi, 360, 457.
Saturninus. 77, 69-3.
Saumur Academy, 490.
Savonarola, 352s.
Saxony, 169, 635.
Saxon Reformation, 3C3s., 492s.
562, 57Ss.
Scaiiderbeg. 356.
Scapular oV the Virgin, 230.
Schalf, 084.
Scheibel. 509?.
Schelling, 550s., 552.
Schiller, 542.
Schism, 275.
Schleieruiacher, 11, 550.
Schmidt J. E. Ch., 9.
Sclineidemühl, 658.
Schoeffler, Abbe, 064.
SchoenheiT, 500.
Scholasticism, 28Ss., 8208.
Scholz, 054.
Schroeck. 9.
Schulz, Court Preacher, 540
INDEX.
719
Scriptures, see Ho]y Scriptures.
Scliuileroff, ÖT1.
Scliiirf, 3S1.
Schurinann, 508.
Schwenckfeld, 4:55.
Schwerin, C'tunt, 5S2.
Silesia, Lutlieran, öO'Js.
Scotland, ICT, 4-24. 497s., 5978.
Scottists 821s., 3;32s , 467.
Sootus, Dun-s 821 ; Krigcna, 233s.
Seckeiidorf, 360.
Sesarelli, 341.
Selneckcr, 4ti9.
Scmiarians, 113s.
Semipelagians, 1248.
Semler, 9, 538.
Seiulomir, Agreement at, 420.
Seniores, 58
■Separatist» ofWurteniberg, 557s.;
(if Pnissiii, 569s.
Peptiiiiius Severus, 45.
Serapeion, 106.
Sersius I IL, 1S8; ratriarcl),
1.31 ; Tychicus, 261.
Serm<)ns,"3ii(l, 445. 515s.
Servetus, 430, 433.
Servites, 317.
Sethites. SD.
Seven Slei-pcrs, 46.
Severians, 129, l3l.
Severirius, 7(i9.
Sevenis .Alexander, 46.
Severus, (j no-tic, S3.
SfXtus Uccretalitini Liber, 2SG.
Shaltesl'iiry, 4!t'.), 610.
Shakers, 446, 605.
Sibour, 629.
Sibylline l>c.ok?, 97, 093, 704.
.Siecarili, 623s.
Sicilian Monarchy, 266, 514 ;
Vopers, 270.
Sickinwn, 329, 307.
Sierra Leone, 016.
Si eyes, 530.
Siirhert of OemWonrs, lS2s.
Siaisinnnil, Emperor, 277, 348 ;
III., of Sweden, 41S, 420.
Simeon Metaphrastes, 260s. ; Sty-
litos, 15ns.
Simon Magus, 27, 84: do Mont-
tort. 256 ; Stock, 230 ; of Tour-
nay, 267.
Simonists, 679s.
Simony, 191, 221 ; comp. 2SSs.
Sinteni.s, 5i''5.
Siricius, 149. 1.59.
Sirndnu), Synod of, 114.
SiMus 1 v., 2S2, 311; v., 45G, 406.
Slavery, Abolition of, 677s.
Slaves, 257, 706.
Slavonic natinn.s, 24Ss., 257.
Sleidaniis, 360.
Smalcaldic Articles, 890s. ;
League, 3S3s. ; War, .395s.
Smith, .\lis-ionary, 678; Mor-
mon, 612.
Socialism, 679.
.Socinians. 431s.
Socrates, 16; ScholiV^ticns, 102.
Soissons, Synod ■•f, 239, 242.
SoMicitudo omnium, Bull of,
617s.
Sonderbund. 648.
Sophronius, UU. 131.
Sorbonne, 426, 45S.
Soter, 79.
South Afric.% 616.
South -Vmorici. 47.'), 522, G32.
Soutlicote, Joanna, 546s.
South Sea Islands, 614.
Sozomenus. I(i2.
Spain. .^4. 16S 172. 2s7. 294, 429,
527, 53.'>, i;29-s.
Spalatinus, 360, 871s.
Sjialdin^, .'44.
Spee, Fred., 454.
Spener. 4^7.
Speyer, Diet of, 3S1.
Spinola, 496.
S[)inoza, 4j9.
Spirituals, 29Ss.
Spittkr, 9
Sponsor.«, 70.
Stäudlin, 10.
Stahl, 590.
Staroverzi, 666.
Staupitz, 362. 380.
Stedingers, 339s.
Stcinbuhler, .')27.
Stephanus, 25; of Tigerno, 227.
Stephen L, 91; IL, 173; VIL,
1«7; IX., 192; Botzkai, 417s. ;
of Hungary, 250; of Dresden,
560.
Stockholm, Society in, 539.
Stolberg, 11, 672.
Strasbourg, Svnod,60S; F.ieulty,
61 »9.
Strauss. 553.
Sirigilius Victorinns, 40o.
Suarez. 458.
Subordiiiationists, 98s., 704s.
Snlpirius Sfvcrus, 102.
Sun. lay, 41, iW. 154.
Superintendents, 444; General,
568.
Superior Consistories, French,
6118; I'rus-ian, 578; Eccles.
Council of I'russia, 583.
Supernaturalism. 544.
Surplice Fees, 216.
Suso, Henry, 823s.
Sutri, Synod of. 190,
Sweden, 21.5. 240.
Swedenbor-, r)li7.
Sweilenbur^'ians, 507s.. 605.
Switzerland, 354ss.
Sword, Urethren of the, 251.
Sylvaiuis Constantinus, Ib'Ji.
Sylvester L, 143, 184; II., 190,
197; III., 190.
Syndiolik, 671.
Symbols, Chrisiian, 69, 691.
Synibolum Apostolium, 72;
Athanasianum, 116.
Symeon, 45.
Symmachus, 105.
Syncretism, 486.
"S.uffKruKTot, 03.
SvvfK^riuot, 160.
Synergistic Controv , 405s.
Synesiiis, 119. 13S, 700.
Synodal Constitution, 60s.,440ss.,
"572 ; Courts, 17.'), 222, 293.
Synod, Holy, 066, 670.
Syrian Gnostics, 77ss.
Taborites, 350.
Tafel. 507.
Tagliacozzo, Baftlo of. 2GS
Tahiti, 614.
Talloyranil. 529.
Talniuil. i'-i.
Tanchclin, 253.
Tiuicred, 205.
Tiusao, Torijuato, 461.
Tiilianu.s, 51, 8:5.
Taulor, .322.
Taxation of the Cliurcli, 140,
216, .530.
Temperance Societies, 601.
Templars. 232, SISss.. 663.
'I'erritorial System, 492, 572.
Tcrliaric.s, 296.
Tertullianus, 52, C2, 8Ss. 6ÖT.
701. 702s.
Teet Act, 498. .599.
Tetzel, 303, 305.
Thaddens, 35.
Thanierus, 436.
Theatines. 462.
Tbeiner, 653, 6.Ö9.
Thek.a, St., 97.
Theocracy, 20.
Theodora, Empress, 129, 157,
261; Roman, 188.
Theodoretus, 102, 127, 130, 132.
Tbeodorns Ascidas, 130; Balsa-
mon, 125; Lector, 102: of
Mopsuestia, 118, 130; of Tar-
sus, 179.
Theodosius L, 105, 115s., 138;
iL, 126.
Theodotus, 99, 704.
Tlieodulph of Orleans, 179.
Theopascbites, 12-^s.
Theophanes, Confessor, 102.
■ Tbeophilanthropist-s, .532, 627.
Tlieophilns of Ale.x., 121 ; of An
tioch, 51.
Tiieopliylactus. 261.
Theosophy, 447ss.
QeoTuKos, 126, 152.
Tlierapcuiae, 22.
Theresia, St., 461.
Thesaurus Supererog., 311
Theses Lntberi, 363.
Thibet, 522.
Thiers, 628.
Thirty Years' War, 476s.
Thomas. 85; Atjuinivs. 321, 831
333, 3:35 ; ä IJecket, 203 ; Chris-
tians, 127; II Keuipis, 324
More, 421.
Thoma-sius. 4S7s , 491.
Thonusts, 321s., 332, 467.
Thorn, Insurrection, 494; I'fcs
cussion at, 42U.
Thorwaldsen. 674.
Three Chapters' Controv., 130.
Thuisto, 162.
Tn'iriicali, 56.
Tiberius. 37.
Tilleinont, 8.
Tindal, 421, 499.
Tirkler, 334.
Tiscbendorf, 592.
Tithes, 1.39, ni.s., -,.30, 600, 630.
Titian , 464.
Tiius. Emperor, 87.
'I'..land, 49;t.
Tulbiacum, Rattle of, 166.
Toledo, Synod of. 116.
Tolenlino, Peace of, .532.
Toleration Eccles., 496s. ; .Edict,
54S, 5sl.
Tolomei, 817.
Tongues, Speaking with, 24s.,ö5S.
Tonsure, 153, 177.
Torgiiu, Leauue of, 376s.
Torcpiemada, 294.
Ton may, 267. 324.
Tournon, 522.
Tours. Synod of. 23*.
Tradition, 72. Ill, 467.
Tra<litores, 56.
Trajan. 4t.
Tranquebar Missii'n. 510.
Translntio priscn, 1.35.
Transubstaiititttion, 153, 224s.,
23S.
Transylvania, 417, 494, 665.
Trappists. 521.
Trent, Council of, 394. 454s.
Treves. Uishop of. 643; Coat
pil:.'rima;:e of. 6.->6.
Trinit4irians, 230s.
720
INDEX.
Trinity, OS, llfi.
Tritteiilictin, 2<ir).
Troubadours, 244.
Truce of Ood, '2iH, 2IT.
Trullnn Synod, i:«, U^, 150.
Tubingen", t'nivirsity, 322 ;
Soliool, Older, t>li> ; New, MSa.
Turkey. r>70.
Tunis, 20Ss.
TwTof, 182.
Tyrannicide, 3.%t, 442s., 45Ss.
Tyrol, 549, 606.
Tzschirner, 9, 549, 67Is.
U
I'hlich, 57S3., 5S2.
Ulphilas, 165.
Ulrich of Augsb., 213; of Wiir-
temb., 891.
Ultramontanists, C52s.
Uniforinity, Act of, 423.
Unigenitu's, Bull of. 549.
U nion, 46Ss., 526s. ; Evang , 6n?s.;
of the Ev. Church, 5fi6s.., 57S;
of the Cath. and Greek Church-
es, 4S4, 605.
unitarians, 9Ss., 433s., 603, 611.
Universalia, 239.
Universalists, 605.
universities, 236s. 326.
Upper Khentsh Prov., 473, 643.
Urban II., 196, 197; IV., 301;
v., 275 ; VI., 275, 302 ; VIII.,
45S, 459, 516.
Urisperger, 539.
Ursinus, 413.
Ursula, 56.
Ursulines, 46-3.
Utraquists, 350s., 477s.
Utrecht Jansenists, 519; Union
of, 415.
Vairasse, 523.
^'alais, 647.
Valens, 114.
ValentinianusII., 116; III., 189,
144.
Valentinus, Gnostic, 7Ss , 695.
Valerianus, 46.
Valhalla. 164.
Valla, 327, 331.
Vallombrosa, Order of, 227.
Valteline, 478.
Vandals. 165s.
Vasa, 418
Vasari, 303.
Vassals, 171.
Vaud, Canton of, 400, 598, 611
Venema, 11.
Vergerius, 469.
Verschooren, 509.
Vespasianns, 3T.
Veto Act, 597.
Victor I.. 68, 99, 704 ; II., 191 ;
III., 196, 202.
Vienna Concordat, 281 ; Con-
press, 60.'5, 017 ; I'oice of, 417 ;
Thcol. Faculty at, 600.
Vigilantius, 159.
Vigilius, 1293.
Vidls. 67.
Villani, 264.
Vilmergen, Battle of. 495.
Vincent de Paula. 463.
Vinccntius Ferren, 313; ofBcau-
vais, 264; of Lirinum, 111.
Vinet, 598.
Vi ret, 400.
Virgilius, Magician, 310.
Vischer, 553s. ; Peter, 304.
Visitants, Female, 40.3.
Visitation, Articles of, 411 ; Book
of, 382.
Vitus', St, Dance, 813.
Vladimir, 257.
Vladislaus IV. of Poland, 420.
Voices, Calling, in Sweden, 559.
Voltaire. 523, 548.
Voss, J. IL, 672.
Vulgate, 111, 466.
"W
Walafrid Strabo, 243.
Waldenses, 254s., 3423., 610.
Wallachians, 665.
Walter, Hans, 446 ; of the Vogel-
weide, 244: of St. Victor, 241.
Wartburg, Luther at, 372s.
Wesscheider, 544, 562.
Weigel, 448.
Weimar Disput., 406 ; Eccles.
Order, 574.
Weishaupt, 527.
Wellington, 649.
Wenceslaus, 248s. 34äs.
Wends, 249.
Werkmeister, 054.
Wertheim Bible, 490.
AVesel, John of, 351s.
Wesley, 5053.
Wessel, 351.
Wessenberg, 636, 646.
Wessobrunner Prayer, 223.
Westeras, Diet of, 41 S.
West Indies, 475, 510.
Westphal, 407.
Westphalia, Peace of, 479.
Wettstein, 491.
Whitefleld, 505s,
Wichern, 591.
Wieland, 542.
Wigand, 408, 411.
Wilberforce, 506.
Wildenspuoh crucifixion, K9.
Wilhulinina, Bohemian, .342.
William of Cliarrif.eaux, 240; of
St Amour, 297; of Ilirsau,
227 ; of Occam, 321 ; of Orange,
498 ; the Conqueror, 194.
Wilson, Bisliop, 615.
Winer, ."593.
Winfrod, 108.
Winkelmann, 672, 674.
Wiseman, 05 Is.
Wislicenus, 579, .580.
Witches, 175 ; Trials of, SIO»., 491.
AVitgenstein, 509s.
Witiza, 172.
Wittenberg Univ., 326; Theses,
303 ; Fire signal, 369 ; Icono-
clasm, 3729. ; Surrender of,
396; Concordinm, 399; Phi*.-
ippists of, 404s. ; Lutheranism
488.
Wizel, 468.
Wladimir, 257.
Wladislaus of Bohemia, 850.
Woollner, 540.
Wolf, 4S9s. ; Peter, 11.
Wolfenbüttel Fragg., 537.
Wolfram of Escbenbach. 244.
Woltmann, 3Go.
Women, 39, 140, fSO.
Woolston, 499.
Works, Necessity of, 405s., 409.
Worms, Concordat, 199 ; Diet at,
371s. ; Synod at 195.
Worship, see Public Worship.
Wiirtemberg, 391. 557, 57:te., 640.
Wupperthal In Africa, 610.
Wyclifte, 34Gs.
X
Xavler, 452, 472.
Ximenes, 294, 331.
Young Germany, 554.
Zabians, 77.
Zacharias, Pope, 173.
Zelator<?s, 298.
^eno Isaurlcus, 128; Stoic, 17
Zephyrinus, 701, 704, 705.
ZilIert^»l, 006.
Zinzendorf, 603s.
Ziska, 350.
Zittel, 572.
Zonaras, 261.
Zoslmus, 103, 124
Zulpich, Battle of; 166.
Zurich, 386, 553.
Zwickau Pronhets, STihs. 43;L
Zwingle, 8S4ss. 3SSs.
THE END.
V
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
PSD 2343 9/77
mill"!»""" V r^f. A nQQ 7
piA 001 264 o^y I