REESE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. ^
l^eceived , igo . [
t/^ccession No. 82983. Class No.
NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS
OF THE WORLD
Sir William Muir, Prof. Legge, LLD., The Revs.
J. Murray Mitchell, LLD., and H. R.
Reynolds^ D.D.
SELECTED FROM THE
LIVING PAPERS SERIES
FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY
New York Chicago Toronto
The Religious Tract Society, London,
lll^
CONTENTS
I.
THE RISE AND DECLINE OF ISLAM.
By Sir WILLIAM MUIR, K.C.S.L, LL.D., D.C.L.
II.
CHRISTIANITY AND CONFUCIANISM COMPARED IN THEIR
TEACHING OF THE WHOLE DUTY OF MAN.
By JAMES LEGGE, LL.D.
III.
THE ZEND-AVESTA AND THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIS.
By J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D.
IV.
THE HINDU RELIGION : A SKETCH AND A CONTRAST.
By J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D.
V.
BUDDHISM : A COMPARISON AND A CONTRAST BETWEEN
BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY.
By the Rev. HENRY ROBERT REYNOLDS, D.D.
VI.
CHRISTIANITY AND ANCIENT PAGANISM.
By J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D.
82983
THE
RISE AND DECLINE
OF
ISLAM
BY
SIR WILLIAM MUIR, K.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L.
^tgnmem xxl the Txhcu
The progress of Islam was slow until Mahomet cast aside
the precepts of toleration, and adopted an aggressive, mili-
tant policy. Then it became rapid. The motives which
animated the armies of Islam were mixed material and
spiritual. Without the truths contained in the system,
success would have been impossible, but neither without the
sword would the religion have been planted in Arabia, nor
beyond. The alternatives offered to conquered peoples
were Islam, the Sword, or Tribute. The drawbacks and
attractions of the system are examined. The former were
not such as to deter men of the world from embracing the
faith. The sexual indulgences sanctioned by it are such as
to make Islam " the Easy way."
The spread of Islam was stayed whenever military success
was checked. The Faith was meant for Arabia and not
for the world, hence it is constitutionally incapable of
change or development The degradation of woman hin-
ders the growth of freedom and civilization under it.
Christianity is contrasted in the means used for its pro-
pagation, the methods it employed in grappling with and
overcoming the evils that it found existing in the world, in
the relations it established between the sexes, in its teaching
with regard to the respective duties of the civil and spiritual
powers, and, above all, in its redeeming character, and then
the conclusion come to that Christianity is Divine in its
origin.
UNIVERSITT
THE RISE AND DECLINE OF ISLAM,
ONGST the reliarions of the earth, Islam isiamprt
eminent u
must take the precedence in the rapidit}^ ^^S^
and force with which it spread. Within
a very short time from its planting in
Arabia, the new faith had subdued great and
populous provinces. In half a dozen years, count-
ing from the death of the founder, the religion
prevailed throughout Arabia, Syria, Persia, and
Egypt; and before the close of the century, it
ruled supreme over the greater part of the vast
populations from Gibraltar to the Oxus, from the
Black Sea to the river Indus.
In comparison with this grand outburst, the first Propaffatio*
efforts of Christianity were, to the outward eye, christfanity
faint and feeble ; and its extension so gradual, that
what the Mahometan religion achieved in ten or
twenty years, it took the faith of Jesus long cen-
turies to accomplish.
The object of these few pages ia, first, to inquire 5*j^*^ *^^
briefly into the causes which led to the marvellous
rapidity of the first movement of Islam ; secondly, to
consider the reasons which eventually stayed its
ad ranee; and, lastli/, to ascertain wby Mahometan
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
countries have kept so far in the rear of other lands
in respect of intellectual and social progress. In
short, the question is, how it was that, Pallas-like,
the Faith sprang, ready armed, from the ground,
conquering and to conquer ; and why, the weapons
dropping from its grasp, Islam hegan to lose its
pristine vigour, and finally relapsed into inactivity.
Two periods
in the
mission of
Mahomet.
I. Ministry
at Mecca;
A.i>.0i)-623.
The Rapid Spread of Islam.
The personal ministry of Mahomet divides itself
into two distinct periods. First, his life at Mecca,
as a preacher and a prophet. Second, his life at
Medina, as a prophet and a king.
It is only in the first of these periods that Islam
at all runs parallel with Christianity. The great
hody of his feUow-citizens rejected the ministry
of Mahomet, and bitterly opposed his claims. His
efforts at Mecca were, therefore, confined to teach-
ing and preaching, and to the publishing of the
earlier " Suras " or chapters of his " Revelation."
After some thirteen years spent thus, his converts,
to the number of about a hundred and fifty men
and women, were forced by the persecution of the
Coreish (the ruling tribe at Mecca, from which
Mahomet was descended), to quit their native
city and emigrate to Medina.' A hundred more
' See Life of Mahomet, p. 188. Smith aud Elder.
The Rapid Spread of Islam.
I
limited.
had previously fled from Mecca for the same
cause, and found refuge at the coui-t of the
Negus, or king of Abyssinia; and there were
already a small company of followers amongst the
citizens of Medina. At the utmost, therefore, the
number of disciples gained over by the simple
resort to teaching and preaching, did not, during
the first twelve years of Mahomet's ministry,
exceed a few hundreds. It is true that the soil
at Mecca was stubborn and (unlike that of Judsea)
wholly unprepared. The cause also, at times,
became the object of sustained and violent op-
position. Even so much of success was conse-
quently, under the peculiar circumstances, remark-
able. But it was by no means singular. The pro-
gress fell far short of that made by Christianity
during the corresponding period of its existence,*
and indeed by many reformers who have been the
preachers of a new faith. It gave no promise what-
ever of the marvellous spectacle that was about
to follow.
Having escaped from Mecca, and found a new u djaag,
and congenial home in Medina, Mahomet was not MeSnaf *
long in changing his front. At Mecca, surrounded
by enemies, he taught toleration. He was simply
the preacher commissioned to d6liver a message,
and bidden to leave the responsibility with his
Master and his hearers. He might argue with the
' Lif0 of Mahomstf p. 172, where the results are oomparad.
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
Arabia
conTerted
from
Medina at
the point of
the sword.
A.D.6S0.
A.V.68S.
disputants, but it must be "in a way most mild and
gracious;" for "in religion" (sucb was his teaching
before he reached Medina) " there should be neither
violence nor constraint."^ At Medina the precepts
of toleration were quickly cast aside, and his whole
policy reversed. No sooner did Mahomet begin to
be recognizv3 i and obeyed as the chief of Medina,
than he proceeded to attack the Jewish tribes
settled in the neighbourhood, because they refused
to acknowledge his claims and believe in him as
a prophet foretold in their Scriptures ; two of these
tribes were exiled, and the third exterminated in
cold blood. In the second year after the Hegira, or
flight from Mecca (the period from which the Ma-
hometan era dates), he began to plunder the caravans
of the Coreish, which passed near to Medina on
their mercantile journeys between Arabia and Syria.
So popular did the cause of the now militant and
marauding prophet speedily become amongst the
citizens of Medina and the tribes around, that
after many battles fought with varying success, he
was able, in the eighth year of the Hegira, to
re-enter his native city at the head of ten thou
sand armed followers. Thenceforward, success
was assured. None dared to oppose his preten-
sions. And before his death, in the eleventh year
of the Hegira, all Arabia, from Bab-el-Mandeb
and Oman to the confines of the Syrian desert,
Life of Mahomet, p. 341 ; Suraii. 267; xiix. 46.
The Rapid Spread of Islam.
was forced to submit to the supreme authority
of the now kingly prophet, and to recognize the
faith and obligations of Islam. ^
This Ibldm, so called from its demanding the entire ^J '
" surrender " of the believer to the will and service d^^^-
of God, is based on the recognition of Mahomet as
a prophet foretold in the Jewish and Christian
Scriptures, the last and greatest of the prophets.
On him descended the Goran, from time to time, an
immediate revelation from the Almighty. Idolatry
and Polytheism are with iconoclastic zeal denounced
as sins of the deepest dye ; while the unity of the
Deity is proclaimed as the grand and cardinal doc-
trine of the Faith. Divine providence pervades the
minutest concerns of life; and predestination is
taught in its most naked form. Yet prayer is en-
joined as both meritorious and effective ; and at five
stated times every day must it be specially per-
formed. The duties generally of the moral law are
enforced, though an evil laxity is given in the matter
of polygamy and divorce. Tithes are demanded as
alms for the poor. A fast during the month of
Ramzan must be kept throughout the whole of
every day ; and the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca,
an ancient institution, the rites of which were now
* The only exceptions were the Jews of Kheibar and the Christians
of Najrjin, who were permitted to continue in the profession of their
faith. They were, however, forced by Omar to quit the peninsula,
which thenceforward remained exclusively Mahometan.
" Islam " is a synonym for the Mussulman faith. Its original
meaniiig is '' surrender " of oneself to God.
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
Arabia
apostatixea:
but is
speedily
reconquered
and
redaimsd,
A.D. 63t.
divested of their heathenish accompaniments,
maintained. The existence of angels and devils is
taught ; and heaven and hell are depicted in ma-
terial colours, the one of sensuous pleasure, the
other of bodily torment. Finally, the resurrection,
judgment, and retribution of good and evil, are set
forth in great detail. Such was the creed there
is no god but the Lord, and Mahomet is his prophet
to which Arabia now became obedient.
But immediately on the death of Mahomet, the
entire Peninsula relapsed into apostasy. Medina
and Mecca remained faithful ; but everywhere
else the land seethed with rebellion. Some
tribes joined the " false prophets," of whom four
had arisen in different parts of Arabia; some
relapsed into their ancient heathenism; while
others proposed a compromise, they would observe
the stated times of prayer, but would be excused
the tithe. Everywhere was rampant anarchy.
The apostate tribes attacked Medina, but were
repulsed by the brave old Caliph Abu Bekr,
who refused to abate one jot or tittle, as the suc-
cessor of Mahomet, of the obligations of Islam.
Eleven columns were sent forth, under as many
leaders, trained in the warlike school of Ma-
homet. These fought their way step by step
successfully ; and thus, mainly through the wisdom
and firmness of Abu Bekr, and the valour
and genius of Khalid, "the Sword of God," th#
The Rapid S'pread of Islam,
Arab tribes, one by one, were overcome, and forced
back into tbeir allegiance and the profession of
Islam. The re-conquest of Arabia, and re-im-
position of Mahometanism as the national faith,
which it took a whole year to accomplish, is thus
described by an Arabian author, who wrote at the
close of the second century of the Mahometan era :
After his decease, there remained not one of the followers of
the Prophet that did not apostatize, saving only a small company
of his * ' Companions " and kinsfolk, who hoped thus to secure
the government to themselves. Hereupon, Abu Bekr displayed
mai'vellous skill, energy, and address, so that the power passed
into his hands. . . . And thus he persevered imtil the apostate
tribes were all brought back to their allegiance, some by kindly
treatment, persuasion, and craft ; some through terror and fear
of the sword ; and others by the prospect of power and wealth,
as well as by the lusts and pleasures of this life. And so it
came to pass that all the Bedouin tribes were in the end con-
verted outwardly, but not from inward conviction.^
The temper of the tribes, thus reclaimed by force JJj^g t^us
of arms, was at the first strained and sullen. But weij^Hhe
the scene soon changed. Suddenly the whole
peninsula was shaken, and the people, seized with
a burning zeal, issued forth to plant the new faith
in other lands. It happened on this wise.
first, sullen.
The columns sent from Medina to reduce the re- ^^^^^^ ^y
war cry,
bellious tribes to the north-west on the Gulf of JJ^S*
Ayla, and to the north-east on the Persian Gulf, TJ^^l^^
came at once into collision with the Christian "''
Bedouins of Syria on the one hand, and with those
' Apology of Al Kindy^ the Christian^ p. 18. Smith & Elder,
1882. This rsmarkuble Apolo^fist will be noticed further below.
10 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
of Mesopotamia on the other. These, again, were
immediately supported by the neighbouring forces
of the Roman and Persian empires, whose vassals
respectively they were. And so, before many months,
\^tm^ Abu Bekr found his generals opposed by great and
imposing armies on either side. He was, in fact,
waging mortal combat, at one and the same
moment, with the Kaiser and the Chosroes, the
Byzantine emperor and the great king of Persia
The risk was imminent, and an appeal went forth
for help to meet the danger. The battle-cry re-
sounded from one end of Arabia to the other, and
electrified the land. Levy after levy, en masses
started up at the call from every quarter of the
nthxuiasm. Peninsula ; and the Bedouin tribes, as bees from
their hive, streamed forth in swarms, animated by
the prospect of conquest, plunder, and captive
damsels; or, if slain in battle, by the still more
coveted prize of the " Martyr " in the material
paradise of Mahomet. With a military ardour
and new-born zeal in which carnal and spiritual
aspirations were strangely blended, the Arabs
rushed forth to the field, like the war-horse of
Job, " that smelleth the battle afar off, the thundei
of the captains and the shouting." Sullen con-
straint was in a moment transformed into an
absolute devotion and fiery resolve to spread the
faith. The Arab warrior became the Missionary
of Islam.
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 11
It was now the care of Omar, the second Caliph Arabs, a
military
or Ruler of the new-born empire, to establish a ^Jj^j'^^jj^^.
system whereby the spirit militant, called into mobilized bj
existence with such force and fervour, might be "'
rendered permanent. The entire Arabian people
was subsidized. The surplus revenues, which,
in rapidly increasing volume, began to flow from
the conquered lands into the Moslem treasuries,
were to the last farthing distributed among the
soldiers of Arabian descent. The whole nation was
enrolled, and the name of every warrior entered
upon the roster of Islam. Forbidden to settle
anywhere, and relieved from all other work, the
Arab hordes became, in fact, a standing army
threatening the world. Great bodies of armed
men were kept thus ever mobilized, separate and
in readiness for new enterprise.
The change which came over the policy of the Mission of
" XV Islam
Founder of the faith at Medina, and paved the ^Srba^^^
way for this marvellous system of world-wide
rapine and conversion to Islam, is thus described
by a thoughtful and sagacious writer :
.... Medina was fatal to the higher capabilities of Islam.
Mahomet became then a king ; his religion was incorporated
in a State that had to struggle for its life in the fashion famiHar
to the rough-handed sons of the desert. The Prophet was
turned into the legislator and commander ; his revelations were
now laws, and now military orders and manifestoes. The
mission of Islam became one that only the sword could accom-
plish, robbery of the infidel became meritorious, and conquest
the supreme duty it owed to the world. . .
12 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
The religion which lived an unprospering and precarious
life, 80 long as it depended on the prophetic word alone, became
an aggressive and victorious power, so soon as it was embodied
in a State.^
^*K?emer. Another learned and impartial authority tells us:
The Mussulman power under the first four Caliphs was
nothing but a grand religio-political association of Arab tribes
for universal plunder and conquest under the holy banner of
Islam, and the watch- word " There is no God but The Lord,
and Mahomet is His Apostle." On pretext of spreading the
only true religion, the Arabs swallowed up fair provinces lying
all around ; and, driving a profitable business, enriched them-
selves simultaneously in a worldly sense.*
Religious The motivcs which nerved the armies of Islam
merit of
Khe^tjFot^ ^^^^ ^ strange combination of the lower instincts
khs Lord. ^ nature with the higher aspirations of the spirit.
To engage in the Holy War was the rarest and
most blessed of all religious virtues, and conferred
on the combatant a special merit ; and side by side
with it lay the bright prospect of spoil and female
slaves, conquest and glory. " Mount thy horse,"
said Os^maibn Zeid to Abu Bekr as he accompanied
the Syrian army a little way on its march out of
Medina. " Nay," replied the Caliph, " I will not
ride ; but I will walk, and soil my feet a little
space in the ways of the Lord. Verily, every
footstep in the ways of the Lord is equal in merit
to manifold good works, and wipeth away a
' Principal Fairbaim: "The Primitive Polity of Islam,"
Contemporary Review, December, 1882, pp. 866, 867.
Herr von Kremer, CuUurgesehichte cUs Orients, unter den
Chalifen, vol. i., p. 383,
The Hapid Spread of Islam. 13
multitude of sins."^ And of the " Martyrs," those
who fell in these crusading campaigns, Mahomet
thus described the blessed state :
Think not, in any wise, of those killed in the ways of the
liord, a^ if they were dead. Yea, they are alive, and are
nourished with their Lord, exulting in that which God hath
given them of His. favour, and rejoicing in behalf of those who
have not yet joined them, but are following after. No terror
afflicteth them, neither are they grieved. Sura in.
The material fruits of their victories raised the Material
n . . . fruits of
Arabs at once from bemsr the needy inhabitants Moslem
of a stony sterile soil, where, with difficulty, they
eked out a hardy subsistence, to be the masters
of rich and luxuriant lands flowing with milk and
honey. After one of his great victories on the
plains of Chaldaea, KhMid called together his
troops, flushed with conquest, and lost in wonder
at the . exuberance around them, and thus ad-
dressed them: "Ye see the riches of the land.
Its paths drop fatness and plenty, so that the
fruits of the earth are scattered abroad, even as
stones are in Arabia. If but as a provision
for this present life, it were worth our while to
fight for these fair fields, and banish care and
penury for ever from us." Such were the aspira-
tions dear to the heart of evety Arab warrior.
Again, after the battle of Jal61a, a few years later,
the treasure and spoil of the Persian monarch
captured by the victors, was valued at thirty
' AnnaU ofth* Earlp Caliphate, p. 9. Smith & Elder, 1889.
14 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
million of dirhems (about a miUion sterling). The
royal fifth (the Crown share of the booty) was sent
as usual to Medina, under charge of Ziad, who, in
the presence of the CaHph Omar, harangued the
citizens in a glowing description of what had been
won in Persia, fertile lands, rich cities, and endless
spoil, beside captive maids and princesses.
Rich booty In relating the capture of Medain (the ancient
capital of Ctcsiphon), tradition revels in the untold wealth
i.D. 637. which fell into the hands of Sad, the conqueror,
and his followers. Besides millions of treasure,
there was endless store of gold and silver vessels,
rich vestments, and rare and precious things.
The Arabs gazed bewildered at the tiara, brocaded
vestments, jewelled armour, and splendid surround-
ings of the throne. They tell of a camel of silver,
life-size, with a rider of gold, and of a golden horse
with emeralds for teeth, the neck set with rubies,
the trappings of gold. And we may read in Gibbon
of the marvellous banqueting carpet, representing
a garden, the ground of wrought gold, the walks of
silver, the meadows of emeralds, rivulets of pearls,
and flowers and fruits of diamonds, rubies, and
rare gems. The precious metals lost their cor
ventional value, gold was parted with for its weight
in silver ; and so on. *
It is the virtue of Islam that it recognizes a
* Gibbon's Decline and Fally chapter li. ; and AnnaU of thu
Sarly Caliphate, p. 184.
The Rapid Spread of Islam. It
special Providence, seeing the hand of God, as in success in
everything, so pre-eminently also in victory. When SiS^d
Sad, therefore, had estahlished himself in the
palace of the Chosroes, he was not forgetful to
render thanks in a Service of praise. One of the
princely mansions was turned for the moment into
a temple, and there, followed by his troops, he
ascribed the victory to the Lord of Hosts. The
lesson accompanying the prayers, was taken from a
Sura (or i?hapter of the Corein) which speaks of
Pharaoh and his riders being overwhelmed in the
Red Sea, and contains this passage, held to be
peculiarly appropriate to the occasion:
How many Qardens and Fountains did they leave behind,
And Fields of com, and fair Dwelling-places,
And pleasant things which they enjoyed !
Even thus have We made another people to inherit the same.'
Such as fell in the conflict were called Martyrs ; dom*"*m'the
a halo of glory surrounded them, and special joys by mSS**
awaited them even on the battle-field. And
so it came to pass that the warriors of Islam had
an unearthly longing for the crown of martyr-
dom. The Caliph Omar was inconsolable at
the loss of his brother, Zeid, who feU in the fatal
" Garden of Death," at the battle of Yem^ma :
" Thou art returned home," he said to his son,
Abdallah, "safe and sound, and Zeid is dead.
Wherefore wast not thou slain before him ? I
Ibtd ; and Sura xliv. t. 25. Wej that ie, the Lord.
crusaders
16 The Rise and Decliifie of Islam,
wish not to see thy face.*' "Father," answered
S,wf of '"" Abdallah, '' he asked for the crown of martyrdom,
*^^ " and the Lord granted it. I strove after the same,
hut it was not given unto me."^ It was the
proud boast of the Saracens in their summons
to the craven Greeks and Persians, that " they
loved death more than their foes loved life.'*
Familiar with the pictures drawn in the Coran
of the beautiful "' Houries " of Paradise,^ the
Saracens believed that immediate fruition on the
field of battle was the martyr's special prize.
We are told of a Moslem soldier, fourscore years
of age, who, seeing a comrade fall by his side,
cried out, ** Paradise ! how close art thou
beneath the arrow's point and the falchion's flash !
Hashim ! even now I see heaven opened, and
black-eyed maidens all bridally attired, clasping
thee in their fond embrace." And shouting thus,
the aged warrior, fired again with the ardour of
youth, rushed upon the enemy, and met the envied
fate. For those who survived there was the less
ethereal but closer prospect of Persian, Greek, or
* Annals of the Early Caliphate, p. 46.
See, e.g., Sura Ixxriii. ; " Verily for the Pious, there is a blissful
abode : gardens and vineyards ; and damsels with swelling bosoms,
of a fitting age ; and a full cup. Lovely large-eyed girls, like pearls
hidden in their shells, a reward for that which the faithful shall
have wrought. Verily We have created them of a rare creation,
virgins, young and fascinating. . . . Modest damsels averting their
eyes, whom no man shall have known before, nor any Jinn," etc.
The reader will not fail to be struck by the materialistic cha-
vaeter of Mahomet's Paradise.
The Bapid Spread of Islam. 17
Coptic women, botli maids and matrons, who, on
"being taken captive by their right hand," were
forthwith, according to the Coran, without stint
of number, at the conqueror's will and pleasure.
These, immediately they were made prisoners,
might (according to the example of Mahomet him-
self at Kheibar) be carried off without further
ceremony to the victor's tent ; and in this respect
the Saracens certainly were nothing loth to execute
upon the heathen the judgment written in their
law. So strangely was religious fanaticism fed
and fostered in the Moslem camp by incentives
irresistible to the Arab ; fight and foray, the spoil
of war and captive charms.
The courage of the troops was stimulated by the Martial
. . , passages
divine promises of victory, which were read (and on reciteS?"
like occasions still are read) at the head of each battle.'
column drawn up for battle. Thus, on the field of
Cadesiya, which decided the fate of Persia, the
Sura Jehddy with the stirring tale of the thousand
angels that fought on the Prophet's side at Bedr
was recited, and such texts as these :
Stir wp the faithful unto battle. If there he
twenty stedfast among yoUy they shall put two hundred
to flight of the unbelievers, and a hundred shall put
to flight a thousand. Victory is from the Lord. He
is mighty and imse. I the Lord will cast terror into
the hearts of the infidels. Strike off their heads and
their fingers' ends. Beware lest ye turn your back
C
A.D. 635.
Yermuk
A.D. 634
18 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
in battle. Yerily^ he tlmt turneth his hack shall
draw down upon hi^nself the wrath of God. His
abode shall be hell fire; an evil journey thither.
And we are told that on the recital of these
verses " the heart of the people was refreshed, and
their eyes lightened, and they felt the tranquillity
that ensueth thereupon." Three days they fought,
and on the morning of the fourth, returning with
unahated vigour to the charge, they scattered to
the winds the vast host of Persia. ^
Defeat of JS'or was it otherwiso in the great hattle of the
Byzantine ^
viSuk.^^^ Yermuk, which laid Syria at the feet of the Arahs.
The virgin vigour of the Saracens was fired by a
wild fanatical zeal " to fight in the ways of the
Lord," obtaining thus heavenly merit and a worldly
prize the spoil of Syria and its fair maidens
ravished from their homes ; or should they fall
by the sword, the black-eyed houries waiting
for them on the field of battle. "Of warriors
nerved by this strange combination of earth and
heaven, of the flesh and of the spirit, of the in-
centives at once of faith and rapine, of fanatical
devotion to the Prophet and deathless passion for
the sex, ten might chase a hundred half-hearted
Romans. The forty thousand- Moslems were
stronger far than the two hundred and forty thou-
sand of the enemy." The combat lasted for weeks;
See Sura Jehad. Also Annals of the Early Caliphate^ p. 167
etaeq.
The Rapid Spread of Islwrn. 19
aid of
material
force.
but at the last the Byzantine force was utterly
routed, and thousands hurled in wild confusion
over the heetling cliffs of the Yerm{ik, into the
yawning chasm of "Wacusa. ^
Such, then, was the nature of the Moslem pro- "^f^^ ^^
paganda, such the agency by which the faith was
spread, and such the motives at once material
and spiritual, by which its martial Missionaries
were inspired. No wonder that the effete empires
of Rome and Persia recoiled and quivered at the
shock, and that province after province quickly
fell under the sway of Islam. It is far from my
intention to imply that the truths set forth by the
new faith had nothing to do with its success. On
the contrary, it may well be admitted that but
for those truths success might have been impos-
sible. The grand enunciation of the Divine Unity,
and the duty of an absolute submission to the
same; the recognition of a special Providence
reaching to the minutest details of life; the in-
culcation of prayer and other religious duties ; the
establishment of a code in which the leading prin-
ciples of morality are enforced ; and the acknow-
ledgment of previous revelation in the Jewish and
Christian Scriptures, told not only on the idolaters
of Arabia and the Fire- worshippers of Persia, but
on Jews and Samaritans, and the followers of a
debased and priest-ridden Christianity. All this
JbmaU ofths Early Caliphate^ p. 105, et. seq.
20
The Rise and Declitte of Islam.
Alternatives
offered to the
conquered
nations:
Islam, the
Sword, or
Tribute.
is true; but it is still not the less true that
without the sword, Islam would never have been
planted even in Arabia, much less ever have
spread to the countries beyond. The weapons of
its warfare were " carnal," material, and earthly ;
and by them it conquered.
The pressure brought to bear on the inhabitants
of the countries overrun by Saracen arms was of
the most stringent character. They were offered
the triple alternative Islam, the Sw^ord or
Tribute. The first brought immediate relief.
Acceptance of the faith not only stayed the enemy's
hand, and conferred immunity from the perils of
war, but associated the convert with his conquerors
in the common brotherhood and in aU the privileges
of Islam.
Reading the story of the spread of Islam, we
are constantly told of this and that enemy, that
" being beaten, he believed and embraced the
faith.*' Take as an example of an every- day occur-
rence, the story of Hormuzan. A Persian prince
of high rank long maintained a border warfare
against the Moslems. At last he was taken
prisoner, and sent in chains to Medina. As he
was conducted into the Great Mosque, Omar
exclaimed, ** Blessed be the Lord, that hath
humbled this man and the like of him ! " He bade
them disrobe the prisoner, and clothe him in sack-
doth. Then, whip in hand, he upbraided him for
Aeoeptanoe
of Islam,
immediate
relief from
the Bvord.
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 21
his oft- repeated attacks and treacliery. Hormuzan
made as if fain to reply ; then gasping, like one faint
from thirst, he hegged for water to drink. " Give
it him," said the Caliph, *' and let him drink in
peace." " Nay," cried the wretched captive, trem-
bling, *' I fear to drink, lest some one slay me
unawares." " Thy life is safe," said Omar, " until
thou hast drunk the water up." The words were
no sooner said than Hormuzdn emptied the vessel
on the ground. " I wanted not the water," he said,
" but quarter, and thou hast given it me." " Liar 1 "
cried Omar, angrily, " thy life is forfeit." " But
not," interposed the bystanders, " until he drink
the water up." " Strange,*' said Omar, " the
fellow hath deceived me ; and yet I cannot spare
the Hfe of one who hath slain so many noble
Moslems. I swear that thou shalt not gain by thy
deceit, unless thou wilt forthwith embrace Islam."
Upon that, ** believing, he made profession of the
true faith upon the spot;" and thenceforth, re-
siding at Medina, he received a pension of the
highest grade. ^
On the other hand, for those who held to their Tribute <md
humiliation.
ancestral faith, there was no escape from the second
or the third alternative. If they would avoid the
sword, or having wielded it were beaten, they must
become tributary. Moreover, the payment of tribute
is not the only condition enjoined by the Cor^n.
* See Annals, etc., p. 253.
Christians.
22 Tke Rise and Decline of Islam.
" Fight against them (the Jews and Christians) until
they pay tribute with the hand, and are humbled" ^
The command fell on willing ears. An ample
interpretation was given to it. And so it came to
pass that, though Jews and Christians were, on the
payment of tribute, tolerated in the profession of
their ancestral faith, they were yet subjected (and
iHsabiiities still are Subjected) to severe humiliation. The
Jews and uaturo and extent of the degradation to which
they were brought down, and the strength of
the inducement to purchase exemption and the
equality of civil rights, by surrendering their
religion, may be learned from the provisions which
were embodied in the Code named The Ordi-
nance of Omar^ which has been more or less
enforced from the earliest times. Besides the
tribute and various other imposts levied from
the "People of the Book,"^ and the duty of re-
ceiving Moslem travellers quartered upon them,
the dress of both sexes must be distinguished by
broad stripes of yellow. They are forbidden to
appear on horseback, and if mounted on a mule or
ass, their stirrups must be of wood, and their
saddles known by knobs of the same material.
Their graves must not rise above the level of the
soil, and the devil's mark is placed upon the lintel
of their doors. Their children must be taught by
* Swa IX. T. 30. ' So Jews and Christians as possessing
Uie Bible are named in the Cor&n.
The Rapid Spread of Islam, 2*3
Moslem masters, and the race, however able or well
qualified, proscribed from any- office of high
emolument or trust. Besides the churches spared
at the time of conquest, no new building can be
erected for the purposes of worship ; nor can free
entrance into their holy places at pleasure be
refused to the Moslem. No cross must remain
in view outside, nor any church bells be rung.
They must refrain from processions in the street
at Easter, and other solemnities ; and from any-
thing, in short, whether by outward symbol, word,
or deed, which could be construed into rivalry,
or competition with the ruling faith. Such was
the so-called Code of Omar. Enforced with less
or greater stringency, according to the intolerance
and caprice of the day, by different dynasties,
it was, and (however much relaxed in certain
countries), it still remains, the law of Islam. One
must admire the rare tenacity of the Christian
faith, which, with but scanty light and hope, held
its ground through weary ages of insult and de-
pression, and still survives to see the dawning of
a brighter day. ^
Such, then, was the hostile attitude of Islam ccntinump
militant in its early days ; such the pressure brought in times of
to bear on conquered lands for its acceptance ;
and such the disabilities imposed upon recusant
Jews and Christians. On the one hand, rapine,
* Se Annalif eto., p. 213.
24
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
plunder, slavery, tribute, civil disability; on the
other, security, peace, and honour. We need
not be surprised that, under such constraint,
conquered peoples succumbed before Islam. Nor
were the temporal inducements to conversion
confined to the period during which the Saracens
were engaged in spreading Islam by force of
arms. Let us come down a couple of centuries
from the time of Mahomet, and take the reign
of the tolerant and liberal-minded Sovereign,
Al Mamun.
Amongst the philosophers of all creeds whom
that great Cal:*ph gathered around him at Bagh-
dad, was a noble Arab of the Nestorian faith,
descended from the kingly tribe of the Beni
Kinda, and hence called Al Kindy, A friend of
this Eastern Christian, himself a member of the
Royal family, invited Al Kindy to embrace
Islam in an epistle enlarging on the distin-
guished rank which, in virtue of his descent,
he would (if a true believer) occupy at court,
and the other privileges, spiritual and material,
social and conjugal, which he would enjoy. In
reply, the Christian wrote an Apology of singular
eloquence and power, throwing a flood of light on
the worldly inducements which, even at that com-
paratively late period, abounded in a Moslem state
to promote conversion to Islam. Thus Al M&miin
himself, in a speech delivered before his council,
Evidence of
h\ Kindy in
second
century of
Uegira,
A.i>. 830.
The Rapid Spread of Islam.
25
characterizes certain of his courtiers accused as speech of
secret adherents of the Zoroastrian faith :
Though professing Islam, they are free from the same. This
they do to be seen of me ; while their convictions, I am well
aware, are just the opposite of that which they profess. They
belong to a class which embrace Islam, not from any love of
this our Faith, but thinking thereby to gain access to Our court,
and share in the honour, wealth, and power of the Realm.
They have no inward persuasion of that which they outwardly
profess }
Affain, speakinsr of the various classes brousrht converts
f^) ' r <=> *-> from sordid
over to Islam by sordid and unworthy motives, natives.
Al Kindy says :
Moreover, there are the idolatrous races, Magians and Je-ws,
low people aspiring by the profession of Islam to raise them-
selves to riches and power, and to form alliances with the
families of the learned and honourable. There are, besides,
hypocritical men of the world, who in this way obtain indul-
gences in the matter of marriage and concubinage which are
forbidden to them by the Christian faith. Then we have the
dissolute class given over wholly to the lusts of the flesh. And
lastly, there are those who by this means obtain a more secure
and easy livelihood.*
Before leaving this part of our subject, it may ^nSSSth
be opportune to quote a few more passages from SSesiw
Al Kindy, in which he contrasts the induce- Moslem*
ments that, under the military and political pre-
dominance of Islam, promoted its rapid spread,
and the opposite conditions under which Chris-
tianity made progress, slow indeed comparatively,
' The Apology of Al Kindy, written at the court of Al Ma.mun
A.H, 215 (a.d. 830), with an Essay on its age and authorship, p.
xii. Smith & Elder, 1882. Ibid., p. 34.
'nuur^.'
26
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
The
Christian
Confessor
and the
Moslem
Martyr.
but sure and steady. First, he compares the
Christian confessor with the Moslem " Martyr : "
I marvel much, he says, that ye call those Martyrs that fall
in war. Thou hast read, no doubt, in history of the followers
of Christ put to death in the persecutions of the kings of Persia and
elsewhere. Say, now, which are the more worthy to be called
martyrs, these, or thy fellows that fall fighting for the world and
the power thereof ? How diverse were the barbarities and kinds of
death inflicted on the Christian confessors ! The more they were
slain, the more rapidly spread the faith ; in place of one sprang up
a hundred. On a certain occasion, when a great multitude had been
put to death, one at court said to the king, " The number of them
increaseth, instead of as thou thinkest diminishing." "How
can that be ?" exclaimed the king. "But yesterday," replied
the courtier, "thou didst put such and such a one to death, and
lo, there were converted double that number ; and the people
say that a man appeared to the confessors from heaven strengthen-
ing them in their last moments. " Whereupon the king himself
was converted. In those days men thought not their lives dear
unto them. Some were transfixed while yet alive ; others had
their limbs cut off one after another ; some were cast to th wild
beasts, and others burned in the fire. Such continued long to
be the fate of the Christian confessors. No parallel is found
thereto in any other religion ; and all was endured with con-
stancy and even with joy. One smiled in the midst of his
great suffering. "Was it cold water," they asked, "that
was brought unto thee?" "No," answered the sufferer, "it
was one like a youth that stood by me and anointed my wounds ;
and that made me smile, for the pain forthwith depai-ted."
Now tell me seriously, my Friend, which of the two hath the
best claim to be called t^. Martyr, ** slain in the ways of the
Lord": he who sun-endereth his life rather than renounce his
faith ; who, when it is said, Fall down and worship the sun and
moon, or the idols of silver and gold, work of men's hands,
instead of the true God, refuseth, choosing rather to give up
life, abandon wealth, and forego even wife and family ; or he
that goeth foi-th, ravaging and laying waste, plundering and
spoiling, slaying the men, carrying away their children into
captivity, and ravishing their wives and maidens in his unlawful
embrace, and then shall call it " Jeh^d in the ways of the Lord?"
The Rapid Spread of Islam.
27
. . . And not content therewith, instead of humbling thyself
before the Lord, and seeking pardon for the crime, thou sayest
of such a one slain in the war that *' he hath earned Paradise,"
and thou namest him "a Martyr in the ways of the Lord " ! ^
And aarain, contrastinar the spread of Islam, AiKindy's
. . , . ,. r . , contrast of
"its rattling quiver and its glittering sword," with ie spread of
the silent progress of Christianity, our Apologist, ^rf^tiSft^*
after dwelling on the teaching and the miracles
of the Apostles, writes :
They published their message by means of these miracles ;
and thus great and powerful kings and philosophers and learned
men and judges of the earth hearkened unto them, without the
lash or rod, with neither sword nor spear, nor the advantages
of birth or " Helpers ; " ^ with no wisdom of this world, or
eloquence or power of language, or subtlety of reason ; with no
worldly inducement, nor yet again with any relaxation of the
moral law, but simply at the voice of truth enforced by miracles
beyond the power of man to show. And so there came over to
them the kings and great ones of the earth. And the philosophers
abandoned their systems, with all their wisdom and learning,
and betook them to a saintly life, giving up the delights of this
world together with their old-established usages, and became
followers of a company of poor men, fishers and publicans, who
had neither name nor rank, nor any claim other than that they
were obedient to the command of the Messiah He that gave
them power to do such wonderful works. ^
And yet once more, comparing the Apostles with TheApo8ti
the military chiefs of Islam, Al Kindy proceeds:
After the descent of the Holy Ghost and the gift of tongues,
the apostles separated each to the country to which he was
called. They wrote out in every tongue the Holy Gospel, and
with the
chiefs oi
Islam.
' Apology^ p. 47, et. seq.
Alluding to the ^^ Ansdr,' or martial "Helpers" of Mahomet at
Medina. Throughout, the Apologist, it will be observed, is drawing
a contrast with the means used for the spread of Islam.
3 Apology, p. 16.
28
lite Rise and Decline of Islam.
the story and teaching of Christ, at the dictation of the Holy
Ghost. So the nations drew near unto them, believing their
testimony ; and giving up the world and their false beliefs,
they embraced the Christian faith as soon as ever the dawn of
truth, and the light of the good tidings, broke in upon them. Dis-
tinguishing the true from the false, and error from the right
direction, they embraced the Gospel and held it fast without
doubt or wavering, when they saw the wonderful works and
signs of the apostles, and their lives and conversation set after
the holy and beautiful example of our Saviour, the traces
whereof remain even unto the present day. . . . How different
this from the life of thy Master (Mahomet) and his Companions,
who ceased not to go forth in battle and rapine, to smite with
the sword, to seize the little ones, and ravish the wives and
maidens, plundering and laying waste, and carrying the people
into captivity. And thus they continue unto this present day,
inciting men to these evil deeds, even as it is told of Omar the
Caliph. "If one amongst you," said he, "hath a heathen
neighbour, and is in need, let him seize and sell him." And
many such thuigs they say and teach. Look now at the lives
of Simon and PavJ, who went about healing the sick and
raising the dead, by the name of Christ our Lord; and mark
the contrast.^
Such are the
conclusions
of a native
of Chaldeea.
Ilindrancea
or iiiduce-
inberent m
the faith
itself.
Sucli are the reflections of one who lived at a
Mahometan Court, and who, moreover, flourishing
as he did a thousand years ago, was sufficiently
near the early spread of Islam to be able to con-
trast what he saw, and heard, and read, of the
causes of its success with those of the Gospel, and
had the courage to confess the same.
Apart, now, from the outward and extraneous
aids given to Islam by the sword and by the civil
arm, I will inquire, for a moment, what natural
effect the teaching of Islam itself had in attracting
Apology,]^, b7.
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 29
or repelling mankind. I do not now speak of any
power contained in the truths it inculcated to con-
vert to Islam hy the rousing and quickening of
spiritual impulses ; for that lies beyond my present
purpose, which is, to inquire whether there is not
in material causes and secular motives enough in
themselves to account for success. I speak rather
of the effect of the indulgences granted by Islam,
on the one hand, as calculated to attract ; and of
the restraints imposed and sacrifices required, on
the other, as calculated to repel. How far, in fact,
did there exist inducements or hindrances to its
adoption inherent in the religion itself ?
What may be regarded as the most constant Require
and irksome of the obligations of Islam is the isiam:
Prayer.
duty of prayer, which must be observed at stated
intervals, five times every day, with the contingent
ceremony of lustration. The rite consists of certain
forms and passages to be repeated with prescribed
series of prostrations and genuflexions. These
must be repeated at the right times, but any-
where, in the house or by the wayside, as well as
in the Mosque; and the ordinance is obligatory
in whatever state of mind the worshipper may-
be, or however occupied. As the appointed hour
comes round, the Moslem is bound to turn aside
to pray, so much so that in Central Asia we read
of the police driving the backward worshipper by
the lash to discharge the duty. Thus, with the
30
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
mass of Mussulmans, the obligation becomes a mere
formal ceremony, and one sees it performed any-
where and everywhere by the whole people, like
any social custom, as a matter of course. No
doubt, there are exceptions; but with the multi-
tude it does not involve the irksomeness of a
spiritual service, and so it sits lightly on high
and low. The Friday prayers should as a rule
be attended in the Mosque; but neither need
there be much devotion there; and once per-
formed the rest of the day is free for pleasure
or for business.^ The prohibition of wine is a re-
striction which was severely felt in the early days
of the faith ; but it was not long before the
universal sentiment (though eluded in some quar-
ters) supported it. The embargo upon games of
chance was certainly unpopular; and the pro-
hibition of the receipt of interest was also an
important limitation, tending as it did to shackle
the freedom of mercantile speculation ; but
they have been partially evaded on various
pretexts. The Fast throughout the month of
Ramz^n was a severer test; but even this lasts
only during the day; and at night from sunset
till dawn, all restrictions are withdrawn, not only
Prohibition
of wine,
games of
chance, and
usury.
Fast of
Ramzfin.
* I am not here comparing the value of these obserrances with
those of other religions. I am inquiring only how far the obligations
of Islam may be held to involve hardship or sacrifice such as might
have retarded the progress of Islam by rendering it on its first
introduction unpopular.
The Rajpid Spread
iu respect of food, but of all otherwise lawful
gratifications.^
There is nothiag, therefore, in the requirements littiethatii
and ordinances of Islam, excepting the Fast, that is S^these*^
, . ordinances.
very irksome to humanity, or which, as involving
any material sacrifice, or the renunciation of the
pleasures or indulgences of Hfe, should lead a man
of the world to hesitate in embracing the new faith.
On the other hand, the license allowed by the indulgences
Goran between the sexes, at least, in favour of the matter
. of wives and
the male sex, is so wide, that for such as have the concubines,
means and the desire to take advantage of it, there
need be no limit whatever to sexual indulgence. It
is true that adultery is punishable by death, and
fornication with stripes. But fchen the Coran gives
the believer permission to have four wives at a
time. And he may exchange them; that is, he
may divorce them at pleasure, takiog others in
their stead.^ And, as if this were not license
enough, the divine law permits the believer to
consort with all female slaves whom he may be the
master of, such, namely, as have been taken in
war, or have been acquired by gift or purchase.
These he may receive into his harem instead of
wives, or in addition to them; and without any
limit of number or restraint whatever, he is at
liberty to cohabit with them.
' See Sura ii., r. 88.
* Stwa^ ir. 18. " Exchange " is the word used in the Conm.
32 The Rise and Declim of Islam.
Polygamy, A few instances taken at random will enable the
and divoroB.* reader to judge how the indulgences thus allowed
tafaS!^ ' ^y ^^ religion were taken advantage of in the early-
days of Islam. In the great plague which devast-
ated Syria seven years after the Prophet's death,
Kh^lid, the Sword of God, lost forfij sons. Abdal
Rahman, one of the " Companions ** of Mahomet,
had issue by sixteen wives, not counting slave-
girls.^ Moghira ibn Shoba, another " Companion,"
and Governor of Kufa and Bussorah, had in his
harem eighty consorts, free and servile. Coming
closer to the Prophet's household, we find that
Mahomet himself at one period had in his harem
no fewer than nine wives, and two slave-girls.
Of his grandson Hasan, we read that his vagrant
passion gained for him the unenviable soubriquet
of The Divorcer; for it was only by continually
divorcing his consorts that he could harmonize
his craving for fresh nuptials with the require-
ments of the divine law, which limited the
number of his free wives to four. We are told
that, as a matter of simple caprice, he exercised
the power of divorce seventy (according to other
traditions ninety) times. When the leading men
complained to Aly of the licentious practice of his
son, his only reply was, that the remedy lay in their
own hands, of refusing Hasan their daughters alto-
' Each of his widows had 100,000 golden pieces left her. Li/t ^
U^homet, p. 171.
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 33
gether.^ Such are the material inducements, the
"works of the flesh," which Islam makes lawful
to its votaries, and which promoted thus its early-
spread.
Descending now to modern times, we still find that Practice in
this sexual license is taken advantage of more or less times.
in different countries and conditions of society. The
following examples are simply meant as showing
to what excess it is possible for the believer to
carry these indulgenees, under the sanction of his
religion. Of the Malays in Penang it was written The Maiayi
not very long ago : " Young men of thirty to
thirty- five years of age may be met with who
have had from fifteen to twenty wives, and chil-
dren by several of them. These women have
been divorced, married others, and had children
by them." Regarding Egypt, Lane tells us: "I ^^g^oj,
have heard of men who have been in the habit e^^^^
of marrying a new wife almost every month." ^
Burkhardt speaks of an Arab, forty-five years old,
who had had fifty wives, "so that he must have
divorced two wives and married two fresh ones on
the average every year." And not to go further
' " These divorced wives were irrespective of his concubines or
slave-girls, upon the number and variety of whom there was no
limit or check whatever." Annals^ p. 418.
Lane adds, " There are many men in this country who, in the
course of ten years, have married as many as twenty, thirty, or
more wives ; and women not far advanced in age have been wives
to a dozen or more husbands successively.'
entirely within the religioui sanction.
34
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
than the sacred city of Mecca, the late reigning
Princess of Bhop^l in Central India, herself an
orthodox follower of the Prophet, after making the
pilgrimage of the Holy places, writes thus :
The Princess
of Bnop&l's
accoTint of
Mecca,
Islam
sanctions a
license
between th
sexes which
Christianity
forbids.
Women frequently contract as many as ten marriages, and
those who have only been married twice are few in number.
If a woman sees her husband growing old, or if she happen to
admire anyone else, she goes to the Shereef (the spiritual and
civil head of the holy city) ; and after having settled the matter
with him, she puts away her husband, and takes to herself
another, who is perhaps young, good-looking, and rich. In
this way a marriage seldom lasts more than a year or two.
And of slave-girls, the same high and impartial
authority, still writing of the Holy city and of her
fellow Moslems, tells us:
Some of the women (African and Georgian girls) are taken
in marriage ; and after that, on being sold again, they receive
from their masters a divorce, and are sold in their houses,
that is to say, they are sent to the purchaser from their master's
house on receipt of payment, and are not exposed for sale in the
slave-market. They are only married when purchased for the
first time. . . . When the poorer people buy (female) slaves they
keep them for themselves, and change them every year as one
would replace old things by new ; but the women who have
children are not sold.^
What I desire to make clear is the fact that
such things may he practised with the sanction
of the Scripture which the Moslem holds to he
* Filgrimage to Mecca, by Her Highness the reigning Begiun of
Bhopal ; translated by Mrs. W. Osborne, 1870, pp. 82, 88. Slave-girls
cannot be married until freed by their master. What Her Highness
tells us of women divorcing their husbands, is of course entirely ultra
vires, and shows how the laxity of conjugal relations allowed to the
male sex has extended itself to the female also, and that in a city
where, if anywhere, we should have expected to find the law observed.
Tfte Rapid Sjpread of Islam. 35
divine, and that these same indulgences have from
the first existed as inducements which helped
materially to forward the spread of the faith. I
am very far, indeed, from implying that excessive
indulgence in polygamy is the universal state of
Moslem society. Happily this is not the case.
There are not only individuals, but tribes and
districts, which, either from custom or preference,
voluntarily restrict the license given them in the
Goran ; while the natural influence of the family,
even in Moslem countries, has an antiseptic ten-
dency that often itself tends greatly to neutralise
the evil.^ Nor am I seeking to institute any con-
trast between the morals at large of Moslem
countries and the rest of the world. If Christian
nations are (as with shame it must be confessed)
in some strata of society immoral, it is in the teeth
of their Divine law. And the restrictions of that oJ^gganitJ
law are calculated, and in the early days of Chris- froSSmai
tianity did tend, in point of fact, to deter men, ^ ^ ^^'^'^'^
devoted to the indulgences of the flesh, from em-
' In India, for example, there are Mahometan races among whom
monogamy, as a rule, prerails by custom, and individuals exercising
their right of polygamy are looked upon with disfavour. On the
other hand, we meet occasionally with men who aver that rather
against their will (as they will sometimes rather amusingly say)
they have been forced by custom or family influence to add by
polygamy to their domestic burdens. In Mahometan countries,
however, when we hear of a man confining himself to one wife,
it does not necessarily follow that he has no slaves to consort with
in his harem. I may remark that slave-girls have by Mahometan
laws no conjugal rights whatever; but are like playthings at the
biolute discretion of their master.
36 The Rise and Decline oj Islam.
bracing the faith.^ TLe religion of Mahomet, on
the other hand, gives direct sanction to the sexual
indulgences we have been speaking of. Thus it
panders to the lower instincts of humanity, and
makes its spread the easier. In direct opposition
to the precepts of Christianity, it " makes provision
for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." Hence
Islam the Islam has been well called by its own votaries the
"EasT
y- Easy Way. Once more, to quote Al Kindy :
Thou iBvitest me (says our Apologist to his Friend) into the
** Ef^y way of faith and practice." Alas, alas ! for our Saviour
in the Gospel telleth us, ' ' When ye have done all that ye are
commanded, say, "We are unprofitable servants ; we have but done
that which was commanded us." Where then is our merit ?
The same Lord Jesus saith, ** How strait is the road which
leadeth unto Ufe, and how few they be that walk therein ! How
wide the gate that leadeth to destruction, and how many there
be that go in thereat!" Different this, my Friend, from the
comforts of thy wide and easy gate, and the facilities for enjoy-
ing, as thou wouldst have me, the pleasures offered by thy faith
in wives and damsels ! ^
wy
' The case of the Corinthian offender is much in point, as showing
how the strict discipline of the Church must have availed to make
Christianity unpopular with the mere worldling.
' Apology^ p. 51. I repeat that, in the remarks I have made
under this head, no comparison is sought to be drawn betwixt the
morality of nominally Christian and Moslem peoples. On thii
subject I may be allowed to quote from what I have said elsewhere :
Laarity The Itloslem advocate will urge . . the social evil as the necessary
nomiifal result of inexorable monogamy. The Cora,n not only denounces any
Christians ; illicit laxity between the sexes in the severest terms, but exposes the
transgressor to condign punishment. For this reason, and because
the conditions of what is licit are so accommodating and wide, a
certain negative virtue (it can hardly be called continence or chastity)
pervades Mahometan society, in contrast with which the gross and
systematic immorality in certain parts of every European community
may be regarded by the Christian with shame and confusion. In
/
The Spread of Islam Stayed. 37
n.
Why the Spread op Islam was Stayed.
Having thus traced the rapid early spread of J^^^nary
Islam to its proper source, I proceed to the remain- ^J^f'
ing topics, namely, the causes which have checked So^iida
its further extension, and those likewise which have
depressed the followers of this religion in the scale
of civilization. I shall take the former first, just
remarking here in respect of tho latter, that the
depression of Islam is itself one of the causes
which retard the expansion of the faith.
As the first spread of Islam was due to the ^gei^
sword, so when the sword was sheathed Islam ^n*S?y,to
ceased to spread. The apostles and missionaries of cSuading
Islam were, as we have seen, the martial trihes of
a purely Mahometan land, however low may he the general level of
moral feeling, the still lower depths of fallen humanity are unknown.
The " social evil," and intemperance, prevalent in Christian lands,
are the strongest weapons in the armoury of Islam. We point, and
justly, to the higher morality and civilization of those who do
observe the precepts of the Gospel, to the stricter unity and virtue
which cement the family, and to the elevation of the sex ; but in
vain, while the example of our great cities, and too often of our
representatives abroad, belies the argument- And yet the argument
is sound. For, in proportion as Christianity exercises her legitimate Vanishes in
influence, vice and intemperance will wane and vanish, and the cimstianSy
higher morality pervade the whole body; whereas in Islam the exercises
deteriorating influences of polygamy, divorce, and concubinage, ^^^pg
have been stereotyped for all time." The Coran: its Composition
and Teaching, and the Testimony it bears to the Eoly Scriptures,
p. 60.
38 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
Arabia; that is to say, tlie grand miKtary force
organized by Omar, and by him launched upon
the surrounding nations. Gorged with the
plunder of the world, these beganj after a time,
to settle on their lees, and to mingle with the
ordinary population. So soon as this came to
pass, they lost the fiery zeal which at the first
had made them irresistible. By the second and
third centuries, the Arabs had disappeared as the
standing army of the Caliphate, or, in other words, as
a body set apart for the dissemination of the faith.
The crusading spirit, indeed, ever and anon burst
forth, and it still bursts forth, as opportunity oflfers,
simply for the reason that this spirit pervades the
Coran, and is ingrained in the creed. But with the
special agency created and maintained during the
first ages for the spread of Islam, the incentive of
crusade ceased as a distinctive missionary spring of
action, and degenerated into the common lust of
conquest which we meet with in the world at large.
With The extension of Islam depending upon military
cessation of j. o x ./
rSTceased succcss, stoppcd whorevcr that was checked. The
to spread. religion advaucod or retired, speaking broadly, as
the armed predominance made head or retroceded.
Thus the tide of Moslem victory, rushing along
the coast of Africa, extinguished the seats of
European civilization on the Mediterranean, over-
whelmed Spain, and was rapidly advancing north,
when the onward wave was stemmed at Tours;
The Spread of Islam Stayed,
and so with the arms, the faith also, of Islam was
driven back into Spain, and bounded by the
Pyrenees. So likewise, the hold which the religion
seized both of Spain and Sicily came to an end
with Mussulman defeat. It is true that when once
long and firmly rooted, as in India and China,
Islam may survive the loss of military power, and
even flourish. But it is equally true, that in no
single country has Islam been planted, nor has it
anywhere materially spread, saving under the
banner of the Crescent, or the political ascendancy
of some neighbouring state. Accordingly, we find
that, excepting some barbarous zones in Africa
which have been raised thereby a step above the
grovelling level of fetishism, the faith has in
modern times made no advance worth mentioning. ^
From the Jewish and Christian religions there has
' Much loose assertion has been made regarding the progress of Islam Alleged
in Africa; but I have found no proof of it apart fromanned, political, igj'^^^'*
or trading influence, dogged too often by the slave trade ; to a great Africa,
extent a social rather than a religious movement, and raising the
fetish tribes (haply without intemperance) into a somewhat higher
stage of semi-barbarism. I have met nothing which would touch
the argument in the text. The following is the testimony of Dr.
Koelle, the best possible witness on the subject :
" It is true, the Mohammedan nations in the interior of Africa,
namely, the Bornuese, Mandengas, Pulas, etc., invited by the weak
and defenceless condition of the surrounding negro tribes, still
occasionally make conquests, and after subduing a tribe of Pagans,
by almost exterminating its male population, and committing the
most horrible atrocities, impose upon those that remain the creed
of Islam; but keeping in view the whole of the Mohammedan
world, this fitful activity reminds one only of those green branches
sometimes seen on trees, already, and for long, decayed at the core
from age." Food for Reflection^ p. 37.
40
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
(again speaking broadly) been no secession what-
ever to Islam since the wave of Saracen victor}' was
stayed, excepting by the force of arms. Even in the
palmy days of the Abbasside Caliphs, our Apologist
could challenge his adversary to produce a single con-
version otherwise than by reason of some powerful
material inducement. Here is his testimony :
Al Kindy's
challenge to
produce a
Christian
convert to
Islam apart
from
material in-
ducements.
Now tell me, hast thou ever seen, my Friend (the Lord be
gracious tinto thee !) or ever heard, of a single person of soimd
mind any one of learning and experience, and acquainted with
the Scriptures renouncing Christianity otherwise than for some
worldly object to be reached only through thy religion, or for
some gratification withheld by the faith of Jesus ? Thou wilt
find none. For, excepting the tempted ones, all continue sted-
fast in their faith, secure under our most Gracious Sovereign,
in the profession of their own religion.^
III.
Low Position of Islam in the Scale of
Civilization.
Social and
intellectual
depresiion.
Islam
intended for
the Arabs.
I PASS on to consider why Mahometan nations
occupy so low a position, halting as almost every-
where they do in the march of social and intellectual
development.
The reason is not far to find. Islam was meant
for Arabia, not for the world ; ^for the Arabs of
the seventh century, not for the Arabs of all time ;
and being such, and nothing more, its claim of
^ Apologift p. 84.
The Decadence of Islam. 41
divine origin renders change or development im-
possible. It has within itself neither the germ of
natural growth, nor the lively spring of adaptation.
Mahomet declared himself a prophet to the
Arabs ;^ and however much in his later days
he may have contemplated the reformation of
other religions beyond the Peninsula, or the further
spread of his own (which is doubtful), still
the rites and ceremonies, the customs and the
laws enjoined upon his people, were suitable (if
suitable at all) for the Arabs of that day, and in
many respects for them alone. Again, the code
containing these injunctions, social and ceremonial,
as well as doctrinal and didactic, is embodied with
every particularity of detail, as part of the divine
law, in the Cor&n ; and so defying, as sacrilege, all
human touch, it stands unalterable for ever. From
the stiff and rigid shroud in which it is thus
swathed, the relis:ion of Mahomet cannot emerge, wants tne
. . faculty of
It has no plastic power beyond that exercised in adaDtatiou
its earliest days. Hardened now and inelastic, it can
neither adapt itself, nor yet shape its votaries,
nor even suffer them to shape themselves, to the
varying circumstances, the wants and developments
of mankind.
We may iudge of the local and inflexible cha- Local
''<''-> ^ ceremonies;
racter of the faith from one or two of its ceremonies. Pilgrimage.
To perform the pilgrimage to Mecca and Mount
Annuls, pp. 61, 224.
42 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
Arafat, with the slaying of victims at Mina, and
the worship of the Kdaba, is an ordinance obliga-
tory (with the condition only that they have the
means) on all believers, who are bound to make
the journey even from the furthest ends of the
earth; an ordinance intelligible enough in a
local worship, but unmeaning and impracticable
when required of a world-wide religion. The
Fast of same may be said of the Fast of Ramz^n. It is
RamzSn.
prescribed in the Cordn to be observed by all with
undeviating strictness, during the whole day, from
earliest dawn till sunset, throughout the month, with
specified exemptions for the sick, and penalties for
every occasion on which it is broken. The com-
mand, imposed thus with an iron rule on male and
female, young and old, operates with excessive
inequality in different seasons, lands, and climates.
However suitable to countries near the equator,
where the variations of day and night are imma-
terial, the Fast becomes intolerable to those who
are far removed either towards the north or the
south ; and, still closer to the poles, where night
merges into day, and day into night, impracticable.
Again, with the lunar year (itself an institution
divinely imposed), the month of E-amzan travels in
the third of a century from month to month over
the whole cycle of a year. The Fast was estab-
lished at a time when Kamzan fell in winter, and
the change of season was probably not foreseen
The Decadence of Islam. 43
by the Prophet. But the result is one which,
under some conditions of time and place, involves
the greatest hardship. For, when the Fast comes
round to summer, the trial in a sultry climate, like
that of the huming Indian plains, of passing the
whole day without a morsel of bread or a drop of
water, becomes to many the occasion of intense
suffering. Such is the effect of the Arabian
legislator's attempt at circumstantial legislation in
matters of religious ceremonial.
Nearly the same is the case with all the religious
obligations of Islam, prayer, lustration, etc. But ^^^^
although the minuteness of detail with which these ow^ng'to*"
are enjoined, tends towards that jejune and formal be^in^th*
worship which we witness everywhere in Moslem
lands, still there is nothing in these observances
themselves which (religion apart) should lower the
social condition of Mahometan populations, and
prevent their emerging from that normal state of
semi-barbarism and imcivilized depression in which
we find all Moslem peoples. For the cause of this
we must look elsewhere; and it may be recognized,
without doubt, in the relations established by the
Goran between the sexes. Polygamy, divorce,
servile concubinage, and the veil, are at the root of
Moslem decadence.
In respect of married life, the condition allotted BepreaOm
^ . . . ofthe
by the Coran to woman is that of an inferior femaOei
dependent creature, destined only for the servicej.
44 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
of lier master, liable to be cast adrift without tlie
assignment of a single reason, or the notice of a
single hour. While the husband possesses the
power of divorce, absolute, immediate, unquestioned,
QO privilege of a corresponding nature has been
reserved for the wife. She hangs on, however
unwilling, neglected, or superseded, the perpetual
slave of her lord, if such be his will. When
actually divorced, she can, indeed, claim her dower,
her hirey as it is called in the too plain language
of the Coran ; but the knowledge that the wife can
make this claim is at the best a miserable security
against capricious taste ; and in the case of bond-
maids even that imperfect check is wanting. The
power of divorce is not the only power that may be
exercised by the tyrannical husband. Authority
to confine and to heat his wives is distinctly vested
in his discretion.^ " Thus restrained, secluded, de-
graded, the mere minister of enjoyment, liable at
the caprice or passion of the moment to be turned
adrift, it would be hard to say that the position of
a wife was improved by the code of Mahomet."^
Divorce. Evcu if the privilege of divorce and marital tyranny
be not exercised, the knowledge of its existence
as a potential right must tend to abate the self-
respect, and in like degree to weaken the influence
of the sex, impairing thus the ameliorating and
civilizing power which she was meant to exercise
> Sura IV. V. 33. * Life of Mahomet y p. 348.
The Decadence of Islam.
45
upon mankind. And the evil has been stereotyped
by the Goran for all time.
I must quote one more passage from Principal Principal
Fairbairn on the lowering influence of Moslem homeuS^"
. under Islam.
domestic life:
The god of Mohammed . . . "spares the sins the Arab loves.
A religion that does not purify the home cannot regenerate the
race ; one that depraves the home is certain to deprave humanity.
Motherhood is to be sacred if manhood is to be honourable. Spoil
the wife of sanctity, and for the man the sanctities of life have
perished. And so it has been vrith Islam. It has reformed and
lifted savage tribes ; it has deprived and barbarised civilized
nations. At the root of its fairest culture, a worm has ever
lived that has caused its blossoms soon to wither and die. "Were
Mahomet the hope of man, then his state were hopeless ; before
him could only be retrogression, tyranny, and despair."^
Still worse is the influence of servile concubinage, pemoraiiz-
Tlie following is the evidence of a shrewd and able S^serviil^**
observer in the East :
All Zenana life must be bad for men at all stages of their
existence. ... In youth, it must be ruin to be petted and
spoiled by a company of submissive slave-girls. In manhood,
it is nd less an evil that when a man enters into private life,
his affections should be put up to auction among foolish, fond
competitors full of mutual jealousies and slanders. We are
not left entirely to conjecture aa to the effect of female influence
on home life, when it is exerted under these unenlightened
and demoralizing conditions. That is, plainly, an element lying
at the root of all the most important features that differentiate
progress from stagnation. *
Such are the institutions which ffnaw at the root petenorat-
" ingmflnenoe
of Islam, and prevent the growth of freedom and estlbiSd
The City of Ood, p. 97. Hodder & Stoughton, 1883.
" The Turks in India, by H. Qt. Keene, o.s.i. Allen & Company,
1879.
between tba
sexes.
46 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
civilization. "By these tlie unity of the household
is fatally broken, and the purity and virtue of the
family tie weakened ; the vigour of the dominant
classes is sapped ; the body politic becomes weak
and languid, excepting for intrigue ; and the throne
itself liable to fall a prey to a doubtful or contested
succession,"^ contested by the progeny of the
various rivals crowded into the royal harem. From
the palace downwards polygamy and servile con-
cubinage lower the moral tone, loosen the ties of
domestic life, and hopelessly depress the people.
The VeiL Nor is the Ycil albeit under the circumstances
a necessary precaution less detrimental, though
in a different way, to the interests of Moslem
society. This strange custom owes its origin
to the Prophet's jealous temperament. It is for-
bidden in the Coran for women to appear unveiled
before any member of the other sex, with \_ie
exception of certain near relatives of specified pro-
pinquity.^ And this law, coupled with other restric-
tions of the kind, has led to the imposition of the
Boorka or Furdah (the dress which conceals the
person, and the veil), and to the greater or less
seclusion of the Harem and Zenana.
Annals, etc., p. 457.
See Sura xxiv. v. 32. Tlie excepted relations are : " Husbands,
fathers, husbands' fathers, sons, husbands' sons, brothers, brothers'
sons, sisters' sons, the captives which their right hands possess,
such men as attend them and hare no need of women, or children
below the age of puberty "
The Decadence of Islam. 47
This ordinance, and the practices flowing from it, Society
must survive, more or less, so long as the Cor^n the^ ^
withdrawal
remains the rule of faith. It may appear, at first f ^^\
sight, a mere negative evil, a social custom com-
paratively harmless ; hut in truth it has a more
debilitating effect upon the Moslem race perhaps
than anything else, for by it Woman is totally with-
drawn from her proper place in the social circle.
She may, indeed, in the comparatively laxer license
of some lands, be seen flitting along the streets
or driving in her carriage ; but, even so, it is like
one belonging to another world, veiled, shrouded,
and cut off from intercourse with those around
her. Free only in the retirement of her own
secluded apartments, she is altogether shut out
from her legitimate sphere in the duties and
enjoyments of life. But the blight on the sex
itself, from this unnatural reg^alation, sad as it is,
must be regarded as a minor evil. The mischief
extends beyond her. The tone and framework of
society, as it came from the Maker's hands, are
altered, damaged, and deteriorated. From the veil
there flows this double injury. The bright, refining,
softening influence of woman is withdrawn from the
outer world ; and social life, wanting the gracious
influences of the female sex, becomes, as we see
throughout Moslem lands, forced, hard, unnatural,
and morose. Moreover, the Mahometan nations, J^uncated'"
for all purposes of common elevation, and for all ^o^eS '
raedan
society
48 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
efforts of philantliropy and liberty, are (as they
live in public and beyond the inner recesses of
tbeir homes) but a truncated and imperfect ex-
hibition of humanity. They are wanting in one
The defects of its coustitueut parts, the better half, the human-
of Moham- ^ . .
izing and the softening element. And it would
be against the nature of things to suppose that the
body thus shorn and mutilated, can possess in itself
the virtue and power of progress, reform, and
elevation. The link connecting the family with
social and public life is detached, and so neither is
en rapport, as it should be, with the other. Eeforms
fail to find entrance into the family, or to penetrate
the domestic soil, where alone they could take root,
grow into the national mind, live and be per-
petuated. Under such conditions the seeds of
civilization refuse to germinate. No real growth
is possible in free and useful institutions, nor any
permanent and healthy force in those great move-
ments which elsewhere tend to uplift the masses
and elevate mankind. There may, it is true, be
some advance, from time to time, in science and
in material prosperity ; but the social groundwork
for the same is wanting, and the people surely
relapse into the semi-barbarism forced upon them
by an ordinance which is opposed to the best in-
stincts of humanity. Sustained progress becomes
impossible. Such is the outcome of an attempt
to improve upon nature, and banish Woman, the
The Decadence of Islam. 49
help-meet of man, from tlie position assigned by-
God to her in the world.
At the same time I am not prepared to say that Jefesi!/^"
in view of the laxity of the conjugal relations Sfngcir-
inherent in the institutions of Islam, some such
social check as that of the Veil (apart from the
power to confine and castigate) is not needed for
the repression of license and the maiatenance of
outward decency. There is too much reason to
apprehend that free social intercourse might other-
wise he dangerous to morality under the code oi
Mahomet, and with the example before men
and women of the early worthies of Islam. So
long as the sentiments and habits of the Moslem
world remain as they are, some remedial oi
preventive measure of the kind seems indispens-
able. But the peculiarity of the Mussulman polity^
as we have seen, is such that the sexual laws and
institutions which call for restrictions of the kind,
as founded on the Coran are incapable of change ;
they must co-exist with the faith itself, and last
while it lasts. So long, then, as this polity prevails,
the depression of woman, as well as her exclusion
from the social circle, must injure the health and
vitality of the body politic, impair its purity and
grace, paralyze vigour, retard progress in the direc-
tion of freedom, philanthropy, and moral elevation,
and generally perpetuate the normal state of
Mahometan peoples, as one of semi-barbarism.
50 The Rise aivl Jjrdhie of Islam.
R^apituia- To recapitulate, we have seen :
First. That Islam was propagated mainly by the
sword. With the tide of conquest the religion
went forward ;" where conquest was arrested it
made no advance heyond ; and at the withdrawal
of the Moslem arms the faith also commonly
retired.
Second. The inducements, whether material or
spiritual, to embrace Islam, have proved insufficient
of themselves (speaking broadly) to spread the
faith, in the absence of the sword, and without the
influence of the political or secular amL
Third. The ordinances of Islam, those especially
having respect to the female sex, have induced an
inherent weakness, which depresses the social
system, and retards its progress.
Contrast ^^ ^^ reader should have followed me in the
oiristianity argument by which these conclusions have been
reached, the contrast with the Christian faith has no
doubt been suggesting itself at each successive step.
I hnstianity Christianity, as Al Kindy has so forcibly put it,
')'?Spag.tcd gained a firm footing in the world without the
sword, and without any aid whatever from the
secular arm. So far from having the countenance
of the State, it triumphed in spite of opposition,
persecution, and discouragement. "My kingdom,"
said Jesus, * is not of this world. If My kingdom
)Ot
110
i)y force,
The Decadence of Islam. 5 1
were of this world, then would My servants fight
that I should not he delivered to the Jews ; but
now is My kingdom not from hence. . . For this
end came I into the world, that I should hear
witness to the truth. Every one that is of the
truth, heareth My voice." ^
The religion itself, in its early days, offered no Nor by
worldly attractions or indulgences. It was not, ^ucements.
like Islam, an "Easy way.** Whether in with-
drawal from social observances deeply tainted with
idolatry, the refusal to participate in sacrificial
ceremonies insisted on by the rulers, or in the
renunciation of indulgences inconsistent with a
saintly life, the Christian profession required self-
denial at every step.
But otherwise the teaching of Christianity AdaptiTe
principles
nowhere interfered with the civil institutions of andpiastio
faculty of
the countries into which it penetrated, or with any Christianity
social customs or practices that were not in them-
selves immoral or idolatrous. It did not, indeed,
neglect to guide the Christian life. But it did so by
the enunciation of principles and rules of wide and
far-reaching application. These, no less than the
injunctions of the Oor&n, served amply for the
exigencies of the day. But they have done a vast
deal more. They have proved themselves capable
of adaptation to the most advanced stages of
social development and intellectual elevation. And
John xyiii. 36, 37.
Examples:
Slayery.
52 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
what is infinitely more, it may be claimed for the
lessons embodied in the Gospel that they have
been themselves promotive, if indeed they have
not oeen the immediate cause, of all the most
important reforms and philanthropies that now
prevail in Christendom. The principles thus laid
down contained germs endowed with the power of
life and growth which, expanding and flourishing,
slowly it may be, but surely, have at the last home
the fruits we see.
Take, for example, the institution of Slavery. It
prevailed in the Eoman Empire at the intrjduction
of Christianity, as it did in Arabia at the rise of
Islam. In the Moslem code, as we have seen, the
practice has been perpetuated. Slavery must be
held permissible so long as the CorsLn is taken to
be the rule of faith. The divine sanction thus im-
pressed upon the institution, and the closeness with
which by law and custom it intermingles with
social and domestic life, make it impossible for any
Mahometan people to impugn slavery as contrary
to sound morality, or for any body of loyal believers
to advocate its abolition upon the ground of prin-
ciple. There are, moreover, so many privileges
and gratifications accruing to the higher classes
from its maintenance, that (excepting under the
strong pressure of European diplomacy) no sincere
and hearty effort cail be expected from the Moslem
race in the suppression of the inhuman traffic, the
"'^
The Decadence of Islam. 63
^_ ,
horrors of wHcli, as pursued by M^oslem slave
traders, their Prophet would have been the first to
denounce. Look now at the wisdom with which
the Gospel treats the institution. It is nowhere in
so many words proscribed, for that would, under
the circumstances, have led to the abnegation of
relative duties and the disruption of society. It is
accepted as a prevailing institution recognized by
the civil powers. However desirable freedom
might be, slavery was not inconsistent with the
Christian profession: "Art thou called being a ioor.vii^2i.
servant P care not for it : but if thou mayest be
made free, use it rather." The duty of obedience
to his master is enjoined upon the slave, and
the duty of mildness and urbanity towards his
slave is enjoined upon the master. But with all
this was laid the seed which grew into emancipa-
tion. ** Our Father" gave the keynote of freedom.
" Ye are aU the children of God by faith in Christ gf- ^- .
Jesus." " There is neither . . bond nor free,
for ye are all one in Christ Jesus." "He that l^^"^
is called in the Lord, being a servant, is the Lord's
freeman." The converted slave is to be received
*' not now as a servant, but above a servant, a brother Philemon w
beloved." The seed has borne its proper harvest.
Late in time, no doubt, but by a sure and certain
development, the grand truth of the equality of the
human race, and the right of every man and woman
to freedom of thought, and (within reasonable
64 The Rise and Decline of Islam.
limit of law) to freedom of action, lias triumplied;
and it has triumphed through the spirit and the
precepts inculcated hy the gospel eighteen hundred
years ago.
Relations j^or is it otherwise with the relations established
between the
'^^^'* oetween the sexes. Polygamy, divorce, and concu-
binage with bondmaids, have been perpetuated, as
we have seen, by Islam for all time ; and the ordi-
nances connected therewith have given rise, in the
laborious task of defining the conditions and limits of
what is lawful, to a mass of prurient casuistry defiling
the books of Mahometan law. Contrast with this
our Saviour's words, ** He which made them at the
ifatt, six. 4. heginning made them male and female. , What
therefore God hath joined together let no man put
asunder. ^^ From which simple utterance have
resulted monogamy, and (in the absence of
adultery) the indissolubility of the marriage bond.
While in respect of conjugal duties we have such
. Cor. vii. 8. large, but sufficiently intelligible, commands as *' to
render due benevolence," whereby, while the obli-
gations of the marriage state are maintained,
Christianity is saved from the impurities which, in
expounding the ordinances of Mahomet, surround
the sexual ethics of Islam, and cast so foul a stain
upon its literature.
vim!l^^ ' Take, again, the place of woman in the world.
We need no injunction of the veil or the harem.
As the temples of the Holy Ghost, the body is to
The Decadence of Islam, 55
be kept undefiled, and every one is "to possess iThe8.iT.4
his vessel in sanctification and honour." Men are
to treat " the elder women as mothers ; the younger i Tim. v. 2.
as sisters, with all purity.'* "Women are to " adorn
themselves in modest apparel, with shamef acedness 1 1'im. a
and sobriety." These, and such like, maxims
embrace the whole moral fitness of the several
relations and duties which they define. They are
adapted for all ages of time, and for all conditions
of men. They are capable of being taken by every
individual for personal guidance, according to his
own sense of propriety, and they can be accom-
modated by society at large with a due reference
to the habits and customs of the day. The attempt
of Mahomet to lay down, with circumstantial
minuteness, the position of the female sex, the
veiling of her person, and her withdrawal from
the gaze of man, has resulted in seclusion and
degradation; while the spirit of the gospel, and
injunctions like that of " giving honour to i ^t ui. ^
the wife as to the weaker vessel,'' have borne
the fruit of woman's elevation, and have raised
her to the position of influence, honour, and
equality, which (notwithstanding the marital supe-
riority of the husband in the ideal of the Christian
family) she now occupies in the social scale.
In the type of Mussulman government, which ^^^
(though not laid down in the Goran) is founded ^^**^-
upon the spirit of the Faith and the precedent of the
56
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
Christianity
leaves
humanity
free to
expand.
Prophet, tlie civil is indissolubly blended with the
spiritual authority, to the detriment of rehgious
liberty and political progress. The Ameer, or com-
mander of the faithful, should, as in the early
times, so also in all ages, be the Imdm, or religious
chief ; and as such he should preside at the weekly
Cathedral service. It is not a case of the Church
being subject to the State, or the State being
subject to the Church. Here (as we used to see
in the Papal domains) the Church is the State,
and the State the Church. They both are one.
And in this, we have another cause of the back-
wardness and depression of Mahometan society
Since the abolition of the temporal power in Italy,
we have nowhere in Christian lands any such
theocratic union of Caesar and the Church, so that
secular and religious advance is left more or less
unhampered. Whereas in Islam, the hierarchicho-
political constitution has hopelessly welded the
secular arm with the spiritual in one common
sceptre, to the furthering of despotism, and elimi-
nation of the popular voice from its proper place
in the concerns of State.
And so, throughout the whole range of political,
religious, social and domestic relations, the
attempt made by the founder of Islam to provide
for ail contingencies, and to fix everything afore-
hand by rigid rule and scale, has availed to cramp
and benumb the free activities of life, and to
TheCoran
checks
progress.
Conclusion. 61
paralyze the natural efforts of society at healthy
growth, expansion, and reform. As an author
already quoted has so well put it : " The Gordn
has frozen Mahometan thought ; to obey it is to
abandon progress" ^
Writers have indeed been found who, dwelling isisiam
upon the benefits conferred by Islam on idolatrous any nation?
and savage nations, have gone so far as to hold
that the religion of Mahomet may in consequence
be suited to certain portions of mankind, as if the
faith of Jesus might peaceably divide with it the
world. But surely to acquiesce in a system which
reduces the people to a dead level of social de-
pression, despotism, and semi-barbarism, would be
abhorrent from the first principles of philanthropy.
With the believer, who holds the gospel to be
" Good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all
people,'* such a notion is on higher grounds un-
tenable ; but even in view of purely secular con-
siderations it is not only untenable, but altogether
unintelligible. As I have said elsewhere:
LukaiLIti
The eclipse in the East, which still sheds its blight on the
ancient seats of Jerome and Chrysostom, and shrouds in dark-
ness the once bright and famous Sees of Cyprian and Augustine,
has been disastrous everywhere to liberty and progress, equally
as it has been to Christianity. And it is only as that eclipse
shall pass away, and the Sun of Kighteousness again shine forth,
that we can look to the nations now dominated by Islam sharing
with us those secondary but precious fruits of Divine teaching.
Then with the higher and enduring blessings which our faith
* Dr. Fairbaim, G<mtmporary Eeview^ p. 866.
58
The Rise and Decline of Islam.
bestows, but not till then, we may hope that there will follow
likewise in their wake freedom and progress and all that tends
to elevate the human race.^
No dacrifioe
for Bin, or
redemptive
grace.
Although, with the view of placing the argument
on independent ground, I have refrained from touch-
ing the peculiar doctrines of Christianity, and the
inestimable benefits which flow to mankind there-
from, I may be excused, before I conclude, if I
add a word regarding them. The followers of
Mahomet have no knowledge of God as a Father ;
still less have they knowledge of Him as " Our
Father," the God and Father of the Lord Jesus
Christ. They acknowledge, indeed, that Jesus
was a true prophet sent of God ; but they deny
His crucifixion and death, and they know nothing
of the power of His resurrection. To those who
have found redemption and peace, in these the
grand and distinctive truths of the Christian faith,
it may be allowed to mourn over the lands in
which the light of the Gospel has been quenched,
and these blessings blotted out, by the material
forces of Islam ; where, together with civilization
and liberty, Christianity has given place to gross
darkness, and it is as if now "there were no
more sacrifice for sins." We may, and we do, look
forward with earnest expectation to the day when
knowledge of salvation shall be given to these
* The Early Caliphate and Rise of Islam y being the Rede Lectora
for 1881, delivered before the University of Cambridge, p. 28.
Conclusion. 59
nations " by the remission of their sins, through the
tender mercy of our God, whereby the dayspring
from on high hath visited us, to give light to Jji??,**
them that sit in darkness, and in the shadow of
death, to guide our feet into the way of peace."
But even apart from these, the special blessings contrast
of Christianity, I ask, which now, of the two J^^an*^^
faiths, bears, in its birth and growth, the mark ^^^
of a Divine hand, and which the human stamp ?
Which looks likest the handiwork of the God of
Nature who " hath laid the measures of the earth," Job xxxviu
5.
acd "hath stretched the line upon it," but not the
less with an ever- varying adaptation to time and
place ? and which the artificial imitation ?
" As a Reformer, Mahomet did indeed advance his people to jg|jQ,
a certain point ; but as a Prophet he left them fixed immovably
at that point for all time to come. As there can be no return,
8o neither can there be any progress. The tree is of artificial
planting. Instead of containing within itself the germ of growth
and adaptation to the various requirements of time, and clime,
and circumstance, expanding with the genial sunshine and the
rain from heaven, it remains the same forced and stunted thing
aH when first planted twelve centuries ago."^
Such is Islam. Now what is Christianity P
Listen to the prophetic words of the Founder Him- compared by
* * (Jilll>l to
self, who compares it to the works of Nature ; ^oi'^Natl^e
'^ So is the kingdom of Ood, as if a man should cast seed into jy3^j.jj jy^ ^
the ground ; 27, 28.
''And should sleep, and rise night and day, and the seed should
spring and grow up, he knoweth not how.
'* For the earth hringeth forth fruit of herself: first the hUtde^
then the ear, after that the full corn i/n the ear."
* The Corany etc., p. 66.
60
The Rise and Decline of Islam,
Mark iy. 80,
31. 32.
Islam the
work of
man:
Christianity
the work of
God.
Psalm bczii.
i7, 8, 18, 19.
And again:
^^Whereunto shall we liken the hingdom of Ood, or with what
comparison shall we compare it f
**It is like a grain of mustard seed, which when U is sown in
the earth, is less than all seeds that be in the earth ;
** But when it is sown, it groweth up and becometh greater than
all herbs, wnd shooteth out greai branches, so that the fowls of the
air may lodge under the shadow of it. "
Which, is Nature^ and which is Arty let the
reader judge. Which hears the impress of man's
hand, and which that of Him who " is wonderful
in counsel, and excellent in working ? "
In fine, of the Arabian it may be said :
" Hitherto shali thou com^y hvt no further, and here shall thy
proud waves be stayed,"
But of Christ,
" His name shall endure for ever. His namt shaU be continued
as long as the sun. And men shall be blessed m Him; all nations
shall call Him blessed.
" He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the
river unto the ends of the earth.
** Blessed be the Lord God, the God of Israd, who only doeth
wondrous things. And blessed be His glorious name for evei'; and
fet the whole earth be filled with His glory. Amen, and A m^n. *'
CHRISTIANITY AND CONFUCIANISM
COMPARED
IN THEIR
Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man
BY
JAMES LEGGE, LL.D.
iv
Argument of the %xul
The writer does not institute a comparison between Christianity as
a whole and Confucianism. He does not dwell upon the teaching
of Christianity as to the moral and spiritual condition of man by
nature, nor on the redeeming and regenerating power of Chris-
tianity, but confines himself to a comparison between the teaching
of the respective systems on the whole duty of man.
The whole duty of man, according to Christianity, is comprised
in the word love. Christ's love to us is to be the measure, and
His death for us the motive, of our love to one another. This
love will prompt to obedience, self-control, and self-denial. The
Christian will seek to be perfect, according to the prayer of the
Apostle for the entire sanctification of believers. Christianity
teaches the cultivation of the more winning as well as the sterner
graces of character.
Confucianism teaches men the discharge of their duties in the
various relations of life. It regards the moral nature as conferred
on men by God, and so gives a religious sanction to the per-
formance of human duties. The worship of God is confined to the
sovereign. The religious sensibilities of the people flow into the
worship of parents and ancestors, as a part of filial piety, which is
regarded as the first and chief of human duties. The general rule
of Confucius and the golden rule of Christ are compared, and the
original character of the latter is vindicated. The absence of any
glow of piety in the teaching of Confucius, and the uncertainty in
which he left his followers about religion, are pointed out.
The superiority of Christian to Confucian teaching is shown to
consist in the importance it attaches to the duties of religion, in
the nearness of God to men which it reveals, the advantages which
this nearness confers, in placing all our social duties under the guar-
dianship of God, and the strength it assures to us in the battle
with temptation, in the motive to which it appeals for obedience, in
the duties which it inculcates with reference to the five relations
of society, in the perfection of the example it offers for our imita-
tion in our sinless High Priest and Saviour, who is the revelation
of the Father. Confucianism is shown to be incapable of produc-
ing fruits comparable to the character formed by Christianity when
its principles have free course. The aggressive character of
Christianity, and what is needed in order to win the Chinese to
Christ, are indicated.
CHRISTIANITY AND CONFUCIANISM COMPARED
IN THEIR TEACHINQ OP
THE WHOLE DUTY OF MAN.
ROM the teackings of Christianity and "F^^^^f
Confucianism I have selected and con- cS??
fined myself to one important point, by
their treatment of which we may form
a jud-gment as to their comparative worth. The
subject chosen, however, as the ground of com-
parison between them is a testing one, and that in
which the cause of Confucianism is specially strong.
The courses and styles of life, to the attainment
of which they respectively call their followers, will
enable the reader to decide which of them is the
more suited to secure the complete and harmonious
development of our nature, to make men good, and
to make them happy.
It was one of the deep, if somewhat enigmatic
utterances of Confucius (Analects xv. 28), " Man confudus
^ ' ' on man
can enlarge his principles of conduct; it is not p^n^piea
those principles that enlarge man." His idea was,
that man is greater than any system which he
may be called to follow, and that there is that in
4 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
him which constitutes him its judge, and will
enahle him to supplement and complete it, if that
he necessary. In accordance with that saying, I
will endeavour to set forth what Christianity and
Thewhoie Confuciauism lay down as The Whole Duty
duty 01 man. "
OF Man, and then ask my readers to judge of
their own selves which of the two is the right
teaching ; or, if it shall he thought that hoth are
good, then to say which is the hetter.
J?cS-*^^ Let us begin with Christianity. I prefer to do
tiiT^bjSt- ^^' because my readers are probably all acquainted
with it. I cannot tell them anything about its
teaching on the point in hand which they have not
often heard and read. I must refer to it, how-
ever, stirring up their minds, it may be, only by
way of remembrance, but preparing them thereby
all the better to appreciate and estimate what I
shall shortly tell them about the teaching of Con-
fucianism. What, then, is the Whole Duty of
Man according to Christianity ?
There will probably occur to most, in answer to
J?iSer"^ this question, the words of the Hebrew preacher
(Eccles. xii. 13) : " Let us hear the conclusion of
the whole matter ; Fear God, and keep His com-
mandments: for this is the whole duty of man."
When the preacher thus spoke of " the command-
ments of God," he, no doubt, had in his mind
what we call " The Ten Commandments ; " the
"Ten Words," as the Hebrew text of the Bible
vn their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 5
has it, in wMch God summed up His legislation for
the infant nation at mount Sinai. Of those com-
mandments " the mediator/' Moses, himself gave The
summary of
a summary in the two sentences : ** Thou shalt ^'^^ Ten
' Command-
love Jehovah thy God with all thine heart, and Sm2.^^
with all thy soul, and with all thy might " (Deut.
vi. 5) ; and " Thou shalt love thy neighbour as
thyseH''(Lev. xix. 18).
It may be said that this was a summary of the
Jewish law, while in this Tract we have to do with
Christianitv. But Christ made it His own. On Adopted by
Christ.
one occasion, when He was asked by a lawyer, one
of the Pharisees, which was the great command-
ment (Matt. xxii. 36), He answered : '* Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and
with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is
the great and first commandment. And a second
like unto it is this : Thou shalt love thy neigh-
bour as thyself. On these two commandments
hangeth the whole law and the prophets." Did
not Christ in these words adopt the Mosaic sum-
mary of the Jewish law, and repeat it with His
own authority?
But we have been told that that second sentence
in the summary of man's duty, as originally de-
livered, follows the injunction, " Thou shalt not SS^^
bear any grudge against the children of thy people," ^pp^**^***"*
so that it was only of national, and not of universal,
application. This objection, however, cannot be
6 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
urged against the re-affirmation of it by Christ,
when, replying to a vicious application of it, in His
Sermon on the Mount (Matt. v. 43), He pronounced,
Whom we " But I sav unto you, Love your enemies." Then
are to love. jj'^
we have His parable of the G-ood Samaritan (Luke
X. 30-37), in answer to the question, "Who is
my neighbour?" teaching us that all who need
our sympathy and assistance, without distinction
of nation or creed, should be regarded as our
neighbours, and be loved and helped by us.
According to Christianity, therefore, the whole
duty of man is comprised in the one little word
Love. That is " the fulfilling of the law." And
Christ went beyond *'tho law." It was impos-
sible to insist more strongly on the love of God
than Moses, or rather than Jehovah Himself
speaking by the mouth of Moses, had done ;
but the love of our neighbour appears in the
Gospels enjoined more emphatically than in the
summary of it which has come to us with our
Christ's love Lord's approval and commendation. He said : " A
to us to be .
the measure ncw commaudmont I ffive unto you, that ye love
of our love " J f J
Sio^CT. ^ another, even as I have loved you, that ye
also love one another " (John xiii. 34 ; comp. xv.
12). These words show the depth of His meaning
in the declaration in the Sermon on the Mount,
that He was come not to destroy the law or the
prophets, but to fulfil them. And thus those who
heard them understood Him. Witness the Ian-
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. *i
guage of *' the beloved disciple : '* " Hereby know oimsfB
"^ ... atoning
we love, because He laid down His life for us ; and sacrifice to
' ^ ' be the
we ouofht to lay down our lives for the brethren " ^0*7 '
o "^ our love to
(1 John iii. 16). one another.
Where there is love not to say this love there
will be the performance of all its promptings. The
duties which we owe will be discharged sincerely,
and to the extent of our ability. This implies of what is
^ implied in
course the exercise of self-government, and the thiaiove.
regulation of all the faculties in the continent of
our nature. Every contrary lust and selfish desire,
every angry impulse and passion must be denied
lodgment even in the deep and hidden recesses of
the breast. He who is seekiner to fulfil his whole The aim
. . . . of the
duty as enjoined by Christ will be striving, under christian.
the constraint of love, to be perfect emotionally,
intellectually, and practically, a true son of God
his Father, a faithful servant of Christ his Lord.
The object of the Christian ministry is ** for the
perfecting of the saints'* (Eph. iv. 12). The
Apostle Paul wrote to the Corinthians, " This also The
^ ^ ^^^ Apostle's
we pray for, even your perfecting" (2 Cor. xiii. 9). JJ^y^'^J^fg.
His prayer for the Thessalonians was, " The God Jtiieveri
of peace Himself sanctify you wholly, and may
your spirit and soul and body be preserved entire,
without blame " (1 Thess. v. 23). The summary summary 0/
of his teaching, as inculcated on the Philippians, teaching.
was : *' Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are
true, whatsoever thin2:s are h(Jiiourab]e, whatsoever
8 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
tilings are just, whatsoever things are pure, what-
soever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of
good report, ^if there be any virtue, and if there
he any praise, think on these things " (Phil. iv. 8).
Such is a brief exhibition of the teaching of
Christianity on the duty of man. I will leave it
for the present, and proceed to show the teaching
Confucian of Confuciauism on the same subject. And I am
teaching.
glad to be able to place in the forefront a descrip-
tion of it by the highest Chinese authority.
The second emperor of the present dynasty
(1662-1722), certainly a very great man, pubKshed
in 1670 what has become known in Europe as the
Khang-hsi Sacred Edict, a collection of sixteen
Sefo?S' Precepts, by which his people should form their
5^4er. characters, and order their conduct, involving
all principles essential to their goodness and
happiness, and to the prosperity of the empire. It
was enacted that, on the first and fifteenth day
of every month, it should be read in the hearing
of the soldiery and people in each statistical division
of the country. The emperor's son and successor,
whose reign is called the Yung-chang period
tiS^oX (1723-1735), published in 1724 an Amplification
Precepts. ^f ^^g Prcccpts in a high style of composition,
forming a volume of elegant essays or sermons,
which should be read on those days. But such
finished Chinese compositions are not intelligible
to a promiscuous audience without commentary
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 9
and paraphrase ; and by-and-by there appeared
a colloquial Exposition of the Essays, admirably couoquiai
* * _^_^ '' exposition
adapted for popular use, by Wang Yd-po, the of them.
Salt-comptroller of Shen-hsi province. A Han
Fang tells us that, having been appointed governor
of Canton province in 1808, and become acquainted
with Wang's paraphrase, he selected four scholars
with very distinct enunciation, to deliver it on
the appointed days in the Canton dialect. *' The
people," he says, "thronged round them, and such The delivery
a change was effected that they exceedingly loved p"^^-
to hear, and found it easy to practise." He then
distributed it throughout the districts, and charged
the local officers to proclaim it everywhere, "and
not leave a single person, even along the thinly-
inhabited coasts of the sea, ignorant and dis-
obedient." The Paraphrase has thus very generally
superseded the balanced sentences of the AmpHfica-
tion. The public reading of it approaches more
nearly to our popular preaching than anything
else in China. Other expositions of the Precepts, other
* ^ exposituwa.
some of them profusely illustrated, and others in
easy verse, are also widely known. The publication
of the Khang-hsi edict has been a great success.
The text of the seventh Precept is this; "Dis- '^^^
countenance and put away strange principles, in
order to exact the correct doctrine." " The correct
doctrine " is Confucianism, or the whole duty of
man as inculcated by the great sage and the other
10 Ckristianity and Confucianism Compared
and older sages, whose views it was his boast that
The strange he transmitted. " The stranffe principles " are all
principles. o i c
systems of doctrine of a contrary character, and
teaching other ways of life. Chief among them
are Buddhism and Taoism, which, though tolerated
and even supported to some extent by the govern-
ment of China, are not regarded as orthodox, and
should be discountenanced and put a\^ay. Chris-
tianity also is mentioned, and men are warned
against believing it; but it was very little that
they knew about it in China two hundred years
The imperial ago. Ou what "the corrcct doctrine** is, the
AjnplJfieron . i a ^'n
the correct imperial Amplifier says :
doctrine.
* * Man, born in the position intermediate between heaven and
earth, has nothing to attend to but the relationships of society
and the regular constituents of moral worth, which are daily
called mto exercise. All should observe and pursue these, the
wise as well as the simple. The sages and worthies do not
approve of the search after what is abstruse, and the practice of
what is marvellous."
The ^ The Paraphrast expands these and one or two
Paraphrasrs ^ *
expansion, nioro sentcuces in the following manner :
** What is most to be feared for the manners and customs of
the people is that they become violent and selfish. But if men'
hearts be not good, how can their manners and customs be
generous and right? The heart of man, indeed, is naturally
perfectly upright and correct ; but through the existence of
corrupt doctrines, men all get to practise and learn what is not
good. That their hearts may be good, therefore, we must look
to what they learn and practise, and make sure that it is correct
and right. Here is man, with his head towards heaven and his
feet planted on the earth, in the middle of all existing things ;
he is endowed with a natural rectitude all complete ; and there
axe the requirements of duty in his lot. la there anything
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 11
besides, anything marvellous or rare, that he has to do? There
are simply the relations of ruler and minister, of father and son,
of husband and wife, of elder brother and younger, and of friend
and friend. No one, whether intelligent or stupid, may neglect,
even for a single day, the courses proper to those relationships.
If, besides those courses, beyond your proper lot, you go aboiit
to seek after refined and mysterious dogmas, and to engage in
strange and marvellous performances, you wUl show yourselves
to be very bad men."
In what they thus say on the seventh Precept, ^J^l^*^
neither the Amplifier nor his Paraphrast tells us
what the "regular constituents of our moral
nature *' are, nor what are the duties of the several
memhers of the five relations. They did not think
it necessary to enter on these suhjects, their Chinese
readers being familiar with them from their early
years. It will he well for me, however, to touch
briefly on both topics at this point, in order to
clear the way for the further prosecution of my
argument. It is not necessary nor in accordance
with the plan of this Tract, to discuss what is said
about the heart of man being naturally upright
and correct. "The five regular constituents of The five
" regular
our moral nature" are the principles, attributes X^^*SmI
and faculties, of benevolence, righteousness, pro- ^^.ture.
priety, wisdom, and sincerity. The duties of the
human lot in the five relations, as stated by Mencius,
are " between father and son, affection ; between
ruler and subject, righteousness ; between husband
and wife, attention to their separate functions ;
between elders and youngers, a proper distinction ;
12 Christianity and Confucianism Comparea
and between friends, fidelity."^ A more detailed
account of these duties is given in what we may
nie^chineso call the Chinese Primer, the first book which boys
learn at school. " Affection between father and son ;
concord between husband and wife ; kindness on
the part of the elder brother, and deference on the
part of the younger ; order between seniors and
juniors; sincerity between fiiends and associates;
respect on the part of the ruler, and loyalty on
that of the minister : these are the ten righteous
courses equally binding on all men." ^
But in these additions to the statements of the
authorities which I have been using, there is
nothing to indicate clearly that in "the correct
doctrine,*' the Confucian orthodoxy of China, there
Only social is required of men anything but the discharge of
treated in their dutiGs in the relations of society. It is not
these state-
ments. ^0 be wondered at that some Christian writers, in
comparing Confucianism and Christianity, and not
well acquainted with the former, should contend
that we have in it " an attempt to substitute a
morality for a theology." ^ I will point out imme-
diately wherein their view is defective; but at
present we freely grant to them that in the above
1 See Mendus, lu, L, 4. 8.
2 This is taken from The Classic in Lines of Three Characteri.
(San Tsze King), by Wang Po-hao, better known poi hajjs as Wang
Yung lin, of our 13th century. The fullest treatment of the
duties is in The Booh of the Record of Rites.
* See Dr. Matheson, The Faiths of tlie World. Lecture m.
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. Vd
expositions of man's duties there is no mention of
any duty wMcli lie owes to God. There are the
five relations of society : let him manifest his cog-
nizance of them, and to the utmost of his ability
discharge their requirements. There are the five
constituents of his moral nature ; let him show his
appreciation of them, and regulate that discharge in
accordance with them. Let him do this, and there
is nothing more that he ought to do. I do not say JJ'?*^}^^-"^
that this is a poor ideal of human duty, or that it Jeiation"^
is not a high ideal of it; but it does not say a word and'ood"'
about any relation between man and God. The first
and great commandment of Christ is: "Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with
aU thy soul, and with all thy mind." On this
those Confucian teachers are absolutely silent.
Does the religion of China, then, teach anything
about any worship of God or of other beings ? No
one who has sufficiently studied writings that have
come down to us from an antiquity greater than
that of Confucius, and with his approval, or those
still older than the beginning of our era, and pur-
porting to record his words and sentiments, ^ill
venture to say that it does not. ^
In the first place, the relations of society and ^^J|^^^"
the duties belonging to them are set forth as the jorth^he^
appointments of Heaven or God. We have a and duties
treatise called "The Doctrine of the Mean," by the appoint
, . ment of
the grandson of Confucius. It contains a con- heaven.
14 Chrostianity and Confucianism Compared
A. moral
densed exhibition of Ms teaching, and begins with
this sentence : " What heaven has conferred is
called The Nature ; an accordance with the
nature is called The Path of Duty ; the regula-
tion of the path is called The System of Instruc-
tion." A great monarch, in the eighteenth cen-
tury, B.C., proclaimed :
"The great God has conferred even on the inferior people a
moral sense, compliance with which would show their nature
im variably right." ^
A poem of the ninth century B.C. commences thus :
** Heaven, in giving birth to the multitudes of the people, to
every faculty and relationship annexed its law. The people
possess this normal nature, and they consequently love its
normal virtue. Heaven beheld the ruler of Chau, brilliantly
affecting It, by his conduct below, and to maintain him, It
son, gave birth to Chung Shan-fii."*
These passages testify that while man is by his
moral nature constituted a law to himself, he is so
by the act and decree of God ; a religious sanction
is given to all his relationships and his performance
ferred by
God.
A religious
sanction
given to all
man's duties
andrelation. ^f ^J^gij, ^^^'gg^
In the second place, among the relations of
1 See The Sacred Books of the East, ni., p. 90.
* Tlie Sacred Books of the East, m., p. 425. I have
/endfied the stanza in The Book of Ancient Poetry, pp. 334-7:
Heaven made the race of men,
With nature good and large ;
Functions of body, powers of mind,
Their duties to discharge.
All men this normal nature own ;
Its normal nature all men crown.
With love sincere and true.
Heaven by our Sovereign's course was moved
And him to aid, Its son approved,
(}ave birth to Chung Shan-f^
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 15
society is that of father and son, or of parent and
cHld. The " affection " belonging to it takes, on
the part of the son, the form of filial piety. My J^ ^H^_^
readers will all have heard of this as the distin- SristiSSle
guishing characteristic of the Chinese race. It is eser^ce.
so. Filial duty is with them the first and great
commandment. " It is/' they say, " the first and
chief of all human virtues." I do not wish to
detract from their commendations of it, nor to deny
the general estimate of their observance of it. I
look, indeed, on the long-continued existence and
growth of the Chinese nation as a fulfilment of
the promise annexed to our fifth commandment,
" Honour thy father and mother, that thy days
may be long in the land which the Lord thy God
giveth thee." But now Confucianism inculcates The worship
, of the dead
the worship of the dead as a part of filial piety. ^^^^^
The sage himself specifies five things as necessary ^^^y-
to its full discharge : the utmost reverence, the
amplest and most ungrudging support, the greatest
anxiety when parents are ill, every demonstration
of grief in mourning for them, and the utmost
solemnity in sacrificing (or presenting oblations) to
them. ^ Quotations need not be multiplied. To
bow before the shrines of ancestors and parents, to
present offerings to them, and to pray to them,
these things are as much essential to filial duty as
obedience to the commands of parents, reverently
1 The Sacred Books of the East, m., p. 480.
16 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
An element lionouring them, copying their good example, and
in the ministeriner to their wants. Thus in this highest
highest ^ 1 1
moralities of ^f j^-\^q moralitios of Confucianism there is also the
Ck)niuciaa>
"^ element of religion. And it would be easy to sub-
stantial :> further this point by adducing the worship
which the system enjoins, not only of ancestors
and parents, but also of the departed great, of all
who have distinguished themselves as legislators,
inventors of useful arts, general benefactors, and
patriots.^
G^l^con- ^^ *^ ^^^^ place, there is in Confucianism a
fudanism. ^Q^ship of God Himsclf . From time immemorial,
there has been in China the belief of one Supreme
Being, first indicated by the name heaven, and
then by the personal designation of God as the
Supreme Lord and Ruler. For between three and
four thousand years at the least, there has been
the worship of this Being; but as formally ap-
proved and organized by the ordinances of the
^^edto State, it is confined to the Sovereign for the time
"*^- being. He renders it in the suburbs of his capital
on a few occasions in the course of the year, attended
by certain of his nobles and official functionaries ;
but of the people there are none with him. It was
preStaTon ^* ^^^t, uo doubt, a representative worship by the
gj^^ehead g^^^ ^f ^^^ Family ; it continued to be the same
when the Family grew into the Tribe ; it is still
^ Seethe writer's ReUgions of China (Hodder and Stoughton),
pp. 88-90.
o;
family.
in their Teaching of the y^c^eSiity^T Man, 17
.. > .;-'^' fl/
the same wlien the tribe has ^ultiplies^. 'and be- Never
come the most populous empire oa-tfae" earth. It through th
^ * ^ ^ nation or
has never been extended through the nation or {J^^",^^
joined in by the multitudes of the people. A most
wonderful fact, and most deplorable ! The greatest
occasion of the imperial religious celebration is at
the earliest dawn on the morning of the winter
solstice at " the Altar of Heaven.*' Some of the
prayers, or psalms rather, with which the various
oblations have been occasionally accompanied, have
been remarkable, and have risen to a high style of
devotion ; but, after all, the whole service is but a T^e eervie
' ' ' a form of
form of state ceremonial, of which the people have cerSaoniai.
hardly any knowledge, and which does not contri- Does not
bute to maintain in them a real religious life to any miiintainin
. * " them a real
great extent. Where it has that effect, the result feUgious lifa
^ ^ . . . *^ ^^^ great
is due mainly to a sentence of Confucius, in which, ^^'^^^
as if to guard against its being considered merely j
a worship of the great forms or forces of nature, he j
pronounced that " The ceremonies of the sacrifices
to Heaven and Earth are those by which we serve
the Supreme God."^
Debarred from this direct worship of God, the The spiritual
* ^ ^ susceptibili-
spiritual sensibilities and susceptibilities of the aJJ^edlnto
masses of the Chinese have flowed all the more of'an^^stow
into the worship of their parents and ancestors, and
the way has been all the easier for the dissemination
among them of the magical pretensions and psy-
' The Doctrine of the Mean, ch. xix. 6.
C
18 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
chical fancies of Taoism and the idolatries ana
What transmigrations of Buddhism. There remains for
remains for *="
*^6- them only the natural and indistinct reverence of
Heaven, with groanings and complaining appeals
to It, or to God in heaven, when they are suffering
under calamity or other cause of distress. I
have seen '* the falKng of the tear " in the hitter-
ness of grief, and "the upward glancing of the eye"
I^oiS?'''' to the sky above. Recently I was struck with
^^y- a passage in the story of a young lady pressed to a
certain course which, though not contrary to what
was right, did not command her full approval It
was not evil, but might be misinterpreted so as to
give to another passage in her life the appearance of
being evil, though it had been good and even praise-
Her trust in worthy in itself . She wished to avoid it, and to
trust in Heaven to bring about, in a perfectly
legitimate way, the object which it was intended
to serve. " I have heard," she says, " that Heaven
is sure to bring to pass the thing of which Heaven
has originated the purpose." It was an expression
it seemed to me of simple and genuine piety. Such
a sentiment and such language, however, are rarely
met with in Chinese society or writings. And
where they do occur, it is as calculations of the
understanding more than gushings of the heart
They are argumentative rather than emotional,
expressing the fear to offend Heaven and not the
wish to please it. They come short, very far short,
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 19
of that love of God which is the first and great No incite-
commandment of Christianity. I have been read- Godin** **^
VQg Chinese books for more than forty years, and ^oo^-
ftny general requirement to *' love God," oi; the
mention of anyone as actually " loving " Him, has
yet to come for the first time under my eye.
The three considerations which I have urged make
it clear that the Confucian system is not a morality
merely, but also a religion. That the sage, however,
" the Master," as his disciples liked to style him, Confucian,
did not speak of the higher aspects of the system iSgion
which he found existing in his country ; and that
he shrank from discussing metaphysical subjects,
and even all questions about the existence and
operations of God : this is a fact which we must
accept, and which no explanation that we may try
to give of it will alter. Morality, and its promotion. Morality
with the culture of the understanding through the culture of
T . the under-
study of the ancient uterature, were his chosen standing,
' the chosen
themes; and it is with his moral teaching, as I SudSL
have expressly stated, that we have specially to do
in this Tract.
We return therefore to the consideration of that;
and the first and chief thing that claims our at-
tention is the general rule in which Confucius The general
summed up all his inculcation of the duties of the coi^udTiB.
human relations : " What ye would not that men
should do to you, do not ye do to them." He
enunciated this rule several times. Its similarity
20 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
Contrast to ^' tliG golden Tule *' of our Lord never fails to
with the
golden rule strike the Christian when he hears or reads it for
of Christ.
the first time. It is negative, indeed, while Christ's
is positive ; but the Chinese sage knew that man
ought to take the initiative in doing to others what
he would have others do to him. Eight, perhaps
\ nine, of our Ten Commandments are really pro-
hibitions. Was it a knowledge of the difficulty
which men find in giving to others what is their
due, and of their proneness to think of themselves
first, and act with a view to their own advantage,
which made Confucius give the negative form to
his comprehensive rule?
Misunder- To sav that " he did not mean to do anvthing
standing of i i .
theruie of moro by it than suggest a law for the well-being
of the State," preventing retaliations which would
end in political anarchy : ^ this is a strange under-
valuing both of the man and his object. At the
same time, there is one passage in Confucius* history
from which it is natural to conclude that the rule
was prompted chiefly by his sentiment of justice or
instinctive feeling of what was right One of his
contemporaries, Lao-tsze, the reputed founder of
Taoism, had been led, by the peculiar nature of his
philosophical system, to teach " the returning of
good for evil." This seemed "strange doctrine'^
to some of the disciples of Confucius, and thej
consulted him about it. His reply was: "What
1 Dr. Matheron's Lecture m., The Faith* of the Worlds p. 86,
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 2\
then will you return for good ? Recompense injury The highest
with justice, and return good for good." Higher ^Mch
than this he could not rise. ^aJeSr
Passing now to " the golden rule of Christ," we ^'^"^ ^^ ^
must pronounce it a greater error to argue that He
was indebted for it to what we may call " the silver
rule of Confucius." And yet this has been more
than surmised. It has been said:
Dr. Mathe-
' ' That Confucius is the author of this precept is undisputed, ^o"'s ^^ec-
and therefore it is indisputable that Christianity has incorporated of the
an article of Chinese morality." World,v.%\
There is not the slightest evidence that any ^kS^t*"'*^
knowledge of the Chinese sage or of his teachings goSIn mie
had penetrated to Judea at so early a time ; and teaSiml of
Christ subjoined to His rule a statement of the
sources from which He formulated it in the words,
" This is the law and the prophets." It was with
Him the essence of the two commandments, to love
God supremely, and to love our neighbours as our-
selves. This is the secret of its positive form. It The secret oi
* the positive
is the outgushing demand of love, while the other ^"^^ ^
is the constrained expression of justice. And hence ^^^^'**-
it was that in the same Sermon on the Mount,
Christ pronounced, in language more unequivocal
and full than that of Lao-tsze, " I say unto you,
Love your enemies; do good to them that hate
you ; pray for them that despitefuUy use you and
persecute you '* (Luke vi. 27, 28).
I have, in the above pages, endeavoured to set
22 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
The defects
of Con-
fucianism.
No glow of
piety in the
sayings of
Confucius.
forth generally the teaching of Christianity and
Confucianism on the whole duty of man. Where
the former is most emphatic, the latter is all but
silent. The old religion of China was very de-
fective in what it required of man to God, and
**the Master*' said very little to supplement it
There was no glow of piety in his utterances. He
never called his disciples to join with him in
adoring God, as the perfection of beauty, the
Framer of our bodies, and the Father of our spirits,
in Whom we live and move and have our being,
the Source of all our good, and the Fountain of
our greatest comfort and consolation. He left hia
countrymen to the uncertain gropings and vague
monitions of natural religion. I do not ask my
readers to join with me and pronounce a stem
condemnation of him for this. He had no mission
to teach religion. He had no book to instruct him
as to the character and doings of God, at all akin
to our Scriptures. He had no gift or aptitude for
anything like theology.
But when we turn to the Confucian teaching of
the duties of man to other men, we ought to accord
to it much appreciation. It is at once comprehen-
sive and minute. The analysis of society into the
five relations covers the whole ground. It is a piece
of philosophical generalization of which we should
not be slow to recognize the value and truth. And
the duties incumbent in those relations are enjoined
He had no
mission to
teach
religion, no
Scripture to
teach him
about God.
Much to
adiuire in
his practical
teaching.
m
their Teaching of tne Whole Duty of Man. 23
in hundreds of passages with explicitness and point.
One is often grieved to read the incautious asser- incautious
tions of writers who think that apart from our ab^oJtThe*
Christian Scriptures there are no lessons for men heathendom.
about their duties, and that heathendom has in
consequence never been anything but a slough of
immoral filth and outrageous crime. Such writers
betray their ignorance of the systems and peoples
about which they affirm such things, and their
ignorance also of the sacred volume which they
wish to exalt. Their advocacy is damaging
rather than beneficial to Christianity.
But while I do not hesitate to avow this con- Aiihuman
duties set
viction, I am at the same time persuaded that JSiyS^^
there is not a single human duty set forth by S'anhT"^
Confucianism which is not also recognized and ii^/*'^*""
more fully enjoined by Christianity. In Chris-
tianity, moreover, there is no admixture of
error in regard to the ground jof the duty, christian
or the details of its requirements from which freefrom
Gixor
the account of it in Confucianism is by no
means free. In The Eclipse of Faithy of the
late Professor Henry Rogers, he says (p. 196) that
"If hia sceptical opponent would do as he had done, and
compile a selection of the principal precepts and maxims from
the most admirable ethical works of antiquity, and compare
them with two or three of the summaries of similar precepts in
the New Testament, he would at once feel how much more vivid,
toucliing, animated, and even comprehensive was the scriptural
expression of the same truth."
24 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
Wlien he so expressed himself, Professor Rogers
was thinking of the ancient Grecian moralists, and
^nfudua especially of Aristotle. The sage of China needs
'^****^' not to hide a diminished head, when placed amidst
the Stagirite and his compeers; but the judgment
is true as well, if it be applied to his sayings and
those of all his school, in comparison with the
teachings of Christianity. I can set to my seal
that it is so.
On the ground of all that has been said above,
I venture now to ask the assent of my readers to
the following conclusions regarding the superiority
of the Christian teaching of the whole duty of man.
Christianity I. It is Superior to the Confucian teaching be-
attachea ^ ^ ^ ^
jjj>^emi^rt. cause it attaches so much greater importance to
rei&i^ the duties of religion, and gives so much fuller a
disclosure of their reasonableness and nature. Con-
fucianism, indeed, affirms the relation between men
and God ; but its understanding of that relation is
incomplete, and its teaching both about it and the
duties springing from it is consequently imperfect.
No direct It koops the masscs of the people at an awful
God in Con- distauco from God. Only " the One man," the sove-
fucianism.
reign of the Chinese race, is permitted to present
to Him directly the offerings of reverence, gratitude,
The and prayer. Christianity, on the contrary, teaches
God how God is never far from any one of us, how
according to p
Christianity. He acccptoth not the persons of prmces, neither
regardeth the rich man more than the poor, how
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 25
we all have to do with Him and how He is always
near to all that call on Him. Of the difirnity and The peace,
, . safety, and
strength, the peace, security, and hope which this \^^^
relation hetween God and him imparts to man's
being and experience amid the vicissitudes of life,
so various and often painful, I do not speak;
our subject is his duty. But any system which
does not make provision for the discharge of our
religious duties, which does not in fact summon
men to them, and encourage them to resort to
them, and delight themselves in them, must be
pronounced incomplete and insufficient. Such a
flystem is Confucianism.
II. The Christian teaching is superior to the
Confucian because it makes God the Guardian of ^a^rdflSJij
of human
all the duties obligatory on men even in their Jutie
accor
theb
Moses.
social relations. With what majesty and power thrbooklof
the announcement, " I am the Lord," or ** I am
the Lord your God," comes in at the close of very
many of the ordinances in the Mosaic legislation I
For example, "Therefore shall ye keep Mine
ordinance that ye commit not any one of these
abominable customs, and that ye defile not your-
selves therein : I am the Lord your God"
(Leviticus xviii. 30). " Thou shalt love thy
neighbour as thyself : I am the Lord " (Leviticus
xix. 18). Not less powerfully though less rhe- isevr
. ,, . . . T . < -ivT m i i Testamenl
torically, it is said m the New lestament : teaching.
'Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or what-
C 2
26 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
The
Christian
rule.
Confucian-
ism leaves
a mp,n to
his own
strength.
Christianity
assures him
of Divine
help.
soever ye do, do all to the glory of God"
(1 Cor. X. 31). And tliis injunction is completed,
according to the Christian rule, by the same apostle :
" Whatsoever ye do, in word or in deed, do all in
the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God
the Father through Him" (Col. iii. 17). Con-
fucianism prefers to speak in this wise : " If you
do this, if you do not do that, how can you regard
yourself as a man ?" That is all very well. But
it leaves man to fight the battle of temptation in
his own strength. He is strongest, however, when
he is most humble. The assurance of God's presence
and guardianship doubly arms him. It helps him,
if he fall, to rise again ; and if he seem to fail or
be overthrown, he can yet write victory on his
shield. To use the words of the Apostle Peters
** This is acceptable, if, for conscience towards God,
a man endure grief, suffering wrongfully" (1
Peter iL 19).
III. StiU looking merely at the duties springing
out of the social relations, the Christian teaching
is superior to the Confucian, because the motive
on which it requires their discharge is nobler and
more powerful. That motive, we have seen, is
love, while the Confucian motive is the sentiment
of justice or right. "Now love takes the per-
formances out of the category of duty in which
there is the element of constraint, and transforms
them into that of gracious ministry. The love
CJhristianity
appeals to
the motive
of love.
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 27
will always operate in the sphere of right ; but its
constraint is of itself. At the very best the doer
of justice is a servant of God, but the doer of love
is a child of God. The service of duty may be
slow and grudging ; the service of love is prompt ^ow love
and untiring. Duty asks, "Is this enough?"
Love asks, " Can I do anything more ?" This is
the operation of all love. Can its range and
effectiveness over the whole being be calculated
when the true nature of the Christian attribute is
appreciated, when its measure, as has been pointed
out above, is the love with which Christ loved us ?
ly. The Christian teaching in regard to the christian
five relations of society themselves is better than fucian
_^^ "^ teaching
the Confucian. We have spoken of the relation J^'tL'^''''^^^*
between parent and child, and of the filial duty ^tS'a^d
obligatory on the child. It includes in Con- ^itSe<L
fucianism the worship of the deceased parent as
well as of remoter ancestors. Honour to the
living parent is what Christianity requires ; but it
knows nothing of the worship of the dead, and of
oblations and prayers to them. We accept with
sorrow the fact that our parents have gone by
death away from our circle; we cherish the
memory of them and seek to copy their virtues ;
but we find that it would be in vain to try and
have communion with them over any religious
feast. Our belief and practice are more true and
healthy than those of the Confucian.
it^ Christianity and Confucianism Compared
And while the requirements of filial duty in the
latter are so stringent that I have often known them
become a grievous yoke, a burden which Chinese
sons were unable to bear, little is found in the Con-
fucian writings to instruct or caution parents in their
treatment of their children. More than enough is
said of the rights of the parent, less than enough
of the rights of the children. There are two
texts in the New Testament, of the wisdom of
which my readers will not entertain any doubt,
^eptT while yet I have always found them very dis-
to thJduty* tasteful not only to Chinese literati but also to
tochUdJ?n the people. One is that in which the Apostle
to the Paul wrote to the Corinthians: "The children
ought not to lay up for the parents, but the
parents for the children" (2 Cor. xii 14). The
other is also from St. Paul (Colossians iii. 21) :
" Fathers, provoke not your children, that they be
not discouraged."
Another of the five relations of society is that
of husband and wife; "it is the one, indeed,"
as Chinese writers say, *' out of which all the other
relations grow." And many fine and beautiful
sentiments are found in them on marriage. But
The position j^q positiou of womau in China has always been
of woman in a '
always an ^u inferior one. Girls are of small account in a
inferior oDo. family as Compared with boys. Infanticide, mainly
owing, I believe, to the poverty of the people, is
more common than in any western country, but it
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 29
is always female infanticide. A woman should The
, prevalaxiC6
not have any mind of her own, nor take the in- ot infanti-
itiative even in what is good.^ If she come out of
the strict seclusion of her own apartments and
domestic duties, her influence will prove to be for
eviL^ There is indeed only one wife, " one correct
wife,'* in a family, hut from the oldest times concu- concubinae
the rule in
binage has been the rule in China. The ancient cMna.
Y^o, whose beneficent influence, according to
Confucius, "corresponded to that of Heaven, and
whose virtue was so great that the people could
find no name for it,"^ yet gave his two daughters
in marriage to the same man at the same time.*
The life of woman in China is truly a hard and ^^^^j^^iJ*
inferior one. It is not till she becomes a mother K^one.
that she shares in the regard due to the higher
party in the relation of parent and child. Even
then she is subject to the law of " the three
obediences," ^ and is bound, if a widow, to obey her
eldest son, as she had, in the earlier stages of her
life, been bound to obey first her parents, and then
her husband. I have often thanked the Apostle
Peter in spirit for his words, *' Ye husbands, give christian
teaching on
honour to the woman as unto the weaker vessel, as ahusband'i
duties.
being also joint-heirs of the grace of life" (1 Peter
1 The Sacred Books of the East, in., p. 350.
* The She King, or Boole of Ancient Poetry, p. 347.
* Confucian Analects, vin., ch. 19.
* The Sacred Books of the East, m., p. 36.
See the Prolegomena to my Chinese Classics, i., pp. 104, KM.
30 Christianity and Confucianism Compared
Nothing iii. 7). In all my readino; in Chinese literature I have
parallel to ' . .
this in Con- not met with so kindly and arenerous a sentiment.
There is not so much to object to in the Con-
fucian teaching about the other three relations oi
society. I pass on to the last point of superiority
in the Christian teaching, with the general remark
that too much authority is assigned to the superior
member in each category, and too much deference
required from the inferior.
Y. The Christian teaching of human duty is
superior to the Confucian, because it is com-
mended and enforced by the perfect example of its
of(?)SJSS^^ Author. " What I wish to do," said Mencius, the
The Chinese ablcst cxpouuder of the Confucian system: "What
BootTit'pt.*' I wish to do is to learn to be like Confucius."
He goes on to adduce the estimate of "the
Master " given by several of " the disciples," with
the opinion of one of whom we must here content
ourselves, that of Yu Jo :
" There is the Ch'l-Hn among quadrupeds, the phoenix among
birds, the Tha,i mountain among ant-hills, and the Ho and the
sea among rain-pools. (Though they are different in degree), they
are the same in kind ; and so the sages among men are also the
same in kind. But they stand out from their fellows, and rise
above the crowd ; and from the birth of mankind till now there
never has been one so complete as Confucius."
I have no pleasure in shattering this idol, nor
would I lay a rude hand or an effacing finger on
the reputation of the Chinese " Master." He was
. a great man and a good man, and deserved well
of his own country and of the world. Yet it is a
i.. 2. 22.
in their Teaching oj the Whole Duty of Man. 31
true saying that " the hest of men are but men at
the best." He was not a perfect character. On
one occasion, immediately after enunciating his
- silver rule," he subjoined : Sl'ptlsct
character,
" In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not according
one of which have I as yet attained. To serve my father as I confessiou
would require my son to serve me : to this I have not attained ;
to serve my ruler as I would require my minister to serve me :
to this I have not attained ; to serve my elder brother as 1
would require my younger brother to serve me : to this I have
not attained ; to set the example in behaving to a friend as I
would require him to behave to me: to this I have not attained. " *
The Chinese character which I have here trans-
lated by " I," is the personal name of Confucius,
and ties his readers down to accept his words as
his own acknowledgment of his personal imper-
fection. They are not the words of a sham
** humility," as Chinese commentators contend,
nor an example merely of the way in which men
should measure others as they measure themselves ;
but we do not think less of him, we think indeed
more of him, because he was thus conscious of
his own incompetencies, and that he fell short of
his own standard of duty.
One of the four things, again, which Confucius ^J^^^*
was fond of teaching was " truthfulness ; " 2 and '^*-
yet it is difficult to maintain that, according to our
idea of the duty of a historian, he was not untruthful
in his accounts of men and events.^ I cannot resist
^ The Doctrine of the Mean, 13. 4. 2 Confucian Analects,
Se the Prolegomena to The Chinese CUmicf, Vol v. pp,
J52 Christianity and Confucianism Com/pared
Confucius
was not
truthful in
his accounts
of men and
events.
No con-
sciousness of
sin in Christ,
His appeal
to His
enemies.
A sinless
High Priest
needed by
us.
The
testimony of
enemies.
the impression that his example in this respect has
lowered the standard of this important virtue
among his countrymen.
Confucius was not a perfect character ; and I
appeal to my readers whether, if any acknowledg-
ment on the part of Christ, similar to that which
I have just adduced, were to he found in our Gospels,
it would not sound very strange, and he disturbing
to their faith. Christ could say, on the contrary, to
his enemies, "Which of you convicteth me of sin"
(John viii. 46) ? After nearly nineteen centuries,
throughout Christendom, the instances are very
exceptional of any men who have ventured to
insinuate a judgment concerning Him, different
from that of the writer of the Epistle to the
Hebrews : " He was in all points tempted like as
{we are, yet) without sin" (iv. 15). "Such a high
priest became us, holy, guileless, undefiled, separated
from sinners" (vii. 26). Even such men as
Rousseau, and the late John Stuart Mil], whom
we must class among unbelievers, have borne
concurrent testimony as to the impression made
by His life and words upon their minds.^
Christ was indeed the perfect Teacher, and the
perfect Exemplar of what He taught The more
that we press on to be like Him, the more do we
^ See Present Day Tract, No. iiL , Chritt the Central Evidence
of Oliristianity, by the Rev. Principal Cairns. See th^jre also,
pp. 12-16, the discriminating observations on ** Modeni Theoriei
of Christ's Moral Excellence,''
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 33
feel that we fail to be so. But He said, '' He that Christ our
hath seen Me, hath seen the Father ; " and the example.
more conscious we are of copying His example, and revelation of
. ^' . the Father.
endeavouring to realize in ourselves " the mind _
O Our peace m
that was in Him," the greater is our peace, and the Ji^/pJ^g^es-*^
brighter our hope that we are going on to be ^d!'^"
" perfect, even as our heavenly Father is perfect."
I have not, in writing this Tract, played the
part of an advocate whose object is to win his
cause. My endeavour has been to describe the
case of both systems on the point laid down at the
outset, to describe it dispassionately, and yet
sufficiently for my readers to form a judgment on
the subject discussed themselves.
I think that the evidence of facts bears out the
conclusion as to the superiority of Christianity to
which I have come. It is, indeed, an eternal truth An appeal to
the fruits of
that "by their fruits" we know both men and the two
' systems
systems ; but though I have tried, over a long series
of years, to weigh the moral condition of the
Chinese people as compared with our own, and
that of other nominally Christian peoples, I have
felt the difficulty of doing so in an even balance,
and there has frequently occurred to me the
warning in the Sermon on the Mount: ** Judge
not that ye be not judged."
Take the Chinese people as a whole, apart from
*He points on which I have already given my
inion, and there is much about them to like and
34 Christianity and ConfucianisTn Compared
Chinese
virtues.
even to admire. They are cheerful, temperate,
industrious, and kindly ; and in those respects they
will bear a comparison, perhaps a favourable com-
parison, with the masses of our own population.
The ancient and universal use of tea as their
ordinary drink has been beneficial to their habits.
I found those of them who had any position in
society for the most part faithful to their engage-
ments and true to their word. I thought of them
better, both morally and socially, when I left them,
than when I first went among them, more than
thirty years before. Their civilisation has developed
under very different conditions from our own. They
are less enlightened, very much less enlightened,
and less capable of comprehensive views, and more
superstitious. They have learned almost nothing
from abroad, and are more conservative, thinking
much of the past, and little of the future. Still
they deserve our esteem ; and they measure for-
eigners from their own standpoints, weighing them
as well as they can in the balances of " benevolence,
righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity."
Their Confucianism has done much for them, and
its teaching of human duty has modified the
practical influence which the systems of Taoism
and Buddhism have on multitudes of them.
The short- Qu tho othep hand, we ourselves in this and
comings of
Christendom. jjr^Q other uatious of Christendom come far short
of the standard of duty and character which
Their
civilisation,
enlighten-
ment, and
sui)erstition.
Their con-
servatism.
in thdr Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 35
we ought to be aiming after. Where our Chris- The fruits o<
tian principles, religious and moral, indeed, have incompar-
^ , , ably better
free course, as they have in millions, they pro- t^au those
duce a humanity with which there is nothing S^e
in China worthy to be compared ; but in our social prindpiS
and national condition there are many things that 00*1^^!^^
may well make us lay our hands on our mouths.
and cease from judging hardly of the heathen
Chinese. The best promise of a better state for
ourselves and the world is in the growing conviction
that we need to rise more to the height of our
privileges, and in the individual and combined
efforts constantly called forth to remove evils that
are brought to light. This is one remarkable
feature of the different influence which the two
systems that we have been comparing have on
their adherents. Confucianism tends to make men Confucian-
ism makes
satisfied with what they are, while true Christianity ^^"fied!' '
makes them dissatisfied that they are not better, m^kes thS
Then the former system has not in it an impulsive with them-
spirit of propagandism. I have hep-rd the saying
among the people that "the Four Books do not
go out beyond the four seas environing the Middle
Land ; " whereas the last command of Christ was
that His followers should " go and make disciples ag^essive
of all the nations." No one who has become chS^^
imbued with the principles of Christianity can be
satisfied till he has realised " a new moral world "
in himself, and sees a real progress to the same
36 GhriBtiamty and Confucianism Compared.
goal in tlie manners and institutions of his own
country and in the world at large. How so many
centuries have elapsed since the delivery of the
Sermon on the Mount, and the " lifting up " on the
i-be slow Cross, and the risinsr from the tomb, and Christen-
proprress of ^
a^yste^!^ dom should remain so imperfectly Christian, and so
great a portion of mankind be still non- Christian :
this is a mystery which I will not try to fathom.
cKtilnH" But there is a spirit in Christianity that nerves
its members to continue the struggle with what is
evil in and around themselves, and maintains the
consecration of time and labour and talents to
bring " all the nations " to the fellowship of the
Gospel. If we are to do our part in weaning the
Chinese from their inordinate attachment to their
sage and his teaching, and bringing the nation to
"mew its mighty age, and kindle her undazzled
eyes at the full midday beam," it can only be by
How the our showing that, in all our intercourse with them,
to be won to politically, commercially, and in other ways, we
are ruled by the principles of love and righteous-
ness, which blend together in " the golden rule "
of Christ, " Whatsoever ye would that men should
do unto you, even so do ye also unto them."
A A
THE ZEND-AVESTA
AND
THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIS
BY
J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D.
^tsumeni (xt the TxacU
Of the great religions of antiquity that have survived to the
present time, the system which is affirmed by its followers to
have been promulgated by the famous Zoroaster is one of the
most remarkable. It is now professed only by the Parsees of
India and their brethren, the Zoroastrians of Persia ; but it was
once a widely-extended and influential faith, with notable cha-
racteristics pecuHar to itself. The sacred book of the Zoroas-
trians is the Zend-Avesta (or Avesta). Of the founder of the
religion we cannot speak with certainty ; and the same thing
may be said of the history of Zoroastrianism up to the time of
Darius, the son of Hystaspes. Little was known in Europe
regarding the system till 177 1.
The Tract examines in succession the theology, the ritual,
the ethics, and the jurisprudence of the Avesta. The theology
is not homogeneous ; the Avesta contains a quasi monotheism,
dualism, and polytheistic nature-worship. Starting with the
same root-ideas as Hinduism, Zoroastrianism developed them
differently ; it rose nearer to Monotheism, and it avoided Pan-
theism. One great excellence of the system is that it connects
nothing immoial with the character or worship of God. Its
most distinctive mark is its strong duahsm ; it asserts the
existence from eternity of two principles or powers one good,
one evil : the former the creator of all good, the latter the creator
of all evil. The Zoroastrian must share in the great struggle
between good and evil ; which is finally to issue in the triumph
of the former. There is no image-worship in Zoroastrianism.
Fire is the great visible object of homage. But everything in
the good creation is, or may be, worshipped. Homage is ren-
dered both to the outward object and the being presiding over it.
Nothing in the Zoroastrian ritual is more remarkable than
its elaborate purifications in connection with ceremonial defile-
ment. Among Gentile religions, Zoroastrianism ranks high in
point of morality ; but the whole Avesta is lacking in depth both
of reflection and emotion. Finally, a brief comparison is made
between Zoroastrianism and Christianity.
THE ZEND-AVESTA
AND TH>
RELIGION OF THE PARSiS.
Iery few of the religions of antiquity ofthe
'-' J. V surviving
have survived to the present day. For ^njgj?^,^'
example, the impure divinities of Syria Sm'isl^e ol
and the brutish gods of Egypt have Sikabfe'^
completely disappeared.
Peor and Baalim
Forsake their temples dim. .
Nor is Osiris seen
In Memphian grove or green,
Trampling the unshowered grass with lowings loud.
The divinities of Greece and Borne have, in like
manner, passed away. Zeus no longer sways from
the summit of Olympus his sceptre over "gods
and men ; " and a Christian church now occupies
the spot on which stood in ancient days the temple
of Jupiter, the guardian of the Capitol.
Of those ancient systems of religion that have
come down to our times one of the most remarkable
The Zend-Avesta^ and the
is the one whicli is embodied in the Zend-Avesta.^
The faith propounded in the Avesta is usually
First called Zoroastrianism ; since, accordinar to its pro-
inculcated . . i, i -11,111
by zoro- fessors, it was ono:inally inculcated by the celebrated
aster. .
Zoroaster. It is also frequently called Parsiism,
still as being still followed by the interesting body of
pLSs people in Western India, known by the name of
Pdrsis, and also by the small remnant of the same
race in Persia.
There are not a few questions connected with
the Avesta and the history of Zoroastrianism which
are still matters of keen controversy. We shall
not enter into these, but shall, in a great degree,
confine our attention to matters in which there
exists a large measure of agreement among Ori-
ental scholars. Happily, these are not few in
number; nor are they by any means devoid of
interest. In these days, when so much attention
is paid to the comparative study of religions, the
Avesta faith ought by no means to be overlooked.
ithas The system possesses some striking peculiarities.
S^'a^*^^ Farther, it has had a very remarkable history.
totory^^ Most important problems are involved in its re-
lations to Hinduism, Judaism, the Babylonian
religion, the Gnostic heresies, and the great system
of Manicheeism; and in the Mithraic mysteries, ^
^ The name Avesta is more correct than Zend-Avesta. More
exact would be the spelling Avastdj but we adopt the more
usual form.
Religion of the Farsis.
which were mainly of Persian origin, its influence
spread extensively over the Roman empire, and
even as far west as Britain.
Much had been written regarding Zoroaster, and
many had been the speculations regarding his
doctrines ; but no satisfactory conclusions could
be reached so long as the Avesta remained un-
known. Even before the Christian era Zoroaster had
become a mythical personage, and forged oracles
were ascribed to him which only increased the
perplexity. The laborious researches of scholars Dr. Hyde'i
like Dr. Thomas Hyde^ are deserving of high
respect ; but such men had to reason from data
always insufficient and often untrustworthy. A
new era in the study of Zoroastrianism began with
researches.
the labours of Anque til du Perron. The story of Anquetiidn
^ -^ Pen-on.
the travels and researches of this enthusiastic ex-
plorer reads almost like a romance. He went to
India in quest of the venerable book ascribed to
Zoroaster; found it among the Parsi priests of
Surat; and, after years of toDsome investigation
into its doctrines, returned in triumph with hi&
prize to Europe. He published a French transla-
tion of it, with accompanying dissertations, in 1771.
The work at once excited the greatest interest.
This, after some time, began to diminish, mainly
* Veterum Persarum et Parthorum ct Medorum religionia his-
toria. 2nd edition. Oxford, 1760. The first edition, with a
slightly different title, was publisiied at Oxford in 1700.
The Zend-Avesta, and the
ID consequence of the faulty character of the trans-
lation, which was frequently very obscure, and
not infrequently incorrect. During rather more
than the last fifty years, however, the study of the
Avesta has been prosecuted by a succession of able
men with unflagging zeal, and with no inconsider-
able success.
Date of the We cau traco the Avesta, as we find it, up to
Avesta,
the time of the Sasanian dynasty in Persia. The
Persian empire was restored in the year 226 after
Christ by Ardashir Babegan, the first of the
Sasanian line. He was a man of no common force
of character ; bold and successful as a warrior,
and skilful in administration. In building up his
kingdom he called religion to his aid. He earnestly
sought to collect the writings that inculcated the
ancient faith of Zoroaster; and several of his
successors persevered in the attempt. The canon
of the Avesta was fixed under Sh^pur II., about
the year 350 ; revision and condensation were
effected in the reign of Khosru Parviz, between
631 and 579. The Avesta, as we possess it, may
thus be safely traced back at least to the sixth
state of the conturv after Christ. We must allow for errors
text. ' . .
of transcription in the case of what had long been
a dead language. Uncouth and imintelligible
phrases abound in the work ; the text is often
manifestly incorrect, and critics are sorely tempted
to try the undesirable expedient of conjectural
Religion of the Parsis.
emendation. Still, on the whole, here stands the
Avesta, very nearly as it must have stood some
thirteen, or even fifteen, centuries ago. But farther:
although collected in the days of the Sasanian kings,
we have no reason to believe that it was then
composed. An extensive literature existed in Persia ^^^^.^
before the Macedonian conquest. The tradition of Macedoufan
the Parsisis that Alexander *'the accursed wretch <'*^^<i^^='^
Sikandar," as they call him burnt all their books,
with the exception of a few fragments. The tradi-
tion cannot count for much ; for the great conqueror
was generally tolerant in matters of religion, and
pursued, as far as possible, a policy of conciliation.
The disappearance of the ancient books is rather Disappear-
^*- , anceofthe
to be regarded as the result of the centuries of ^f^f-
confusion that succeeded the Macedonian conquest
over the countries in which the Zoroastrian faith
generally prevailed. Be this as it may, we have The greater
reason to believe that by far the greatest part of ^:;^^^^^^
the Avesta was composed at various dates ranging beSKaie
over the space from about the seventh to the fourth cenSy b.c.
century before Christ. Portions may be still more portions
^ ^ _ more recent
recent ; and it is possible, and even probable, that
some additions were made as late as the fourth
century after Christ, or even later. The work, as
it stands, is not only fragmentary, but chaotic ;
wonderfully little skill having been exhibited in
the arrangement of its component parts.
About Zoroaster himself we must say a few
The Zend-Avesta, and the
probably .
Mede.
words. Some able men doubt his very existence,
and find in his history only a mythical description
of elemental war an atmospheric storm.^ On
the whole, however, we hold that he actually
Zoroaster^ existed, and that he was possibly a Bactrian, but
probably a Mede. There is reason to believe that,
while the Medes were under Assyrian dominion,
their religion had to some extent become mixed
with that of the conquerors ; but that, when the
foreign yoke was thrown off, an earnest attempt
was made to revive the ancient Aryan faith. With
this reformation we may perhaps, provisionally,
connect the name of Zoroaster. Thus, in round
numbers, we can with some probability assign his
era to the commencement of the sixth century, or
perhaps 610 b.c. Such, at least, was Dr. Hang's
final opinion.^
On these questions, however, we can as yet
attain to no more than plausible conjecture, and
all dogmatism is out of place.^ Even the name of
Hit era.
* Professor Darmesteter and others. See his treatise, Ormuzd
et Ahriman, passim.
' Haug, who at first maintained that Zoroaster might have
been as ancient as Moses, and must have been before 1000 B.C.,
in later years altered his opinion, and supported the view uuw
expressed. It nearly agrees with that of the Parsis. But the
question is by no means finally settled. Professors Roth and
Tiele will not admit the older part of the Avesta to be later
than from 1000 to 800 B.C.
* M. Renan justly remarks : II n'est pas bon dans ces difficile*
etudes de croire tenir I'absolue v6rite. Journal AaicUique,
1880, p. 27.
Religion of the Parsis.
tlie great teacher in Zend, Zarathustra has re-
ceived no satisfactory explanation. We may be-
lieve stillj it is only a plausible conjecture tbat
the Avesta religion arose to the south-east of the
Caspian Sea, among a race still semi-nomadic, but
inclining more and more to pastoral and agricultural
Ufe. It seems to have powerfully affected Bactria Late nd
^ \ Blow growth
and Media, before it entered Persia. In the last- of zoro-
' astriamsm
named country the precepts of the Avesta were ^^ Persia.
but partially submitted to during the earlier reigns,
from that of Cyrus downwards ; but the power of
the Magi the priests with a short interruption
after the death of the Pseudo-Smerdis, appears to
have gone on steadily increasing, until the Mace-
donian conquest shattered it to pieces. The suc-
cessors of Alexander reigned eighty years over
Persia. Under the Parthian power which suc-
ceeded, the Magi slowly recovered a certain mea-
sure of their authority ; and Yalkhash (Yolegeses),
one of the later kings, seems to have begun the
work of collecting the scattered fragments of
the sacred books. The Parthian dominion was its high
overthrown by Ardashir Babegan, who has been second
mentioned above; and, under him and his empire.
successors, Zoroastrianism obtained a far more
influential position than it had ever previously
held. This it retained until Persia was conquered
by the Arabs, in the middle of the seventh century
after Christ.
10
The Zend-Avesta, and the
Division of
the Avesta.
Prayers and
eacrificial
rites.
rhe
legislation
of the
Avesta.
Objects
invoked.
The Avesta, as it now stands, is not so large in
size as tlie Christian Bible. It consists of the
following parts:
The Yasna, including the five G^thas, or
Hymns.
The Yandidad.
The YisPARAD.
The Yashts.
A few short prayers called Afrigan, Nyavish,
and Gah.
The SiROZAH, or Calendar of the thirty days
of the month.
The meaning of the word Yasna is sacrifice.
This division of the Avesta contains the prayers
offered along with sacrificial rites. The Gathas,
which are its most important part, are written
in a different dialect from the rest of the Avesta,
and are very probably of a more ancient date.
The Yandidad contains the legislation of the
Avesta. The name is characteristic; it signifies
given against the demons.
The Yisparad contains a collection of prayers
very similar to those in the Yasna. The name
means all heads, or chiefs ; it is so called because
the chief objects of the good creation are invoked
in iti
The Yashts. This name is connected with
^'
,o
Rdigion of the W<t^vU,rj^^^ 11
Yasna, which has been explained above. The Prayers
, 7 . . 4 -T-r -1 addressed to
term yasht -pTo-perlj means tcorshippuig. A Yasht one deity.
is properly a prayer or hymn in which one deity
is more especially singled out for adoration.
It certainly is not easy to see any logical prin-
ciple ruling the division and arrangement of the
parts of the Avesta.
We proceed, however, to the examination of the
book as we find it. We shall speak successively
of the following subjects:
I. The Theological system of the Avesta.
II. The Ritual.
III. The Ethical and Judicial systems.
I. The Theology.
"When we proceed to examine the theoloerv of conflicting
^ ^"^ doctrine* in
the book we are at once struck with the conflicting the theology
character of its doctrines. We discover in one
place either Monotheism, or what approaches it;
in another place, decided Dualism; in a third,
Polytheism. We cannot divest ourselves of the
belief that such jarring creeds imply diversity ol
origin. If they arose in the same country, they
must have done so at different epochs. Yet when
we strive to arrange the systems in the chrono-
logical order of their sequence, we are perplexed
by the fact that no division of the Avesta is homo-
geneous in its doctrine ; discordant voices often
12
The Zend-Avesta, and the
unexpectedly break in upon us. The most that
we can say is that the Gathas, on the whole, come
nearest to Monotheistic teaching; the Yandidad
is more tinged with Dualism; while the Yasna
(except the Gathas) and the Yisparad are more
Polytheistic, and the Yashts are the most decid-
edly so of all. Difficult as it is to theorize on the
chronological relations of these systems of thought,
one is irresistibly driven to do so. Professor
Spiegel, who has devoted a laborious life to the
study of the Avesta, holds that the order was not
first polytheism, then dualism, then monotheism,
but that the monotheism preceded the dualism.
We also believe that a kind of monotheism came
first. But this point requires explanation.
There can be little doubt that Ahura Mazda,
the chief divinity in the Avesta, was originally the
same as the Yaruna Asura of the Yeda. (Ahura
is simply the Zend form of Asura, which means
Lord.) Yaruna is etymological! y the same as the
Greek \vpav6s, heaven ; and Yaruna was the
heaven-god. A very lofty character is ascribed
to this deity ; if the Yeda ever approaches the con-
ception of holiness, it is in connection with Yaruna
it does so. The counterparts of Yaruna, the heaven-
god, are found in Zeus, Ju-piter, and Ahura Mazda;
and it may be held as demonstrated that the con-
ception of a supreme divinity, wise, powerful, and
good, was common to the four great divisions ol
DuaJism.
Polytheism.
The chrono-
logical
relations of
these
systems in
the Avesta.
Ahixra
MaLdaand
Varuna
originally
the same
deity.
Their
counterparts
are Zeus
and Jupiter.
The
conception
of a supreme
divinity
common to
the great
divisions of
the Aryan
race.
Religion of the Parsis.
the Aryan race, the Greeks, Romans, Hindus,
and Iranians. It must have belonged to them
before they separated from each other. Yet, "^^ff^^
although supreme, this divinity was not sole ; he *^*
was, in the phrase which meets us so frequently
from the time of Homer downwards, " the father
of gods and men ; " but he received no exclusive
homage.
After the other branches of the Aryan family Iranians
and HinduSi
had migrated to the west, the Iranians and Hindus
evidently remained for some time together; and
hence, many elements are common to the two
systems of religious thought. But, ere long, the
Indo-Iranian stream divided into two parts, which
were never to re-unite. Each of the two systems
of faith now received its own special development.
In India, Yaruna was gradually divested of his Varunaiost
serene majesty. Even in Yedic times Indra, the position in
tumultuous god of the lower sky, who had none
of his lofty attributes, was exalted into the place of
Yai-una; and other gods were gradually multiplied.
But in Iran the authority of Ahura Mazda (ie., the JJ^
wise Lord^) became more fully recognized than *^^^*
before. His moral attributes also were never ob- cS^terof
scured. Still, Ahura Mazda falls very far below *^^^*^'^
the divinity who is revealed in the Jewish Scrip-
tures. He is not a purely spiritual being. He is f j^tur^^
l^eing.
^ Haug does not admit that Mazda means wise. He rendert
it joint-creator^ or creator of ail.
14
The Zend-Avesta, and the
The e-dl
prindple
everlasting
8 tnily as
Ahura.
Vanous
representa-
tions
concerning
Ahura.
not omnipresent, nor omnipotent. H3 is not creator
of all things ; for the Evil Principle, residing in
primeval darkness, is from everlasting as truly
as Ahura himself. There is an inconsistency in
the statements regarding Ahura*s relation to the
Amesha-spentas (literally, holy immortals) y who
are a kind of archangels. They are said to be
seven; but this number is made up only by in-
cluding Ahura Mazda as one of them, while yet,
in many passages, he is said to have created them.
Ahura is represented as praying for help even to
such inferior divinities as Mithra, An^hit, Tistriya,
and Ysiyu, who preside respectively over the sun
(see infra), the waters, the star Sirius, and the wind.
Again, Ahura is repeatedly called " the greatest of
the yazatas,** a name generally given to divini-
ties of the second class. There is also considerable
confusion in the statements regarding his relation
to Spenta Mainyu, the good or beneficent spirit.
Ahui-a is frequently identified with the latter ; but
in many places a kind of distinction is preserved.
Dr. Haug represents the Gfathas which inculcate,
as he maintains, the original Zoroastrian faith as
asserting that from the beginning there was a pair
of beings twins in Ahura Mazda ; one of whom
was the good spirit, and the other the evil spirit.^
1 They are the two moving causes in the universe, united from
the beginning, and therefore called twina They are present
everywhere; in Ahura Mazda as well as in men. H(mg'%
Eways, p. 303.
Religion of the Parsis. 15
This seems to involve the tremendous consequence
that evil is an essential attribute of the self-existent
deity a tenet with which we are reluctant to
charge the Avesta. The view of Haug that the
two opposed spirits are in Ahura Mazda, seems
scarcely borne out by the original text ; and even
if it were, we must not press too far the logical
result of certain phrases. The Avesta in truth no reasoned,
contains no reasoned-out system; but its whole mthe
teaching asserts that to the nature of God evil is
abhorrent. The Avesta has, indeed, a very imper-
fect conception of what sin and evil are ; but, so
far as its knowledge goes, it denounces and detests
them.
Closely connected with Ahura is a hierarchy of ^gg^^^-
celestial beings, the Amesha-spentas,^ mentioned SSi"
above. They are very generally adored along with ^^ ^'
Ahura. Thus: '*We sacrifice to Ahura Mazda,
bright and glorious ; we sacrifice to the Amesha-
spentas, all-ruling, all-beneficent." ^ The function
of these " holy immortals " is to inspect and aid
the whole of the good creation. Their designations The
designations
are as lollows : ofthehoiy
immortals.
1. Vohumano (literally, good mind). The name
^ The temi Amesha-spentas was in later times corrupted into
Amshaspands ; and the names now usually assigned them are
aa follows : Bahman, Ardibahisht, Shahrlvar, Spendermad,
Khordad, and Amerdad. None of these names has any re-
semblance to the Hebrew name of any angel or archangel
2 Hapten Yasht 6.
sovereignty.
16 The Zend-Avesta^ and the
Thegeniua orisiiiallv denotes submission to the revealed law.
of truth. ''
He became the genius of truth, and also of flocks.
Truth and 2. Asha vasistha (the best rectitude) denotes oon-
holiness. ...
f ormity to divine order ; truth and holiness. He
presides over fire. He also cures diseases.
3. Khshathra vairya {supreme sovereignty). He
represents royal dominion. He presides over metals.
Thegeniua 4. Speuta Armaiti (holy msdom). She became
oftheaarth. ,. -, i
the genius of the earth.
Health and 5, 6, Haurvatat and Ameretat are generally
immortality. , . . .
mentioned together. Their names signify health
and immortality. They denote the fulness of
blessing.
The In the Gathas, the Amesha-spentas seem ab-
sntaa m stract idcas, or qualities, rather than personal beings.
Their names sound like attributes of Ahura Mazda ;
and many passages appear to require them to be so
understood. In others they are represented as his
gifts bestowed on faithful worshippers. If not
attributes, their relation to Ahura Mazda is such
that we are almost compelled to conclude either that
they were simply repetitions of him seven being
a kind of sacred number among the Aryans, as
weU as various other races, or that there were
seven original separate divinities, of whom Ahura
was chief. In any case, the distinction between
Ahura and the Amesha-spentas became clearer as
time went on. They latterly formed a kind of
celestial council.
le (^<athAS.
Religion of the Farsis. 17
Yazatas. This term means worthy of worship, The
. Yazatas, or
and IS occasionally used m that comprenensive "^^^'
sense. More frequently, however, it denotes a ^^^^
very large class of beings who are inferior in point
of dignity to the Amesha-spentas. Yery many of
them resemble divinities of the Yedas; but others
have no counterparts in the Indian system.
Of the first kind are genii presiding over natural
objects, especially those connected with the four
elements fire and light, air, earth, and water.
Yery great importance is attached to Fire (Atar) ; P^^*
so much so that the Persians havy often been called f^^^ ***
par excellence fire-worshippers. Atar is the son of character-
Ahura Mazda ; ^ he is the beneficent, the warrior ; (fire).
he is a full source of glory, a full source of healing.
He is a most potent opponent of the evil principle.^
He is most quick and powerful in helping those
that bring him dry wood, well cleansed, and well
examined in the light of day.^ The fire is never
to be allowed to go out. Its altar must be kept
pure; it is a heinous sin to pollute the sacred
element in any way whatever.
Airyaman is also a genius of fire. He is the ^PJ^^'
much-desired. The prayer addressed to him is
called the mightiest of spells: the most healing
of all cures for disease. Every form of evil flees
before it.
emiuof
Sirooah i. and ii. 9. ^ Farvaidin Yasht xxii. 77, 78.
Atash Nyayiflh 16.
c
18
The Zend-Avesta^ and the
Great
importance
also attached
to Light.
Mithra.
Functions
and attri-
butes of
Mithra.
Spread of
the worship
of Mithra.
rijtriya.
Equal importance is attached to the genii con-
nected with Light. A very high place among
these is assigned to Mithra. He is originally the
god of the luminous heaven. As such he knows
everything ; having a thousand ears and ten thou-
sand eyes. He is strong, sleepless, ever watching.
He is the lord of wide pastures. He swings in his
hands a cluh with a hundred knots, the strongest
of all weapons. With arms uplifted he drives in
a heautiful chariot of gold, which is drawn on one
wheel hy four swift horses, living on heavenly food,
and deathless, whose forefeet are shod with gold,
and their hind feet with silver. He is the strongest,
the most valiant, the most active, the most fiend-
smiting of all gods. He precedes the undying,
swift-horsed sun ; which, in later days, came to be
identified with him. The praises heaped upon
Mithra make him almost equal to Ahura Mazda,
with whom he is especially associated, "May
Mithra and Ahura, the high gods, come to our
help ! " ^ It was towards the Christian era that
the worship of Mithra, mixed apparently with cruel
rites borrowed from Babylon, spread far and wide
in the west.
Another exalted being is Tistriya, the genius of
the star Sirius. He presides over the first month
of summer. He is the great leader of the fixed
stars in their contest with the planets; for, sin-
i Mihir Yasht 113.
Religion of the Parsis, 19
gularly enough, these two classes of beings are a leader in
the strife
opposed to each other in the ffreat strife between between
..... . 8^^^ *"*^
good and evil. Tistriya is the chief author of rain ; evu.
he is the chief opponent of Apaosha, the fiend who
causes drought. Tistriya, in the shape of a beau- conflict with
tiful white horse with golden ears and harness,
meets the fiend in the shape of a black horse,
black with black ears, black with a black back,
black with a black tail, stamped with brands caus-
ing terror. They meet, hoof against hoof, and
fight for three days and three nights. Tistriya is
beaten and flees. He loudly complains that men nis defeat.
do not sacrifice to him as they do to other yazatas ;
otherwise, he would have had the strength of ten
horses, ten camels, ten bulls, ten mountains, and
ten rivers. Ahura Mazda comes to his aid by ms rescue.
ffering him a sacrifice. He returns and van-
quishes the fiend ; and then come wind and cloud
and rain and sleet, and the seven continents of the
world are soon refreshed by ** the friendly showers,
the fertilizing waters."^ Ahura Mazda says of Ahura
. . Mazda's
"the bright and glorious Tistriya," " 1 have created testimony
*-''-' ' ' concerning
him as worthy of sacrifice, prayer, propitiation, and ^^^
glorification as myself, Ahura Mazda/'
Of the genii of the waters the most celebrated is oeniiof th
Ardvi sura Anahit, i.e., the high, powerful, undefiled. AnSMt
She descends from the region of the stars. She is
* Tir Yaeht 20-33.
20
The Zend-Avesta, and Pit
What she
doee.
Description
of her.
wide-spreading, health-giving, herd-increasing, fold-
increasing. She guards living beings, as a shepherd
does his flock. She has a thousand reservoirs and
a thousand channels, each as large as a man
could ride across in forty days, mounted on a good
horse. Ahura Mazda created for her four horses
wind, rain, cloud, and sleet so that it is con-
tinually blowing, raining, hailing, or snowing on
earth. She has a golden necklace on her beautiful
neck, and golden rings in her ears. The description
of the goddess is very graphic ; and it has been
suggested that it must have been drawn from the
inspection of a statue raised in her honour. This
is possible, as Artaxerxes Mnemon erected statues
to her, and is said to have introduced her worship
among the Persians.^ She seems to have become
identified with the Babylonian goddess Mylitta,
whose attributes were ascribed to the genius of the
waters; although originally the latter was very un-
like in character to the immoral " queen of heaven."
Tegetable
world.
Homa.
fto-w the
ivesta
ipeaksof it.
Of the productions of the vegetable world the
most celebrated was Homa, or Haomo. The
Homa is a plant with thick stalks and yellow flowers,
growing chiefly on the mountains of Ghilan in
northern Persia. The Avesta speaks of it in the
most exalted terms. It flourishes in resplendent
} It exiflted, however, before his tiine, for Herodotus mentioDa
Religion of the Par sis. 21
fflory on " the hiffliest height " of the heavenly Effects ot
...... Ti Ml its juice.
mountain Hara Berezaiti ; * its jmce cures all ills
of mind and body. The juice is extracted by pound-
ing the plant with a pestle in a mortar. It is the
enlivening, the beautiful, the lordly, the golden-
eyed,2 the victorious,* and the giver of victory. It
is the most precious part of the offering. Later
Parsiism ^though not the Avesta speaks of two
Homas, a terrestrial one which is yellow, and a
celestial one which is pure white.
This exaltation of Homa in the Avesta reminds
us of the position assigned in the Veda to Soma.
(The two words are the same, with the usual
dialectic difference.) Soma, among the Hindus,
became a stiU mightier deity than Homa, being
sometimes called the creator of heaven and earth.
The spirits of the air are not of much importance. Genii of tiu
The most important is Y&yu the wind; who is
said to belong in part to the good, and in part
to the bad, creation. The reason of this distinc-
tion is obvious; but it is remarkable that the
same division is not made in the case of fire and
water.
Of the spirits of the earth the most important is ^^h' *^
Spenta Armaiti, who is also one of the Amesha
spentas.
1 Gosh Yasht, 17.
JukA Yasht 37. Bahram Yasht 67.
22
The Zend-Avesta, and the
Diyiniiies
not known to
the Hindus.
tJraosna the
genius of
obedience.
The beings hitherto mentioned, with the excep-
tion of Anahit, were originally common to the
Indo-Iranian race. There are other divinities who
are of purely Iranian origin, and unknown in India.
The most important of these are the following.
Sraosha. This name is derived from a verb signi
fying to hear. Sraosha is the genius of obedience to
the law. He is a mighty -speared and lordly divin-
ity ; tall in form, fiend-smiting, the best protector of
the poor, guarding the faithful like a shepherd's
dog. Like Mithra, he never sleeps ; he watches
all the world with club uplifted, from the hour
when the sun is down ; indeed, since " the two
spirits made the world " he has never slept ; night
and day he battles with the demons. His strong
arm smites, and their skulls are shattered by the
blow.
The Law (daena) and the holy formulae or
spells are also worshipped as divine. So are the
sacred . books, especially the Gathas. Sacrifice is
offered to them, and they are frequently invoked
for aid.
Ashi Yanguhi (good piety) is highly celebrated.
She is beautiful ; her rays are far-piercing ; she
brings all earthly blessings. Splendid garments,
and hoards of silver and gold brought from distant
lands are the portion of her votaries.
A very remarkable class of divinities is that of the
Fravashis. There is considerable obscurity ool
The holy
formulee.
The
Frayashis
a remark-
able class ol
beings.
Religion of the Par sis. 23
to say contradiction in the descriptions of them.
Originally they probably were the souls of the what they
dead ; but, in process of time, all living beings gjf<ie*
animals, as well as men sky, waters, earth, fire,
and plants, were believed to have each a fravashi.
Beings yet unborn possess them. Even Ahura Mazda
has a fravashi. The fravashi seems sometimes a
kind of guardian angel ; sometimes it nearly cor-
responds with the archetypal ideas of the Platonic
philosophy. It is quite possible that the original
conception of the fravashi was modified in later
times by Babylonian ideas. " The awful fravashis
of the faithful" are irresistible, overpowering.
Ahura Mazda confesses that they bring him
assistance ; indeed, it is through their brightness and
glory that he maintains the sky and the life-giving
waters ; and had not the fravashis of the faithful
helped him, the whole material world would have
fallen under the power of the demons.
Space is also worshipped.^ So is Time, There space and
are both " the sovereign time of the long period/*
and " time without bounds." Space and Time
are not personified ; they have no genius specially
connected with them. The position held by
** boundless Time " has led to some controversy.
A text wliich means "in boundless Time"^ had
been rendered by Anquetil *' bi/ boundless Time '* ;
and on this mainly was founded the beHef that
IiMger Sirozah 30, 21. Vand. xix. 9.
24 The Zend-Avestay and the
infimte Time was the supreme diyinity of ibe
Avesta.^ Undoubtedly an influential sect of
Zoroastrians the Zarvanites ^held this doctrine
in the time of the Sasanian kings ; and indeed it
had been known from before the Christian era.
Still, it is certainly not the doctrine of the Avesta
proper ; it is a later refinement introduced by specu-
lative minds.
The whole It soems needless to so into srreater detail. Suffice
of the good
S^Sppld ^^ ^^ ^^y ^^^* there is nothing in the whole of the
good creation that is not held to be deserving of
worship. Prayers are addressed to human souls,
the souls of animals, vegetables, springs of water,
rivers, mountains, the earth, the wind, the sky,
the stars, etc., etc. In the case of those objects
that have a presiding divinity, it must be carefully
noted that the homage is rendered both to the
divinity and the outward object. It is often diffi-
cult to say which is intended ; in fact, the mind of
the worshipper oscillates between them, and fre-
quently blends, not to say confounds, the two.
But so it was in Greece and Rome, the river and
the river-god were the same, yet different; and so it
is among the Hindus. The question as to the real
object of the invocation is less difficult when an
abstract conception a quality or a feeling is
Worship of exalted to divinity. In such cases the abstract
idea is personalized and worshipped. In other
^ So Gibbon, and many more.
prayers.
Religion of the Furs is. 25
words, the being who presides over, or inspires, the
feeling, is the object addressed ; there are not two
objects. Even so the Greeks and Romans wor-
shipped the goddess of love, the goddess of wisdom,
the god of war, and so on. The only peculiarity
lies in the great extent to which the Zoroastrian
carries the personifications and deifications.
We may quote the following prayer, offered on specimen of
the last day of each month, as giving a good idea
of the remarkable manner in which different objects
of worship are thrown together in the invocations.
SOth day. (Dedicated to) Aneran (.. Anaghra, or lignite
Light.)
We sacrifice to the eternal and sovereign luminous space. We
sacrifice to the bright Gardnmana [heaven]. We sacrifice to the
sovereign place of eternal weal. We sacrifice to the Chinvat
bridge, made by Mazda. We sacrifice to ApA,m Napdt, the
swift-horsed, the high and shining lord, who has many wives.
We sacrifice to the water made by Mazda and holy. We sacrifice
to the golden and tall Homa. We sacrifice to the enlivening
Homa, who makes the world grow. We sacrifice to Homa, who
keeps death far away. We sacrifice to the pioixs and good
Blessing. We sacrifice to the awful, powerful, cursing thought
of the wise, a god. We sacrifice to all the holy gods of the
heavenly world. We sacrifice to all the holy gods of the
material world. I praise, I invoke, I meditate on, and we
Baorifice to, the good, strong, beneficent Fravashis of the hoi;
We proceed now to speak of evil beings. The evU beingi
Avesta, as Professor Darmesteter rather sarcasti-
cally remarks, is " very rich in demons." Daevas,
drujas, yatus, pairikas, dvarants, dregvants, and
r>^
26 The Zend-Avesta^ and the
80 on ; we have them of varied classes, and in
numbers without number.^
The chief The chief of these and the creator of all of them
evil being, ^ ^ ...
m"^u8 ^^ Angro mainyus or Ahriman. His name m
th^h^ui Zend means hurtful sjnrit. He is from all eternity ;
pint. j^g -g wholly evil; his original dwelling was in
primeval, uncreated darkness, which existed in
boundless space, far apart from the primeval, un-
created light. Angro mainyus was at first ignorant
of the productions, and apparently of the existence,
of the good spirit ; but when he became aware of
these, he " broke into the fair creation," ^ determined
to counterwork, and if possible destroy, it. For
1 The dualism of the Avesta has sometimes been called the
product of philosophic thought. But the Medo-Persian, while
strong in action, was in speculation weak. And dualism exists
among some very simple races ; for example, the Santals of
India. These hold the sun -god to be good. All other super-
human beings are malevolent ; and every calamity comes from
the demons. Even so, the Zoroastrian ascribed all evil to the
demons. Demons were therefore multiplied ; for he had many
evils to contend with. Unlike the Hindus in their progress down
the rich Gangetic valley, he had to maintain a perpetual struggle
for existence. Cold blasts from the Caspian and the Elburz
mountains chilled his blood and killed his crops ; in summer he
suffered from drought ; and he was perpetually in danger from
the incursions of savage nomades. All such misfortunes were,
he believed, the work of devils. Then, as the conception of the
moral character of Ahura Mazda was developed, the conception
of his adversary, Ahriman, was developed proportionally ; the
brighter light caused a darker shadow. Dualism thus sprung
from no profoiyjd speculation. A higher idea of Divine power
or a deeper insight into the moral government of the world would
hftve checked its growth.
' Farvardin Yasht 77.
Religion of the PavHis. 27
every pure being created by the good spirit, Angro
mainyus created a corresponding evil being ; iu
place of health, he made disease ; ^ and for life,
death. The good spint (we have seen) is surrounded
by six immortal holy ones. Angro mainyus HiaooundL
created six arch-demons, the grisly council of hell,
whose very names seem mockeries of those of the
pure hierarchy of heaven. The entire struggle The great
between srood and evil light and darkness lasts between
^ " ^ good and
for twelve thousand years ; and we are now in the ^JgiJ.^**
thick of the fight. All creation is divided, and ranged f^^^
in two hostile camps. Angels, men, animals, plants,
and inanimate nature are so. Even the heavenly
bodies are divided : the fixed stars are on the side
of the right, while the planets are with the evil one.
It is not easy (as we have said above) to see why
this distinction between stars and planets is made;
but, for the sake of symmetry, some division of the
heavenly bodies was required. The side assigned
to animals is often no less surprising ; thus, frogs,
turtles, cats, and even ants are partizans of the
demon. But the world-wide contest is not to endure Not to
endure foi
for ever. Zoroaster was created by Ahura Mazda to ever,
oppose the great enemy and all his auxiliary hosts.
Zoroaster was the only being that could daunt
Angro mainyus.^ He smote the fiend with the
* He created 99,999 diseases. A favourite uuinber iu the
Aveeta.
> Aahi Yasht 20.
The Zend-Avesta^ and the
holy spells, and especially with the one called
Ahuna vairya (or Honover), which was as strong
a weapon as a stone of the size of a house. Still,
however, the battle raged. Three sons of Zoroaster
will yet be miraculously bom,^ who will carry on
his work, in which the last of them Soshyant, or
Sosiosh will be completely victorious. Angro
Its final mainyus will be overthrown; he will be cast into
issue.
hell, and (as is generally held) destroyed. Then
comes the frasho-kereti, the perpetuation of life.
The fair creation that had been slain by the fiend
revives ; the good live in a renovated world ; and
everlasting joy prevails.
The battle
field.
The Avesta does not explain how the good spirit
left the region of uncreated light, and the bad
spirit that of uncreated darkness. Both of these
regions are finite in extent, existing in infinite
space ; and the battle-field lies between them.
Heaven. Garonm^na is often mentioned as the dwelling-
place of Ahura Mazda. The name means "the
house of song." Ahura there sits on a throne of
gold, surrounded by the Amesha spentas and
Yazatas. Paradise is often identified with it.
HdL Hell is full of darkness and horror. It is situated
1 We might explain how ; but our readers would not pardon
us if we did. The whole representation is outrageously extra
vj^ant. Yet the Avesta stands committed to the worst part ai
it. See Yasht xiii. 62.
Religion of the Parsis. 29
in the north, under the earth ; its mouth is beside
the mountain Arezura. In heaven the good are The food of
, heaven and
fed with butter made in spring ; in hell the wicked i^eu.
eat poison, and have to endure a poisonous stench.
It would seem that the good man at death is con-
ducted to Garonmana, the heaven of Ahura ; hut
that (as has just been said) the earth after its
renovation becomes his dwelling-place.
n. Thb Kitual.
The following remarks may suffice as a state-
ment of the chief ritual observances of the Parsis.
We shall speak in succession of their care of the
sacred fire, their prayers, offerings, and purifica-
tions.
The fire is kept in a special building called ^'***^
Atash Bahram ; in the innermost, and most sacred
division of the building. This is separated from
the rest by a wall ; but the door remains open.
The fire is kept burning day and night ; it would
be regarded as an awful calamity if it were to be
extinguished. It is constantly watched by two
priests. The fire is on a stone altar, and is within
an urn, which is occasionally of silver, but gene-
rally of bronze. The um may be of any size;
Anquetil saw one which was three feet and a half
in height. The fire is large, and the flames rise it is fed
high. It is fed chiefly with sandal wood. No woodcMeflj
30 The Zend-Avesta, and the
moist or green wood can be used The priest has
a pair of tongs about one foot and a half in length,
with which he supplies large pieces of wood as re-
other fuel, quired. Incense of gum benzoin is also burnt along
with the sandal wood ; and for this a large spoon
is used. There is a room in the building for storing
sandal wood, quantities of which are brought by
worshippers ; and this the priests cut up into
suitable pieces. Everything issuing from the
mouth defiles; hence the lower part of the face
of the priest is covered with a veil of muslin, to
prevent his breath reaching the sacred element.
Prayer, how Prayors are chaunted memoriter by the priest
oif ered in ,
pubUc. (Mobed), in front of the fire. Every portion of the
day has its allotted prayer. While these are offered
within the inner apartment, the people without read
or repeat prayers, facing the fire. These are in Zend,
in the Gujarati character ; they are pronounced
generally without being understood. Every man
prays by himself; there is no common worship.
Sometimes the worshipper may add an extempore
supplication of his own in the vernacular. Women
occasionally attend.
While praying, the priest holds in his left hand
the harsorn (beresma). This originally was a
bundle of small twigs, generally of date or pome-
granate, bound tightly together with a small twig.
It is now generally composed of small silver rods.
Religion of the P arsis. 31
The priest sits with his legs crossed, when repeating
the prayers, holding the harsom in his left hand.
Prayers for the dead are recited daily in the Atesh
Bahram. Richer people generally have the service
performed in their own houses; but poor people
come to the fire-temple. The Mohed performs
this service in the forenoon, chaunting a particular
kind of prayer called Afrigan. It is especially
during the recitation of these prayers that the
harsom is now used.
So much for public worship; but even the The
domestic fire
domestic fire is always sacred, and must be treated is also
'' ^ sacred.
as such. It, too, must never be extinguished. In
the first part of the night, in the second, and the
third, "Fire calls for help to the master of the
house : * Up ! put on thy girdle over thy clothes,
wash thy hands, take wood, bring it to me, and
let me burn bright.' " ^ This threefold call must
be obeyed. Now-a-days the Parsis usually cover
the fire with ashes at night, to prevent its going
out; and in the morning the first food it gets must
be sandal wood. The mistress of the house attends
to this duty. A handful of sandal wood is put on
the fire by each member of the family.
We may next speak of offerings. When asked hfw'ST
how the demon could be repelled by him, Zoro-
aster said: "The sacred mortar, the sacred cup, impieironti
Vandidad xviiL 18-22.
32 The Zend-Avesta, and the
tlie Homa, and the \A'ords taught by Mazda ; these
are my weapons, my best weapons." ^ All these
things occupy an important place in connexion
with offerings.
The sacred The mortar (h^vana) is of metal, as is also the
pestle. In it are pounded small t-r^'g^o of the Homa
plant, which was referred to above (p. 20). Water
is added to the sap which is expressed, and the
mixture when filtered is collected in a "sacred
cup." When the due prayers have accompanied
the process of preparation, this liquid becomes
endowed with almost divine attributes.
The sacred The Soma of the Hindus was fermented and
cup.
intoxicating ; and no doubt it was ths great exhila-
ration produced by the beverage that led a simple-
minded people to ascribe to it such transcendant
attributes and powers. The Avesta supplies no
evidence of the Iranians confounding intoxication
with a divine afflatus.^ So far well ; only, no ex-
planation then remains of the boundless and endless
laudation of Homa. The Magi seem never to have
asked themselves why tasting the least drop of
this disagreeable drink should destroy a thousand
devils.^
The great Iranian heroes of the ancient times
* Vandidad xix. 9.
^ Ahura Mazda is described as "never intoxicated" (Vand.
xix. 20). To Indra, on the contrary, the Veda says: "Thy
inebriety is intense."
Yasna x. U (De Harlez, p. 287).
Religion of the Parsis. 33
offered up animal sacrifices. Thus Thraetono Animal
Ai k 1 ' -rr 1 ' ' r> pt sacrifice was
onered up to Asm Vanffum a sacrifice of a nun- offered in
^ ancient
dred male horses, a thousand oxen, and ten thou- ^^^y^-
sand lambs. ^ The practice of animal sacrifice
was continued to a late period ; for Xerxes
sacrificed at the site of Troy, " a thousand oxen,
while the Magi poured out libations in honour of
the ancient heroes.''^ Animal sacrifices are not
unknown in the Vandidad. Thus, for a certain
very grave offence the guilty person must " slay a
thousand head of small cattle, and offer the entrails
to the fire."* In other cases also animal offerings Not so now
were required, until in comparatively recent times ;
but all such observances seem now to have entirely
ceased.
But the normal offering was different. It was The
presented by Ahura Mazda himself to Anahita, offering.
*' with homa and flesh, the baresma, the wisdom
of the tongue, the deeds, the libations, and the
rightly spoken words." * (The wisdom of the tongue
means, no doubt, the sacred formulae.)
In the present day, however, the flesh (myazda)
has ceased to be offered. The priest takes the cup
containing the Homa in his right hand, raises it
in his right hand before the sacred fire, and drinks
a small quantity. The rest is poured into a well.
Aban Yasht 33.
* Herodotus vii. 43. So also the Magi "propitiated ihe
river Strymou by sacrificing white horses to it." Herod, vii. 113,
Vand. xviii. 70. * Aban Yasht 17.
D
34
The Zend-Avesta, and the
The Homa offering is made in private houses as
well as in fire- temples ; and the ceremony should be
performed twice a day. The other offerings are
chiefly bread, flowers, fruits, especially dates and
pomegranates leaves, mainly those of pomegranates,
branches of homa, and less frequently fresh milk.
Offerings are still made to the sea, consisting
chiefly of flowers and fruits, such as cocoa nuts.
On one remarkable occasion in Bombay there was
an offering of thirty (if it was not three hundred)
tubs of sugar candy.
Punficatdon
from
ceremonial
defilement
is of
supreme
importance.
Means of
purification.
Ceremonial purity is with the Parsi a matter of
supreme importance. Defilement is easily incurred,
and hence the means of purification are earnestly
prescribed in the Avesta. The glory of the Zoro-
astrian law is said to consist in its so fully and
clearly declaring the ceremonies needful for cleans-
ing the defiled.
The distinction between ceremonial and moral
defilement is far from clear in the Avesta. The
one is regarded as equally dreadful with the other,
and as requiring equal expiation. Nay, the Avesta
would regard the crime of murder as less heinous
than that of a single man carrying a dead body to
the sepulchre.
The great material agents of purification are
water and gomez, or nirang (urina bovis). But the
efficacy of these agents depends on their right pre-
Religion of the Parsis 36
paration and application. Should the requisite
ceremonies and prayers have been neglected, the
potency of the means is gone; and then, as
Anquetil puts it, there is "no purification, no
purifier, no priest, and no Parsi! "
Everything that issues from the human body is
regarded as dead, and as belonging to the demons.
Even the hair and nails when cut off are the same ; Disposal of
. . . , . hair and
and elaborate prescriptions are given as to their naiis.
disposal. If these rites are neglected, and the hair
and nails allowed to fall about as they may, the
power of the demons is increased as much as if a
sacrifice were offered them. Holes must therefore
be dug, far away from fire, water, and the barsom,
and the nails and haii must be deposited'separately
in these; three, six, or nine furrows must be drawn
around the holes with a knife, and certain prayers
must be offered. When all this is rightly per-
formed, a certain bird eats up the nails (it does not
seem that the bird does the same to the hair) ;
otherwise they would have become so many spears,
knives, bows, arrows, and sling-stones in the hands
of the demons. It is right to mention, however,
that these ceremonies are often neglected by modern
Parsis, at least in India.
The great source of defilement is contact with a SoS^Sact
dead body.^ In death is the cliief triumph of the body.
* " It grieves the sun, holy Zoroaster, to shine upon a man
defiled by the dead ; it grieveti the muuu ; it grieves the stars."
The Zend-Avesta, and the
demon. Hence the dread of death, which is suffi-
ciently marked among the Hindus, becomes still
more intense among the Parsis. The moment the
breath is out, the fiend (Hruj) Nasu rushes upon
it from the regions of the north, in the shape of a
raging fly. The body is now utterly unclean, and
pollutes every one near it. But the demon can be
expelled by bringing in " a dog with four eyes "
a white dog, according to modem usage, and the
Druj, as soon as the dog looks at the body, flies
back to hell. ^
Hoy, in From the livine: who have been polluted by
such cases, *=* r J
contact with the dead, the Druj is expelled by the
application of consecrated water and nirang, in
some cases by using only one of these. By a most
complex form of ceremonies the demon is driven from
post to post all down from the top of the head to
the point of the toes; and when the prescribed
prayers accompany all this, the triumph is complete,
and the baffled fiend flies back to the regions of
the north "in the shape of a raging fly, with knees
and tail sticking out, all stained with stains, and
the demon
is expelled,
(Vand. ix. 41). Or as Professor De Harlez renders it : "It is
with regret the sun shines on the impure ; it is in spite of them-
selves that the moon and stars give him light."
1 Vandidad xviL 9, 10. Darmesteter holds the text to be
genuine which declares the corpse to be in the power of the drvj
(demon) until the dog has seen it or "eaten it up, or until
flesh- eating birds have flown to it " (Vand. viL 3). We have
the same thing distinctly mentioned of the dog in Vand. viii. 3b
Religion of the Par sis. 37
like in appearance to the foulest monsters."^ About
thirty parts of the body are mentioned, from which
the demon has to be successively expelled ; it is a
terribly long battle, but it ends in certain victory.
The 2:reatest of all the purifications is the The chief
*^ _ ^ ^ ^ purification
Barashnum, a ceremony which lasts for nine nights, ^^i^nu,^
(The signification of the name is not fully ascer-
tained.) Originally the rite was used only as a means
of removing the defilement arising from contact
with a corpse of a dog or a man. But it has long
been used to cleanse away defilement in other
cases. Nine holes have to be dug in a space
cleared from trees ; a furrow has to be drawn round
each with a metal knife, and other furrows up to
the number of twelve ; three holes hold water, six
hold nirang ; prayers are recited ; the unclean per-
son is sprinkled with nirang from a spoon of brass
or lead ; the hands are then washed first, otherwise
everything goes wrong ; then the various parts of
the body are sprinkled, as mentioned in last para-
graph, until finally the demon, whose power has
been becoming weaker at each sprinkling, is com-
pletely beaten off and driven away to hell.
The new-born child must be washed with water,
not generally now with nirang ; before this, it is im-
pure. Before the age of fifteen, and generally be- initiation
tween nine and eleven, initiation into the Zoroastrian astrianisiB
how per*
faith takes place by means of prayers, purifications, 'ormed.
* Vaudidad viii. 71-
88 The Zend-Avesta, and the
and tlie putting on of the kusti ^ (a string made oi
seventy- two woollen threads twisted together), and
the sadarah or sacred shirt, which is of muslin with
short sleeves. If after the age of fifteen any one
walks four steps without these accoutrements,
the demons wither him up, and he himself becomes
a hobgoblin. All of this applies equally to men
and women. Except during ablutions, the kusti
and sadarah must be worn day and night.
A spiritual teacher should be provided for the
young Parsi.
Morning Every morning fresh nirang is brought to the
house. The hands are dipped into it ; then a small
quantity is applied to the face, hands, and feet. But
in greater purifications the Kquid is drunk; three
sips are taken. Then (probably to banish the taste)
pomegranate leaves are chewed, -'though this seems
no part of the prescribed ritual.
Treatment When any one dies, men first wash the body,
of the dead ... .
dress it in white garments, and lay it on a stone
slab in the front room. The priest comes and reads
prayers. The women are in the same room with
the body, the men outside. During the last prayer
a white dog, kept usually in the fire-temple, is
brought near the corpse, and induced, if possible,
to look at it. Two, now generally four, men lay
the body on an iron bier. The dog is commonly
' The threads of the kmti can be spvin only by the wives of
the Mubeds.
Religion of the P arsis. 39
brought in twice ; and the whole ceremony may The funeral
miTTi'i rv procession.
occupy forty mmutes. Then the hody is borne on
by the four men a fifth man preceding to clear
the way, so that not even the shadow of an un-
believer may fall on the corpse. The Mobeds
walk two and two, generally holding a hand-
kerchief between them. Ceremonies are performed The scene
. ^ of thfc
close to the cfukhma or '* tower of silence," as ceremonies,
it is usually called in English. This is a circular
pit, very deep, round which is a stone pavement
about seven feet wide. On this the corpses are ex-
posed naked. The ^ face of the dead is uncovered ;
the birds of prey come in multitudes, and very soon
the flesh is all devoured. Every morning the bones
are swept down into the great receptacle the pit.
Every day of the month is consecrated to some uoiy Uj*.
divinity. Besides this, the 1st, 8th, 15th, and
23rd days of the month are sacred to Ahura Mazda;
from the 3rd to the 8th to the Amesha spentas.
The six Gahambars are in commemoration of the
six periods of creation. ^ The last is the most im-
portant. It lasts ten days from 10th to 20th
March which is the end of the year. It is espe-
cially marked by ceremonies in commemoration of
* There is something touching in the expression used regarding
the dead man : " Lay him down, clothed with the light of
heaven, and beholding the sun." Vand. vi. 41,
' See Haug'a Essays, p. 192.
40
The Zend-Avesta, and the
(Jommemora-
tion and
services for
the dead.
I'astivals.
the dead. During these ten days the souls of the
dead are believed to quit their dwellings in the other
world, and revisit their relatives on earth.
Besides this, there are special services for the
dead, performed on the day of the month on which
they died.
The New Year is a great festival.
There is a festival in honour of Mithra at the
autumnal equinox.
Every new moon and full moon are festivals.
The three
great
prayers,
viz. :
The Ahuna
Tairya.
Prayers have already been frequently mentioned
as connected with various rites. But there are
prayers for every division of the day. There are
three different gahs between morning and evening,
of different lengths ; and two gahs from evening
to morning, each six hours long. Different prayers
are appointed for each gah.
There are three great prayers, the potency of
which is extolled continually and in the strongest
possible language. These are the Ahuna vairya,
the Ashem Yohu, and the Yenhe Hatam.
The Ahuna vairya is so called from the three
initial words Yatha ahu vairyo. It existed before
heaven, earth, water, or fire ; and it is the most
effective weapon that Ahura Mazda himself can use
to crush the demons. It is much to be regretted
that of this very important part of the Avesta, we
Lave at least six conflictinsj versions from scholars
Religion of the J^kl^^^>^ 41
of high. name. In the midst of this perplexity,
the ordinary Parsi will console himself with the
reflection that the efficacy of the prayer depends
entirely on the right sounds being uttered, and not
at all on the sense attached to them. But we can-
not be certain even of the sounds ; for the com-
mentary on the prayer given in the 19th chapter
(Ha) of the Yasna must be founded on readings
considerably different from those which the present
MSS. contain. The translation of Haug is the Hang's
following : ** As a heavenly lord is to be chosen, s#
is an earthly master (spiritual guide) for the sake
of righteousness , to be the giver of the good thoughts,
the good actions of life towards Mazda; and the
dominion is for the lord (ahura) whom he has given
as a protector to the poor** With all possible
respect to the learned man who supplies this version
it is surely impossible that this can be the mean-
ing of the most potent, '* most fiend-smiting "
prayer in the Avesta. Professor de Harlez DeHariezi
. paraphrase
paraphrases it thus : " As there exists a supreme
master, perfect, so there is a master of the law estab-
lishedto maintain and propagate holiness; the regu-
lator of good thoughts and of actions springing out
of the order of things referring to Mazda. Sovereign
power belongs to Ahtira ; he has constituted him
(viz., the master of the law) protector {shepherd) of
the poor." Professor Darmesteter renders the prayer Darmes-
as follows : " The will of the Lord is the law of holi- reading.
42
The Zend-Avesta, and the
ness. The riches of Yohnmano shall he given to
him who works in the world for Mazda, and wields
according to the will of Ahura the power he gave him
to relieve the poor.^^ The sense of the last render-
ing is clear ; but it is not easy to see how the
Professor extracts it from the present text. Finally,
let it be remembered that holiness or righteousness,
as used in this passage and elsewhere in the Avesta,
merely means ceremonial purity.^
The Ashem Yohu prayer, which, if not quite so
potent, is used still more frequently than the
Ahuna vairya, is translated by Haug as follows :
" Righteousness is the best good ; a blessing it is ; a
blessing be to that which is righteousness towards
perfect righteousness." Darmesteter makes it
" Holiness is the best of all good. Well is it for that
holiness which is the perfection of holiness.*'
We leave our readers to judge for themselves
of the value of these much -lauded invocations, if
invocations they be. We need not add the third
great " prayer " the Yenh^ Hat&m.
The Ashem
Vohu
prayer.
vanous Tho tcrms of homage and invocation used in the
terms of ' r\ v l^ i i
homage and prayors are various. One irequently employed is
yazamaide, which Darmesteter renders literally,
we sacrifice to. It also, however, means we worship,
* So even Haug admits. * * It means what is right or meritorious
in a ritualistic or materialistic sense, and does not necessarily
imply holiness." Essays, p. 141.
Religion of the P arsis. 43
IM pray to} Other terms signify to invoice^ to
praise, to glorify, to celebrate. These words seem
to be used indiscriminately ; at least, no distinction
can he perceived between the homage rendered to
higher and to lower beings ; assuredly there is no
such difference implied as is drawn by certain
tlioologians between dulia and latria.
But finally on this head. The prevailing Rjerisa
conception of prayer in the Avesta is that of incantation
a s})ell or incantation. Sometimes, we hear of
formulae that are on no account to be communi-
cated except to the nearest relatives. When we
see how prayer is thus transformed into a species
of conjuration, we cannot be surprised that the
practice of magic, as the very name implies, has
been so often traced back to the Magi, the followers
of Zoroaster.
It is remarkable that prayer itself is prayed to
in the Avesta. The Ahuna vairya is especially
thus honoured.^
Fasting occupies so important a place in most no
systems of religion that its entire absence from the allowed,
list of prescribed duties in the Avesta attracts the
more attention. There is no trace of asceticism
in the Avesta precepts or the Parsi practice. The
reader will at once see how much is involved in
^ De Harlez renders it, not so exactly toe honour
2 Hormazd Yasht 22, etc.
44
The Zend-Aveda, and the
Zoroastrian
ideas of
eating,
drinking,
and health.
this characteristic. Milton speaks of " spare Fast,
that oft with gods doth diet " ; but to the Zoro-
astrian such language appears entirely ridiculous.'
He holds that by good eating and drinking he
keeps his body in health, and so fits himself to
carry on a more vigorous warfare against the
demon and all his works. Certainly, the typical
Parsi is at the opposite pole of thought from the
pale recluse, worn to a skeleton by abstinence and
vigils ; and when the bodily mortification is carried
to still greater lengths, the Zoroastrian can only
trace the self-denial to the influence of the demons.
In like manner, celibacy and monasticism can
never in any way be approved by Zoroastrians.
Self-denial
traced to the
influence of
demons.
Division of
human
duty.
III. The Ethical and Judicial Systems.
It has been mentioned above that Ahura Mazda
has no immoral attributes ascribed to him. As no-
thing evil can form a part of his worship, so nothing
evil should be practised by his worshippers.
The Avesta frequently mentions a tiireefold
division of human duty, viz.. Good Thought, Good
Word, and Good Deed.
It dwells earnestly on the importance of Truth-
fulness. Mithra, the divinity of Light, is especially
the guardian of Truth ; and '* to He to Mithra," or
^ He who fills himself with food is filled with the good spirit
muoh more than he who does not so. Yand. iv. 48.
Religion of the Parsis. 45
perjure oneself, is a very grievous sin. Promises Duties and
and contracts must be faithfully observed.
Kindness and charity to followers of the true
faith are inculcated.
Theft, robbery, personal assault, and murder are
all strongly reprobated.
Marriage is much encouraged. It is implied JJSeOto
that monogamy was the general rule. Yet one ^-
extraordinary practice is recognized in the later
books of the Avesta marriage with the nearest
of kin. The Parsis have naturally been slow
to admit that brother was allowed to marry
with sister, and even mother with son ; but the
testimony of ancient authors leaves little or no
doubt as to the existence of such unnatural
connexions.
The practice of prostitution, adultery, sodomy, Son^S'*"*'
and such crimes is strongly denounced. S^mm.
1 See Yasna xiii. 28. The rendering of this verse by Prof.
De Harlez agrees with that of M. Hovelacque. It is as follows:
" I praise marriage between relatives, pure, which is the greatest
among marriages present or to come," etc. etc. Unless we are
to discard the testimony of a multitude of Greek and Eoman
writers, marriages which we should call incestuous were pretty
frequent among the Persians, It is for this reason the poet
Catullus (Carmen xc. 4) exclaims against " the impious reUgion
of the Persians" (Persarum impia religio). See the question
carefully examined by Dr. West, Pahlavi Texts, Part II.
Appendix p. 389, etc. Between the 6th and 9th centuries after
Christ, marriages between the nearest of kin were earnestly
recommended by the priests. Modem Parsis highly approve
of the marriage of cousins german ; but they discourage the
union of those more nearly allied in blood.
46
The Zend-Avesta, and the
Agriculture
en ouraged.
The observance of magical rites is in a few casea
mentioned and reprobated.
The Avesta dwells with all possible earnestness
on the importance of agriculture. Its ideas on
this subject are embodied in quaint, and some-
times coarse, phraseology ; but it is interesting
to note the anxiety of the authors of the Avesta
that the people should cease to be nomadic and
take to a settled life. " Whoso cultivates barley
cultivates righteousness." ^
The putting to death of the creatures of the evil
principle was a high religious duty. If the division
of animals into good and bad had been less arbi-
trary, this might have called forth a half-approving
smile ; the slaughter of tigers, serpents, and other
noxious creatures being surely a good thing. But
when we hear of tortoises, frogs, cats, ants, etc.,
being proscribed, we are somewhat startled. "With
all the efforts of the Avesta to be exact, there seems
to be no division of fishes, and no clear division of
birds, into good and bad. Every creature being
either of divine or demoniac origin, this omission
EvU
animals
must be
killed.
^ Vand. iii. 25, 31. Dr. Haug reminds us that there are
metrical lines and rhymes on this subject introduced into
the usually very prosaic Vandidad. The chief metrical passage
Buy be rendered thus :
When the barley appears, the demons pine;
When the barley is threshed, the demons whine ;
When the barley is ground, the demons fly ;
When the meal is piepared, the demons disb
Religion of the Parsis. 47
is on the principles of the Avesta itself a
grievous fault.
The place assigned to the dog is very notable. f^^f.^(,Q
One entire division of the Avesta is devoted to the "' *^^ *^^-
celebration of his excellence. The shepherd's dog
and the house dog are highly lauded ; but the dog
of dogs is the water dog, whoever he may be.^
The murder of such a dog is inconceivably heinous.
** Sweetness and fatness will never return to the
place where it has been committed, until the mur-
derer has been smitten to death, and the holy soul
of the dog has been offered a sacrifice for three
days and three nights, with fire blazing, with the
baresma tied, and the homa uplifted." ^ And the
reason of all this is that out of every thousand
common he- dogs and every thousand she-dogs two
water-dogs are formed, one male and one female.
We need not wonder, then, that the correct methods
of feeding and breeding dogs are prescribed with
all possible solemnity in the Avesta.
Physical and ceremonial defilements are put on Physical
' ' and cere-
a level with moral offences. Contact with a dead Sements
body especially that of a man or dog must with
all possible care be avoided. To bury, or bum, a
corpse is an unpardonable crime. So is it for one
man to carry a dead body.
The punishments for offences are of various
* The otter (?) Possibly the beaver.
Vand. xiii. 172, 167.
48 The Zend-Avestay and the
_____^___ i ^ ' - "i^
kinds; stripes, fines, imprisonment, and death.
They are often capriciously disproportionate to
the offence. We hear of five stripes with a horse-
whip, and of as many as two hundred. Man-
slaughter is- visited with ninety stripes ; but the
man who gives bad food to a dog receives two
hundred,
intiicate There is much intricate leeislation about the
legislation '-'
iomen unclcanness of woman in child-birth and at other
times ; but on this we will not dweU.
A woman in child-birth suffering from fever and
thirst is not absolutely debarred from water ; but
the penalty of drinking it is two hundred stripes ;
the reason being that she is unclean and pollutes
the holy element. For killing a water-dog the
penalty is ten thousand stripes.
Our readers will ask with some curiosity, Was
Partial such lesislatiou ever practically carried out? Cer-
execution t -r* i i
ill^Sin,, tainly not in the earlier Persian kingdom; and
probably not in all its fulness even under the
Sasanian monarchs. The Vandidad supplies us
with the priestly ideal of right and wrong an
ideal which we cannot conceive to have ever been
completely realized.
Conclusion.
It is now time to give a brief statement of the
impression left on the mind by the review we have
taken of the general teaching of the Avesta.
legislation.
Meligion of the Parsis. 49
There are several characteristics which entitle
the Zoroastrian faith to a high place among Gentile
systems of religion.
1. It ascribes no immoral attributes to the obiect Merits of
... Zoroas-
of worship. Ahura Mazda, the supreme divinity, triamsm.
stands ethically much higher than the popular
gods of Pagan nations generally. The Avesta, as
we have seen, retains much of n ature- worship ; but
evil quail Lifj) are never ascribed either to the
physical object or the being who presides over it.
2. The Avesta sanctions no immoral acts as a
part of worship.
3. None of the prescribed forms of worship is
marked by cruelty.
4. In the great contest between light and dark-
ness, the Avesta exhorts the true worshipper not
to remain passive, but to contend with all his
might against the productions of the Evil Prin-
ciple.
5. One remarkable characteristic of the system
is the absence of image- worship.^
6. The Avesta never despairs of the future of
humanity ; it affirms the final victory of good over
evil
Difference
In regard to all these points there is a striking zoS^
difference between Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. m^SuSm!^^
^ Ab has been mentioned above, image -wcirship was not wholly
unknown in ancient Persia. Contact with Hindus led some of
the Parsis in India into idolatry ; but all the educated agreed in
oondenming it.
E
50
The Zend-Avesta^ and ike
Other merits
of Zoro-
astrianism.
It is not easy to explain how tlie former system
struggled successfully against that fatal gravitation
downwards which made primitive Hinduism sink
deeper and deeper in the mire; but the fact, at
all events, is undeniable.
Assuredly, we have no wish to undervalue the
importance of the great characteristics of Zoro-
astrianism that have now been mentioned ; and wo
might point to yet other merits, such as (7) its
encouragement of agriculture, (8) its inculcation
of truth in thought, word, and deed, (9) the position
of respect it assigns to women, and (10) the kind-
ness towards, at least, Zoroastrians which it incul-
cates. Still, it must be confessed that the creed
of the Avesta is greatly wanting in many essential
respects. It is by no means such a faith as en-
lightened reason can accept or defend.
1. We have seen that th- ^t. vesta contains a
mixture of various systems of thought, a quasi
monotheism, dualism, and nature- worship. It has
often been mentioned as a characteristic of the
Bible that, although its composition extended over
more than a thousand years, there is a strict unity
of monotheistic belief running through it from
Genesis to the Apocalypse. Such a harmony per-
vades no one portion of the Avesta ; each great
division contains conflicting elements.
But (2) even in its highest representations of
divinity the book is deplorably defective. A glance
Its
deficiencies
and errors.
It contains
conflicting
systems of
thougiit.
Its theism
very
defective.
Religion of the P arsis. 51
at what has been said on page 13 will clearly show
this. Or take the formal enumeration of the divine
attributes contained in the following passage :
HOBMAZD YaSHT.
Ver. 5. Zarathustra said, Reveal to me that name of thine, Eniimeratlfn
Ahura Mazda, which is the greatest, the best, the fairest, the attributes,
most effective, the most fiend-smiting, the best-healing, that
destroys best the malice of devas and men ;
6. That I may afiBict all devas and men ; that I may afflict
all Yatus and Pairikas ; that neither devas nor men may be
able to afflict me, neither Yatus nor Pairikas.
7. Ahnra Mazda answered him, "My name is the one of
whom questions are asked, holy Zarathustra !
My second name is the giver of herds.
My third name is the strong one.
My fourth name is perfect holiness.
My fifth name is, All good things created by Mazda, the
offspring of the holy principle.
My sixth name is understanding.
My seventh name is the one with understanding.
My eighth name is knowledge.
My ninth name is the one with knowledge.
My tenth name is weal.
My eleventh name is he who produces weal.
My twelfth name is Ahura (the Lord).
My thirteenth name is the most beneficent.
My fourteenth name is he in whom there is no harm.
My fifteenth name is the unconquerable.
My sixteenth name is he who makes the trae account.
My seven teenth name is the all-seeing.
My eight* -en th name is the healer.
My ninroeenth name is the Creator.
My twentieth name is Mazda (the knowing one).
9. Worship me, Zarathustra, by day and by night with
offerings of libations well accepted. I will come to thee for help
and joy ; I, Ahura Mazda. The good holy Sraosha will come
V> tbee for help and joy. The waters, the plants, and the
fravashis of the holy ones will come to thee for help and joy.
52
The Zend-Avesta, and iihe
Contrast
with
Biblical
oonceptions.
Zoroaa-
trianism
inferior to
Sufiism.
No worship
of God
prescribed.
Ideas of
offerings to
the gods.
How little, after all, do these twenty names convey
to satisfy the needs and cravings of the human
soul ! No idea is hinted of the fatherhood of
God. How sublime and melting is that one utter-
ance of the Bible, " God is Love," in comparison
with all this laboured and labouring description
of Ahura Mazda!
With respect to the idea of communion with
God, not only does Zoroastrianism fall immeasur-
ably below Christianity, it is decidedly inferior
even to Sufiism, which is a later production of
the Persian mind itself.
3. With regard to the worship of God. There
doubtless were deep meanings connected with the
rite of animal sacrifice, as practised by the ancient
heroes; but the Avesta does not prescribe it,
and, in overlooking animal sacrifice, it certainly
parted with truths both venerable and precious.
Prayer in the Avesta becomes, as we have
seen, very much a magical formula ; the sounds
of which are all-important, not the sense. No
common worship is prescribed, the worshipper
prays for himself, or is prayed for by the priest.
That blending of hearts and interests which
is implied in the sublime invocation Our
Father, which art in heaven is not known to the
Avesta.
4. The idea which the Avesta has of the offerings
presented to the divinities is as low as that of
Religion of the Parsis, 63
the Yedas. The divinities generally need food;
they are all strengthened hy praise.
5, Our readers will remember that Ahura Mazda
neither receives nor asks any peculiar homage.
He is honoured as almost every object in the good
creation is honoured. Although the Avesta never,
or scarcely ever, deviates into the pantheism which
confounds the Creator with the creation, yet, in so Degrading
lar as worship is concerned, it is chargeable with God
degrading the Creator to an equality with his own
productions.
In this respect there is the strongest possible
contrast between the Avesta and the Bible. The oontraat
between th
latter is strongly, even vehemently, monotheistic ; 4rBU)iT'*
it condemns in the sternest language everything
which in any degree trenches on the high intrans-
ferable claims of Jehovah. " The Lord, whose
name is jealous, is a jealous God." " Thou shalt
worship the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt
thou serve." In place of worshipping the works
of God, the Bible, by a bold personification and
apostrophe, demands that they shall worship God.
" Praise Him, sun and moon ; praise Him, all ye
stars of light ! " Instead of being adored, fire is
itself commanded to adore (Psalm cxlviii. 3-10).
It was not that the seers and poets of Israel had
no eye to discern the glory of Nature ; they saw it
more clearly than Mede or Persian did, and they
celebrated it in still loftier strains ; but they knew
54
The Zend-Avestay and the
Defective
idea of Sin.
that the glory had no subsistence apart from Him
who gave it birth, and Him they could not too
exclusively or ardently adore.
6. The notion of Sin in the Avesta is exceedingly
imperfect. Evil, as dwelling in the heart, is very
seldom mentioned ; external pollution is nearly all
in all. Hence, such a piercing cry as that of the
Psalmist : " Pardon mine iniquity, for it is great,"
is never heard. Equally unknown is the feeling,
akin to rapture, which is expressed in the words
of the prophet Micah : " Who is a God like unto
Thee, that pardo-neth iniquity ? " We see no sad
introspection, no wrestlings of the spirit with in
ward corruption, no " bitter thoughts of cpnscience
bom," no cry of self-despair like this : " Who can
understand his errors? Cleanse Thou me from
secret faults."
7. Coincident with this very imperfect sense of
human sinfulness is the entire absence of any deep
idea of expiation. The great problem of expiation,
which receives so sublime a solution in the Cross,
has occupied and distressed not a few who nevei
had the light of Judaism or Christianity ; but it
seems hardly to have suggested itself to the writers
of the Avesta. For ordinary faults they prescribe
washings, purifications, or penalties; and some
extraordinary crimes are pronounced unpardonable.
8. The idea of Salvation does not appear in the
Avesta. No contrast can be more complete than
idea of
expiation.
Ko idea of
Salvation in
the Avesta.
Religion of the Parsis. 55
that which exists hetween its mode of treating sin
and the Christian doctrine of the Atonement". Not
a few writers who do not accept the fact of the
atonement made hy Jesus Christ have yet been
awed by the sublimity of the conception the The
' "^ -" sublimity of
conception of the Son of God becoming the Son of ^^fj^g^'jo^^'^
Man, and, by His obedience unto death, bringing ^^^^"^
sinful man to God ; and nothing, surely, could set
in a clearer light the essential evil of sin, and also
both the divine righteousness and mercy. Even
unbelievers have repeatedly confessed that the
doctrine of the atonement has a strange power of
stirring the deeper and better emotions of the
human heart.
9. Again, there is not only the guilt of sin ; there Defective
are the dreadful consequences of pollution, degra- spiritual
, ^ purification.
dation, and death, entailed on the soul which is
surrendered to its power. How shall the dead
spirit live, and, as on eagle's wings, soar upward
to a holy heaven ? Alas ! the Avesta knows not
of the need of our " escaping the corruption that is
in the world through lust , " nor of our becoming
"partakers of the divine nature" by the direct
action of the Spirit of God in regenerating and
purifying the heart of fallen man.
10. We have seen that the Zoroastrian idea of
moral purity was never able to disengage itself from Moral and
_ ceremonial
that of ceremonial purity. The Avesta is, in this p^'i^y
* '' confounded.
respect, considerably behind some of the Hindu
56 The Zend-Avesta, and the
writings, as well as immeasurably below the
Jewish and Christian Scriptures. The explanation
Explanation, seems to be this* A sacerdotal caste will, if un-
checked, go on multiplying ceremonies and the
externals of religion, until the mind becomes wholly
absorbed in what is merely ritual. So, doubtless,
it would have been in ancient Judea, had not the
prophetical office been established. The prophet,
clothed with Divine authority, exclaimed : " Bring
no more vain oblations." " I will have mercy, and
not sacrifice." Words of burning indignation and
holy scorn recalled the people to the observance
of the weightier matters of the law. But in ancient
Persia the laity seem to have left religion entirely
to the dictation of the priests. From the reign of
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the Magi slowly
regained their power, until it was crushed by the
invasion of Alexander; and under the revived
empire the Sasanian their authority appears to
have been almost uncontrolled from the very
outset.
fonS'tiSJ 11. The Avesta has no conception of that deep
divine principle in the divine administration, "Whom
^ovemment ^-j^^ Lord loveth He chasteneth." Utterly incom-
prehensible also to the Zoroastrian would have
been the solemn warning which the prophet Amos
addresses to the people in the name of God : " You
only have I known of all the families of the earth ;
.,; therefore will I punish you for your iniquities."
Religion of the Parsis. 67
When calamity came on the people of Ahura Mazda,
they believed it must be from the demon or his
servants.
The A vesta thus knows nothing of the dis- TheAvest*
knows
cipline of sorrow a principle not wholly unknown J^e dL**'
to various ancient nations which, through the for?ow'
influence of the Bible, pervades nearly all modern
thought. " Sweet are the uses of adversity : " the
principle embodied in these well-known words is
recognized by nearly all who are not avowed
pessimists. Most educated Parsis will, I think,
accept it ; but certainly they have not derived this
important truth from the Avesta.
12. The great ideas of self-denial and self- Noseif-
'n n t 1 '11 denial.
sacrifice find no place in the Avesta.
13. Many of the rites prescribed in the Avesta Many rites
T 1 1 ! T 1 CA PI ^^ childi54{
are exceedingly childish. Some oi them are even some are
^ '' disgusting.
disgusting such as the use of uiina bovis, and I
have therefore been compelled to pass them hur-
riedly over.
14. Intellectually, the Avesta is but a shallow inteiiect-
book. Many deep questions, connected with the ^^Jj^**
divine government of the world, which necessarily
occur to every reflecting man, such as those with
which the patriarch Job wrestled to agony seem
never to have occupied the Zoroastrian mind.
15. There is a large amount of verse, or else, at
least, of rhythmical prose in the Avesta. It may
be that the knowledge which now exists of the
of
of^
Gbxist.
no The Zend-Avesta, and the
Yet this tract would be incomplete if we did
not glance for a moment at the immense supe-
riority of the New Testament over the Avesta,
^racter ^^ having the character of Christ depicted in it.
Example, it is said, is better than precept. Are
then the marvellous truths and precepts, which
flowed like beams of light from the lips of Jesus,
exemplified in His own life ? Thus, we know that
one of the new commands He issued, was " love
your enemies ; " but did He Himself act up to that
grand ideal ? Hear Him, as His enemies nail Him
to the cross, exclaiming " Father ! forgive them ;
they know not what they do ; " and your answer
to the question must come in tears rather than in
words. If those highest of high moral attainments,
self-denial and self-sacrifice for the good of others,
are ever to be learned, where can we better learn
them than at the cross of Christ ? To say that the
character of Jesus is faultless is saying little ; it is
Its gloriously complete, it is possessed of every con-
perfection. 11 11 . . 11-
ceivable excellence, it is " orbed into a perfect
star." Even those who do not believe in Christ as
the Son of God must admit that, if the Divinity
were to become incarnate, the result would be such
a career and character as actually belonged to
Jesus Christ. The poet reminds us that there are
Truths which wake,
To perish never.
Such are the truths that Jesus uttered ; and even
What it
teaches.
Religion of the Farais. 61
so, there is one example which has become an im-
perishable part of the highest heritage of humanity,
and which must shine on, like the brightness of the
firmament, yea, with continually increasing glory,
for ever and for ever the examiple supplied by
the life and death of Christ.
Now, the immense disparity between Christ ^^j^
and Zoroaster is dawning, we believe, on that chS^d
interesting people, the Parsis of India. They SZnTon
have been clinging to their ancient faith from a * "^'
feeling of nationality rather than of religion, from
tradition more than from conviction ; but immense
changes are certainly at hand. Of these we cannot
now speak. But we believe that, as the ** Magi
from the east *' who probably were Zoroastrians
hastened to lay their gold, frankincense, and
myrrh, at the feet of the new-bom Redeemer, so,
ere long, the Parsis will in all probability be the
first of eastern races, to take upon them, as a race,
the easy yoke of Christ.
EXFLANATORT AKD SUPPLKMEKTABT N0TX8.
a. The Avesta is composed in a language usuaUy called Zend,
which is cognate with Sanskrit. The translations from tbi
Avesta in this Tract are generally those of Darmesteter, as given
in his version of the Yandidad and Yashts, forming two volumes
of the Sacred Books of the East. In other cases Haiig or De
Harlez has been followed.
b. The Veda is the most ancient of the aacred bookit of tbt
Hindus.
62 Ttie Zend-Avesta, and the Religion of the Parsis.
c. IrS,n is the general Oriental designation of Persia. The
term Iranians includes the Bactrians and Medea as well as the
ancient Persians.
d. Ahura Mazda is generally written Hormazd by the Parsis.
The usual names of the two principles, as given in the classical
writers, are Oromasdes and Arimanes.
e. In Persia the adherents of the Avesta are now reduced to a
very small number. In October, 1879, they were only 8499.
A few of these were in Teheran, Kashan, Shiraz, and Bushire ;
and in these towns they were treated fairly well. But the
great body of Zoroastrians resides in Yezd and Kirman. They
are greatly oppressed by the Mohammedans. They are not
allowed to travel, and are forbidden to ride even on aAftiie. The
form and colour of their dress are strictly prescribed. Zeit-
Bchrift der Bevischen Morgenlandischen Oesellschaft, vol. xxxvi.,
p. 54
/. In India, according to the census of 1881, the number of
Zoroastrians was 85,397. The far greater part of these are in
Western India chiefly on the island of Bombay.
g. Some Parsis, engaged in commerce, reside temporarily in
China At least, an equal number may be found in England.
Some of these are merchants ; others are students of law,
medicine, or engineeting.
THE HINDU RELIGION
A SKETCH AND A CONTRAST
BY
J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D.
Argument of the Trai:;t.
The place of Hinduism which is professed by about a
hundred and ninety millions in India among the religions of
the world, and its great antiquity are pointed out.
The comparative simplicity of the system contained in the
Vedas, the oldest sacred books of the Hindus, its almost entire
freedom from the use of images, its gradual deterioration in
the later hymns, its gradual multiplication of gods, the advance
of sacerdotalism, and the increasing complexity of its religious
rites are set forth.
The philosophical speculation that was carried on, the
different philosophical Schools, the .Buddhist reaction, its
conflict with Brahmanism, its final d'^'feat, and its influence
on the victorious system are discussed-
The religious reconstruction represented by the Puranas,
their theological character, the modern ritual, the introduction
and rise of caste, and the treatment of women are then con-
sidered.
A contrast is drawn between the leading characteristics of
Hinduism and those of Christianity, and the effect of Christian
ideas on modern Hinduism is exhibited. The history of the
Brahmo Somaj under Keshub Chunder Sen is given at some
length.
THE HINDU RELIGION.
Introduction.
[BiiBwjj;g system of reliaious belief which is Hinduism
Wm M^ generally called Hinduism is, on many *"<^y-
K3 ^^\ ^cco^^^Sj eminently deserving of study.
If we desire to trace the history of the
ancient religions of the widely-extended Aryan,
or Indo-European race, to which we ourselves
belong, we shall find in the earlier writings of the
Hindus an exhibition of it decidedly more archaic
even than that which is presented in the Homeric
poems. Then, the growth the historical develop-
ment of Hinduism is not less worthy of attention
than its earlier phases. It has endured for upwards its . .
* ^ ^ antiqmty.
of three thousand years, no doubt undergoing
very important changes, yet in many things re-
taining its original spirit. The progress of the
system has not been lawless ; and it is exceedingly
instructive to note the development, and, if possible,
explain it.
We are, then, to endeavour to study Hinduism
The Hind/ii Religion,
chronologically. Unless he does so, almost every
man who tries to comprehend it is, at first, over-
whelmed with a feeling of utter confusion and
bewilderment. Hinduism spreads out tefoi" him
as a vast river, or even what seems at first
a dark
" Illimitable ocean, without bound,
Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height,
And time, and place are lost."
The
discussion
chrono-
logical.
The
Christian's
duty in
relation to
Kie subject.
But matters begin to clear up when he begins at
the beginning, and notes how one thing succeeded
another. It may not be possible as yet to trace
all the windings of the stream, or to show at
what precise points in its long course it was joined
by such and such a tributary ; yet much is known
regarding the mighty river which every intelligent
man will find it profitable to note and understand.
The Christian ought not to rest satisfied with the
vague general idea that Hinduism is a form of
heathenism with which he has nothing to do, save
to help in destroying it. Let him try to realize
the ideas of the Hindu regarding God, and the
soul, and sin, and salvation, and heaven, and hell,
and the many sore trials of this mortal life. He
will then certainly have a much more vivid per-
ception of the Divine origin and transcendent
importance of his own religion. Farther, he will
then extend a helping hand to his Eastern
brother with far more of sensibility and tenderness;
Tlie Hindu Religion.
and, in proportion to the measure of his loving
sympathy will doubtless be the measure of his
success. A yearning heart will accomplish more
than the most cogent argument.
In this Tract we confine ourselves to the laying The
purpose of
down of great leading facts and principles; but theivact.
these will be dwelt upon at sufficient length to
give the reader, we trust, an accurate conception
of the general character and history of Hinduism.
We shall also briefly contrast the system with
Christianity.
The history of Hinduism may be divided into
three great periods, each embracing, in round
numbers, about a thousand years.
The Yedas.
Regarding the earliest form of Hinduism we The moat
must draw our conceptions from the Yeda, or, to writings o(
India.
speak more accurately, the four Yedas. The most j
important of these is the Rig Yeda ; and internal j
evidence proves it to be the most ancient. It con-
tains above a thousand hymns ; the earliest of
which may date from about the year 1500 B.a
The Hindus, or, as they called themselves, the
Aryas, had by that time entered India, and were
dwelling in its north-western portion, the Panj4b.
The hymns, we may say, are racy of the soil.
The Mindu Religion.
There is no reference to the life led by the people
before they crossed the Himalaya mountains, or
entered by some of the passes of Afghanistan.
It would be very interesting if we could discover
the pre-Yedic form of the religion. Inferentially
this may, to some extent, be done by comparing
the teachings of the Yedas with those contained in
the books of other branches of the great Aryan
family such as the Greeks, the Bomans, and
above all, the Iranians (ancient Persians).
The ancient Hindus were a highly-gifted, ener-
getic race ; civilized to a considerable extent ; not
nomadic ; chiefly shepherds and herdsmen, but also
acquainted with agriculture. Commerce was not
unknown; the river Indus formed a highway to
the Indian Ocean, and at least the Phenicians
availed themselves of it from perhaps the seven-
teenth century B.C., or even earlier.
As soon as we begin to study the hymns of the
Yeda, we are struck by their strongly religious
character. Tacitly assuming that the book contains
the whole of the early literature of India, many
writers have expressed themselves in strong terms
regarding the primitive Hindus as religious above
all other races. But, as we read on, we become
convinced that these poems are a selection, rather
than a collection, of the literature ; and the con-
viction grows that the selection has been made
by priestly hands for priestly purposes. An acute
The hymns
are
strongly
religious.
They are a
selection.
The Hindu, Religion,
critic has affirmed that the Yedic poems are " pre- ^i^
^ * eminently
eminently sacerdotal, and in no sense popular." ^ sacerdotal.
We can thus explain a pervading characteristic of
the book which has taken most readers by surprise.
There is a want of simplicity in the Veda. It is
often most elaborate, artificial, over-refined, one
might even say, affected. How could these be the
thoughts, or those the expressions, of the imperfectly
civilized shepherds of the Panjab ? But if it be
only a hymn book, with its materials arranged
for liturgical purposes, the difficulty vanishes.*
We shall accordingly take it for granted that the
Yeda presents only the religious thought of the
ancient Hindus, and not the whole of the religious
thought, but only that of a very influential portion
of the race. With all the qualifications now stated,
the Yeda must retain a position of high importance
for all who study Indian thought and life. The
religious stamp which the compilers of the Yeda
impressed so widely and so deeply has not been
obliterated in the course of thirty centuries.
The prevailing aspect of the religion presented Their
in the Yedic hymns may be broadly designated as Nature.
Nature- worship.
All physical phenomena in India are invested
* Barth.
* Bergaigne, in his able treatise, La Religion VMique, insists
earnestly ou what Le calls tlie *' liturgical contamination of the
m^-ths." See Vol. III. p. 320.
The Hindu Religion.
physical
phenoraena
b India.
Their eflfect
on the
religion.
The deities
are " the
bright ones,"
according to
the language
of the sacred
books of
India.
witli a grandeur which they do not possess in
northern or even southern Europe. Sunlight,
moonlight, starlight, the clouds purpled with the
heam of morning, or flaming in the west like fiery
chariots of heaven ; to behold these things in their
full magnificence one ought to see them in the
East. Even so the sterner phenomena of Nature,
whirlwind And tempest, lightning and thunder,
flood and storm-wave, plague, pestilence, and
famine ; all of these oftentimes assume in the East
a character of awful majesty before which man
cowers in helplessness and despair. The con-
ceptions and feelings hence arising have from the
beginning powerfully affected the religion of the
Hindus. Everywhere we can trace the impress of
the grander manifestations of Nature the impress
of their beneficence, their beauty, their might, their
mystery, or their terribleness.
The Sanskrit word for god is deva, which means
bright, shining. Of physical phenomena it was
especially those connected with light that en-
kindled feelings of reverence. The black thunder-
cloud that enshrouded Nature, in which the demon
had bound the life-giving waters, passed away;
for the glittering thunderbolt was launched, and
the streams rushed down, exulting in their freedom ;
and then the heaven shone out again, pure and
peaceful as before. But such a wonder as the Dawn
with far- streaming radiance, returning from the
The Hindu Religion, 9
land of mystery, fresh in eternal youth, and scat-
tering the terrors of the night before her ; who
could sufficiently admire ? And let it be remem-
bered that in the Hindu mind the interval between
admiration and adoration is exceedingly small. .
Yet, while it is the Dawn which has evoked the
truest poetry, she has not retained the highest place
in worship.
No divinity has fuller worship paid him than Irire much
Agni, the Fire {Ignis). More hymns are dedicated
to him than to any other being. Astonishment at
the properties of fire ; a sense of his condescension
in that he, a mighty god, resides in their dwellings ;
his importance as the messenger between heaven
and earth, bearing the offerings aloft; his kind-
ness at night in repelling the darkness and the
demons which it hides ; all these things raised Agni
to an exalted place. He is fed with pure clarified
butter, and so rises heavenward in his brightness.
The physical conception of fire, however, adheres
to him, and he never quite ceases to be the earthly
flame ; yet mystical conceptions thickly gather
round this root- idea ; he is fire pervading all Nature;
and he often becomes supreme, a god of gods.
All this seems natural enough ; but one is i
hardly prepared for the high exaltation to which J exalted.
Soma is raised. Soma is properly the juice of a j
milky plant (asclepias acida, or sarcostemma vimi- '
nale), which, when ferm^ited, is intoxicating. The
10
7^ Hindu Religion.
Soma
becomes a
very mighty
god.
simple-minded Aryas were both astonished and de-
lighted at its effects : they liked it themselves ; and
they knew nothing more precious to present to
their gods. Accordingly, all of these rejoice in it.
Indra in particular quaffs it " like a thirst)'^ stag ; "
and under its exhilarating effects he strides vic-
toriously to battle. Soma itself becomes a god,
and a very mighty one ; he is even the creator and
father of the gods ; ^ the king of gods and men ; '^
all creatures are in his hand. It is surely extra-
ordinary that the Aryas could apply such hyper-
bolical laudations to the liquor which they had
made to trickle into the vat, and which they knew
to be the juice of a plant they had cut down on the
mountains and pounded in a mortar ; and that in-
toxication should be confounded with inspiration.
Yet of such aberrations we know the human mind
is perfectly capable.
We have first referred to Agni and Soma, as
being the only divinities of highest rank which
still retain their physical character. The worship
paid to them was of great antiquity ; for it is also
prescribed in the Persian A vesta, and must have
been common to the Indo-Iranian branch of the
Aryan race before the Hindus entered India. Eut
we can inferentially go still further back, and speak
of a deity common to the Greeks, Romans, Persians,
and Hindus. This deity is Yaruna; the most
* R. V. ix. 42, 4. . 2 ix. 97, 24.
Connection
with
Persian,
Greek, and
Roman
systems.
The Hindu Religion. 11
remarkable personality in tlie Yeda. The name, "Vanma.the
which is etymologically connected with Ovpavoc, sig- i^eaTen.
nifies " the encompasser," and is applied to heaven
especially the all- encompassing, extreme vault
of heaven not the nearer sky, which is the region
of cloud and storm. It is in describing Yarun a [The
I sublimity of
that the Yeda rises to the greatest subhmity tteVedic
^ ' description
which it ever reaches. A mysterious presence,) **' ^^^
a mysterious power, a mysterious knowledge
amounting almost to omniscience, are ascribed to
Yaruna. The winkings of men's eyes are num-
bered by him. He upholds order, both physical
and moral, throughout the universe. The winds
are his breath, the sun his eye, the sky his garment.
He rewards the good, and punishes the wicked. Yet
to the truly penitent he is merciful. It is absolutely contrast
confounding to pass from a hymn that celebrates laudations
the serene majesty and awful purity of Yaruna soma,
to one filled with measureless laudations of Soma
or Agni. Could conceptions of divinity so incon-
gruous co-exist P That they could not spring up
in the same mind, or even in the same age, is
abundantly manifest. And, as we have mentioned. The loftier
^ _ ... . conceptions
the loftier conceptions of divinity are unquestion- J^g^^'^j^J
ably the earlier. It is vain to speak, as certain
writers do, of religion gradually refining itself, as
a muddy stream can run itself pure ; Hinduism
resembles the Ganges, which when it breaks forth
from its mountain cradle at Hard war, is com-
ments.
12 The Hindu Religion.
paratively pellucid, but, as it rolls on, becomes more
and more muddy, discoloured, and unclean.^
Yarious scholars affirm that Yaruna, in more
ancient, pre-Yedic times, held a position still
higher than the very high one which he still
retains. This is probable ; indeed it is certain that,
before later divinities had intruded, he held a place
ladnk / of unrivalled majesty. But, in the Yedas, India
' / is a more conspicuous figure. He corresponds to
the Jupiter Pluvius of the Romans. In north-
western India, after the burning heat, the annual
return of the rains was hailed with unspeakable
His achieve- joy; it was like life Succeeding death. The clouds
that floated up from the ocean were at first thin
and light ; ah ! a hostile demon was in them
carrying off the healing waters, and not permitting
them to fall ; but the thunderbolt of Indra flashed;
the demon was driven away howling, and the
emancipated streams refreshed the thirsty earth.
Yaruna was not indeed dethroned, but he was o\-
scured, by the achievements of the warlike Indra ;
and the super-sensuous, moral conceptions that were
connected with the former gradually faded from
* The religion of the Indo-European race, while still united,
'recognized a supreme God; an organizing God; almighty
omniscient, moral .... This conception was a heritage of
the past .... The supreme God was originally the God of
heaven. So Darmesteter : Conteviporary iCeview, Oct., 1879.
Roth had previously written with much learning and acuteness
to the same effect.
The Hindu Reli^iM:^^ q0^ 1-3
the minds of the people, and Yaruna ere long
became quite a subordinate figure in the Pantheon.
The deities are generally said in the Yeda to be Number and
' ^^ relations oi
" thrice eleven " in number. "We also hear of three ^"ti^
uncertain.
thousand three hundred and thirty -nine. There is
no systeniy no fixed order in the hierarchy ; a deity
who, in one hymn, is quite subordinate, becomes
in another supreme; almost every god becomes
supreme in turn ; in one hymn he is the son of some
deity, and in another that deity's father, and so (if
logic ruled) his own grandfather. Every poet exalts
his favourite god, till the mind becomes utterly
bewildered in tracing the relationships.
We have already spoken of ^^pgfp Yaruna, and
Indra, as well as Sjyjia. Next to these in im-
portance may come the deities of light, viz., the
Sun, the Dawn, and the two Asvina or beams
that accompany the dawn. The "Winds come
next. The Earth is a goddess. The Waters are
goddesses. It is remarkable that the Stars are
very little mentioned; and the Moon holds no
distinguished place.
In the religion of the Rig Yeda we hardly see Haniiyany
. * fetishism in
fetishism if by fetishism we mean the worship ^J^k
oi small physical objects, such as stones, shells,
plants, etc., which are believed to be charged (so
to speak) with divinity ; though this appears in the
fourth Yeda the Atharva. But even in the ^-ig
Yeda, almost any object that is grand, beneficent, or
14
The Hindu Religion,
Early
tendency
towards
pantheism.
Reverence
of the dead.
terrible, may be adored ; and implements associated
with worship are themselves worshipped. Thus,
the war-chariot, the plough, the furrow, etc., are
prayed to.
A pantheistic conception of Nature was also
present in the Indian mind from very early times,
although its development was later. Even in the
earliest hymns, any portion of Nature with which
man is brought into close relation may be adored.^
We must on no account overlook the reverence
paid to the dead. The Pitris (patres) or Fathers
are frequently referred to in the Yeda. They
are clearly distinguished from the devas or gods.
In later writings they are also distinguished from
men, as having been created separately from them ;
but this idea does not appear in the Yeda. Yama,
the first mortal, travelled the road by which none
returns, and now drinks the Soma in the inner-
most of heaven, surrounded by the other Fathers.
These come also, along with '-he gods, to the
banquets prepared for them on earth, and, sitting
on the sacred grass, rejoice in the exhilarating
draught.
The hymns of the Rig Y. celebrate the power,
exploits, or generosity of the deity invoked; and
sometimes his personal beauty. The praises
lavished on the god not only secured his favour,
but increased his power to help the worshipper.
' TexU, Y. 412.
The subjects
of the hymns
of the Ilig
Veda.
The Hindu Religion. 15
There is one prayer (bo-called) whicli is es- ThehoUest
r J \ I prayer.
teemed pre-eminently holy ; generally called ^from
the metre in which it is composed the Gayatri.^
It may he rendered thus :
"Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the Divine Sun
(or Vivifier) ; may he enlighten our understandings I "
It has always been frequently repeated in important
rites.
So far we have referred almost exclusively to
the Rig Yeda. The next in importance is the Atharva
Atharva, sometimes termed the Brahma Yeda;
which we may render the Veda of incantations.
It contains six hundred and seventy hymns. Of inferior
1 T T\ T morally and
these a few are equal to those lu the R12: v. : but, spiritually
^ ^ _ . b ' ' to the Rig
as a whole, the Atharva is far inferior to the other '^*^^*-
in a moral and spiritual point of view. It.
abounds in imprecations, charms for the destruc- |
tion of enemies, and so forth. Talismans, plants,
or gems, are invoked, as possessed of irresistible
might to kill or heal. The deities are often
different from those of the Rig V. The Atharva
manifests a great dread of malignant beings, whose 1
wrath it deprecates. We have thus simple demon- f Explanation
worship. How is this great falling-oif to be ex- terior*tion.
plained ? In one of two ways. Either a con-
siderable time intervened between the composition
of the two books, during which the original faith
* Rig. V. iiL 62, 10.
Tne
offeringi^
16 The Hindu Religion.
had rapidly degenerated, probably through contact
with aboriginal races who worshipped dark and
sanguinary deities ; or else there had existed from
the beginning two fornis of the religion the
higher of which is embodied in the hymns of the
Rig y., and the lower in the Atharva, We
believe the latter explanation to be correct ;
although doubtless the superstitions of the ab-
origines must all along have exerted an influence
on the faith of the invaders.
The offerings presented to the gods consisted
chiefly of clarified butter, curdled milk, rice, cakes,
and fermented Soma juice, which was generally
mixed with water or milk. All was thrown into
the fire, which bore them or their essences to the
gods. The Soma was also sprinkled on the sacred
grass, which was strown on the floor; and on
which the gods and fathers were invited to come
and seat themselves, that they might enjoy the
cheering beverage. The remainder was drunk by
the officiating priests. The offerings were under-
stood to nourish and gratify the gods as corporeal
beings.
I Animal victims were also offered up. We
hear of sheep, goats, bulls, cows, and buffaloes
being sacrificed, and sometimes in large numbers.
But the great offering was the Asvamedha, or
sacrifice of the horse. The body of the horse was
hacked to pieces ; the fragments were dressed
victims.
The Hindu Religion. 17
part was boiled, part roasted ; some of tlie flesh
was then eaten by the persons present, and the
rest was offered to the gods. Tremendous was the
potency at least as stated in later times of a
hundred such sacrifices ; it rendered the offerer
equal or superior to the gods; even the mighty
Tndra trembled for his sovereignty, and strove to
hinder the consummation of the awful rite.
Human sacrifice was not unknown ; though Human
n . . . , . sacrifice.
there are very few allusions to it in the earlier
hymns.
Even from the first, however, the rite of sacrifice sacrifice
deemed of
occupies a very high place ; and allusions to it are ^^^Se
exceedingly frequent. The observances connected
with it are said to be the " first religious rites."
Sacrifice was early believed to be expiatory ; it
removed sin. It was substitutionary ; the victim
stood in place of the offerer. All order in the
universe depends upon it ; it is " the nave of the
world- wheel.** Sometimes Vishnu is said to be
the sacrifice ; sometimes even the Supreme Being
himself is so. Elaborated ideas and a complex
ritual, which we could have expected to grow up
only in the course of ages, appear from very early
times. We seem compelled to draw the inference
that sacrifice formed an essential, and very im-
portant, part of the pre-Vedic faith. ^
* The rites, says Haug, "must have existed from times im-
luemorial." Aitareya Brdhmana, pp. 7, 9.
c
18
The Hindu Religion.
No image-
worship.
In the Yeda, worship is a kind of barter. In
exchange for praises and offerings, the deity is
asked to bestow favours. Temporal blessings are
implored, such as food, wealth, life, children, cows,
horses, success in battle, the destruction of enemies,
and so forth. Not much is said regarding sin, and
the need of forgiveness. A distinguished scholar^
has said that " the religious notion of sin is wanting
altogether;" but this affirmation is decidedly too
sweeping.
The worship exemplified in the Veda is not
image- worship. Images of the fire, or the winds,
or the waters, could hardly be required ; and,
while the original Nature- worship lasted, idols
must have been nearly unknown. Yet, tlie
description of various deities is so precise and
full that it seems to be probably drawn from
visible representations of them. Worship was
personal and domestic ; not, in any way, public.
Indeed, two men praying at the same time had to
pray quite apart, so that neither might disturb the
other. Each dealt with heaven, so to speak, solely
on his own behalf.
No temples. Wb hear of no places set apart as temples in
Yedic times.
No public
worship.
A Yeda consists of two parts called Mantra or
Sanhifd, and Brdhmana. The first is composed of
* Weber, History of Indian Literature, p. 38.
The Hindu Religion, 19
hymns. The second is a statement of ritual, and I'^e
^ ^ ^ ^ treatises on
is generally in prose. The existing Br^hmanas "*"*^-
are several centuries later than the great body of
the Hymns, and were probably composed when the
Hindus had crossed the Indus, and were advancing
along the Gangetic valley. The oldest may be-
about the date of 800 or 700 B.C.
The Brahmanas are very poor, both in thought '
and expression. They have hardly their match
in any literature for " pedantry and downright
absurdity."^ Poetical feeling, and even religious
feeling, seem gone ; all is dead and dry as dust.
By this time the Sanskrit language had ceased to
be generally understood. The original texts could
hardly receive accessions ; the most learned man
could do little more than interpret, or perhaps
misinterpret, them. The worshipper looked on ;
he worshipped now by proxy. Thus the priest,
had risen greatly in importance. He alone knew
the sacred verses and the sacred rites. An error ; Growth oi
I pnestly
in the pronunciation of the mystic text might \yo^^f-
bring destruction on the worshipper: what could
he do but lean upon the priest ? The latter could
say the prayers, if he could not pray. All this
worked powerfully for the elevation of the
Brahmans, the "men of prayer;" they steadily
grew into a class, a caste ; and into this no one
could enter who was not of priestly descent.
1 Max Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 389
2u
The Hindu Religion.
Moral
character of
the Veda.
Schools for Schools Were now found necessary for the study of
sacredbo^oks, the sacred books, rites, and traditions. The im-
rites, and i i -i i ^ i
traditions, portanco which these attach to theology doctrine
is very small : the externals of religion are all
in all. The rites, in fact, now threw the very
gods into the shade ; everything depended on their
due performance. And thus the Hindu ritual
gradually grew up into a stupendous system, the
most elaborate, complex, and burdensome which
the earth has seen.
It is time, however, to give a brief estimate of
the moral character of the Veda. The first thing
that strikes us is its inconsistency. Some hymns
especially those addressed to Yaruna rise as
high as Gentile conceptions regarding deity ever
rose ; others even in the Rig V sink miserably
low ; and in the Atharva we find, " even in the
lowest depth, a lower still."
The character of Indra who has displaced or
overshadowed Varuna^ has no high attributes.
He is " voracious ; '* his " inebriety is most intense ;"
he "dances with delight in battle." His wor-
shippers supply him abundantly with the drink
he loves ; and he supports them against their foes,
ninety and more of whose cities he has destroyed.
We do not know that these foes, the Dasyus, wore
morally worse than the intrusive Aryas ; but the
feelings of the latter towards the former were of
1 " The haughty Indra takes precedence of all gods." Rig V.
1. 65.
Indra
supersedes
Vaniiia.
The Hindu Religion. 21
unexampled ferocity. Here is one passage out of
multitudes similar :
'* Hurl thy hottest thunderbolt upon them ! Uproot them I
Cleave them asunder I Indra, overpower, subdue, slay the
demon ! Pluck him up ! Cut him through the middle ! Crush
his head ! "
Indra, if provided with Soma, is always
indulgent to his votaries; he supports them per
fas et nefas. Yaruna, on the other hand, is
grave, just, and to wicked men, severe.^ The Detenoi*.
tion begins
supersession of Yaruna by Indra, then, is early,
easily understood. We see the principle on
which it rests stated in the Old Testament.
" Ye cannot serve the Lord," said Joshua to the
elders of Israel ; " for He is a holy God." Even
80 Jeremiah points sorrowfully to the fact that the
Pagan nations clung to their false gods, while
Israel was faithless to the true. As St. Paul
expresses it : " they did not like to retain God in
their knowledge." Unless this principle is fully
taken into account, we cannot understand the
historical development of Hinduism.
The Yeda frequently ascribes to the gods, to
use the language of Max Miiller, "sentiments and
passions unworthy of deity." In truth, except injvarunathe
the case of Yaruna, there is not one divinity that) posIessecTo?
IS possessed oi pure and elevated attributes. / elevated
^ "^ I attributes.
^ ' These two personages [Indra and Varuna] sum up the
two conceptions of divinity, between which the religious con-
Bciousness of the Vedic Aryans seems to oscillate." Bergaigne,
La Religion Vedique, Vol. III. p. 149.
22
The HiTidu Religion,
II.
Speculation
begins.
Rise of
asceticism.
Philosophy; and Ritualism.
During the Yedic period certainly towards its
conclusion a tendency to speculation had begun
to appear. Probably it had all along exi^^ted in
the Hindu mind, but had remained latent during
the stirring period when the people were engaged
in incessant wars. Climate, also, must have af-
fected the temperament of the race; and, as the
Hindus steadily pressed down the valley of the
Ganges into warmer regions, their love of repose
and contemplative quietism would continually |
deepen. And when the Brahmans became a fully'
developed hierarchy, lavishly endowed, with no
employment except the performance of religious
ceremonies, their minds could avoid stagnation
only by having recourse to speculative thought.
Again, asceticism has a deep root in human nature ; )
earnest souls, conscious of their own weakness,
will fly from the temptations of the world. Various
causes thus led numbers of men to seek a life of
seclusion ; they dwelt chiefly in forests, and there
they revolved the everlasting problems of existence,
creation, the soul, and God. The lively Greeks,
for whom, with all their high intellectual endow-
ments, a happy sensuous existence was nearly all
The Hindu Religion. 23
in all, were amazed at the numbers in Northern
India, who appeared weary of the world and in-
different to life itself. By and for these recluses
were gradually composed the Aranyakas, or forest
treatises ; and out of these grew a series of more
regular works, called Upanishads.^ At least 250 1
of these are known to exist. They have been
called '' guesses at truth ; " they are more so than
formal solutions of great questions. Many of them
are unintelligible rhapsodies ; others rise almost to
sublimity. They frequently contradict each other ;
the same writer sometimes contradicts himself.
One prevailing characteristic is all-important ; their
doctrine is pantheism. The pantheism is some- They are
^ pantheistiA
times not so much a coldly reasoned system as an
aspiration, a yearning, a deep-felt need of some-
thing better than the mob of gods who came in the
train of Indra, and the darker deities who were still
crowding in. Even in spite of the counteracting
power of the Gospel, mysticism has run easily into
pantheism in Europe; and orthodox Christians
sometimes slide unconsciously into it or at least
into its language.^ But as has been already noted,
^ The meaning of the term is not quite certain. Sessions, or
Instructions, may perhaps be the rendering. So Monier Williams.
^ For example, Wwdsworth :
Thou, Thou alone
Art everlasting, and the blessed Spirits
Which Thou includest, as the sea her waves.
Excursion. Book IV.
24: The Hindu Religion.
a strain of pantheism existed in the Hindu mind
from early times.
Accordingly, these hermit sages, these mystic
dreamers, soon came to identify the human soul
with God. And the chief end of man was to seek
that the stream derived from God should return
to its source, and ceasing to wander through the
wilderness of this world, should find repose in the
bosom of the illimitable deep, the One, the All.
The Brahmans attached the Upanishads to the
Yeda proper, and they soon came to be regarded
as its most sacred part. In this way the influence
these treatises have exercised has been immense
more than any other portion of the earlier Hindu
writings, they have moulded the thoughts of suc-
ceeding generations. Philosophy had thus begun.
Six The speculations of which we see the commence-
philosophic *
schools. ment and progress in the Upanishads were finally
developed and classified in a series of writings
called the six Sastras or <^r.sflw5. These constitute
the regular, official philosophy of India. They are
without much difficulty reducible to three leading
schools of thought the Nyaya, the S^nkhya, and
the Yedanta.
Roundly and speaking generally, we may cha-
racterize these systems as theistic, atheistic, and
pantheistic respectively.
'fheNyftya. It is doubtful, howcver, whether the earlier form
of the Nyaya was theistic or not. The later form
The Hindu Religion. 25
is s ; but it says nothing of the moral attributes
of God, nor of His government. The chief end of
man, according to the Nyaya, is deliverance from
pain ; and this is to be attained by cessation from
all action, whether good or bad.
The Sankhya declares matter to be self-existent The
^ ... Sankhya.
and eternal. Soul is distinct from matter, and also
eternal. When it attains true knowledge it is
liberated from matter and from pain. The Sankhya
holds the existence of God to be without proof.
But the leading philosophy of India is un-l The
I V6clfl.ntft
questionably the Yedanta. The name means " the!
end or scope of the Ycda ; " and if the Upanishads]
were the Yeda, instead of treatises tacked on to it,
the name would be correct : for the Vedanta, like
the Upanishads, inculcates pantheism.
The form which this philosophy ultimately as-
sumed is well represented in the treatise called the
Vedanta Sara, or Essence of the Yedanta. A few
extracts will suffice to exhibit its character. " The
unity ot the soul and God ; this is the scope of all
Vedanta treatises." We have frequent references
made to the " great saying " Tat twam^ i.e.. That
art thou, or Thou art God; and Aham Brahma, {.e.,
I am God. Again it is said, *'The whole universe
is God." God is " existence (or more exactly, an
existent thing ^), knowledge, and joy." Knowledge,
not a knower ; joy, not one who rejoices.
^ Or, the thing that really is ^the 6tfrtn if.
26
The Hindu Religion.
It teaches
absolute
idealism.
Doctrine of
" the Self."
Everything else has only a seeming existeuce,
which is in consequence of ignorance (or illusion)
Ignorance makes the soul think itself different
from God ; and it also " projects " the appearance
of an external world.
'* He who knows God becomes God." " When
He, the first and last is discerned, one's own acts
are annihilated."
Meditation, without distinction of subject and
object, is the highest form of thought. It is a
high attainment to say, "I am God;" but the
consummation is when thought exists without an
object.
There are four states of the soul waking,
dreaming, dreamless sleep, and the " fourth state,"
or pure intelligence. The waking man is in dense
ignorance ; in sleep he is freed from part of this
ignorance ; in dreamless sleep he is freed from still
more ; but the consummation is when he attains
something beyond this, which it seems cannot be
explained, and is therefore called the fourth state.
The name, which in later writings is most fre-
quently given to the *' one without a second," ^ is
Atman, which properly means Self. Much is said
of the way in which the self in each man is to
recover, or discover, its unity with the Supreme or
real self. For as the one sun shining in the
heavens is reflected, often in distorted images, in
1 Ekamadyitiyam.
statements.
The Hindu Rd'igion. 717
multitudes of vessels filled with water, so the one
Self is present in all human minds.^ There is not inconsistent
perhaps there could not be consistency in the
statements of the relation of the seeming to the
real. In most of the older hooks a practical, or
conventional, existence is admitted of the Self in
each man, but not a real existence. But when the
conception is fully formulated, the finite world is
not admitted to exist, save as a mere illusion. All
phenomena are a play a play without plot or pur-
pose, which thu Absolute plays with itself.^ This is
surely transcendent transcendentalism. One regrets
that speculation did not take one step more, and
declare that the illusion was itself illusory. Then
we should have gone round the circle, and returned
to sensiM communis. We must be pardoned if
we seem to speak disrespectfully of such fantastic
speculations ; we desire rather to speak regretfully
of the many generations of men which successively
occupied themselves with such unprofitable dreams ;
for this kind of thought is traceable even from
Yedic days. It is more fully developed in the
Upanishads. In them occurs the classical sentence
80 frequently quoted in later literature, which
declares that the Absolute being is the " one [thing]
without a second.'**
' This illustration is in the mouth of every Hindu disputant
ftb the present day.
* Bartn, p. 76. Ekamadvitlyam.
88 The Hindu Religion.
The Git*. The book wMcli perliaps above all others has
moulded the mind of India in more recent days
is the Bhagavad Gita, or Song of the Holy One.
It is written in stately and harmonious verse, and
has achieved the same task for Indian philosophy
as Lucretius did for ancient Epicureanism.-^ It is
eclectic, and succeeds, in a sort of way, in forcing
the leading systems of Indian thought into
seeming harmony.
Some have thought they could discern in these
daring speculations indications of souls groping
after God, and saddened because of the difficulty
of finding Him. Were it so, all our sympathies
would at once be called forth. But no ; we see in
inteUectua] thcsc writiuffs far more of intellectual pride than of
pride. " ^ ^
spiritual sadness. Those ancient dreamers never
learned their own ignorance. They scarcely recog-
nized the limitations of the hu un mind. And
when reason could take them no farther, they sup-
plemented it by dreams and ecstasy until, in the
Yoga philosophy, they rushed into systematized
mysticism and magic, far more extravagant than
the wildest theurgy of the degraded Neoplatonism
of the Roman empire.
A learned writer thus expresses himself :
** The unly one of the six schools that seems to recognize the
Volui tibi suaviloquenti
Carmine Pierio ratioiiem exponere nostram
Et quasi Mvisreo dulci contingere melle.
The Hindu lidigiov. 29
doctrine of divine providence is the Yoga. It thus seems that
the consistent followers of these systems can have, in their
perfected state, no religion, no action, and no moral character."*
And now to take a brief review of the whole
subject. The Hindu sages were men of acute and Indian
. philosophy a
patient thought ; but their attempt to solve the sad failure,
problem of the Divine and human natures, of
human destiny and duty, has ended in total failure.
Each system baseless, and all mutually conflicting ;
systems cold and cheerless, that frown on love and
virtuous exertion, and speak of annihilation or its
equivalent, absorption, as our highest hope : such
is the poor result of infinite speculation. "The
world by wisdom knew not God." Oh that India
would learn the much-needed lesson of humility
which the experience of ages ought to teach her !
While speculation was thus busy, Sacerdotali!?m sacerdotai.
ism.
was also continually extending its influence. The
Brahman, the man of prayer, had made himself
indispensable in all sacred rites. He alone as we
have seen knew the holy texts; he alone could
rightly pronounce the words of awful mystery and
power on which depended all weal or woe. On all
religious occasions the priest must be called in,
and, on all occasions, implicitly obeyed. For a
considerable time the princes struggled against the
encroachments of the priests ; but, in the end, they
were completely vanquished. Never was sacer-
* Dr. J. Muir, in North British Review ^ No. xlix. p.
30 The Hindu Religion.
The tyranny dotal tyranny more absolute ; the proudest pope
dotauam. j^ mediODval times never lorded it over Western
Christendom with such unrelenting rigour as the
Brahmans exercised over both princes and people.
The feeling of the priests is expressed in a well-
known stanza ;
"All the world is subject to the gods ; the gods are subject
to the holy texts ; the holy texts are subject to the Brahman ;
therefore the Brahman is my Gkni."
Yes, the sacred man could breathe the spell which
made earth and hell and heaven itself to tremble.
He therefore logically called himself an earthly
god. Indeed, the Brahman is always logical. He
draws conclusions from premises with iron rigour
of reasoning ; and with side-issues he has nothing
to do. He stands upon his rights. Woe to the
being god or man who comes in conflict with
I him!
Ritual { The priests naturally multiplied religious cere-
becomes I . . 1 'i 1 1
extravagant, mouies, and made ntual the soul of worship.
Sacrifice especially assumed still more and more
exaggerated forms becoming more protracted,
more expensive, more bloody. A hecatomb of
victims was but a small offering. More and more
awful powers were ascribed to the rite.
But the tension was too great, and the bow
snapped. Buddhism arose. We may call this
remarkable system the product of the age an in-
evitable rebellion acainst intolerable sacerdotalism;
The Hindu Religion, 31
and yet we must not overlook the importance of
the very distinct and lofty personality of Buddha
(Sakya Muni) as a power moulding it into
shape.
"Wherever it extended, it effected a vast re- Buddhism,
volution in Indian thought. Thus, in regard to
the institution of caste, Buddha did not attack it,
he did not, it would appear, even formally re-
nounce it; as a mere social institution, he seems
to have acknowledged it ; hut then he held that
all the religious were freed from its restrictions.
"My law," said he, "is a law of mercy for all;"
and forthwith he proceeded to admit men of every 1
caste into the closest fellowship with himself and
his followers. Then, he preached he, though not
a Brahman in the vernacular languages, an im- I
mense innovation, which made his teaching popular.
He put in the forefront of his system certain great Moral
fundamental principles of morality. He made re- this system,
ligion consist in duty, not rites. He reduced duty >
mainly to mercy or kindness towards all living
beings a marvellous generalization. This set
aside all slaughter of animals. The mind of the
princes and people was weary of priestcraft and
ritualism ; and the teaching of the great reformer
was most timely. Accordingly his doctrine spread B?t^***
with great rapidity ; and for a long time it seemed ^^^
likely to prevail over Brahmanism. But various
causes gradually combined against it Partly, it was
32 The Hindu Religion.
overwhelmed by its own luxuriance of growth ;
Victory of partlv, Brahmauism, which had all alone: maintained
Brahman- r ^ ' f o
ism.
an intellectual superiority, adopted, either from con-
viction or policy, most of the principles of Buddh-
ism, and skilfully supplied some of its main de-
ficiencies. Thus the Brahmans retained their
position; and, at least nominally, their religion
won the day.
m.
Reconstruction. Modern Hinduism.
Revival, in BuT the Hiuduism that grew up, as Buddhism
fS4, 0? faded from Indian soil, was widely different from
Hinduism.
the system with which early Buddhism had con-
tended. Hinduism, as it has been developed during
the last thousand or twelve hundred years, resembles
a stupendous far-extended building, or series of
buildings, -which is still receiving additions, while
portions have crumbled and are crumbling into
ruin. Every conceivable style of architecture, from
that of the stately palace to the meanest hut, is
comprehended in it. On a portion of the structure
here or there, the eye may rest with pleasure ; but,
as a whole, it is an unsightly, almost monstrous,
pile. Or, dismissing figures, we must describe it
as the most extraordinary creation which the world
has seen. A jumble of all things ; polytheistic
pantheism ; much of Buddhism ; something ap-
The Hindu. Religion. 3^3
pareatly of Christianity, but terribly disfigured; a
science wholly outrageous ; shreds of history twisted
into wild mythology ; the bold poetry of the older
books understood as literal prose ; any local deity,
any demon of the aborigines, however hideous,
identified with some accredited Hindu divinity ;
any custom, however repugnant to common sense
or common decency, accepted and explained ; in a
word, later Hinduism has been omnivorous ; it has
partially absorbed and assimilated every system of
belief, every form of worship, with which it has
come in contact. Only to one or two things hac ii oniy the
position 0/
remained inflexibly true. It has steadily upheld the
the proudest pretensions of the Brahman ; and it restrictions
has never relaxed the sternest restrictions of Caste. JJtSSi
We cannot wonder at the severe judgment pro-
nounced on Hinduism by nearly every Western
author. According to Macaulay, "all is hideous
and grotesque and ignoble;" and the calmer De
Tocqueville maintains that "Hinduism is perhaps
the only system of belief that is worse than having
no religion at all."^
When a modem Hindu is asked what are the
sacred books of his religion, he generally answers:
" The Yedas, the Sastras {i.e. ph ilosophical systems),
and the Puranas." Some authorities add the Tantras.
The modern form of Hinduism is exhibited
^ Miscellaneous Wriiiiiys (Macmillan, 18G1), Vol. I., p. 77.
34
The Hindu Religion.
The
Parftnas
chiefly in the eighteen Puranas, and an equal
number of TJpa-puranas (minor puranas).^
When we compare the religion embodied in the
Puranas with that of Yedic times, we are startled
at the magnitude of the change. The Pantheon
is largely new ; old deities have been superseded ;
other deities have taken their place. There has
been both accretion from without and evolution
from within. The thirty-three gods of the Vedas
have been fantastically raised to three hundred and
thirty millions. Siva, Durga, Rama, Krishna,
Kali unknown in ancient days are now mighty
divinities ; Indra is almost entirely overlooked ; and
Yaruna has been degraded from his lofty throne,
and turned into a regent of the waters.
The worship of the Linga (phallus) has been
introduced. So has the great dogma of Trans-
migration ; which has stamped a deeper impress on
later Hindu mind than almost any other doctrine.
Caste is fully established ; though in Yedic days
scarcely, if at all, recognized. The dreadful prac-
tice of widow-burning has been brought in, and
this by a most daring perversion of the Yedic texts.
"Woman, in fact, has fallen far below the position
assigned her in early days.
One of the notable things in connection with the
New deities,
rites, and
customs.
^ But the truth is that every man is accounted a good Hindu
who keeps the rules of caste, and pays due respect to tlie
Brahmans. What he believes, or disbelieves, is of little or no
consequence.
Tlie Hindu Religion. 35
reconstruction of Hinduism is the position it skives The
^ . Trimurlti,
to the Trimurtti, or triad of gods Brahma, Yish- t^ad of
nu, and Siva. Something like an anticipation of
this had been presented in the later Yedic times :
Fire, Air, and the Sun (Agni, Yayu, and Sur}^^)
being regarded by tho commentator^ as summing
up the divine energies. But in the Yedas the
deities often go in pairs; and little stress should
be laid on the idea of a Yedic triad. That idea,
however, came prominently forward in later days.
The worship both of Yishnu and Siva may have
existed, from ancient times, as popular rites not
acknowledged by the Brahmans ; but both of these
deities were now fully recognized. The god Brahma
was an invention of the Brahmans ; he was no real
divinity of the people, and has hardly ever been
actually worshipped. It is usual to designate Brahma,
Yishnu, and Siva as Creator, Preserver, and De-
stroyer respectively; but the generalization is by
no means well maintained in the Hindu books.
The Piiranas are in general violently sectarian ;
some being Yishnuite, others Sivite. It is in con-
nexion with Yishnu, especially, that the idea of
incarnation becomes prominent. The Hindu term The
is Avatdra, literally, descent; the deity is repre-
sented as descending from heaven to earth, for the
vindication of truth and righteousness, or to use
the words ascribed to Krishna :
1 Y^aka ; probably in the 5th century B.O.
The Hindu Religion.
For the preservation of the good, and the destruction of the
wicked,
For the establishment of religion, I am born from age to age.
The The " descents " of Yishnu are usually reckoned
** descents"
0/ Vishnu, ten. Of these by far the most celebrated are those
of Rama and Krishna. The great importance at-
tached to these two deities has been traced to the
influence of Buddhism. That system had exerted
immense power in consequence of the gentle and
attractive character ascribed to Buddha. The older
gods were dim, distant, and often stern ; some
near, intelligible, and loving divinity was longed
for. Buddha was a brother man, and yet a quasi-
deity ; and hearts longing for sympathy and succour
were strongly attracted by such a personality.
The god The character of Rama or Ramachandra is
R&ma.
possessed of some high qualities. The great
poem in which it is described at fullest length
the Ramayana of Yalmiki seems to have been an
alteration, made in the interests of Hinduism, of
early Buddhist legends ; and the Buddhist quality
of gentleness has not disappeared in the history.^
Rama, however, is far from a perfect character.
His wife Sita is possessed of much womanly grace,
and every wifely virtue ; and the sorrowful story
of the warrior-god and his faithful spouse has
appealed to deep sympathies in the human breast.
> Weber thinks that Christian elements may have been in
troduced, in course of time, into the representation.
The Hindu Religion,
The worship of Rama has seldom, if ever, degene-
rated into lasciviousness. In spite, however, of
the charm thrown around the life of Rama and
Sita by the genius of Yalmiki and Tulsidas,^ it is
Krishna, not Rama, that has attained the greatest
popularity among the " descents " of Vishnu.
Yery different morally from that of Rama is Krishna, ^^
the character of Krishna, While Rama is hut a
partial manifestation of divinity, Krishna is a full
maliifestation ; yet what a manifestation ! He is
represented as full of naughty tricks in his youth,
although exercising the highest powers of deity;
and, when he grows up, his conduct is grossly im-
moral and disgusting. It is most startling to think
that this being is by grave writers like the authors
of the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana
made the highest of the gods, or indeed the only
real God. Stranger still, if possible, is the pro- ms early
bability that the early life of Krishna in part, at travesty of
least is a dreadful travesty of the early life of aS^jJ'ij,g t<,
Christ, as given in the apocryphal Gospels, espe- oftS'^^^^
cially the Gospel of the Infancy. The falling off *"*'^'
in the apocryphal Gospels, when compared with
the canonical, is truly sad ; but the falling off even
from the apocryphal ones, in the Hindu books, is
altogether sickening.^
^ His Ramayan was written in Hindi Terse in the sixteen tn
century.
* When Jh&nsl was captured in the times of the great mutiny,
88
The Hindu Religion.
Doctrine of
hhakti
introduced.
A very striking characteristic of modern Hinduism
is wliat is termed hhakti, or devotion. There are
three great ways of attaining to salvation : karma
mdrga, or the way of ceremonial works ; jndna
mdrga, or the way of knowledge ; and hhakti mdrga,
or the way of devotion.
The notion of trust in the gods was familiar to
the mind of India from Vedic days, but the deity
was indistinct and unsympathetic, and there could
hardly be love and attachment to him. But there
now arose the doctrine of hhakti (devotion), which
resolved religion into emotion. It came into the
Hindu system rather abruptly ; and many learned
men have traced its origin to the influence of
Christianity. This is quite possible ; but perhaps
the fact is hardly proved. Contact with Chris-
tianity, however, probably accelerated a process
At all events the
Influence of which had previously begun.
system of hhakti has had, and still has, great
sway in India particularly in Bengal, among the
followers of Chaitanya, and the large body of people
in Western India who style themselves Vaishnavas
English officers were disgusted to see the walls of the queen's
palace covered with what they described as "grossly obscene"
pictures. There is little or no doubt that these were simply
representations of the acts of Krishna. Therefore to the
Hindu queen they were religious pictures. When questioned
about such things the Brahman s reply that deeds which would
be wicked in men, were quite right in Krishna ; who, being God,
could do whatever he pleased.
The Hindu Religion.
or Bhaktas (devotees). The popular poetry of
Maharashtra, as exemplified in such poets as Tukd-
rama, is an impassioned inculcation of devotion to
Yithoha of Pandharpur, who is a manifestation
of Krishna. Into the hhakti system of Western Mixed with
Buddhist
India Buddhist elements have entered ; and the elements,
school of devotees is often denominated Bauddha-
Vaishnava. Along vrith extravagant idolatry it
inculcates generally at least in the Marath^ coun-1
try a pure morality ; and the latter it apparently/
owes to Buddhism. Yet there are many sad lapsei^
from purity. Almost of necessity the worship of
Krishna led to corruption. The hymns became
erotic ; and movements hopeful at their commence-
ment like that of Chaitanya of Bengal, in the
16th century soon grievously fell oP in character.
The attempt to make religion consist of emotion
without thought of hhakti without jndna had
disastrous issues. Coincident with the development Exaltation
of the guru
of hhakti was the exaltation of the guru, or religious
teacher, which soon amounted to deification ; a
change traceable from about the 12th century
A.D.
When pressed on the subject of Krishna's evil Expiana^
deeds, many are anxious to explain them as alle- ^"Jj^'j^
gorical representations of the union between the
divinity and true worshippers ; but some interpret
them in the most literal way possible. This is
done especially by the followers of Yallabha
40 The Hindu Religion.
Acharya.^ These men attained a most unenviable
notoriety about twenty years ago, when a case was
tried in the Supreme Court of Bombay, which
revealed the practice of the most shameful licen-
tiousness by the religious teachers and their female
followers and this as a part of worship ! The
disgust excited was so great and general that it
was believed the influence of the sect was at an
end ; but this hope unhappily has not been realized.
Reforms Beformers have arisen from time to time in
attempted.
India ; men who saw the deplorable corruption of
religion, and strove to restore it to what they con-
Kabir. sidcrcd purity. Next to Buddha we may men-
tion Kabir; to whom are ascribed many verses
still popular. Probably the doctrine of the unity
of God, as maintained by the Mohammad ans, had
impressed him. He opposed idolatry, caste, and
Brahmanical assumption. Yet his monotheism
was a kind of pantheism. His date may be the be-
Kinak. ginning of the fifteenth century. Nanak followed,
and founded the religion of the Sikhs. His sacred
book, the Granthy is mainly pantheistic : it dwells
earnestly on devotion especially devotion to the
guru. The Sikhs now seem slowly relapsing into
idolatry. In truth, the history of all attempts at
reformation in India has been most discouraging.
Sect after sect has successively risen to some eleva-
tion above the prevalent idolatry; and then
^ Born probably in 1649.
The Hindvj Religion, 41
gradually, as by some irresistible gravitation, it
has sunk back into the mare magnum of Hinduism.
If we regard experience, purification from within Failure of
p . . , . . all reforms.
is hopeless ; the struggle for it is only a repetition
of the toil of Sisyphus, and always with the same
sad issue. Deliverance must come from without
from the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
We mentioned the Tantras as exerting great in- influence of
. the Tantras
fluence in later days.^ In these the worship of
Siva, and still more, that of his wife is predominant.
The deity is now supposed to possess a double
nature, one quiescent, one active ; the latter being
regarded as the sakti or energy of the god, otherwise
called his wife. The origin of the system is not
fully explained : nor is the date of its rise ascer-
tained. The worship assumes wild, extravagant worship of
forms, generally obscene, sometimes bloody. It
is divided into two schools that of the right hand
and that of the left. The former runs into
mysticism and magic in complicated observances ;
and the latter into the most appalling licentiousness.
The worship of the Sakti, or female principle, has
become a most elaborate system. The beings
adored are " the most outrageous divinities which
man has ever conceived." ^ Sorcery began early
^ R4j^N^r^yanBasu (Bose), in enumerating the sacred books
of Hinduism, excluded the philosophical systems, and included
the Tantras. He was and, we believe, is a leading man in the
Adi Brahma Sam^j.
2 Barth, as above, p. 202.
42 The Hindu Religion.
ittML
in India ; but it is in connection with this system
that it attains to full development. Human sacri-
fices are a normal part of the worship, when fuPy
performed. We cannot go farther into detail. It
is profoundly saddening to think that such abomi-
nations are committed; it is still more saddening
to think that they are performed as a part of
divine worship. Conscience, however, is so far
alive that these detestable rites are practised only
in secret ; and few, if any, are willing to confesp
that they have been initiated as worshippers.
We have not yet said much about the ritual of
modern days. It is exceedingly complicated. In
the case of the god Siva the rites are as follows,
when performed by a priest in the temple :
Worship of I'he Brahmau first bathes, then enters the temple, and bows
BlTa. to the god. He anoints the image with clarified butter or
boiled oil ; pours pure water over it ; and then wipes it dry.
He grinds some white powder, mixing it with water ; dips the
ends of his three fore fingers in it, and draws them across
the image. He sits down ; meditates ; places rice and durwa
grass on the image, places a flower on his own head, and then
on the top of the image ; then another flower on the image, and
another, and another, accompanying each act with the recita-
tion of sacred spells ; places white powder, flowers, bilva leaves,
incense, meat-offei-iugs, rice, plantains, and a lamp before the
image ; repeat,3 the name of Siva, with praises, then prostrates
himself before the image. In the evening he returns, washes
his feet, prostrates himself before the door, opens the door,
places a lamp within, offers milk, sweetmeats, and fruits to the
image, prostrates himself before it, locks the door and departs.
Very similar is the worship paid to Yishnu :
The priest bathes, and then awakes the sleeping god by blowing
The Hindu Religion, 43
shell and ringing a bell. More abundant offerings are made Worship of
than to Siva. About noon, fruits, roots, soaked peas, sweet-
meats, etc., are presented. Then later, boiled rice, fried herbs,
and spices ; but no flesh, fish, nor fowl. After dinner, betel
nut. The god is then left to sleep ; and the temple is shut up
for some hours. Towards evening curds, butter, sweetmoats,
fruits, are presented. At sunset a lamp is brought, and Iresh
oflferings made. Lights are waved before the image ; a small
bell is rung : water is presented for washing the mouth, face,
and feet, with a towel to dry them. In a few minutes the
offerings and the lamp are removed : and tlie g<xl is left to
sleep in the dark.
The prescribed worship is not always fully per-
formed. Still, sixteen things are essential ; of
which the following are the most important :
* Ist. Preparing a seat for the god ; invoking his presence;
bathing the image ; clothing it ; putting the string round it ;
offering perfumes ; flowers ; incense ; lamps ; offerings of fruits
and prepared eatables : betel nut ; prayers ; circumambulation.
An ordinary worshipper presents some of the offerings, mutters
a short prayer or two, when circumambulating the image ; the
rest being done by the priest.*
We give one additional specimen of the ritual :
" As an atonement for unwarily eating or drinking what is for-
oidden, eight hundred repetitions of the Gayatri prayer should
be preceded by three suppressions of the breath, water being
touched during the recital of the following text : ' The bull
roars ; he has four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands ;
and is bound by a three-fold cord ; he is the mighty, resplendent
being, and pervades mortal men." "
The bull is understood to be justice personified.
All Brahmanical ceremonies exhibit, we may say,
ritualism and symboHsm run mad.
* So writes Vans Kennedy, a good authority. The rite
however, vary with varying places.
' Asiatic Researches, V. p. 356.
Vislmu.
44 The Hindu Religion.
Caste. The most prominent and characteristic institution
of Hinduism is Caste. The power of caste is as
irrational as it is unbounded ; and it works almost
unmixed evil. The touch even the shadow of a
low caste man pollutes. The Scriptural precept,
" Honour all men," appears to a true Hindu infinitely
absurd. He honours and worships a cow ; but he
shrinks with horror from the touch of a Mhar or
Mang. Even Brahmans, if they come from differ-
ent provinces, will not eat together. Thus Hinduism
separates man from man ; it goes on dividing and
still dividing ; and new fences to guard imaginary
purity are continually added.
lYeatment ^hc wholc treatment of women has gradually
of women. '
become most tyrannical and unjust. In very
ancient days they were held in considerable
respect ; but, for ages past, the idea of woman
has been steadily sinking lower and lower, and
her rights have been more and more assailed.
The burning of widows has been prohibited by
enactment ; ^ but the awful rite would in many
places be restored were it not for the strong hand of
the British government. The practice of marrying
women in childhood is still generally all but
universally prevalent ; and when, owing to the
zeal of reformers, a case of widow-marriage occurs,
its rarity makes it be hailed as a signal triumph
Multitudes of the so-called widows were never
^ In British territoiy since 1829.
The Hindu Relioio'^i,'-^'^ 45
really wives, their husbands (so-called) having
died in childhood. Widows are subjected to widows,
treatment which they deem worse than death ;
and yet their number, it is calculated, amounts to
about twenty- one millions ! More cruel and de-
moralizing customs than exist in India in regard
to women can hardly be found among the lowest
barbarians. We are glad to escape from dwelling
on points so exceedingly painful.
IV.
Contrast with Christianity.
The immense difference between the Hindu and
Christian religions has doubtless already frequently
suggested itself to the reader. It -will not be
necessary, therefore, to dwell on this topic at very
great length. The contrast forces itself upon us
at every point.
When, about fifteen centuries B.C., the Aryas Thelryas
and
were victoriously occupying the Panjab, and the J?^^^^*^^^
Israelites were escaping from the "iron furnace" aJou/"*"'^
of Egypt, if one had been asked which of the two ^^^ "**''
races would probably rise to the highest conception
of the divine, and contribute most largely to the
well-being of mankind, the answer, quite possibly,
might have been, the Aryas. Egypt, with its
brutish idolatries, had corrupted the faith of the
Israelites, and slavery had crushed all manliness
46 The Hindu Religion.
Contrast of out of them. Yet how wonderful has been their
their after
history. after history ! Among ancient religions that of
the Old Testament stands absolutely unique ; and
in the fulness of time it blossomed into Christianity.
How is the marvel to be explained ? Wo cannot
account for it except by ascribing it to a divine
election of the Israelites, and a providential training
intended to fit them to become the teachers of the
world. " Salvation is of the Jews."
The contrast between the teachings of the Bible
and those of the Hindu books is simply infinite.
Hindu The conception of a purely immaterial Being,
compared infinite, etomal, and unchangeable, which is that
Christian. q j^q Bible regarding God, is entirely foreign to
the Hindu books. Their doctrine is various; but,
in every case, erroneous. It is absolute pantheism;
or polytheism ; or an inconsistent blending of poly-
theism and pantheism ; or atheism.
Equally striking is the contrast between Chris-
tianity and Hinduism as to the attributes of God.
According to the former, He is omnipreseni;
omnipotent ; possessed of every excellence ^holi-
ness, justice, goodness, truth. According to the
chief Hindu philosophy, the Supreme is devoid of
attributes devoid of consciousness. According to
the popular conception, when the Supreme becomes
conscious, He is developed into three gods, who
possess respectively the qualities of truth, passion,
and darkness.
The Hindu Religion. 47
" God is a Spirit.'* '*Go(l is lierht.*' "God is conceptiona
^ . . of God.
love." These sublime declarations have no counter-
parts in Hinduism.
He is " the Father of spirits," according to the
Bible. According to Hinduism, the individual
spirit is a portion of the divine. Even the common
people firmly believe this.
Every thing is referred by Hinduism to God as
its immediate cause. A Christian is continually
shocked by the Hindus ascribing all sin to God as
its source.
The adoration of God as a Being possessed of The object
of worsliij*.
every glorious excellence is earnestly commanded
in the Bible. ** Thou shalt worship the Lord thy
God ; and Him only shalt thou serve." In India
the Supreme is never worshipped ; but any ono
of the multitudinous gods may be so ; and, in
fact, every thing can be worshipped except God.
A maxim in the mouth of every Hindu is the
following : " Where there is faith, there is God."
Believe the stone a god, and it is so.
Every sin being traced to God as its ultimate The
source, the sense of personal guilt is very slight
among Hindus. Where it exists it is generally
connected with ceremonial defilement or the breach
of some one of the innumerabl and meaningless
rites of the religion. How unlike in all this is
the Gospel ! The Bible dwells with *all possible
earnestness on the evil of sin not of ceremonial
Bens*
of siu.
48
The Hindu Religion.
Atonement.
but moral defilement the transgression of the
divine law, the eternal law of right.
How important a place in the Christian system
is held by Atonement the great atonement made
by Christ it is unnecessary to say. Nor need we
enlarge on the extraordinary power it exercises
over the human heart, at once filling it with con-
trition, hatred of sin, and overflowing joy. "We
turn to Hinduism ; alas ! we find that the earnest
questionings and higher views of the ancient
thinkers have in a great degree been ignored in
later times. Sacrifice in its original form has
passed away. Atonement is often spoken of ;
but it is only some paltry device or other, such as
eating the five products of the cow, going on pil-
grimage to some sacred shrine, paying money to
the priests, or it may be some bodily penance, that
is had recourse to. Such expedients leave no im-
pression on the heart as to the true nature, and
essential evil, of sin.
Salvation, in the Christian system, denotes de-
liverance not only from the punishment of sin, but
from its power, implying a renovation of the
moral nature. The entire man is to be rectified in
heart, speech, and behaviour. The perfection of
the individual, and through that the perfection of
society, are the objects aimed at; and the con-
summation* desired is the doing of the will of God
on earth, as it is done in heaven. Now of all this
Salvation.
TJie Hindu Religion. 49
- surely a magnificent ideal we find in Hinduism
no trace whatever.
Christianity is emphatically a religion of hope ; views of
Hinduism may he designated a religion of despair.
The trials of life are many and great ; Christianity
bids us regard them as discipline from a Father's
hand, and tells us that affliction rightly borne yields
* the peaceable fruits of righteousness." To death
the Chiistian looks forward without fear ; to him it
is a quiet sleep ; and the resurrection draws nigh.
Then comes the beatific vision of God. Glorified
in soul and body, the companion of angels and
saints, strong in immortal youth, he will serve
without let or hindrance the God and Saviour
whom he loves. To the Hindu the trials of life
are penal, not remedial. At death his soul passes
into another body. Rightly, every human soul
animates in succession eighty-four lacs (8,400,000)
of bodies the body of a human being, or a beast,
or a bird, or a fish, or a plant, or a stone, according
to desert. This weary, all but endless, round of
births, fills the mind of a Hindu with the greatest
horror. At last the soul is lost in God, as a drop
mingles with the ocean ; individual existence and
consciousness then cease. The thought is pro-
foundly sorrowful that this is the cheerless faith of
countless multitudes. No wonder, though the great ^he great
tenet of Hinduism is this Existence is misery. mndufsm.
So much for the future of the individual. Re-
E
50 The Hindu Religion.
The future ffardmof the future of the race, Hinduism speaks in
of the race. on r
equally cheerless terms. Its golden age lies in the
immeasurably distant past ; and the further we
recede from it, the deeper must we plunge into sin
and wretchedness. True, ages and ages hence, the
"Age of Truth" returns; but it returns only to pass
away again, and torment us with the memory of lost
purity and joy. The experience of the universe is
thus an eternal renovation of hope and disappoint-
bSlS*^^^^ ment. In the struggle between good and evil there
good and -g no final triumph for the good. We tread a fated,
eternal round from which there is no escape ; and
alike the hero fights, and the martyr dies, in vain.
It is remarkable that acute intellectual men
as many of the Hindu poets were should
never have grappled with the problem of the
Divine government of the world.
Tne future Equally notable is the unconcern of the Veda as
of the ^ ''
Arvaii race, to the Welfare and the future of even the Aryan
race. But how sublime is the promise given to
Abraham, that in him and his seed all nations of
the earth should be blessed ! Renan has pointed
with admiration to the confidence entertained at
all times by the Jew in a brilliant and happy
future for mankind. The ancient Hindu cared not
about the future of his neighbours ; and doubtless
even the expression " human race " would have
been unintelligible to him. Nor is there any
pathos in the Veda ; there is no deep sense of
The Hindu Religion. 51
the sorrows of life. Max Muller has affixed the
epithet " transcendent " to the Hindu mind. Its
hent was much more towards the metaphysical,
the mystical, the incomprehensihle, than towards
the moral and the practical. Hence endless
subtleties, more meaningless and unprofitable
than ever occupied the mind of Talmudist or
schoolman of the middle ages.
But finally, on this part of the subiect, the The words
. . . ... o' St. Paul
development of Indian religion supplies a striking illustrated
comment on the words of St. Paul : iJnduism.
' The invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood
from the things that are made. But when they knew God, they
glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful, but became
vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened."
Hinduism is deplorably deficient in power to Moral
^ "^ ^ ^ power,
raise and purify the human soul, from having no
high example of moral excellence. Its renowned
sages were noted for irritability and selfishness
great men at cursing ; and the gods for the most
part were worse. Need we say how gloriously rich
the Gospel is in having, in the character of Christ,
the realized ideal of every possible excellence ?
Summa religionis est imitari quern colis : " It is EtMcai
the sum of religion to imitate the being worshipped."^ mnduism
Or, as the Hindus express it : "As is the deity,
such is the devotee." Worship the God revealed
in the Bible, and you become godlike ; the soul
* Cioero.
52
The Hindu Religion.
The peopl
better than
their
religion.
strives, with Divine aid, to " purify itself even as
God is pure," But apply the principle to Hindu-
ism. Alas! the Pantheon is almost a pande-
monium. Krishna, who in these days is the chief
deity to at least a hundred millions of people,
does not possess one elevated attribute. If, in
these circumstances, society does not become a
moral pesthouse, it is only because the people con-
tinue better than their religion. The human heart,
though fallen, is not fiendish. It has still its
purer instincts ; and, when the legends about
abominable gods and goddesses are falling like
mildew, these are still to some extent kept alive by
the sweet influences of earth and sky, and by the
charities of family life. When the heart of woman
is about to be swept into the abyss, her infant's
smile restores her to her better self. Thus family
life does not go to ruin ; and, so long as that
anchor holds, society will not drift on the rocks
that stand so perilously near. Still, the state of
things is deplorably distressing.
The The doctrine of the Incarnation is of funda
doctrine of
Incarnation, mental importance in Christianity. It seems al-
most profanation to compare it with the Hindu
teaching regarding the Avataras, or Descents of
Vishnu. It ib difficult to extract any meaning out
of the three first manifestations when the god
became in succession a fish, a boar, and a tortoise.
Of the great " descents " in R^ma and Krishna,
The Hindu Religion. fil^
we have already spoken. The ninth Avatara was
that of Buddha, in which the deity descended for
the purpose of deceiving men, making them deny
the gods, and leading them to destruction. So
blasphemous an idea may seem hardly possible
even for the bewildered mind of India ; hut this is
doubtless the Brahmanical explanation of the rise
and progress of Buddhism ; it was fatal error, but
inculcated by a divine being! Even the sick-
ening tales of Krishna and his amours are less
shocking than this. When we turn from such
representations of divinity to "the Word made
flesh," we seem to have escaped from the pestilential
air of a chamel house to the sweet pure breath of
heaven.
V.
Hinduism in contact with Christianity.
We have used the word reformer in this Tract. Attempted
reforms.
We formerly noted that, in India, there have arisen
from time to time, men who saw and sorrowed
over the erroneous doctrines and degrading rites
of the popular system.
In quite recent times they have had successors.
Some account of their work may form a fitting
conclusion to our discussion.
With the large influx into India of Christian
ideas it was to be expected that some impression
54 The Hindu Religion.
would be made on Hinduism. We do not refer
to conversion the full acceptance of the Christian
Advance of faith. Christianity has advanced and is advancing
Christianity . . n ^i ^^ -i
in India. m India more rapidly than is generally supposed ;
but far beyond the circle of those who '^ come out
and are separate," its mighty power is telling on
Hinduism. The great fundamental truths of the
Gospel, when once uttered and understood, can
hardly be forgotten. Disliked and denied they may
be ; but forgotten ? No. Thus, they gradually
win their way ; and multitudes who have no thought
of becoming Christians are ready to admit that
they are beautiful and true, for belief and practice
are often widely separated in Hindu minds.
The Brfthma But it was to bc expcctcd that the new ideas
Bamij. ^ , , ^
pouring into India and among these we include
not only distinctively Christian ideas, but Western
thought generally would manifest their presence
and activity in concrete forms in attempted re-
constructions of religion. The most remarkable
example of such a reconstruction is exhibited in
the Brahmo Somaj (more correctly Brahma Sam^j)
which may be rendered the " Church of God."
It is traceable to the efforts of a truly dis-
tinguished man, Rammohun Roy. He was a
person of studious habits, intelligent, acute; and
deeply in earnest on the subject of religion. He
studied not only Hinduism in its various forms,
but Buddhism, Mohammadanism, and Christianity.
Rammohun
Koy.
Tlce Hindu Religion. 55
Ho was naturally an eclectic gathering truth Effect of
from all quarters where he thought he could find ^^^ ^^^-
it. A specially deep impression was made on his
mind by Christianity ; and in 1820 he published a
book with the remarkable title, " The precepts of
Jesus the guide to peace and happiness." Yery
frequently he gave expression to the sentiment that
the teachings of Christ were the truest and deepest
that he knew. Still, he did not believe in Christ's
divinity.
In January, 1830, a place of worship was opened
by Rammohun Roy and his friends. It was
intended for the worship of one God, without
idolatrous rites of any kind. This was* un-
doubtedly a very important event ; and great was
the interest aroused in connection with it. Ram-
mohun Roy, however, visited Britain in 1831, and
died at Bristol in 1833 ; and the cause for which
he had so earnestly laboured in India languished
for a time. But in the year 1841, Debendernath oebender-
nath Tagore.
Tagore, a man of character and wealth, joined the
Brahmo Somaj, and gave a kind of constitution to
it. It was fully organized by 1844. No definite
declaration, however, had been made as to the
authority of the Vedas ; but, after a lengthened
period of inquiry and discussion, a majority of
the Somaj rejected the doctrine of their in-
fallibility by 1850. * The rock of intuition " now
began to be spoken of ; man's reason was his
56
The Hindu Religion.
Keehub
Ch under
Sen.
sufficient guide. Still, great respect was cherislied
for the ancient belief and customs of the land-
But in 1858 a new champion appeared on the
scene, in the well-known Keshub Chunder Sen.
Ardent, impetuous, ambitious full of ideas
derived from Christian sources ^ he could not
brook the slow movements of the Somaj in the
path' of reform. Important changes, both religious
and social, were pressed by him ; and the more
conservative Debendernath somewhat reluctantly
consented to their introduction. Matters were,
however, brought to a crisis by the marriage of
two persons of different castes in 1864. In
February, 1865, the progressive party formally
severed their connection with the original Somaj ;
and in August, 1869, they opened a new place of
worship of their own. Since this time the original
or Adi Somaj has been little heard of ; and its
movement if it has moved at all has been re-
trogressive. The new Somaj the Brahmo Somaj
of India, as it called itself, under the guidance of
Mr. Sen became very active. A missionary institute
was set up, and preachers were sent over a great
part of India. Much was accomplished on behalf
of women ; and in 1872 a Marriage Act for
members of the Somaj was passed by the Indian
Formation
of a new
Sam&j.
* We learned from his own lips that among the books which
most deeply impressed him were the Bible and the writings of
Dr. Chalmers.
Tlie Hindu Religion. 57
legislature, which legalized union between people
of different castes, and fixed on fourteen as the
lowest age for the marriage of females. These
were important reforms.
Mr. Sen's influence was naturally and necessarily
great ; hut, in opposing the venerable leader of the
original Somaj, he had set an example which others
were quite willing to copy.
Several of his followers began to demand more Discontent
gfrowing.
radical reforms than he was willing to grant.
The autocracy exercised by Mr. Sen was strongly
objected to ; and a constitution of the Somaj
was demanded. Mr. Sen openly maintained that
heaven from time to time raises up men en-
dowed with special powers, and commissioned
to introduce new forms or "dispensations" of
religion ; and his conduct fully proved that he
regarded himself as far above his followers.
Complaints became louder ; and although the
eloquence and genius of Keshub were able to
keep the rebellious elements from exploding, it
was evident, as early as 1873, that a crisis was
approaching. This came in 1878, when Mr. Sen's
daughter was married to the Maharaja of Kuch
Behar. The bride was not fourteen, and the
bridegroom was sixteen. Now, Mr. Son had been
earnest and successful in getting the Brahmo
Maxriage Act passed, which ruled that the
lowest marriageable age for a woman was
5ft The Hindu Eeitgion.
fourteen, and for a man, eighteen. Here was
gross inconsistency. What could explain it?
" Amhition," exclaimed great numbers ; " the
wish to exalt himself and his daughter by
alliance with a prince." But Mr. Sen declared
that he had consented to the marriage in con-
sequence of an express intimation that such was
the will of heaven. Mr. Sen denied miracles, but
believed in inspiration ; and of his own inspiration
he seems to have entertained no doubt We thus
obtain a glimpse into the peculiar working of his
. mind. Every full conviction, every strong wish,
of his own he ascribed to divine suggestion. This
put him in a position of extreme peril. It was
clear that an enthusiastic, imaginative, self-reliant
nature like his might thus be borne on to any
extent of fanaticism.
Revolt. A great revolt from Mr. Sen's authority now
sam&j. took place; and theSadharan Samaj was organized
in May, 1878. An appeal had been made to the
members generally ; and no fewer than twenty- one
provincial Samajes, with more than 400 members,
male and female, joined the new society This
number amounted to about two-thirds of the whole
body. Keshub and his friends denounced the rebels
in very bitter language ; and yet, in one point of
view, their secession was a relief. Men of abilities
equal, and education superior, to his own had
hitherto acted as a drag on his movements ; he
The Hindu Religion. 69
was now delivered from their interference, and
could deal with the admiring and submissive rem-
nant as he pleased. Ideas that had been working
in his mind now attained rapid development.
Within two years the flag of the ** New Dispensa- "g^^^.^,
tion" was raised; and of that dispensation Mr. Sen
was the undoubted head. Yery daring was the
language Mr. Sen used in a public lecture regarding
this new creation. He claimed equality for it
with the Jewish and Christian dispensations, and
for himself "singular** authority and a Divino
commission.
In the Creed of the New Dispensation the name its creed,
of Christ does not occur. The articles were as
follows :
a. One God, one Scripture, one Church, h. Eternal progress
of the SouL c. Communion of Prophets and Saints, d.
Fatherhood and Motherhood of God. e. Brotherhood of Man,
and Sisterhood of Woman. /. Harmony of knowledge and holi-
ness, love and work, yoga and asceticism in their highest de-
velopment, g. Loyalty to Sovereign.
The omission of Christ's name is the more re- ^JH^.J" '
markable because Mr. Sen spoke much of Eim in "*'''-
his public lectures. He had said in May, 1879,
" None but Jesus, none but Jesus, none but Jesus
ever deserved this precious diadem, India; and
Jesus shall have it." But he clearly indicated that
the Christ he sought was an Indian Christ ; ono
who was " a Hindu in faith," and who would help
60 The Hindu Religion.
the Hindus to "realize their national idea of a
yogi'* (ascetic).
Let it be noted that, from the beginning of his
career, Mr. Sen had spoken earnestly of the father-
hood of God and brotherhood of man though
these great conceptions are not of Hindu origin.
It is difficult to see why, in later days, he insisted
"Mother- so much on the "motherhood of God." Perhaps
hood of ...
God." it was a repetition he probably would have called
it an exaltation of the old Hindu idea, prevalent
especially among the worshippers of Siva, that
there is a female counterpart a Sakti of every
divinity. Or, possibly, it may have been to con-
ciliate the worshippers of Durg^ and Kdli, those
great goddesses of Bengal.
Public A public proclamation was soon issued, pur-
proclamation ,
froii^o^ porting to be from God Himself, as India's Mother.
The whole thing was very startling ; many, even
of Keshub's friends, declared it blasphemous. Next,
in the '*Flag Ceremony," the flag or banner of
the New Dispensation received a homage scarcely
distinguishable from worship. Then as if in
strict imitation of the ancient adoration of Agni,
or Fire a pile of wood was lighted, clarified butter
poured on it, and prayers addressed to it, ending
thus " O brilliant Fire ! in thee we behold our
resplendent Lord." This was, at least, symbolism
run wild ; and every one, except those who were
prepared to follow their leader to all lengths, saw
from Qod.
The Hindu Religion. 61
that in a land Kke India, wedded to idolatry, it
was fearfully perilous.
In March, 1881, Mr. Sen and his friends intro-
duced celebrations which, to Christian minds, seemed
a distressing caricature of the Christian sacraments.
Other institutions followed ; an Apostolic Durbar, "Apostolic
' ^ ' Durbar."
(Court of Apostles), for instance, was estalilished.
There was no end to Mr. Sen's inventiveness.
In a public lecture delivered in January, 1883,
on "Asia's message to Europe," he elaborately
expounded the idea that all the great religions are
of Asiatic origin, and that all of them are true;
and that the one thing required to constitute the
faith of the future the religion of humanity is
the blending of all these varied Oriental systems
into one.
It was not easy to reconcile Mr. Sen's public incon.
^ ^ * ^ eistencies
utterances with his private ones though far be it ^J^I^J.^
from us to tax him with insincerity. Thus, in an ^Svite^*^
interview extending over two hours, which the ^^*^*^<^
writer and two missionary friends had with him a
week or so before the lecture now referred to, he
said he accepted as true and vital all the leading
doctrines of the Christian faith, with the exception
of the resurrection of Christ. But another funda-
mental difference remained he avowedly dissented
from the orthodox creed in rejecting the miraculous
clement in Scripture. At an interview I had with
him some time before, he earnestly disclaimed all
62
TJtc II I ml II Religion.
Mr. Sen's
policy of
reserve.
intention to put Christ on a level with Buddha or
Mohammad. " I am educating my friends," he
said, " to understand and approve of Christianity ;
I have not yet said my last word about Christ."
It is a solemn question Had he said it when his
career was ended ? If so, it was far from a satis-
factory word. His policy of reserve and adaptation
had probably kept him from uttering all that was
in his heart ; but it was a sorely mistaken policy.
Had he temporized less, he would have accom-
plished more.
Since the death of Mr. Sen there has been a
violent dispute between his family and the
"Apostolic Durbar" on one side, and one of
his ablest followers, on the other ; and the New
Dispensation will probably split in two, if it does
not perish altogether.
In the meantime, the S^dhS-ran Sam4j, which
broke off from Keshub's party in 1878, has been
going on with no small vigour. Vagaries, either in
doctrine or rites, have been carefully shunned ; its
partisans profess a pure Theistic creed, and labour
diligently in the cause of social reform. Their
position is nearly that of Unitarian Christianity ;
and we fear they are not at present approxi-
mating to the full belief of the Church Catholic.
Very similar in character to the Brahmo Somaj
is the Prarthana Somaj in Western India. As
far back as 1850, or a little earlier, there was
The
Sadharan
Sainaj.
.Movements
ill Western
I ndia
The Rindu Religion. 63
formed a society called the Prarthana SaLh^ Tenets of the
I'rSrthana
(Prayer Meeting). Its loading teuets were as ^*^^^-
follows :
1. I believe in one God. 2. I renounce idol-worship. 3. I
will do my beat to lead a moral life. 4. If I commit any sin
through the weakness of my moral nature, I will repent of it, /-
and ask the pardon of God.
The Society, after some time, began to languish ;
but in 1867 it was revived under the name of
Pr^rthan^ Somaj. Its chief branches are in Bombay,
Poena, Ahmedabad, and Surat.
An interesting movement called the Arya Sara&j
was commenced a few years ago by a Pandit,
DavEinand Sarasvati. He received the Yedas as -^
. . SamtJ,
fully inspired, but maintained that they taught
monotheism, Agni, Indra, and all the rest being
merely different names of God. It was a desperate
effort to save the reputation of the ancient books ;
but, as all Sanskrit scholars saw at a glance, the
whole idea was a delusion. The Pandit is now
dead; and the Arya Sam^j may not long survive
him.
At the time we write we hear of an attempt to
defend idolatry and caste made by men of con-
siderable education.
The so-called " Theosophists '* have, for several
years, been active in India. Of existing religions,
Buddhism is their natural ally. They are atheists. Th)3ophist
A combination which they formed with the Arya
Sam^j speedily came to an end.
64 The Hindu Religion,
Lastly, the followers of Mr. Bradlaugh are dili-
gent in supplying their books to Indian students.
Poor India ! No wonder if her mind is be-
wildered as she listens to such a Babel of voices.
The state of things in India now strikingly re-
sembles that which existed in the Roman Empire
at the rise of Christianity ; when east and west
were brought into the closest contact, and a great
conflict of systems of thought took place in con-
sequence.
But even as one hostile form of Gnostic belief
rose after another, and rose only to fall, and as
the greatest and best-discipKned foe of early Chris-
tianity the later Platonism gave way before the
steady, irresistible march of Gospel truth, so we
have every reason to hope ^it will be yet again.
The Christian feels his heart swell in his breast
as he thinks what, in all human probability, India
will be a century, or even half a century, hence.
Oh what a new life to that fairest of Eastern lands,
when she casts herself in sorrow and supplication
at the feet of the Living God, and then rises to
proclaim to a listening world
Her deep repentance and her new-found joy !
May God hasten the advent of that happy day !
BUDDHISM:
A COMPARISON AND A CONTRAST
BETWEEN
BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY
HENRY ROBERT REYNOLDS, D.D.
^vQummt (xi th^ Trax}t<
Buddhism and Christianity are comparea and contrasted
in respect to their external resemblances, and fundamental
and essential divergencies and antitheses, viz. : their local
origin ; the histories of their founders ; their relation to the
past ; the place given in both to the death of the founders ;
the basis of the two systems, and their historical development
as organised societies ; the resemblances are shown to be
illusory in the extreme ; the differences vital and all-important.
Christ revealed the Father took human sorrows and death
on Himself, that He might take them away ; laid down His
life, that He might take it again ; died, the just for the unjust ;
He saves men from their sins. He fulfilled the law and the
prophets. The highest Christian virtue is not practised for
the extinction of desire, but because pardon through faith in
Christ's blood has been received. Christian holiness is the
purification of the most essential characteristics of human
nature. The end set before the Christian is the liope of
beholding Christ's glory, and being with Him and like Him
for ever. The peace of the Christian is not the obliteration
but the satisfaction of desire, and the result of reconciliation
with God through Christ. The Christian desires that Christ
may be magnified in his body whether by life or death.
The history of Buddhism is sketched, and the resemblances
to the history of Christianity are shown to be in the laws
that regulate all human society.
Buddhism knows no being as the First Cause of all things,
as the basis of moral obligation, or Ruler of the universe.
The doctrine of Buddhism concerning the ground of the
universe is agnostic, if not positively atheistic.
Law, according to Buddhism, is impersonal. It has no
conception of pardon, redemption, or sacrifice, and is an
exceeding bitter cry for what Christianity has to off"er, viz. : an
antidote for sin, reconciliation with God, hope in death, and
union with God through Christ. Reason for hoping that when
Christ is made known to it, Buddhism will call Him Lord of all.
BUDDHISM
I^^^^^UDDHISM in its origin was a philosophical Buddhism
iN ^^41 method rather than a religious faith. ^p^^^
H k!hL J M^iiy experiments have been made by rreuiiOTTs"
mighty thinkers to solve the mystery of
human life. This was one of them. The principles
of Gautama the Buddha, an Indian sago, were not
absolutely new, nor were his methods unknown,
when he essayed his memorable task. His im-
mense personality, assisted by current tendencies at
work in Hind{l society, enabled him to originate
a society, which has in its main features, during
more than two thousand years, dominated large
portions of the continent of Asia.
The ideas and institutions which date from the The wide
influence of
initiatory of Gautama exercise a potent spell m Buddhism.
their most antique form over Ceylon, British and
Native Burmah, Siam, Anam, and (in the form of
Jainism) over parts of North Western India. With
large modification Buddhism has prevailed over
eighteen provinces of China, where it is held in
combination with Confucianism and Taoism.
Buddhism has exerted much influence in Japan, in Japan.
Buddhism.
where it has suffered the embrace of the aboriginal
nature- worship. It has been corrupted in some
outlying tribes by devil-worship, and the rites of
In iibet Siva. In Tibet it has developed into a complicated
hierarchy, and has culminated in a patriarchal and
pontifical regime. Here Buddhism is the State re-
ligion, and has created an organization and diffused
ideas which have powerfully affected Mongolia,
Mantchuria, and other states tributary to China.
In NepaL In Nepal at one time a most impressive develop-
ment of the Buddhistic faith prevailed, and one
which was theoretically based on Monotheistic
ideas. Though Buddhism took its origin in the
Aryan, its greatest triumphs have been won over
the Turanian races, and it has been compared to
a vast parasitical growth, which has fed on the
life and covered the institutions of various types of
Its present civilization. Its propaganda is not at an end. At
increase m ir r o
Tartary. ^j^g present hour it is said to be increasing in
Tartary, it sends its missionaries to Australia and
California, has made a vigorous attempt to co-
operate with Western Pessimism, and professes to
formulate a true philosophy of history.
Buddha- "^^ Buddha may be discriminated from the his-
torical and practical issues of his thought, as
Christ is discriminated from Christendom.
If by " Buddhism " be meant the ideas and
discipline of the earliest followers of Gautama,
irrespective of their subsequent development, our
dom.
Buddhism.
tlieine is a literary and exegetic one, and turns
upon tlie relative value of Pali, Sanscrit, Tibetan,
and Chinese books. On the other hand, if a wnoie
duster of
"Buddhism" be regarded as synonymous with g^gut?,^.
what may be called " Buddha-dom," it must be f^S"uddha
held to embrace the geographical and historic *
features of a whole cluster of religious institutions,
which have mastered, for more than a thousand
years, a fourth part of the human race. Seeing
that the Northern Buddhists outnumber the older
and more orthodox followers fifteen times over, we
cannot exclude their peculiarities from our estimate
of what Buddhism is, and its relation to both
Christ and Christendom.
The comparison between Christianity and Buddh-
ism embraces a comparison in both senses.
The resemblances between Buddha-dom and Christ- The resem-
endora are imposing but superficial, they spring from between
the common material with which both systems have ^Z^. ^"*l
' Cnnstendoir.
had to deal, and from the similar conditions under s"P^fiui-
which they have laboured even for opposite ends.
The divergencies and opposition, and utter dis-
similarity between Buddhism and Christianity
belong to their inmost essence and aim.
The purport of the present Tract is to illustrate The diver-
gencies and
this twofold representation by enumerating: the dissimiiantj
^ ' essential.
details of this argument. In doing so, the reader
will be reminded of the principal facts with re-
ference to Buddha and his religion.
Buddhima.
We propose to enumerate
I. The impressive external resemblances between
Buddhadom and Christendom^ calling attention in
these very respects to the contrasts which accompany
them.
II. The fundamental divergencies and antitheses
between Buddhism and Christianity,
The geo-
graphical
origin of
the two
religions.
The lands
of the
Bible.
Cliristian
ideas and.
principles
arose by
God's grace
in human
hearts and
Uvea.
1. The Holy Lands. These two religions re-
semble one another in having taken their origin in
a limited geographical region, identified with the
actions and career of their Founders, which after
the lapse of time ceased to be the centres of the
faith, but acquired a factitious importance and in-
spired a sentimental and superstitious reverence.
Sinai and Palestine still contain .the sites where
the highest manifestations of the living God have
been made to men. The lands of the Bible have
attracted pilgrims from the ends of the earth, who
have there sought to deepen their faith, increase
their knowledge, and satisfy their yearniDg after a
closer intimacy with the facts of our redemption.
However spiritual the form of our Christianity
may be, we cannot ignore the fact that its noblest
ideas and principles arose by God's grace in human
minds and lives, and that its most stupendous facts
were enacted on this planet, by men and women
Buddhism,
who trod the soil of this solid earth. Christianity
is not based on a mere speculation, a transcendental
dream thought out in the spirit-world, and inde-
pendent of place and time and circumstance. It Christianity
based on
rests on a notable series of historic facts, and is ^istoric
' facts, hence
associated with certain events which occurred at of^he**''^^*
discoverable dates in the drama of human life, pfaS*'
and therefore scientific criticism as well as pious
pilgrimage still gathers with zest and unabated
interest around Sinai and Bethlehem, Calvary,
and Olivet.
Now Buddhism took its chief departure in the Buddhism
bosom of a Hindii Sasre, whose ideas led him to in the
^ ^ bosom of
certain very memorable acts of renunciation, to ga^^j^^J^ae
sore conflict, and life- long teaching. His birth are^sst^"
and death, his parentage and consecration, with certain^tea.
numerous events in his career, are associated with
certain ascertainable sites. These have sustained
through even a longer period than the holy places
of Palestine have done, the reverence and affection
of devout Buddhists. Between the outlying moun- piacea of
p 1 XT' 1 1 1 /-> Gautama'i
tains 01 the Himalayan range and the (ianges, Jij^J^a^d
between long. E. 75^ and 85, watered by numerous
rivers, and diversified with numerous centres of
Hindu life ; between Sravasti {Sahet Mahet) in
N.W., Raja-Griha (Raj-gir), and Gay a and Pata-
liputra {Patna) in E. and S.E., will be found
Kapilavastu, the birthplace of Gautama, and
Kusinagara, the place where he died, and also
death.
Buddhism.
numerous other consecrated spots where the cremated
ashes of his hody rest. Here also are various
scenes dear to the Buddhist legend, and for many
ages visited by pilgrims from China and Mongolia,
from Kashmir and Khotan, from Ceylon and
Burmah. They were sacred places when Buddhism
was still a dominant faith in N.W. India, and they
were treated with even deeper reverence when the
faith had perished on its earliest geographic site.
Some of the most interesting Buddhistic literature
which is still extant describes the eagerness and
enthusiasm displayed by the pious devotees who,
in the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries of our
era, encountered incredible obstacles in their resolve
to visit these sacred shrines, to obtain books, relics
and images of the faith which was dear to them.
The This superficial resemblance to the outward career
guperficial *
resem- of a reliffion profoundly dissimilar in its essence,
blances anse or./ '
humai^^ arises from the purely human interest that ever-
attSfng to more attaches to the place where great things
great things have bocn said and done. The parallel is not
have been n -rk i n
said or confined to the external features of Buddhism and
done.
Christianity. It runs through the history of other
faiths which have travelled from their geographical
origin to distant lands, and which yet have attracted
undying affection to the cradle of their infancy.
2. The superficial resemblances between the
Founders of Buddhism and Christianity.
The latest researches make it doubtful whether
Buddhism.
Gautama, the son of Suddhodana, was the heir of Hereditary
a roi/al estate or dominion, as Jesus was, but the oautama.
legend undoubtedly confers on his father and on
the Sakyas this distinction, coupling it with august
accessories, boundless wealth, and far-extending
influence. Reverence for him, and an idea of his Supposed
spotless purity of heart and life, assumed in the natural
latest legend an introduction into the world by a
supernatural process, wliicli, from the first, singled
out this great sage and recluse for the highest
possible vocation. If he should become a king he Hia destiny
and mission.
was at once prophesied of as about to become the
ruler over all lands and worlds ; and if he should
appear as a sage, he would be the long-expected
Buddha, "the man perfectly enlightened," who
would achieve the highest victories over the evils
of humanity, and lead the human race towards
the realization of its highest goal.
There is no reason to question the na?ne of the
father of Gautama, the name of his wife the
saintly Maya, who died seven days after the birth
of her child or of the city (Kapila-mstu) , where
this extraordinary child first saw the light, in the
sixth century b.c. The legends of China, Cfylon, Legends
and Nepal tell us that as soon as he was born he ^ ^irth.
declared that this was his last birth, and that he
was the greatest of all beings. Such supposed
language indicates the reverence felt for his unique
career in after years; so also does the pathetic
10 Buddhism,
incident, that after this precocious babe bad placed
his feet upon the head of one of the greatest sages,
this wise man declared that Gautama would prove
to be the Buddha, but he wept that he should not
himself live to see the wondrous effect of his
teaching and life.
Names The uames given in later times to him are very
ghen to 1 r*_T
torn in numerous. Sakya-muni,- " the Sakya
later times.
Bhagava, " the blessed one ; " Tathagata, " the
excellent one ; " Loka-nartha, ** the Lord of the
world ; " Dharma-raja, " the king of the law,"
or "of righteousness." These are poetic expres-
sions denoting the range and depth of his subsequent
j.Tie natural influence. The natural desire of the father of
bent of
Gautama. Gautama that his son should be prepared for the
office and dignities of a prince was strangely
thwarted by the bent of the youthful prince
towards philosophy and ascetic habit. He was
married to the daughter of a king, and surrounded
by all the blandishments of an Eastern court, but
they all failed to disturb his meditation on the
evils and transitory nature of human life.
The visions The legends narrate the efforts made by his
he saw in
spite of his father to conceal from him the facts of human
fathers pre-
keeM^om** sorrow ; but that, in spite of all precaution, he
?aSs^of saw a vision of old age, with its wrinkled skin and
BooT. tottering gait ; another time, a victim of loathsome
disease^ of repulsive and forsaken aspect, and on a
third occasion a dead body awaiting cremation.
Buddhi^, (^3^ .v\^5^^ 11
After each vision he returned to his palace broken-
hearted and despairing. It is said that on a fourth
expedition, surrounded by all the pomp of the court,
he saw the form of a rigid ascetic, who seemed to
him to promise the only method of escape from the
evils of life by extinction of ambition and con-
cupiscence. The legends describe his marvellous ms physical
r . . . . . ^^^ mental
skill in all athletic sports, and his superiority to superiority.
all competitors in mental and physical powers ; but
nothing availed to prevent what has been called his
" Great Renunciation,^' when, with a solitary attend- nis great
ant, he broke away from his home, wife, and only *'^"
child, looked with loathing on the faded beauty of
his singing women, as they lay in sleep around the
courts of his harem, exchanged his dress with that
of a mendicant, sent his attendant back with a
message to his home, and commenced his memor-
able career of self -mortification, intent upon dis-
covering the truth of human life. The intense
picturesqueness of the main facts has been overlaid
with a thousand ornamental additions to the story,
which were calculated to augment the force of the
"renunciation," and throw the spirit of it back
into previous lives that he is supposed to have
lived, in each of which he performed similar acts of
abnegation and devotion to the highest interests of
the living beings with whom he came into contact.-^
* Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, pp. 98-359. Dr. R.
Davids, JataJca Stories, Sacred Books of the East.
12
Buddhism.
contrast to
the life of
our TiOrd.
Doubtless there is some analogy between these
stories, and the record of the introduction into the
world of the Son of God, the song of angels, the
prophecy of Simeon, and the solitary incident of the
youth of Jesus as preserved in the canonical Gospels.
But the essential distinction between them lies in
this, that our Lord followed the lot of ordinary
men, ate with publicans and sinners, notwithstand-
ing his prophetic mission, pursued the quiet trade
of his father Joseph, proclaimed war against sin,
rather than against suffering, and far from accepting
the transitory nature of earthly pleasure as a curse,
poured new light on life and death. The funda- |
mental principle of Buddha treated existence as a
curse which must be evaded ; the fundamental
principle of Christ's "great renunciation'' of honours
and glory unutterable, involved the sublime fact
that life was the synonym of blessedness, and that
that blessedness might be eternal. He did not
turn away from the agonies of human life. He
treated them as abnormal, not inevitable. He
took them upon Himself. He healed disease.
He cleansed the leper. He raised the dead. He
confidently affirmed, " Whoso liveth and believeth
in Me shall never die."
A superficial resemblance to the career of our
Divine Lord was an early temptation of Gautama
to relinquish the sublime purpose on which he had
entered. Mara, the spirit of evil, and an imper-
The funda-
mental
principles
of Buddha
and Christ
essentially
divergent.
The temp-
tation of
Oa-atama.
Buddhism, 13
sonation of the idea of deatli, assailed him with
thoughts which were to turn him aside from his
'O'
beneficent career. Legend has amplified these in Legendary
^ amplifica^
the later chronicles with the astounding efflorescence ^i"\<>*
o the story.
of Oriental imagination. He was approached by
seductive hallucinations, and when wanton beauty
failed, Mara put forth the thunders of his wrath,
and hurled a hundred thousand burning moun-
tains (!) at him, but they fell in garlands of flowers
at his feet. He overcame all the threats, and msyictory
seductions, and illusions of the spirit of evil, and
continued his self-sacrifice.
This great event in Buddha's life, in which he Accompany-
'^ ^ ^ ing physical
won the victory over all evil suggestion, was portents.
accompanied, according to the legend, with physical
convulsions of nature. The sun was turned into
darkness, the stars fell from heaven, ''headless
spirits filled the air."
This conflict, in which the moral creatnoss of His conflict
*-" connected
Gautama appeared triumphant, w-as connected with jjquirii as
an effort on his part to gather from the known caui^^and
Brahman teachers who preceded him, all such ofTSan"
light as they could give him as to the cause and
termination of human sorrow. Their methods
and their reasonings dissatisfied him. He also
made trial of the most complete ascetic rule, and
practised abstention from food and extreme
mortification of the flesh. He is said to have
spent six years in these exercises, to have secured
14
Bvddhisrri.
thereby the greatest reputation as a lonely hermit,
and to have drawn around him admirers and
imitators. Wiser than the Stylites of Christian
asceticism, Gautama found that he came no
nearer to the solution of his great problem, and
resolved to alter his course, to take food, to
renounce his bodily mortification.
In doing this he alienated his earliest disciples,
who fled from him to Benares, leaving him, stung
by their lack of appreciation, to encounter with
surprising courage new difficulties. It was after
his friends left him, that he retired to the shade of
a Bo-tree, at Gaya, known ever since as the most
sacred spot in Buddhadom. There he passed
through the crisis of his ministry, coming by stern
exercise of thought to the idea, that not by out-
ward penances, but by inward culture ; not by
rites and ceremonies, but by love and gentleness
to others; not by spitefully punishing the flesh,
but by the cessation of all desire, by the blowing
out of the fires of lust and anger and illusion, he
would reach a state of mind which would be per-
fect peace.
This series of struggles and conflicts of the man
Gautama bears a shadowy but not a real resemblance
to the temptation ana the victory of the Lord
Christ. In the case of Jesus, absolute loyalty to
the Holy Father's will, when He was tempted by
the flesh aud the devil to secure that very will by
His failure
to solve the
great
problem,
and the
abandon-
ment of his
bodily mor-
tification.
Abandoned
by his
disciples he
betakes
himself
to the Bd-
tree.
There
learns the
thought that
perfect
peace is
attained by
inward
culture
Shadowy re-
semblances
to the
temptation
and victory
of Christ.
BuddMsfm. 15
self-gratification, was triumphant over every seduc-
tion. The Bo-tree of Buddhism corresponds in The
Buddhist
vasrue way with the Cross, " the cursed tree on B6-tree and
^ ^ ^ \ the Cross
which the Saviour died, but it suggests throughout g^j^^SS^^o.
profoundly different ideas. The " sacred tree " of J^Jerent
Buddhism is a symbol of the highest point of ex- ^ ^^"
altation which Oriental intelligence and virtue ever
reached. The " cursed tree " of Christianity, where
Jesus the Just died for the unjust, is a symbol of
the most terrible condemnation of human corrup-
tion ; but the most amazing manifestation of the
love, the righteousness, the justice, the wisdom
and power of God.
There is no need to throw a single shadow Gautama'u
over the moral excellence of Gautama. He went and
methods.
about preaching and teaching the deliverance that
he believed himself to have found from all the
evils incident to human life. His methods were
those of moral suasion. He adopted no arm of
power to enforce submission to his method or
secret. The parabolic style of instruction gave
vivacity to his discourse. He called upon men to
pursue the middle path between the pleasures of
sense, and the mortifications of the ascetic schools.
" Sorrow " was with him the direct consequence ma view
of the sense of individuality, and consciousness of and how
. ' . to procurt
desire thwarted or ungratified. Cessation of sorrow i^s^^
was only to be secured by freedom from all these
causes of sorrow, all the cravings which nrolouc.
16
Buddhism.
The Hindu
tlieory of
the ego
accepted
and utilised
by him.
the illusion of one's separate interests or individual
being. He approximated to the Hindu theory,
which makes consciousness of the Ego an illusion,
and all the facts of human life and mundane
existence as waves passing over a houndless ocean
of heing. Accepting this as the deepest truth,
Gautama utilized it, as the gospel of deliverance
from all the miseries of existence, and endeavoured
to bring his followers to his own placid view of the
boundless evils of life by the practice of a virtue
which aimed at the obliteration of desire. Desire
was the radical source of every calamity from birth
to death, and after death.
From reasons utterly diverse from these, our
Lord demanded inward purity, and holy conduct,
simplicity of motive, and detachment from the
world. His disciples were to take up the Cross
and follow Him, to come to Him, and to rest in
Him, to take sides with Him against sin, to believe
in Him, as one able to save and to confer eternal
life, as One destined to judge all conduct and
motive, and all the inward springs of life. He
promised to do that for men by His own perfection
of being and sacrifice which they could not do for
themselves. He saved men from their sins. The
highest virtue in the theory of Gautama was
pursued and practised with the view of ex-
tinguishing all desire whatsoever, and of losing
all consciousness of Ego. He taught men to lose
Desire,
according to
him, the
source of
every
calamity.
The
demands of
Christ
essentially
iifferent.
His
promises.
His
aalvatioii
Buddhism. V
self, not in the bosom of the eternal Being, but in
the ocean of wow-existence. The highest virtue in ^^tue^^^'^^*
the way revealed by our Lord Jesus Christ, follows GautamI *"
n 1 ' -J ^ and accor-
as a consequence oi our haviug received a new and ding to
nobler Ego, and because our sins have been contrasted.
pardoned through faith in His atoning blood. The
highest kind of Christian life involves a quenchless
yearning after God Himself, a supreme love to the
Father, and to Christ as the revelation of the ]
Father. The Buddha's holiness was the extinction Buddhist
and
of the most essential characteristics of human ^o^^egg*
nature ; the Christ's holiness was the purification [ <^^^^t^-
and intensification of all those characteristics. The ;
end set before the pious follower of Buddha was The end oi
to renounce the highest possibilities of man, and ^j^d1;he*
descend to the passionless calm of some purely chri.SiaS!^
vegetative existence, which contemplated nothing,
desired nothing, enjoyed nothing, feared nothing,
expected nothing, suffered nothing; but the end
set before the humblest follower of Jesus, was to
think deeply, to desire the greatest uplifting, to
master outward sorrow with a joy unspeakable,
to triumph over illusion by reality, to suffer and
die with the Christ, in blessed hope of beholding
His glory, of being with Him and like Him for ever.
3. The relation of both religions to the P\st.
The Christ cannot be properly understood if ot^chSt^^to
no account be taken of the faith and hope of Israel, ^^^ '
or of a pre-existent literature of unspeakable value,
18
Buddhism.
Christ's
relation
to the
scriptures
of the Old
Testament.
Buddha's
relation to
an older
faith.
Oriental
speculation
about "'the
sorrow of
the world."
Contending
powers and
forces.
which enshrined both. Christ's claim was founded
upon the Old Testament Scriptures. He fulfilled
the law and the prophets.
Buddha cannot be understood if it be not re-
membered that his entire career was coloured by
the far-reaching influences of an older faith that
lie adopted, after he had freed them from some
of the exclusive and national forms which tbey
had assumed. As a philosopher he built upon
the speculation of the older schools of thought,
and as a great teacher he aimed to deliver man-
kind from the evil which earlier Hindu sages had
recognized as appertaining to mundane life.
Long before the days of Gautama, " the sorrow
of the world " and of man had pressed on the
Oriental mind with terrific force. Speculation,
following upon the simpler conceptions of the
Yedic age, had led to a discrimination between
the Supreme Atman, the breathing energy or sub-
ject of all thought, identified as it was with
Brahma, the all-pervading force, the essence of
all things, on the one hand, and on the other
the plurality of existence and impermanence which
was " not Atman," which had issued from his sense
of loneliness and unrest. Men saw on all sides of
them formless powers, chaotic forces contending
with each other and with them. Death put on
new and fearful aspects. As an enemy he did not
spend his power in the one blow he struck at any
Buddhism. I'J
living thing. Unless men had propitiated these The need
powers of destruction, they would be ceaselessly pitSng
pursued in other worlds by the tyrant death, who <>; destmo-
would continuously smite down the new life which
they would at each death assume. From the first
there was commingled with the fear of metem-
psychosis, the hope and possibility of deliverance
from it, but the fear itself produced a boundless,
haunting dismay, verging on unutterable despair,
which urged on both philosopher and priest to
propound their remedies, to indicate the sacrifice,
the ritual, the abstinence, the ascetic method by
which this fearful entail of suffering might be cut
off. To an Oriental it was supreme good if only The
he could be sure that he would sink at death once g(iT"^S^
and for ever into the ocean of Being, and not be
constrained by overwhelming fate to itinerate again
and again the melancholy cycle of birth, disappoint-
ment, and death. He would have been content if
only it had been appointed for him " once to die."
It was supposed that the only wav of deliver- The
* ^ _ . supposed
ance from the domain of death was unity of soul J^J ^^
' deliverance
with the true mode of being, with Atman (Brahma). doTai^of
The soul must not dwell in the region of plurality, ^^^^'
but must, in shuffling off the body, allow con-
sciousness to be extinguished, and so put on the
nature of Brahma himself. *' The mode of action "
{Karma) pursued here on earth was supposed to
determine the course which the soul would pursue
20 Buddhism.
from one state of being to another. Yet this form
of moral retribution was not so much ^n open
secret, as a profound mystery spoken by men of
mark to each other. It was complicated by the
distaste which the entire philosophy cast on action
Undisturbed of any kind, good or evil. The infinite Brahma
S'e* wghest ^^^ above all characteristics, and the highest felicity
feUcity. yj. ^^^ ^g^g imaged in the depth of undisturbed
sleep, when he loses all desire and all vision, and is
beyond the reach of pleasure or pain. Sometimes
these ancient teachers emphasized the obliteration
of all desire, and at other times the possession of
the knowledge that there is no finite self at all.
Desire corresponds with ignorance of this highest
reality, a knowledge of it corresponds with the
extinction of desire.
So far Brahminical systems of thought had gone
in the sixth century before Christ, and before
Gautama Gautama began his meditations. This remarkable
found the
problem teachor found the problem ready to his hand,
ready to his x .* 7
SedTt^ and pursued it further. He did not create the
th?Bmh-^ central ideas which he and his followers repeated
^stemithat with wcarisomo iteration. He gave a new and
before. weird olovatiou to man, by removing out of his
path and from the range of his contemplations
the deities innumerable who were believed by
his contemporaries to contribute to emancipation
The gods themselves were stamped for him with
the character of impermanenoe and ignorance and
Buddhism, 21
passion, and man was left alone to fight this
tremendous battle with sorrow and death, by an at-
tainment of a knowledge not yet secured by them.
At tbis point of our review, one of the superficial
but startling resemblances in the evolution of Buddh-
ism and Christian faith makes its appearance.
Buddha certainly took up the burning question Buddha's
of the existing schools of thought, and gave them departure
as we shall see a new departure. He waved his
hand over the mythologies and gods of the popular
faith, and they disappeared into the formless chaos.
He met the desires of men after the condition of
freedom from the curse of existence, by reducing
existence itself to non-existence, and by dispensing
with all aid from the popular mythology. The He reduced
differences between men, which made so startling ^^^^^^^
a barrier between man and woman, between race "l^m^n^e.
and race, caste and caste, he theoretically disposed
of, by reducing them all to insignificance.
Our Lord Jesus Christ initiated a new departure our Lord's
new
on ground alreadv hallowed by Revelations of the departure
o ^ J was on
Infinite One, but He did not effect this change by Slowed by
drawing an impenetrable veil over Jehovah's face, JlvSaSons.
but by revealing the Father, by declaring that He
in whom all live and have their being is Impartial
Holiness and Eternal Love. He declared that He He revealed
the Father
and the Father were one. He called upon men ^gd^is
to believe in the Father as their Father. He SS
assured men that the Lord of heaven and earth
22
Buddhism.
God reveals
Eif secrets
to babes.
Self-siir-
render to
God's will
gives a man
to himself.
Chriit gave
a new
meaning to
souls.
Buddha
turned
aaen's eyes
away from
the sorrows
of life ;
Christ took
them away
by bearing
them.
rhe deaths
of Buddha
and Christ.
revealed the deepest secrets even to babes This
was a truth that Buddha with his emphasis on
the virtues of knowledge utterly missed. Moral
surrender to a perfectly holy and loving will gave
a man to himself. Not by under estimating the
reality of self, but by conferring upon it an infinite
value and significance, did Jesus free those who
believed in Him from the greatest burden ; not the
burden of existence, but the burden of sin. Jesus
Christ abolished distinctions, not by emphasizing
the unreality of souls, but by investing all souls
with a new meaning, which in itself was more to
be desired than all the temporary and vanishing
shadows of earthly greatness. Buddha turned
men's eyes away from the sorrows of life. He
would have men think them out of existence by
a species of intellectual training. Christ took all
our sorrows and sickness and death upon Himself,
that He might take them away; and He pro-
nounced His benediction on the poverty, the
mourning, the hunger, the sorrow, the death, which
are the handmaids to the soul, in its passage inta
the perfect life.
4. A further superficial resemblance between
the Buddha and the Christ, is the prominence given
in either system to the Death of the Founders.
Throughout Buddhadom the death (commonly^
^ Dr. Rliys Davids. Doctrine of Nirvana, Buddhitnif pp.
110-123 ; aud Hibbeit Lectures, Lecture ui.
Buddhism. 23
though perhaps wrongly regarded as the Nirvana) of The death
Gautama is taken as the starting-point of the new ^1^?^^^^,
faith. He had been the living Head of his disciples jg^ *
to whom all difficulties were referred, by whom the
faithful were exhorted and directed in the smallest
matters affecting their daily conduct or their mutual
government, their dress, food, gesture, and minutest
habit. His departure by death would naturally leave
an awful blank. His death when it came was as The
Bublumtv oi
sublime as that of Socrates, and through the *^ ^^^
various legends and amplifications of the narrative
we can discern some of its real features. At a
great age, having spent some fifty years in constant
preaching and teaching, his mental faculties un-
dimmed, he reached a grove outside Kusinag&ray
and rested for the last time. .
At the river, feeling that he was dying, he
received food from his disciples, and promised them
great reward in a future life for this act of piety.
He spoke of his burial, and rules to be followed by
his order. Ananda wept as he saw the end drawing
near, and Gautama said,
' ! Ananda, do not let yourself be troubled, do not weep. His last
Have I not told you that we must part from all we hold most ^**
dear and pleasant ? No being however born or put together can
nvorcome the dissolution inherent in it ; no such condition can
exist. For a long time, Ananda, you have been very near to
nie by kindness in act and word and thoughtfulness. You have
always done well ; persevere, and you shall be quite free from
the thirst of life, this chain of ignorance." Afterwards he said,
' You may perhaps be given to think 'the word is ended now
24
Bvddhism.
our Teacher is gone,' but you must nut think so. After I am
dead let the Law and the rules of the Oilier be a Teacher to
you." "JVIendicauts, I now impress it upon you, the parta
and powers of man must be dissolved ; work out your own
salvation with diligence."
His mental
state as he
away.
These were the last words spoken by Gautama
Buddha. Studiously and stedfastly refusing to
answer the question as to any personal continuity of
his own being after death, and in a mental state of
utter self-negation rather than of reconcilement
with any power, or fate, or Being above him or
beyond him, he passed away. He lived and died
a Hindii, saturated with Hindii philosophy and
ethic, yet giving to both a more practical form
No thought than they had already received. The company of
resurrection his disciples uover dreamed even of his resurrection
in any form, material or etherial. So entirely had
he realized his own ideal of knowledge, and the
quenching of the thirst for life, that he believed
that he was henceforth exempt from the curse of
any further itineration of the cycle of birth and
death. There were no elements of character (Karma)
to be gathered once more into the form of man or
deva or riat (angel). He had absolutely vanished.
His body was burned on the funeral pile, and his
ashes were distributed (according to the legend)
among his celebrated followers of high rank.
Topes, or mausolea were erected over them. The
/ mendicant order he founded took fresh lease of
life, and dating from his august departure, it took
ever
occurred
to his
disciples,
Buddhism, 25
the form which has to some extent been observed
to the present day.
His death was a notable event in the history of e g^^*Jt,
Buddhism, as the hour when a complete and final 5?sloSn
dissolution of the personality of Buddha took place. Jersonaiit^'
Buddha in death received final manumission from
the servitude and cycle of change, the repetition of
birth and death. Such repetition is the primal
curse of all existent beings, but was evaded in his
case by the cessation of every desire, and his
perfect knowledge of the causes of suffering, and
the way to escape from them. He is not, in any I
sense in which the idea of existence can be pre- '
dicated by western mind. This is his crown of
supreme glory. The moment when his knowledge
obtained this lofty fruition of its interminable strife,
was that from which Buddhadom originates. The
method was revealed, the example given, the
triumph secured. His objective death was the His
. , ,. . - objective
startmg-pomt of a subjective immortality in the <ieath th*
hearts of his followers. The absolute completeness ELti,'
of his death was, therefore, a reason for the highest inte*^"*^
satisfaction of his followers; and the aspect it foUowws^'
assumes in the legends of many nations invests it
with consummate interest.
The legends of China and Tibet expand and
adorn the story of the death and cremation of
Buddha, and help to show how entirely superficial
is the resemblance between the deaths of Buddha
26
Pvddhiam,
The death
of the Son
of God the
ro-com-
and of Christ, in their effects upon their respective
followers. The death of the Son of God was an
event which, hy its stupendous importance, had an
effect upon the whole universe, not by the cessation
of His life and the close of His personality, but by
the recommencement of that life in a position of
supreme influence and actual power over heaven
and earth. He proceeded to fill and rule all things.
He not only vanquished death for Himself by ]
voluntarily submitting to it, with accompaniments !
of inconceivable terror, though there was no in-
herent necessity for it, but He took away, by
bearing it, the sting of death, which is sin, for all
who appreciate and acquiesce in His redeeming
love. His death did not proceed from the im-
permanence of the corporeity He bore, but was
for the sins of the race whose nature He had
voluntarily assumed. The perpetuity of His
spiritual power and the continuity of His life was
of His life
in a position
of supreme
influence
and power.
His death
voluntary
and
BacrifidaL
The
pei-petuity
power and
the contin-
uity of His
life mani-
fested by
His
resurrection.
made manifest to men by the fact of His resurrec- I
tion, and a new revelation was thus given to man ^
of the nature of the spiritual body and of the
eternal life.
Buddha persisted unto death in his belief that
the final dissolution of his body closed for ever the
career of individuality for himself, and opened up
the way in which his followers might reach a
similar consummation. Christ laid down His life
that He might take it again, and convinced man-
Btuldhism. 27
kind that death was not the end, but rather the chnst's
^ death the
beginning of an endless life, not only for Himself ^^^g^j^fg*
but for all who love His appearing. So that ^^^'/i^^ems
though there are many superficial resemblances in a-ppean^s-
the bearing of the death of Christ and that of
Buddha upon their respective followers, these ap-
parent resemblances are illusory in the extreme.
5. Another resemblance between the two systems
is that both profess to rest upon a supreme law of life,
which affects the entire universe. The Dharma Jf^^B^'^^JJ^'!
(or Dhamma) which is "the law" of Buddha
occupies a place of high importance. Next to his
own great personality in the esteem of his followers,
is the " word " that he uttered for their guidance.
To proclaim the discovery made by the sage, " to '^^^ ''"
turn the wheel of the law," to insist upon " the afEect^ifo
four noble truths," and to press the moral injunc- worlds,
tions involved in them, is the chief function of
the disciples of Buddha. These " truths " do not
simply affect human and contemporary life, but all
life in all worlds, and in all the forms of existence,
human and divine, angelic and animal, past, present,
and future. They are not m themselves a cos-
mology or psychology, they involve no theory of
the origin or end of things, or any philosophy of
soul, as distinct from body, or any theological
deliverance ; and yet they lay the foundation for
speculation on all these subjects, which the fol-
lowers of Buddha are not slow to utilize.
TSb Buddhism.
Perhaps the simplest form in which the more
central teaching of Gautama can be presented, is
preserved in the sermon preached by him at
Benares, after he had received the great illumina-
tion under the Bo- tree and was recognized as
Buddha.
The First Truth.
The sacred "This, oh monks, is the sacred tinith of sufifering : Birth is
suffering. suffering, o' ' asje is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is
suffering, t*.. -.- united with the unloved is suffering, to be sepa-
rated from the loved is suffering, not to obtain what one desires
b suffering, the fivefold clinging to the earthly [i.e., hankering
after corporeal form, sensations, perceptions, conformations,
and also after consciousness itself] is suffering."
The prevalence, the universal presence of thwarted
desires, the fact of pain, the fact that wherever
there are the conditions of self- consciousness in
this or other worlds, there is pain this is the
imper- " first truth." Impermanence by itself is the iu-
manence the ^ '
ibiTsou?^ exhaustible source of suffering, and it is the indis-
3f suflenng. pg^gabie Condition of all that is. No thinker ever
came to such an irrevocable judgment on the
misery of existence in all worlds. The youth with
his visions of bliss, the gorgeous insect fluttering
in the sunbeam, the deva drinking his chalice of
joy, the king on his throne, are all cherishing
infinite delusion, if they do not see the near ap-
proach of suffering. Behind the sorrowful present
lies a measureless sorrowful past, and an equally
immeasurable future full of sorrows for him who
does not put an end to sorrow.
Bvddhism. 29
The following most pathetic passage is quoted
by Oldenberg from Samynttaka Nikaya :
"The pilgrimage of beings has its beginning in eternity. No
opening can be discovered from which proceeding creatures
mazed in ignorance, fettered by a thirst for being, can stray and
wander. What think ye, my disciples, whether is more the
water that is in the four great oceans, or the tears which have
flowed from you while ye strayed and wandered on this long
pilgrimage, and sorrowed and wept because that was your
portion which ye abhorred, and that which ye loved was not
your portion ! "
The so-called gods are all bound by the chain of
desire, and so are brought under the power of Mara,
"Man gathers flowers, his heart is set on pleasure, Death
comes upon him like the floods of water on a village and sweeps
him away."
This perception of the poignant sorrow of the J^J,^?^ '
universe pervades Buddhist literature from end to J-e^pc^JSng
end ; not, however, in the sense of being reconciled of^he"'''^
or resigned to such fate, nor exactly in the spiiit
wherewith great Christian moralists have bewailed
the misery of man, but rather in the tone of lofty
pity for those who have not made the discovery.
The Second Sacred or Noble Truth is that The origin
of suftenng.
of the origin of suffering^ and this Buddha has
declared to be
" the thirst (for being) which leads from birth to birth, together
with lust and desire, which find gratification here and there,
the thirst for pleasure and the thirst for power."
The Third Sacred Truth is that of
ihe extinction of suffering ; the extin
jiplete annihilation of desire, letting i
rating oneself from it, giving it no room.
"the extinction of mffering ; the extinction of this thirst by The
complete annihilation of desire, letting it go, expelling it, sepa- ^f suffering
30
Buddhism.
The
connection
between the
two truths.
Conscious-
ness and
corporeal
form con-
ditions of
each other's
activity.
The six
fields.
Contact.
Sensation.
Thirst
The connection between these two " truths " is
difficult to seize, but is thus explained. Buddha
himself named two links as preceding consciousness
itself, but they are not easy to understand. Taking,
however, bare consciousness of any individual as a
starting-point he regarded corporeal form and name
as an inevitable consequence of it, and he also laid
it down that consciousness and corporeal form
were reciprocal to each other, mutual conditions
of one another's activity. They lean upon one
another, as two bundles of sticks mutually support
each other. The death of one corporeal being sets
the consciousness element free for the formation of
another. The next links are as follows : from the
consciousness and corporeal form come the six
fields (i.e., the five senses and the understanding),
with their corresponding objects. From the six
fields comes "contact/^ and from contact comes
" sensationy' [and in a strange way the old sage
endeavoured to account for what we term "per-
ception" and "conception;" but let this pass]
"from sensation arises thirst." It is this thirst and
longing for sensation that leads to rebirth, the most
fruitful cause of suffering, for from " thirst " comes
" clinging." As flame clings to fuel, which can never
be extinguished until the fuel is consumed, so the
flame of our consciousness presses on from life to life,
by transmigration, from earth to hell, from hells to
heavens. The slightest clinging prevents deliver-
Buddhism, 31
ance, and only by utter cessation of clinging is the
soul delivered from sinful and suffering existence.
The question arises, Whence comes consciousness ? The source
of con-
It proceeds from Karma (Kamma Pali), the moral Bciousness.
retribution of the entire action of a man's past
state. His ignorance in a previous birth of the
consequences of his thirst and clinging, produces
the conditions under which consciousness takes
new name and (fresh) corporeal form in this present
state of his beiner. This Karma forces, or forms, The re-con-
^ ' ' stitution of
or reconstitutes being in the five regions of trans- Klrraa^m
migration. It does not follow that men reappear re|io^n7of
.1 1 .1 1 ! 1 transforma-
as men, they may become animals, gobnns, devas, tion.
gods. The glories of the heaven-life into which
some men's karma causes a new individuality to
enter, are dazzling or satisfying. Dread and
ghastly is the agony of the hells into which the
karma of others causes other individualities to
appear. It would seem as if the thirst for rebirth
in some particular form of being had also (on
Buddhistic theory) to do with the result ; but it
may and must happen that by securing any form
of new birth, the soul is still chained and fettered
by the miserable cycle that it has to itinerate.
The extinction of the thirst which leads to the nro- The extino-
^ tion of
pagation and perpetuation of life, the annihilation onWa^
of the clinging, is the only way of obtaining SeUveSsr
deliverance from the misery of existence. SS^of
The Fourth Sacred Truth teaches the path ^^ "^'
32
Buddhism.
The path
to the
extinction
of suffering.
five pro-
hibitions.
The
significance
of the pro-
hibitions.
to the extinction of suffering, tlie method by which
Buddhistic teachers have expanded the fundamental
ideas of their founder. The path includes :
(1) Right belief (views).
(2) Right feelings (or resolves).
(3) Right actions.
(4) Right living (or mode of livelihood).
(5) Right exertion (or endeavour).
(6) Right thought (or memory).
(7) Right meditation (or self -concentration).
These paths, blending into one, are continually
illustrated by parable, dialogue, fable, apologue,
and by the numberless stories of Buddha, not only
while passing through the final stage of his exist-
ence, but in hundreds of previous existences, during
which his Karma was dwindling, and the necessity
of a further rebirth gradually becoming anni-
hilated.
This code is moreover re-shaped for practical
use in the form of five prohibitions : (1) to kill
no living thing ; (2) to lay no hand on the pro-
perty of another ; (3) not to touch another's wife ;
(4) not to speak what is untrue ; (5) not to drink
intoxicants. Tbese prohibitions, four of which
closely correspond with the law of the second table
of the decalogue, are interpreted to mean far more
than the bare restraint from some definite action.
The first leads to most careful avoidance of any
known sacrifice of life, and is probably based upon
Buddhism. '*ili
tlie increment of suffering involved in the origina-
tion of a new life, not on the sanctity of life itself.
As far as human life is concerned, it is made to
cover much that was expressed in our Lord's inter-
pretation of the sixth commandment. The second
injunction corresponds with the seventh command-
ment, and as far as monks are concerned prohibits
all sexual intercourse whatever. The stronsrest The spirit of
forgiveness,
. emphasis is laid upon the spirit of forgiveness and ^^'jiasised
abstinence from enmity and calumnious conversa-
tion, on extinction of impure thought and desire,
'-nd on meekness in receiving cruel wrong.
It must be carefully noted that the duties of
the moral code are confined entirely to those of
the second table ; and that there are no hints of the no hints
principle of love to others, save as the expression principle
of the desire to surmount and extinguish all desire, ^^'^-
including desire for the welfare of others. There
is no room in- this method of deliverance for the
little child or the guilty sinner ; nor is there the no hint oi
faintest hint of help from any hisrher source than ^^y ^^s^^^
^ ' *-" source.
self to enable the strongest spirit to attain even the
mysterious rest which is set forth as the highest
hope of mankind.
The moral precepts which are embodied in The moral
precepts
Buddhism simply correspond with those which ^^^^^^^
are found in the earliest teaching of Hinduism, JfoSha
and of the Egyptian, Chinese, and Parsi moralists,
and must not claim to be the special patrimony
D
34
Buddhism.
They are
anterior
to special
revelation
in the
Scriptures,
accompanied
with prin-
ciples and
motives and
connected
with
powers
which lift
men into
harmony
with them.
The moral
culture of
Buddhism
the vory
antipodes
of the
spiritual
culture of
Christlauity.
Misery, not
sin, the evil
to be
explained
by Karma.
of Buddha. They arc older and deeper than any
civilization, and anterior to all special revelation,
written or unwritten. They are enshrined in the
decalogue, and in the teaching of the Lord Jesus
Christ ; hut in hoth these revelations they are
accompanied with principles and motives, and
associated with powers which lift man into
harmony with them.
It is not by any means clear how the thirst of
the soul can be annihilated by these paths of moral
obedience, or by any recognition of the universality
of suffering.
The contrast between the Gospel of Christ's
salvation and the law of Buddha's deliverance is
so great that words cannot measure it. The moral
culture which schools the mind into utter passivity
and indifference to all things and persons is the
very antipodes of the spiritual culture which loves
and blesses all the works of God, which embraces
all souls, and is reconciled to the Supreme Will.
Misery, rather than sin, is the evil supposed to
be explained by the theory of Karma. Moral
suicide, not of the bodily life, but of the very
possibility of reconstruction, and consequent deliver-
ance from the misery of existence is the great
achievement of the Buddhist rigime.
It is obvious that the terrible evil of trans-
migration, which was accepted by the Oriental
mind as beyond the range of scepticism or question,
Bvddhiam, 35
was a very real and haunting terror. Althougli Traus-
' o <-j migration
the idea of conscious continuity of being after Jg^o"'^*^^^
death, or any remembrance of a previous existence,
was ignored, if not categorically denied by Buddha,
and although the Brahminical conception of
ultimate absorption and loss of personality in the
Supreme Self, in Brahma, ceased to influence his
mind or affect his disciples, yet he could not divest
himself or them of the fact of transmigration. So ^g^on^*-f
he sought to reconcile the two notions, the old aS^St^ii*^^
ancestral creed with his idea of deliverance; and Sfid^of
he did so, by supposing that every form of evil
in this and other worlds, in heaven and hell, is
the outcome or karma of the life lived previously by
some unenlightened being who had not pursued the
paths of deliverance. There were four of these paths
or stages of the path which were enumerated.
(1) Conversion, or enterinar on the stream in Beginning
^ ' ' ^ of freedom
which a man becomes free from the delusion of JgiJ^g^J^
self, from doubt as to Buddha himself, from con- ' ^"
fidence in mere rite and ceremony. Even this
first stage is better than universal empire, better
than the prolongation of conscious life in heaven.
(2) The path of those who will only return to the The path oi
\ / -^ -^ " those who
world once more is secured by those who have re- ^^^S/ald
duced to a minimum lust, hatred, and delusion. ^^S^mum,
Even if there be this minimum of clinging to the only return
sources of all misery, one new life here will once mom
await them.
86
Buddhism.
The path of
those in
whom all
self seeking
and wrong
feeling are
ex-
tiuguisiied.
The path
of the
veritable
saint.
Nirvana or
the absolute
peace aud
rest of the
A.KEAT.
(3) The path of those who will never return to this
world is one in which all desire for self or wrong
feeling for others is extinguished, and at death
their karma may produce some being in some of
the upper worlds.
(4) The final path of the veritable saint, or Arhat,
is that which has lost even the faintest clinging
to existence, or feeblest desire for it, in this or
other worlds, and absolute freedom from all pride,
self-righteousness, and ignorance.
This condition of mind and state of will into
which a man is brought by these saintly processes
is, according to Oldenberg, Rhys Davids, and others,
Nirvana. In defining the term, they maintain
that it is not the condition into which God or man
is brought after dissolution ; it is not the synonym
for " heaven ; " it is not the equivalent for anni-
hilation; but it is the term which denotes the
absolute peace and rest of the Arhat, before the
mystery of the grave is faced. Numerous passages
are quoted from the Suttas, in which Nirvana is
promised to the devotee who has conquered sin by
holiness, who has become utterly free from desire,
and so it is set forth as the extinction of the sinful
grasping condition of mind and heart which would
otherwise he the cause of another individual existence.
It is a blowing out of the fires of lust, anger, ignor-
ance, and selfishness. It is i\iQ perfect peace. When
an Arhat has reached this exalted state before
Budd/dam. 37
death, he still retains the Skandhas as they are The Arhat
^ who has
called, the bodily functions and powers, the issue of ^eaS^befoiy
the sins of his previous existences in other indivi- reTa^s^X
dualities. "When death supervenes, these skandhas funcfiow
being transitory pass away, and there is no more powew.
construction of an individuality in this or any
other world. The "Karma" of untold lives is
dissolved.
It is probable that the idea expressed by the what the
term Skandha (the bodily functions and attributes dha, (boduj
functions
and consequent powers) included that in which P^ powers)
T. r / includes.
these inhered, the " form " at least which has held
them together, and which remains even after they
are scattered in the funeral pyre.
The later books gave the name of Boddhi- The Boddu-
sattwa.
sattwa, to those Arhats who had only one more
life to live in this world. The heaven to which The heaven
of Maya
Maya, the mother of Buddha, had gone at death, ^^^
was one to which it was believed by supernatural ^^^*-
trance Buddha had ascended, and where he held
communion with her.
Such a conception seems to allow that there was a continuity
. . ., , ot existence
continuity of existence and consciousness possible to and con-
' Bciousness
Buddhist saints, believed in even within the orthodox ^^f^^^lf tJ*
communion, and among austere sects of the ancient ^^*
faith. The Rev. Spence Hardy and Mgr. Bigandet
strongly maintain the utter nihilism of the Nirvana
of Buddha himself. Burnouf and others confirm
the same view, though they suggest that Gautama
38
Buddhism,
The spread
of the
formula of
annihila-
tion.
Dr. Rhys
Davids' ex-
planation.
is the last mighty spirit that has reached this
summum bonum. It seems incredible to us that a
formula of utter annihilation could ever have made
the extraordinary progress that it did among
peoples who at least believed in an absorption into
the supreme self and eternal essence, and a trans-
migration which did not repudiate the idea of soul.
Dr. Rhys Davids seems to think that the passion of
universal benevolence involved in the closing up
of one only of the hitherto endless sources of
misery was sufficient motive for entering on the
path to Nirvana, even though the Buddhist disciple
should hereafter be unconscious of the advantage he
had conferred upon the universe by his non-existence.
The safest method of understanding the problem,
is to separate the question of Nirvana from that
of the continuity of the soul. Buddha was a
supreme dogmatist on the nature of true peace,
and an extreme Agnostic as to the future life. He
would suffer no disciple to deviate a hair- breadth
from the path to Nirvana, but he repudiated all
logical inferences drawn from the essential nature
of Nirvana. No wonder that the idea of Nirvana
did in after days develop into the conception of
Paradise, whether this latter was due to Christian
influences or not.
There is a superficial resemblance between the
sacred peace of the Buddhist saint and that of the
sanctified follower of the Lord Jesus Christ, who
Buddha's
dogmatism
and agnos-
ti 3ism.
The peace
of the
Buddhist
and the
peace of the
Christian
Buddhism. 39
has lost his own will in the will of God. But the The
' Christian
Christian believer is never so conscious of and
united to
Christ as a
member to
a body.
aware of his own existence as when he loses it in
Christ's. Faith at its best is union with Christ,
but it is the union of a member with a body.
The " I '* and " thou " are not abolished relations.
Perfect love casts out fear, but the distinction
between the object and subject of a supreme
affection will endure for ever. " Eternal life," by Etemai
the very form and inner meaning of the idea, is logical cod.
. ^ tradictory
the logical contradictory of Nirvana. of Nirvana
Buddhist peace is the obliteration of desire ;
Christian peace the refinement and satisfaction
of desire. The Buddhist saint conquers all
his longings and regrets ; the Christian ex-
claims, " My earnest expectation and desire
are that Christ may be magnified in my
body whether by life or death." The peace The source
of the Christian flows from, and is the result of the
of, reconciliation and acceptance with God through
faith in Jesus Christ.
6. There is a striking external resemblance
between the Society (Church) founded by our Lord,
and the Society (Sangha) originated by Gautama
Buddha. These resemblances are most of all
conspicuous in the complicated hierarchy of the
Papal Church, and a multitude of religious orders
pledged to a more or less rigid loyalty to its
principles and precepts.
Christian.
40
Buddhism.
Points of
Bimilarity
between the
Bociety of
Buddha
aaid the
Church.
The resem-
blancefl
conceal the
radical
divergence
of principle
between the
two.
The history of the ^'Society" or "Order," or
" Assembly " of Buddha, offers a bewildering
similarity to some of the aspects of Christendom ;
so that writers customarily speak of the " Church,"
the " Councils," the " Canons," " the Sacred Books,"
the " Priesthood," the " Monasteries," the " Monks
and Nuns," the " Pilgrims " the " Patriarchs " and
"Pontiffs," the " Missioners." the "Heretical sects,"
the " Cathedrals," of Buddhadom. Rosaries are
used by the monks and nuns to assist them to
recite their meditations and praises. Incense is
offered to sacred images of the greatest Buddha, as
well as to some of the anticipated Buddhas of the
future. A kind of divinity is honoured, consisting
of " the three precious ones" the Buddha, the
Dharma, and the Sangha, i.e., I. The Buddha.
II. His law or word. III. The society which
embodies his principles and spirit.
These and many other details of external re-
semblance to Christian institutions conceal the
radical divergence between their respective prin-
ciples. The resemblances are not in the funda-
mental elements of thought or feeling, but in the
laws which regulate all human society, and are
evolved more or less wherever ideas form the
nucleus of association on a great scale. Chris-
tianity in her essence cannot be credited with the
whole history of the institutions which have been
developed by her adherents. The enormous variety
Buddhism. 41
of these institutions finds some parallels in the
different development which the Buddhistic
" Church '' has suffered in the various oriental
countries through which these ideas have spread.
Buddhism, moreover, like Christianity, has taken ideas
foreign to
hold in its passasre from land to land of ideas that their origin
' ^ assunilatcd
are foreign to its origin, but which have received ^J^^^^
such vast expansion and exercised so great a hold
upon the Oriental mind, that they cannot be ignored
in any estimate of this extraordinary form of
religious organization.
A brief sketch of this history and of this society
must here be attempted.
On the occurrence of Buddha's death his disciples, Rules of the
^ Buddhist
scattered over many parts of India, according to 5^^^*5Jj^^ ,
tradition, assembled to the number of 500 at lll^^^^''
Rajagriha, and proceeded to regulate, in harmony
with what they believed to be their master's word,
the principles of faith and order to be hereafter
observed by the society, and to make an authentic
text of his sayings. They professed only to J^^* <>' ^
recite what they had heard from the lips of
the exalted one, and they called on all new
adherents to " take refuge " in Buddha, in his
doctrine, and in his order. At first they were all
mendicant monks who were centres of spiritual
power in their own neighbourhood, but who per
petually moved from place to place (except during
the rainy season). They had not the cohesion
42
Buddhism.
of early Christian churches, which from the
Apostolic age attached themselves to particular
localities, and thus became the centres of missionary
expansion, and the larger units of a new brother-
hood. The mendicant disciples of Buddha were
continually changing their place of abode, and the
small gatherings of them were never the same.
Consequently they differed among each other as to
the precise rules they were called upon to adopt.
One synod of disciples differed from another synod,
and the greatest confusion prevailed. Patriarchal
authority, to take the place of Gautama's, did not
emerge in India, though special deference was
probably paid to those who were known to have
been the associates and personal friends of the
great sage. But the number of those who sought
to enter the paths leading to Nirvana multiplied
daily, and the initiation into the society closely
corresponded with the rules by which a Brahmin
devoted himself to an ascetic life.
Candidates were to protest themselves free from
leprosy, goitre, consumption, and epilepsy. What
a contrast is this to the fellowship which accepted
and healed the leper, and cast out the devil ! How
bitter the confession that there was no deliverance
possible for some, and those the most needy of man-
kind ! They had, moreover, to show that they were
twenty years of age, were possessed of alms-bowl
and garments, and were willing to submit to the
Migratory
character
of the
mendicant
disciples of
Buddha.
Differing
rules adop-
ted by
various
synods.
Rapid
increase of
numbers.
Qualifica-
tions of
candidates.
Buddhism, 43
rules. These were (1) that they should feed only Rules to be
^ ' ^ ' / Bubmitted
on morsels secured by begging; (2) that their ^
clothes should be constructed of rags which they
collected ; (3) that their bed should be under the
trees of the forest; (4) that medicine should be
the urine of cattle ; (5) that all sexual intercourse
should be absolutely suspended ,*(^X ^^^^ ^^^ theft,
even to a blade of grass, should be repudiated;
(7) that no life should be taken, not even that of
a worm or an ant.
These austere rules were binding upon the ^.^"^
ordained monk so long as he chose. But a monk {^e^rw
might return to the world, if conscious of any long-
ing even for father, wife, or friend, and there would
then be an end of his hope of deliverance ; but so
long as he was called a Bhikkhu, he accepted
poverty as absolutely as the disciples of St. Francis
did in after days. The monk did not look in vain
from the benevolent for food, clothing, or medicine
for the sick. The "order" of Buddha did not,
like the mediaBval monks of the West, cultivate
the ground, nor did they accumulate property.
Negligence in outer appearance and personal ^"^**^^
defilement were condemned. The rags sewn Sfe^S.***
together for garments were to be washed and
dyed; and Buddha did not refuse his mendi-
cants the comfort of wearing robes when freely
given them, or receiving food if offered them
in the houses of the laity. The austerity
44
Buddhism,
Monasteries.
must consequently in many cases have been
softened.
Viharas or monasteries were erected by well-
wishers, where many conveniences were provided
for the " order/' especially in the rainy season.
Many of the sacred books are occupied with the
rules for the ascetic life pressed into the most in-
significant detail, and fortified by some narrative
or apologue, or solemn advice on the subject
supposed to have been uttered by the "exalted
one," or by one or other of his most venerable
associates.^
The "worship" of the Buddhist monks was
profoundly different from that which prevails in
every other ancient faith. The entire process is
one of self- concentration. In the depth of each
consciousness the conflict and the victory must take
place. Buddha had passed into Nirvana, and at
all events into absolute separation from his disciples.
No sense of his spiritual presence was allowed to
haunt their minds. On fast days mutual confession
was enjoined upon the " order," under most solemn
circumstances. These confessions occurred once
a fortnight, and degradation of rank followed any
Worship.
tration.
Fortnightly
confeasions.
^ A vast storehouse of information from the Sanscrit author-
ities as to the Vinaya, or discipline, may be found in Bumouf,
Introduction d Vllistoive du Buddkisme Indien, pp. 233-437 ; in
Spence Hardy's Eastei'n Monachism ; and in Dr. R. Davids'
translations from the KuUavayya, Patimokha, and Mahavagya,
Sata-ed Books of the East, vols. xiii. and xviL
Buddhism, 45
admission of having violated the standing rules.
Once a year all the members, summoned to some Yearly
^ scrutiny of
particular vihara (or monastery), were accustomed character,
severally to ask their reverend brethren whether any
of them had seen, heard, or suspected on the part of
each anything inconsistent with their profession.
In very early days they taught each other es- prescribed
visits to
pecially to visit and venerate the four holy places : iioiy piacea
{a) where Gautama was born, {b) where he received
the highest illumination, {c) where he set in motion
" the wheel of the law," and {d) where he entered
into Nirvana; and so a door was opened for the
worship of other relics, and the deterioration of the
faith.
An order of nuns was formed, and commanded ^^^^ '
' nuns
to follow closely the rules which were imposed on s*i*^*ed
monks. The striking peculiarity discriminating it Jj^"^J
from Christian Monasticism, is the utterly inferior ^o^^
rank and kind of holiness supposed to be secured
by woman, as compared with man. The most rigid
separation of the monks and nuns from each other
was enjoined. The number of nuns was never
great. As H. Oldenberg observes, " The thoughts
and forms of life of Buddhism had been thought
out and moulded solely by men and for men."
The existence of these orders of monks and nuns J^^"^^
in vast numbers implied that there was an outside HXk^and'
world which recognized the virtue of such religious
persons was ready to furnish them with the food
46
Buddhism.
Institution
of cere-
monial
indulgences
at the
Council at
Vaisali.
Differences
of opinion.
and raiment for which they silently asked, and in
various ways to contribute to their comfort. Upon
this laity also were urged the moral rules of the order,
and for many generations the adherents must have
been very numerous. How far they blended this
new faith with their old Hinduism is not clear.
A hundred years after the first council of five
hundred disciples, a second was held at Vaisali,
where certain ceremonial indulgences were insti-
tuted, and where great difference of opinion began
to prevail as to the number and nature of the
sacred books, and the degree of austerity necessary
to secure the highest end of their calling.
About the time of Alexander's invasion of
Asia, the political changes then going on in the
peninsula led to the elevation of one race to the
highest political eminence. A man who appears
to be known in Greek history as Sandracottus
(Chandragupta), seized the hegemony of the Indian
royalties, and founded a dynasty at Magadha,
almost geographically coincident with the district
now known as Oude. The third succesor of Chan-
dragupta, Piyadasi by name, under the honorific
title of Asoka became a devout Buddhist, and per-
formed prodigies of zeal for the diffusion, protec-
tion, and defence of the faith. He is at once the
Constantine, the Theodosius, the Charlemagne of
Buddhadom, and his name is honoured from
Mongolia to Ceylon. The adventitious aid thus
Asoka' s
conversion
to
Buddhism
and his
propagation
and defence
of it.
Buddhism. 47
afforded by the secular power to a spiritual order The aid of
-' the secular
was " tlie first step on its downward path, and to Jr^^Jt^^^to
its expulsion from India/' Asoka provided dagohas from fii^!*
for the relics of Buddha, monasteries and material
help of all kinds, proclaimed edicts, and engraved
them on pillars which are still to be found in
Delhi, Allahabad, near Peshawr, and at Babra.
These mjnuments have been explored by a race The
^ ' teaching of
of scholars, showing that the Buddhism of Asoka's J^^ Ryddh-
time in the main urged the simple morality of the f^f^
earliest discourses of Buddha, enjoined obedience
to parents, kindness to children, mercy to animals,
reverence to Brahmins and to the order, sup-
pression of anger and lust, and the exercise of
tolerance and charity. A noble sentence occurs
in Edict vi., on the Delhi pillar :
**I pray with every variety of prayer for those who differ
from me in creed, that they following my proper example may
with me attain unto eternal salvation,"
Asoka called the Council of Patna, where 1000 The ,
' Council oi
principal members of the order were assembled. ^**^
These determined the canon of the sacred books.
One of the most eventful consequences of this The
^ ^ ^ despatch of
council was the despatch of missionaries to distant missionanei
r to distant
regions, to proclaim the method of " deliverance,** io^'
secured by Buddha from the miseries of the
universe. The names of the most renowned of
these missionaries are preserved. We find they
went among other outlying districts to Ceylon,
48
BuddhisTn.
King
Asoka's son
sent to
Oeylon.
An order
of nuns
instituted
there.
The original
Bible of
Buddha-
dom.
Thither King Asoka's own son Mahinda was sent
between 250 and 230 b.c, and there he trans-
lated the canon into the vernacular of the island.
The king of Ceylon was willing to receive the
mission, and erected dagobas over relics of
Buddha, and monasteries for the order. The
sister of Mahinda accompanied him, and there
instituted with like enthusiasm an order of nuns.
A portion of the Bo-tree which she planted is
still growing, the oldest historic tree in the world.
It was in Ceylon that for the first time about
88 B.C. the three pifakas (baskets, or collection
of treatises) were reduced to a written form. They
had been preserved in the memories of successive
generations, just as for centuries the Mishna and
Gemaras were held in the memories of the Rabbis,
and as to the present day, the Vedas, and the
Canon of Hebrew Scripture, and the rabbinical
comments on the oral and written word, could be
verbally recovered from those whose sole function
it is ceaselessly to recite them.
The re - translation into the old sacred
language of Mahinda's Sinhalese version of
the three groups of treatises constitutes the
IVi-pitaka, or " three baskets " the original
Bible of Buddhadom. They are accessible
in part to European readers in the translations
by Gogerly, Max Miiller, E. Burnouf, Rhva
Davids, and others.
Buddhism. 49
The part taken by Ceylouese Buddhists
corresponds with the work done for Christian
literature by the scholars of Alexandria and
CsBsarea. The faith has preserved its pristine
form in Ceylon and Burmah more obviously
than it did iu India itself. The most imposing
event in the history of the faith is that which, Sjlj^l^
about the time of the Christian era, transmitted ^^^"^^
it to China. The particular form of it which
took that great departure, differs in some essential
features from that which became classic and
sacred in Ceylon, and which is represented in the
Pali literature.
A grave difference of judgment which prevailed DifferenoM
at the Patna Council, on the extent of the Canon 2*^^ *
' Sacred
of Sacred Books and on the rules of the Order, ^^^^'
led to the formation of many discordant sects. Su'"
These may be roughly regarded in the main as
two, and characterized (a) as the followers of the
*' Little Vehicle," Hinayana ; and {b) the ad-
herents of Mahayana, or the "Great Vehicle."
This distinction took its nomenclature from
another great council of Buddhists, held about the
time of the Christian era, under the direction of j^j^g ^f d-
Kanishka, the then ruler of Kashmir. One line K?enSie
of demarcation between the two schools was that schoois-the
followers of
whereas the Hinayana or the books alone known y^^JJ^'h"
to the southern Buddhists were written in Pali, JJ^J^jf
the books of the " Great Vehicle " were more veMctor*
50
Buddhism.
Oontroveray
as to the
relative
antiquity of
the two
Vehicles.
Chinese,
Tibetan, and
Nepaulese
Buddhism
originated
in the
" Great
Vehicle."
The contest
between
Confucian-
ism and
Buddhism.
numerous, and were written in Sanscrit.^ A con-
troversy, resembling that between advocates of the
longer and shorter recensions of the letters of Igna-
tius, has prevailed as to the relative antiquity of
the two Vehicles. The general opinion of scholars
is that the Pali documents undoubtedly contain
the most venerable and primitive traditions and
sayings of Buddha, but the great expansive energies
of Buddhism which have enabled it to hold in its
embrace the vast populations of China, and the ex-
traordinary subsequent accretions to the faith in
Tibet and Nepal, have taken their oiigin in the
Great Vehicle and the Sanscrit literature. The
great contest between Confucianism and Buddhism
turned on the fact that the latter reinforced the
moral precepts common to them both, with motives
drawn from a future life, the rewards of virtue,
the punishment of transgression. The Con-
f ucianist declared these to be illusory and ignoble ;
the Buddhists maintained them to be rational and
worthy. But if Buddha himself were supposed
^ The two most celebrated Sanscrit Books are (1) the Lalita
Vistara, which has been cried up as the most precious memorial
of the early Buddhism by some writers, e.g., M. St. Hilaire and
Mr, Lilly. Dr. Davids argues (Hibbei-t Lectures, pp. 197, ff.)
that the first certain proof of its existence is the Tibetan trans-
lation of it in the sixth century a.d. There may be Chinese
translations much eaiUer, this is not proved ; (2) the Prdjna
Paramita, the great metaphysical treatise, analyzed by Burnouf
pp. 438, S., exhibiU the later deyelopment of the Buddhist
doctrine.
Buddhism. 61
to have passed into utter non-continuity of
being, and Nirvana meant for them the state of
mind from which no karma could henceforth en-
train the elements of consciousness into corporeal
form ; the future life is an impossibility, and its
power to influence the moral judgments infini-
tesimal.^
The Mahayana treatises (whether Yinaya, Sutra, The new
and great
or Abidharma), however highly they estimate deveiopmeni
Buddha, introduce a new and enormous develop- ^tST*
ment of thought by describing the character, home,
enjoyment, and power of the great Boddhi-sattwas
beings, that is, who reached the condition of
Arhat on earth, and having died, await a final
birth into this world. There is the germ of this
mythological expansion in the Pali books; and
in some southern temples, worship or honour is
given to Maitreya, the Buddha of the future;
but as early as 400 a.d. Fabian, the great Chinese
pilgrim to the holy land of Buddhadom, finds the
homage to Manjusri and Avalokitesicara all but
universal. Great discussion prevailed in the north- niscussiont
* about the
western provinces of India, as to the nature of soul ^o^i-
itself. The purest and strongest idealism began to The preva^
* ^ ^ lence of
prevail, "All things that exist result from the ideaUsm.
^ The history of Chinese Buddhism may be read in Beal's
Chinese Buddhism, and Dr. Edkins' work on the same subject ;
also in Beal's Introd/uction to the Travels of Fahian and Hiouen
Thtang and Vie de Hiouen Thsang, translated into French by
M. Stanislas Jiilien.
^2
Buddhism.
Fabled
worlds.
The -world
presided
over by
Amitabha.
heart," they said. "All things material are empty."
" All things are just what the mind reports them."
Such formulaB must have made havoc of the doc-
trine of the negation of soul, and opened the way
to boundless speculation. Worid upon worid was
fabled where these mighty Boddhi-sattwas ruled,
as " Supreme wisdom," " Yisual power," " Perfect
holiness," and the like.
The most impressive and far-reaching effect was
produced among the northern Buddhists by the
supposed Amitabha. Amitabha was said to pre-
side in a world far away to the west, where all the
conditions are different from those in this world.
No transmigration there introduces its endless
dance. The precious metals and gems abound.
Thousands of Buddhas dwell there in royal peace.
Amitabha (*' boundless age ") has been living there
for a practical eternity. Two great Boddhi-sattwas
aid him in saving multitudes of living beings, who
are born on their death into the paradise of his
presence.
This is only one of many similar imaginations,
which fill up the arctic void left by the agnostic
utterances of Gautama, and the arid speculations
of the Sanscrit metaphysics. The very terms in
which the Sutras express these tropical conceptions
show that their inventions were allegorizing and
romancing to an extreme degree ; but the form of
Buddhism which China has accepted, and which
His saving
work.
^Mlegorizlng
and
1 umancing
ekaracter of
these
inventions.
Buddhism. 5tJ
prevails to the present day is saturated with these cwnese
. , . . . . Buddhism
ideas. This is most sisrnincant, and proves that saturated
" ^ with these
the nihilism and intellectual self-sufficiency of the i'^*^-
southern Buddhism has succumbed before the con- of the fact,
ception of personal continuity and of something
akin to Divine grace.
One of the most affecting indications of the
progress of the ideas of the Great Vehicle in
China, is the fact that when in the seventh century
A.D., Hiouen Thsang, the greatest of the Chinese The dying
1 1 1 11' desire of
pilgrims, was drawing near his end, his most the greatest
of the
Chinea
pilgrims.
exalted hope was that in consequence of the extent cMnese
of his sacrifices, and the excellence of his work, he
might be bom into the palace and home where
Maitreya, the Buddha of the future, dwells in light
and glory and serene contemplations. The thick
darkness of Nirv&na shimmers with the phantasms
of imaginary paradises.
There is little dispute that Manjusri is addressed The worsMj
of
in prayer as the enlightener of the world. He ManiusrL
may or may not be identifiable with a great mendi-
cant, who introduced Buddhism into Nepal. This
missionary is looked upon as especially connected
with the origination of the school of thought which
issued in the " Great Yehicle." Perfect wisdom is
undoubtedly attributed to him, and he is worshipped
as God ; while Avalokiteswara, " the Lord who
looks down from on high," is the spirit of the
Buddhas present in the community. Fourteen
54
Buddhism.
hundred years ago, he was addressed in prayer by
Fahian with as much fervour as Indra or Siva is
approached now by a devout Hindu.
Another Boddhi-sattwa of immense popularity,
adored through many provinces of China, etc.,
ajie worship Mongolia and Tibet is Kwan-t/in, "The infinite
Kwux-yin.
Thecounter-
parts of the
mortal
Buddhas in
a super-
sensual
world.
mercy." He is represented as a female figure
holding in her arms a child, and certainly suggesting
the idea that some semi- Christian influences may
have moulded this form of modern Buddhism.
However foreign this idea may be to the calm
passionless agnosticism of earlier days, the vast
majority of those who honour the name of Buddha
have created a pantheon rich in personal character-
istics, in objects of practical worship, and of fanatic
idolatry. They have thus met the demands of the
outraged human heart, by forming vague and dis-
torted images of One who fills all things, all worlds,
and all time with His presence.
A further late development of the Great Yehicle
has exerted a vast influence on the popular mind.
It amounts to this, that every mortal Buddha,
down to the last, viz., Gautama, and the next,
supposed to be Maitreya, has his counterpart or
type of a Boddhi-sattwa in a super-sensual world.
Thus Avalokiteswara is the great source or type of
Gautama, and he again is the emanation of what
was called a Dhyani Buddha, in a still wider
and loftier and purer region. Thus the Dhyani
Bnddfiiam. 66
Buddha of Avalokiteswara, is Amitabha, "the
boundless age," or the "immeasurable light;" and
there is the threefold unity of Amitabha, Avalo-
kiteswara and Gautama, to satisfy the longing of
the worshipper for something more trustworthy
than the annihilated man. Moreover, faith in
Amitabha is the grand instrument by which man
may rise into the blessedness which he gives.
A portion of the Tibetan community, about the
tenth century, a.d., resolved all the Dhy^ni-
Buddhas of the infinite past and of innumerable
worlds into a unitv, and spoke of the Supreme Thesupreir*
^ ^ Buddha
Buddha, the Adi-Buddha, who corresponds with ^i^^^^
the ultimate Divine Essence of the Gnostic schools, >^i*y-
and from whom all emanations of life, human,
angelic, prenatal, archetypal, and divine, have
sprung.
In dealing therefore with Buddhadom as a
concrete whole, it must be granted that among
some of its disciples the conception of the supreme
source of all being is recognised and worshipped.
Buddhism has suffered another development of
extraordinary power in the country of Tibet.
Here the ideas of Buddha were from the first The great
Boddhi-
associated with the thought of the great Boddhi- ^^^^^^^
sattwa, Avalokiteswara, who was present by his ^^"*-
spirit in the community of the faithful In Tibet
he was believed to reside especially in the most
distinguished of them, and to take up his abode in
56 Buddhism,
the chief pontiff or patriarch of their church,
The Pope of whom thcv Called Dalai-Lama. In him, the
Biuldliadom.
veritable Pope of Buddhadom, the Adi-Buddha is
supposed to be incarnated. Long and stormy has
been the conflict among rival claimants to this
high position. His history is a striking parody
upon that of the Pontifical See of Christendom.
In the occupant of this blasphemous rank, that of
God upon earth, is vested perpetually the supreme
temporal power. The worship, the ceremonial,
the ecclesiastical orders strangely correspond with
those of the Roman Church.
The literary The rescarchcs of Csoma-de-Koros, of the two
tmwures o ggj^iaginweits, of Koppen, Mr. Rockhill and others,
show that we have much to learn from the still
unexplored literary treasures of Tibet. These
consist of thousands of translations and com-
mentaries upon the Sanscrit books, which deal
with the life of Buddha, with the founding and
nature of his order, and with the metaphysics of
cufitoms the schools. Many strange customs have been
in Tibet. invented in Tibet, which have travelled thence
into Mongolia,^ by which the religious duties of
the faithful may be expedited. The sacred bio-
graphies, rules of conduct and prayers, are inscribed
on rolls and placed in cylinders, which are capable
of being turned by the hand of the willing wor-
shipper. He is told that by assisting these praying
^ Gilmour, Among tite Mongolt,
Buddhism. 57
cylinders to revolve, he acquires the merit of
having perused the literature, or offered the
prayers thus inscribed. More than this, the
machinery is not infrequently set in motion by
windmills, which thus greatly cheapen the merit
of all who share in their erection !
It is impossible to trace the utter decadence and JJ^^']^^
disappearance of Buddhist faith in the land of its "^^^<^*-
origin. But about the seventh century, the Brah-
minical order and the civil power utterly crushed
or expelled the Buddhist system and profession
from India. For a while the two forms of faith
must have existed side by side, as the ruins
around Benares and Delhi, and the caves of
Ellora prove. Even the mythology of Brahmins
regarded Buddha as one of the Avatars of
Vishnu, though Buddhists themselves are spoken
of with malice and contempt.
The Jains of Western India represent probably The move-
. * mentrepre-
an analoerous movement to that which was m- sentedby
*-' the Jains ol
augurated by Gautama, and their sect was pro- ^f^^"^
bably swollen during the persecutions of the tenth ?? tha?^
and eleventh centuries by refugees from the old byofiSna
body. When the Chinese pilgrim visited India in
the seventh century, he saw in many places but
the remnant of what was once a flourishing
community, and three hundred years later it had
utterly vanished. It may be we trace the echoes
of its influence in the Bhagavad Gita, in the
58 Buddhism.
worship of Jaganath,^ and in the speculations of
some of the schools of Hindu philosophy.
Buddhism has assumed other shapes in Japan
and Siam, in the Tartar kingdoms, and in the
Buddhadom modom life of Burmah and Ceylon. We can
a Simula^
crumof without difficulty discern in this brief outline of
Chnstendom "^ ^
Buddhadom, a most impressive simulacrum of
The birth- Christendom. We see the place of its origin dese-
Buddhism crated and trampled upon by strangers, we discern
its most antique and veritable form in active and
energetic exercise in the great island of Ceylon.
There its nihilism and its atheism are the orthodox
faith. There Buddha is venerated as the saint,
than whom among Gods or men there hath not
In Ceylon it riseu a greater ; but even in Ceylon we see that its
exists in its , .
mostancient disciplcs havc been able to blend it with magic and
aboriginal deva-worship of the island. In India,
among the Jains, it has blossomed into a portentous
mythology; throughout China it bas blended with
the man-homage of the middle kingdom, and the
religious nature inherent in man has allowed the
mists of Nirvana to wreathe themselves into the
apocalyptic splendours of the paradise of Amitabha.
Pontifical In Tibet it has developed a pontifical system, with
doTelopment
in Tibet. a group of cardiuals, and a splendour of mystery and
ritual rivalling the most imposing functions of the
Vatican. In Japan, coupled with a larger element
^ William Erskine, Remains of Buddhists in India, Literary
Transactions of Bombay Society, Vol. Ill,
BuddhisTTi, 69
of the old nature worship, it has inspired religious its influence
practices, revival services at which thousands of
ecstatic devotees cry out for the mercy of Amitabha.
Buddhism on a stupendous scale has occupied the
thoughts, stimulated the speculations, and to some
extent satisfied the craving of mankind.
Where its first principles have been most widely g^^^^
departed from, as in Tibet, there some very close Sj^^'^he
resemblance to the Roman Catholic doctrine, order, !Jide?y^"^*
and ritual, arrests attention. The real resemblances from^its
first
to ecclesiastical, not primitive Christianity, are principles,
deviations from its ideal and from its orthodoxy.
The fancied and superficial resemblances do, on
closer inquiry, reveal essential differences.
A few words finally on the antithesis andfunda- contrast
mental differences between Buddhism and Christianity. J^istian-
The most essential divergence between the two The nature
systems is seen {a) in the nature and object of worship. o?worp.
The earliest informants to which we can appeal,
the portions of the Tri-pitaka in the Pali canon,
including the (Sutras) discourses of Gautama, while
they heap in Oriental hyperbole the phrases of
extravagant eulogy upon the person of Gautama,
and extol his wisdom as though it were boundless,
never do attribute to him creative powers, or the
Divine glory and claims. Mr. S. Hardy quotes
from a high Sinhalese authority :
** The eye cannot see anything, nor the ear hear anything more
excellent, more worthy of regard than Buddha. The Riahia
60
Buddhism,
may tell the number of metres in the sky, hide the earth with
the tip of the finger, may shake the forest of Himala by a
cotton thread ; but there is no being who can swim to ths
opposite side of the ocean of excellence possessed by Buddha." ^
The Bacred
books vir-
tually deify
Buddha.
^0 Creator,
Moral
Governor,
nor Supreme
Lawgiver in
the Suttras
of Buddha.
The recoil
from the
nihilism at
the back of
all things.
The Sacred Books and the people do vii'tually
deify him, and yet there is an enormous difference
between their treatment of him, their greatest, and
what we mean by religious worship. The Yaso-
mitra (quoted by Bumouf) declares that :
" If God, or spirit, or matter were the original cause of the
universe, then the universe would have been created at once,
for the cause could not exist without producing its effect ; but
that inasmuch as all things follow a perpetual cycle, animals
from the wombs of mothers, trees from little seeds, a vast cycle
of events and not a will or a cause have produced the universe.''
In none of the Sutras of Buddha is there any
trace of any world-creating substance, any Being in
whom all things live. The universe is an awful fact,
whose tyranny is to be subdued by the intellectual
apprehension of its impermanence and illusion.
Moral duties are inculcated without any reference
to the Giver of any law or to any Creator, Deliverer,
or Lord of the human spirit. There is much
honour done to him who has unriddled the mystery
of suffering, but none to Him whose laws con-
stitute the basis of the moral universe.
The heart of man has recoiled from the utter
nihilism at the back of all things, and has in
northern Buddhism (as we have seen) imagined a
^ Marmal of Buddhism^ pp. 359-363 ; quoting the MS. ol
the SadharmarcUiuikaie.
Buddhism.
circle of lofty beings, who are able to help and The
. . , .. p , imagined
soothe the desolate spirit, when it turns from the comforters
^ ^ _ and helpers
illusions of sensa Amitabha and Maitreya (called buddhism"
Omito and Mile), and other vast powers, are ap-
proached in reverence and prayer ; but throughout
China, Buddha himself, the greatest of them all, is I
not appealed to for present help in time of trouble, ^
any more than is Confucius or Laotse.
(b) The Buddhist doctrine of the ground of the The Buddh-
. . p . . , - ' . . ist doctrine
univefse is utterly agnostic, it not positively atheistic, of the
The tendency to suffering is universal, and immoral *^ q^I^^^
actions augment it. The most iron fate links action
with action, and affiliates every possible conaition or
circumstance all alike wretched to some perver-
sion of vnll in the present or previous lives; but this
chain of causation is not to the Buddhist an act of
a supreme will, or modus operandi of any moral
being. Prayer cannot alter its incidence, and no
power outside of man can aid the devotee. ** Work
out (/our own salvation" by self- obliteration and
obedience, is the last word of Buddha.
"With this root principle Christianity is absolutely christ asthe
, , j^ J J- eternal Son
discrepant, and can come into no terms oi agree- is the
^ ^ . . revealer of
ment or compromise. The Christ is the Eevealer ^^^ father.
of the Father in heaven, because He is the only-
begotten and eternal Son incarnate, and He main-
tains against all the lies and corruption of the human
heart, and all the peril of the human soul, His
supreme goodness, justice, power, and lova The
62
Bvddhism.
The Buddh-
ist theory of
theunirerse.
idea tliat God is love, that God is spirit, that God
is LIGHT, that the knowledge of God is eternal life,
is the logical contradictory of Buddhism.
The Buddhist theory of the universe is that it
forms one vast lazar-house, through which the
flame of all-devouring desire and boundless illusion
is ever rushing. Continuity of suffering does not
quench the flame. Death does not deliver life
from its incessant, consuming fire. The only
salvation is such a habit of mind as becomes
insensible to the flame, and is the obliteration
of all desire. The Christian theory of suffering
is that it is caused and intensified by sin; that
the universe is the Father's house, that in the
restoration of filial relations with Him there is
fulness of joy, and that suffering vanishes in the
consciousness of perfect peace. The Buddhist
admires, and all but adores, the memory of the
Gautama the Buddha, because he is supposed to
have revealed the way out of the cycle of birth and
death. The Christian adores the Son of God, who
by reason of His incarnation and death upon the
cross to put away sin by the sacrifice of Himself,
has been highly exalted and received " the name
that is above every name." In His own hand
He holds the keys of death and hades, and delivers
man from death by the gift and fulness of the
eternal life beyond the grave.
(c) Buddhism recognizes sin against the moral
The Chris-
tian theory
of the uni-
verse ad the
Father's
house.
Why the
Buddhist
admires
Gautama.
Why the
Christian
adores the
Son of God.
Buddhism, G3
law ; but the law is impersonal, and the wages of sin ajcord-
sin are imposed by eternal fate. It has no conception Buddhism
of pardon, or redemption, or sacrifice. Christianity
recognizes an awful possibility of sin and punish-
ment, and a widely present sorrow ; but it brings
to human corruption a sufficient antidote, replaces The
Ml- 1 p 1 -I Christian
evil desires by consuming thirst for that which is the antidote to
holiest and the best ; it reveals a joy of reconcilia-
tion with God, that transmutes the sorrow into
blessedness, and gilds the bed of death with light.
It makes union with the Infinite God, through
the incarnation and sacrifice of the God- man, the
hope of the world. Buddhism has no gospel for the l^^^^
ignorant or the babe, holds out no hope of deliver- ^^^^ '**'
ance except to the wise and prudent, to the learned the babe.
and strong. It has conjured up a world of fancied
terrors, from which it would save all forms of life,
when they shall have once reached the pinnacle of
metaphysical subtlety. Jesus said, "Come unto jesuscaiis
Me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I dened and
' -^ . . children to
will give you rest.*' *' Suffer the little children to Himself.
come unto Me, for of such is the kingdom of God."
{d) Yerily Buddhism, throughout its vast extent J^cJeding
of pessimistic cosmology and ethical fatality, with its suddhil^.**'
ghastly Nirvana, and the hopelessness of its summum
bonunif seems to us to be an exceeding bitter cry
for that which Chtnstianity has to offer. It pro-
claims the misery of man, but has stumbled in its
explanation of that misery. It proclaims the evil
64
Buddhism.
The mute
prophecy of
Buddhism.
of sin, and thougli it leaves no place for forgive-
ness and has no notion of a Redeemer, it vagueij'
asks for pardon, justification, and eternal life.
Its willingness to accept a noble ideal of manhood
when made known to it, is a mute prophecy
that when th true Man is revealed to it, it will
call Him "Lord of all." Yerily our Lord would
have said of Gautama, " Thou art not far from the
kingdom of God ; " and he would have exclaimed
" Lord, to whom shall we go but unto Thee ? "
Buddhism grasped the idea of humanity as a
whole, and this proclaims a nearer approach to
Christianity than any heathen religion. It has
embraced Aryan and Tartar, Chinaman and
Turkoman, in its arms ; but Christianity has mas-
tered every kind of man. In Him who is One
with the Father, the Aryan and Semite, the Bar-
barian and Scythian, the Saxon and Celt, the
philosopher and child, have found their deepest
unity. Surely it is not too much to hope that the
Christian Church may even yet convince the Buddh-
ist millions, that not blind destiny but Infinite
Love enwraps this universe, that the fear of endless
transmigration from eternity to eternity is an un-
sustained delusion, that there is One" in whom are
hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge."
The idea of
humanity
as a whole
grasped by
Buddhism.
Buddhism
has
embraced
some races,
but
Christianity
has mas-
tered men
of every
race.
Hope
concerning
the
Buddhist
millions.
CHRISTIANITY
AND
ANCIENT PAGANISM
J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A,, LL.D.
^rgum^int of tb^ Tract*
The comparative study of religions has, in our day, become
exceedingly popular; but erroneous ideas are often ex-
pressed as to the position which Christianity holds among
the various systems of belief.
The subject is of very wide extent. The first thing
necessary for its proper discussion is a large induction of
fully ascertained facts.
Happily, great progress has recently been made in the
investigation of various ancient religions.
The Tract deals with ancient religions that were once
widely influential, but are now extinct. In the body of the
Tract the systems that prevailed among civilized nations
are discussed ; and, in the note at the end, a brief state-
ment is given of the beliefs and rites of the chief uncivi-
lized races of ancient Europe.
The unique position held among ancient forms of belief
by the Jewish religion is pointed out; as well as the re-
lation of that faith to Christianity.
It is shown that the latter came in "the fulness of the
time."
Reference is also made to the connection between true
religion and civilization.
CHRISTIANITY
AND
ANCIENT PAGANISM.
T iJ> rf| i r B
jucH attention is paid in our days to the The com.
comparative study of Religions. But study of
although now prosecuted with greater <>* e^
zeal than heretofore, it is by no means
a new subject of inquiry.
The Hebrew prophets frequently drew a con- The
trast between the God of Israel and the idols of prophets
contrasted
the nations; and their cry of exultation was, oJ^jJaei
" Their rock is not as our rock ; even our enemies fdoyof the
themselves being judges." naions.
In like manner the apologists of the early The early
, Christian
Christian centuries made comparisons between the apojo^ista
t contrasted
teaching of Christ and that of Greek and Roman Ind rites^"
books ; and they elaborately placed the pure rites oospli
enjoined by the Gospel side by side with the Heathen-
polluted observances of Heathenism.
Even so, soon after Mohammadanism arose, the
4 Christianity and Ancient Paganison.
The Koran Koran was examined and refuted by Oliiisiiaiia
examined . a i twt -ri
and refuted livuier m Asia. ^^^01 was Europe content to com-
by Asiatic " *
ciiristians. i^^t Islam ouly with tlie sword; the book that
professed to be a new revelation from heaven was
by-and-by translated into Latin and carefully
criticized.
The desire In like maDuor, when Europe became aware of
of the . I, . . 1 1
opponents of the cxistenco of wntmffs which were regarded as
Christianity , ^
to become sacred by the nations of the farther East, an
acquainted ' '
^aCTed^books earnest desire was felt to become acquainted with
of the East ^-j^^^ couteuts. The feeling appears to have been
strongest on the part of the opponents of Chris-
tianity ; and the reason of this is not far to seek.
Unbelievers expected that the books of the Oriental
nations would prove great repositories of wisdom ;
for it was a tradition that the philosophers of
Greece had drawn much from Eastern sources.
The hope It was the hope of Voltaire and the French
cherished ^ ^
wouid^^^ Encyclopedists that the sacred books of Persia,
S^surpass, Ii^dia, and China, would be found equal, if not
t^e Jewis superior, in religious teaching, to the Jewish and
Scriptures. Christian Scriptures. Hence, when Roberto de'
NobiK, the nephew of Cardinal Bellarmine, pro-
duced the work which he sought to palm off on
the Brahmans of Madura as a genuine Veda
that had been overlooked, Voltaire was com-
pletely taken in, and caused the wonderful book
to be twice republished in Europe.^ Here is an
* By Al Eindi and others. * At Tverdun and Paris.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 5
Oriental work, said tlie sage of Femey, very like
the Bible, and at least as good. It is a singular
story, though seldom remembered now.
But ere long a genuine Oriental work was con-
veyed to Europe. Anquetil du Perron returned ^^.^^
from his travels in India, bearing as spolia opima zoroaster**
the writings usually ascribed to the famous Zoro- *^^"^^^*^-
aster. All learned Europe waited in mute ex-
pectation for the translation which he at once set
about preparing. When, in 1771, the oracle, which
had been silent for ages, at length became vocal, JJpofn^ent
the disappointment was infinite ; and the general thenT*^
sentiment found expression in the sarcasm of
Jones afterwards the learned Sir WilKam
" Either Zoroaster never wrote these books, or he
was not possessed of common sense." The cen-
sure was far too sweeping; but, no doubt, the
Zoroastrian books were amazingly different from
what either Christians or unbelievers had expected
they would prove to be.
In recent years, various causes have combined The recent
furtherance
to further the comparative study of Relierions. f t\e com.
^ ./ o parative
For more than forty years, in fact, ever since reS^oni
Grotefend grappled with the cuneiform, and
ChampoUion with the hieroglyphic, inscriptions,
steady progress has been made in their interpret-
ation ; and a flood of Hght has been poured on
the history of at least seven ancient nations.
Oriental scholars have, in the meantime, been
Christianity and Ancient Faganism.
The
subject
becoming
popular.
The
Christian
need not
take alarm.
laboriously investigating the sacred writings of
China, India, and Persia ; and the results of their
inquiries have been largely communicated to
the public in translations.^ The subject may be
said to be becoming popular ; for it is presented
in every kind of publication, from the stately
review down to the halfpenny newspaper. All
this is well, when the study of comparative
theology is presented in a truth-loving and candid
spirit. The intelligent Christian will by no means
take alarm at the result of discovery in this field
of investigation, any more than in the field of
science. Every new fact he will heartily welcome,
though it behoves him as it behoves all to scru-
tinize well the conclusions which may be drawn
from facts, whether real or imaginary. One great
fault of the age is rash deduction, too hasty
generalization. Lord Eldon*s favourite maxim
would stand us in good stead in other provinces
as well as that of Law Sat cito si sat bene,^
But we must not forget to say that the study of
Keligions is deeply interesting for another reason.
" A man's religion," said Thomas Carlyle, " is the
most important thing about him." So we may
also say of a community. Therefore, every lover
of his kind must watch the movements of the
Too hasty
generaliza^
tion a fault
of the age.
The im-
portance of
religion.
' In the Sacred Books of the Eatty Trubner's Oriental Series,
and many separate publications,
^ " Soon enough, if well eoongh."
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 7
religious principle in man with keen interest and
profound sympathy. How have our brethren in Moral ^and
various lands and ages dealt with the duties of life, P[obie"^^
the trials of life, the perplexing problems of life ? SThe^*"^
What have been their thoughts of God, and of siu, Jistf" "*"
of a world to come ? Questions like these are of
engrossing interest to every philanthropist. Nor
will he be repelled from the iuquiry if he find that
it is in connexion with religion more than any
other subject that we have to deal with the
morbid anatomy of human nature, and that the
saddest aberrations of the mind have been when
engaged in the prosecution of the highest of all
questions.
It is only fair that we should mention at the
outset what is the point of view from which we
examine the field of inquiry. "We believe the JJ^stian
Christian Revelation to be unique ; cui nihil viget ^^qj^^^
simile aut secundum} But that belief by no means
involves the consequence that the holder of it
should be unfair to other systems of religion.
Nay, the very strength of his conviction cf the
supreme glory of the Gospel, and the assurance The
that all competition between it and other systems ^J^^and
is out of the question, ought to contribute to calm- I^ms*^*^
ness and impartiality in his judgment of other if fthe?
creeds. In truth, he must be a very narrow-
* "To whom there exists nothing similar or second.'* So
Horace, speaking of Jupiter as supremei.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
Fragments
of primeval
revelation
may have
been borne
down the
stream of
Beason and
gifts of
heaven.
minded Christian who looks on Pagan systems as
merely masses of unrelieved falsehood. Why
should they he so ? The Christian believes, and
many who do not call themselves Christians believe
with him, that there was given to man a primeval
Revelation ; is it probable that no fragments of it
have been borne down the stream of tixe ? Again,
there is such a thing as the light of nature.
Reason and conscience are in man most precious
gifts of heaven. They often speak, alas ! only in
whispers ; but to the listening ear those whispers
are audible. The Christian then should expect to
find, and he should rejoice to find, that heathen
systems are not, of necessity, all " dark as Erebus."
It is instructive to note how differently, at dif-
ferent times, the point now before us has been
regarded. We could not expect that the Hebrew
prophets, in vindicating the claims of Jehovah
against Baal or Chemosh, would carefully search
for redeeming points in the idolatries around them ;
fidelity to God and humankind demanded that they
should dwell on their baseness and corruption, and
denounce them with righteous, vehement indig-
nation. Parleying temporizing philosophizing
would have been as ridiculous as ruinous. Your
man of science can prove that there is heat in ice ;
but we do not, on that account, enter an ice-house
to warm ourselves.
But it is remarkable how soon a calm and philo-
The
relation of
the Hebrew
prophets
to the
idolatries
around
tiiem.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 9
sophic estimate of Heatlieiiisiii was actually formed. The
* formation
Tbe statements on tHs subject by the first and J^^^<^JJ;j.
greatest of all missionaries to the heathen are ^^^^^ ^^
broad, wise, and comprehensive. Even those who s**^^"*-
question the inspiration of St. Paul must admire
his calmness and impartiality in dealing with a
subject on which surely, if on any, his feelings
might have been expected to carry him away. The ?^^^Jf*4^e"
teaching of the Apostle as to Heathenism may be ^^f about
summed up under five heads. He declares that Heathenism
Ist. The invisible things of God, even His eternal
power and Godhead, are clearly seen, being
understood from the things that are made.
2nd. The Gentiles, when they knew God, glori-
fied Him not as God, neither were thankful.
They did not like to retain God in their
knowledge.
3rd They therefore became vain in their ima-
ginations (reasonings), and their foolish
heart {i.e. understanding) was darkened.
Professing themselves to be wise they be-
came fools.
4th. They then changed the glory of the incor-
ruptible God into an image made like to
corruptible man, and to birds, and quadru-
peds, and reptiles, worshipping and serving
the creature rather than the Creator.
10
Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
5th. All moral corruption followed. They were
given over to a reprobate mind, to do those
things that are not fitting.^
The
Apostle's
statement
a just
historical
account.
Exceptional
eases
recogrnised
by ^JTn ,
St. Paul's
spirit shared
by many
Christian
writers.
We believe the Apostle's statement to be a just
historical account of the origin and progress of
Pagan idolatry a key which, better than any
other we know, unlocks the secret of Heathenism,
and best explains its strange and manifold contra-
dictions. At the same time, while true as a whole,
true of the mass, we do not suppose that St. Paul
intended it to apply to every individual Pagan.
He asserts, indeed, that there are " Gentiles who
have no [written] law, but show the work of the
law written on their hearts." Let us hope that
those who " seek after God, if haply they might
feel after Him and find Him," have throughout
the ages been no inconsiderablo number. And let
us rest assured that the eye of the all-compassionate
God rested graciously on all such. Only let us
remember that these exceptional men, if they found
God, did so, not because of their sad environment,
but in spite of it.
When we come later down we find not a few
Christian writers dealing with Paganism in the
spirit of St. Paul. The earlier Fathers acknow-
* Compare the striking language of Cicero with that of the
Apostle. Multi de diis prava sentiunt ; id enim vitioso more
effiei solet. Tusc. i. 13. (Many have wrong notions of the
gods ; for that usually springs from vicious morals.)
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, I J
lodged that there were pure elements in Heathenism ; The pure
and these they attributed to the truth diffused Heathenism
^ ^ attributed
among men by Christ, the Word.^ It was, how- ^^
ever, the philosophy rather than the religion of ciSi ^'
Greece in which the fathers found "a trace of ** **
wisdom and an impulse from God." ^ Yet certain
of the Fathers, especially the vehement Tertullian,
gave no quarter, either to the one or the other.
In modem days, there long existed a disposition
to paint non- Christian systems in the darkest
colours. Thus, Mohammad was regarded as having The modem
, , " disposition
been, from the outset, a deep designing impostor, ^ ^J'^J^^
animated by mere selfishness and ambition, and *^h7^^""
dexterously trimming his sails as the wind chanced ^o^.
to blow from a Pagan, a Jewish, or a Christian
quarter. We have since learned that the problem
of his mixed character and lamentable fall is not
to be solved so easily.^
This mode of dealing with Gentile religions This lasted
,11 i> ^ 11 A*^^^ Milton't
continued at least as far down as the days of iav*.
Milton. When we remember the lavish use which
the great poet makes of Greek and Romtin mytho-
logy, we are hardly prepared for the summary con-
demnation of Pagan faith which he pronounces both
in his earlier and later writings. Thus, speaking
of the god Osiris as terrified at the birth of Christ,
he summarily dismisses him to his proper place:
^ The Aifyof <nrepiAariK6s.
* So Cltment of Alexandria (Clark's Edition), vol. l p. 40.
l2 Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
Nor is Osiris seen
In Meraphian grove or green,
rrampling the unshowered grass with lowings loud ;
Nor can he be at rest
Within bis sacred chest,
Nought but profoundest hell can 1be his shroud.
Pagan EvGii SO, he tracGs the origin of Pagan systems
systeoas
^aced by to the influence of the fallen angels, and briefly
Stiuence of stigmatizes them aU as
fallen
angels. Gay religions full of pomp and gold,
And devils to adore for deities.
A great Gradually, however, and especially of late years,
reaction has . "
taken place a gioat reactiou has taken place. The pendulum,
S>p*odte which swung too far in one direction, now threatens
extreme. ^^ rcach the opposite extreme. It is high time to
call for a reaction from the reaction.
The principle that " there is some soul of good-
ness in things evil," is applied to cases which
assuredly were not in Shakespeare's eye when he
put the words into the mouth of King Henry.
Eviiu We are now told that evil is "good in the
not good ^ ... .
^^ making." Evil, indeed, is often compelled, in the
overruling providence of God, to bring about results
very different from what the evil-doer sought to
reach; but sui-ely evil is, in itself, intrinsically, eter-
nally hateful. Now, this tendency to find some good
in all things leads many far astray in the study of
Heathen systems. What is black as midnight is
often declared to be only a somewhat deeper shade
of grey.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 13
We frequently hear of a gradual development of christiaiiity
p .... is repardea
spiritual truth parallel to the progress of civilization. ^^^J^^ ^^ ^
All, or at least most, of the great Religions of the f^^^
world are held to have contributed their share to ^**
the advancement of true religion. Thus, Christ-
ianity is only the last in the series the last as yet,
though possibly destined to give place, ere long, to a
system still more exalted and refined.
The hypothesis of Evolution has taken such ^^J^jy^hat
possession of the mind of multitudes, that they ^^^^^^
push it as if it were an established truth into caiT^^d*^
regions in which the principle, whether true or false, SSthout^ ^'
pause.
can bear no legitimate sway. It is frequently
maintained that all human things advance by calm,
orderly steps, with slight, if any, evidence of a pause,
none of retrogression. But history denies this. It
is of course true that, taken in its wide extent,
humanity moves on, as Wordsworth says. Humanity
advances in
With an ascent and progress in the mam.
the "ihIti ,
But if many races have risen, some have remained
stationary, and others have sunk. True, in art
and science there has been a great advance on the
whole. But we must not forget that many of the
highest attainments of the human mind were made Many of
long ages ago. Thus Egypt and the East ^ handed attaSm^t*
over their sculpture, architecture, and other arts to ago.
Greece; and there they rapidly attained an ex-
^ Egypt. Phoenicia, Lydia, Asqrria.
14
Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
The
intellect,
imagination,
and taste of
the Greeks.
cellence which has not been equalled in the lapse
of two thousand years. Again, the poetry of
Homer, the oratory of Demosthenes, the specu-
lative power of Aristotle and Plato ; are not these
still unequalled, or at all events unsurpassed ? In
intellect, imagination, taste, the Greeks, we venture
to say, have excelled all other races. They were in-
ventive too; but their originality was controlled
by an exquisite sense of fitness, proportion, har-
mony.
The continuous progress of art and science, then,
is purely imaginary. Ejiowledge has increased;
intellect has not. It was of yore that genius plumed
her pinions for her highest flight ; and succeeding
generations have gazed enviously upward, as they
have seen her
The
continuous
progress of
art and
science
ptirely
imaginary*
The Greeks
not likely
to be
in the
higher
intellectual
endow-
ments.
Sailing with eupreme dominion,
Through the azure deep of air.
In other words. Almighty God was pleased to im-
part to the ancient Greeks more of iuventive and
reasoning power, and a more acute perception
of the beautiful, than to any other race. Nor does
it appear probable that any future generation will
surpass, or even equal them in the higher intel-
lectual endowments.
These considerations certainly do not predispose
us to expect that we shall ever be able to trace a
regular, continuous development of religion among
the nations. "We need not be surprised if we find,
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 15
in many cases, not improvement, but deterioration.
And there is not the slightest ground for the as-
sertion that Christianity is only the latest addition
to an edifice that has been slowly rising throughout
the ages, and to which most, or at least many,
nations have contributed. On the contrary, it can ^^^g^^^
be demonstrated that, when we distinguish between cilrisSinity
reHgion and mere intellectual culture,^
1st. There is no truth in any other religion which
does not shine forth with brighter light in
Christianity ;
2nd. Christianity has borrowed no truth from
any Pagan creed ; and
3rd. Every system except Christianity mingles
much error along with the truth that it
maintains.^
We ought, perhaps, to state here that we regard
* It will be seen as we proceed that we do not overlook the Intellectual
importance, or question the value, of intellectual culture. It essentM*"
is an essential element in modem civilization. element of
Nor let it be forgotten that the Socratic ethics especially aa civilizatioa
elaborated in the later Stoic schools powerfully affected the Socratic
Roman jurists, and through them the legislation of modern Et^"-
Europe.
' Whether any portion of the Jewish ritual was drawn from DerivatioB
Egypt is a different question. The symbolism that is seen in rituaT^*^
the cherub has parallels among various nations ^Egyptiaus,
Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians, etc. That it was borrowed ia
not provcil. The so-called Egyptian ark, which was a boat, ba4
a very ditfereut use from the Jewish ark.
16
Gkristianity and Ancient Paganism,
Judaism
and Chris-
tianity
regarded
as one
religion.
The Tract
deals with
extinct
forms of
Ancient
Paganism.
Judaism and Christianity the former as contained
in the Old Testament, the latter in the New as
one religion, one in the sense in which the rosehud
and the expanded rose, the " bright consummate
flower," are only one. Or we may say, they are
related to each other, as dawn is to sunrise.
Our Tract deals with " Christianity and Ancient
Paganism.'* By Ancient Paganism we here mean
those forms of Paganism which existed in ancient
days, but are now extinct. There are other systems
which existed in antiquity and have survived to
the present time. The most noted of these are
Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Con-
fucianism. We do not treat of these. ^
It were well, if it were only possible, to discuss
the ancient religions in a strictly chronological
order. We could then better ascertain how much
or how little the later systems had been indebted
to the earlier. We shall keep this in mind ; but it
is difficult, in some cases, to state the historio
sequence.
Extinct
Pagan
religions.
II.
The great religions of Pagan antiquity that are
now extinct were the following : the Egyptian ; the
Babylonian and Assyrian ; the Phoenician ; the
Lydian and Phrygian ; the Hittite ; the Greek, and
*Each of these systems forms the subject of a separate
Tract in the Present Day Series (Nos. 25, 33, 46, ISl
GhHstianity ana Ancient Paganism, J 7
the Roman. The religions of the Syrians, Moabites,
and other races in and around Palestine may be
considered along with that of the Phoenicians.
Those of the chief uncivilized races of ancient
Europe Celtic, Teutonic, and Sclavonian must The
A ^ religion
be treated, if at all, very briefly, seeing that our ^'gj"'-^"
knowledge of them is still very scanty.
1. The Egyptian System.
We begin with the Egyptian system. Civilization
seems to have commenced in the region of Meso- '^he earliest
*-' monumenta
potamia ; but the earliest monuments of it that ch-iiiiiation
have come down to us are connected with the valley withThe*^
of the Nile. Se Kile.
The religion of Egypt presents very perplexing
problems. One of these is its extraordinary incon- \^^^^^^
sistency. In some writings we meet with ideas of oi-Vgy^.
deity which are excessively refined refined till
they have become impalpable and colourless; in
others, we find polytheism in as debased aform as
tliat in which it appears among the lowest savages.
More remarkable still, we find these two things not
(mly existing at the same time, but expressed in
the same writings. Hence, vehement debate among vehement
Egyptologists. Most of them hold that the refined among
Egyptolo-
conceptions came first, and that the latter form was ei'*^'
a corruption gradually introduced. It is at least*
certain, as one of the strongest supporters ^ of the
^ M. MA8{)eru
18
CkHstianity and Ancient Paganism.
Monothe-
istic ideas
probably
the first in
Eg-ypl.
Two
distinct
races
l>robably
originally
iiiliabited
Kf,'ypt.
opposite theory admits, that monotheistic iaeas
made their way very early into Egypt. It appears
to us that the balance of the evidence is in favour
of their having been there first.
But it is not improbable that the population of
Egypt consisted of two races originally distinct,
one mentally lower, probably African, and another
much higher, probably Asiatic Shemites. In that
case the religion was composite and inconsistent
from the beginning.
The refined system has by most been called mono-
theism; by others, henotheism. Others still caU
it pantheism. The dispute need not surprise us ;
for the conceptions expressed in Egyptian monu-
ments are vague, confused, conflicting ; nor does
it appear probable that any deeper study will ever
prove them to be mutually consistent.
Sun-worship unquestionably appears early. This,
and the reverence of metaphysical deities, are
mingled together even on the oldest monuments.
Above all systems that ever were, the Egyp-
tian abounded in symbolism. Every idea, every
shadow of an idea, had to be represented made
visible. The faith had^hen to pay the penalty of
this mental weakness. The sign, ere long, concealed
the thing signified it became its substitute.
Many writers contend that the higher classes
or ai all events, tne priests were acquainted with
a truly spiritual system, which they carefully con-
The
conceptions
in Egyptian
monuiuents
vague,
confused,
conflicting.
Early
appearance
of Sun-
worship.
Abundance
of symbol-
A concealed
spiritHal
eysiem
ascribed to
the priests.
Vhriatianity and Ancient Paganism. 19
cealed from the common people. This is possible.
Populus riilt dccipi et decipiatur'^ is a hideous maxim
which, doubtless, has had sway in various lands.
But thej-e is no evidence of the intentional conceal-
ment of highei truths on the part of the Eg\^tian
priests. It was no function of theirs to educate JJ^ncti^ q^
the people ; and probably the masses could not rise Egyptian
above the lowest form of brute- worship. Nor did educate tha
people.
the priests and the higher classes themselves really
rise abo^'e it ; they only succeeded, in a way difficult The pnesta
for us to conceive, in mingling higher and lower \l^^ ^^
conceptions, and so identifying the divinity with conceptions
the brute. The religion changed ; it changed more the"(ivinity
than is at first apparent, for the Eg}'ptians were very bmte.
conservative of ancient forms; but the degrading
brute- worship endured as long as any part of the
religion. The same animals, however, were not
adored over the whole of the countr}' ; some which
were worshipped at one place were pursued and
killed at another ; and hence violent disputes often
ending in bloodshed. But we need not pursue the
subiect farther. We merely add that even the greeks and
^ ' , Romans
Greeks and the Eomans were shocked by the Egyp^an^
Egyptian worship. Plularch gravely reprobates its ^"^p-
" degrading rites ; " and the poet Juvenal levels
against it his sharpest shafts of ridicule.^
' The people wish to be deceived, and let them be so.
* Who haa uot heard, where Egyi-)t'a realuia are uamed,
What tnonster gods her frantio sons have framed f etc*
20
Christianity a ad Ancient Paganism.
The
Egyptian
religion
giew more
and more
mystical
and
In the course of its long existence the religion
oecame more and more mystical, and more and
more magical. Thus, in the " Book of the Dead,"
the most remarkable document which has come down
from the ancient days of Egypt, comparatively
little is said of duties, but much of spells and in-
cantations.
There are, no doubt, as was to be expected,
many good moral precepts scattered here and
there, in books and on monuments. But "the
morality remained stationary at the elementary
stage ; and its moral maxims never rise to the
rank of principles."^ "The morality must have
been totally independent of the religion."^ No
divorce could have been more unhappy ; and we
need not wonder that the naked ethical maxim
often remained impotent, while " a thousand
superstitions took the place of the attempt to lead
an honest life." ^
The priests, in the original constitution of
Egypt, had comparatively little power. That
power, however, steadily increased, until every-
thing in life was ruled by them. In Upper Egypt
they, by-and-by, usurped full regal authority;
and they retained it long.
Good moral
precepts
here and
there in
books and
monuments.
The
morality
stationary
at the
elementary
stage, and'
independent
of religion.
More use
of priestly
power.
So Prof. Tiele.
2 Poole, in Encycl. Britan. The same writer says that we
have, in the "Book of the Dead," "a glimpse of truth seen
through thick mists peopled with phautoma of basest super-
rtition."
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 21
orty of
women
Women in Egypt were allowed mucli liberty ; Lib
, . , . won.
but evidently it often ran into licence. This was often ran
' into license.
especially the case during the pilgrimage to
Bubastis, which Herodotus tells us was by far the
most popular and magnificent of Egyptian festivals.
Evil ran riot during this great celebration.^ Truly,
religion and morality were separable and separate
in ancient Egypt. Monogamy was the rule, but
concubinage was frequent. Brother and sister
often intermarried.
And now, is there any element of truth which Egypt
' contributed
Egypt contributed towards the establishment of ""tf^JS"'
the final form of religion? We have seen that SbiiSimtnt
this is frequently maintained ; but the belief seems form of
to have no foundation. If, as Diodorus held, the
Greeks derived their rehgion from Egypt, they
entirely changed it; they humanized the gods,
instead of keeping them brutal. The idea ,that
Moses, who was skilled in all the wisdom of the ?u^ ^^.*
' that Moses
Egyptians, drew any of his lofty conceptions of orMsTdfty
Jehovah from Egyptian sources, was often loudly ITjtlovSti
asserted in former days ; but it seems now generally Egyptian
sources
abandoned even by critics of the negative school, abandoned
'' o * even by
like KueneD. Wellhausen, too, distinctly affirms ^^^^
that "Moses gave no new idea of God to his
people. The question whence he derived it could
not possibly be worse answered than by a reference
* Tiele, Egyptian Religum, p. 192.
22
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
Wellhausen
maintains
that
Jehovah has
nothing
in common
with the
deities of
Egypt.
The
worship of
Osiris and
Ra formed
the basis
of the
Egyptian
religion.
to his relations with the priestly caste and theii
wisdom." He maintains .that Jehovah has
nothing in common with the deities of Egypt. Of
course, we do not forget that the multitude who
had long been familiar with the brute worship
around them, began to adore the golden calf ; but
we know that the degrading rite was suppressed
with a sternness of indignation which must have
profoundly impressed the whole of that generation
and many succeeding ones.
The religion, as has been said, sustained great
changes.^ In the oldest monuments Osiris and E-a
are mentioned ; their worship formed the basis of
the religion. Each is a divine being revealing
himself in the sun.^ They are often confounded
with each other. Afterwards, eight deities were
classed in the first order ; twelve in the second ; and
four in the third. The highest of the first order
was Amn or Amun (usually said to mean concealed).
He has properly the form of man ; he sits with
crown and sceptre on a throne, and holds in his
hand a kind of cross, which is the s3mabol of life.
* De Roug^ and not a few others trace the high Bpiritual
conceptions of God to primeval Revelation ; and they point to
evidences of a gradual corruption of these. Tiele admits that
the most ancient system was the simplest and purest. And yet
he calls the corruption of this *' a retrogression to the earlier
stand-point." He thus holds that purity first grew out of
impurity, and then impurity out of purity. The explanation
ia forced. De Rough's is far more simple and conaistenl.
' Tiels, pw k.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 23
He was often united with Ea, and became Amun-
Ra the hidden one who is revealed in the sun.
Most of the deities had animals' heads, which were
probably symbols of qualities.
By the time of Herodotus Osiris had become ^ *^5_
^ chief deity
the chief deity. Isis was his mother, sister, and jlme^of
wife. Her worship steadily increased. The myth ^^^''^'^<'*^-
of Osiris was the mother-myth in Esrypt. He was The myth
, , . . of Osiris
said to have been killed and buried, his body the mother-
^ myth m
ha^dng been cut in pieces, which were scattered, ^^^p*-
He revived, and became the judge of the dead.
The future life greatly occupied the mind of the ^Jif gJ^eSy
Egyptians. As time went on, the myth of Osiris JJ;p^^^
became more terrible ; and the views entertained mfnd/^
of a future existence more and more gloomy. In
the " Book of the Dead " the adventures of the P _^ ,
departed
departed soul came to be described with appalling fp^oj^ o?*
minuteness of detail. It is important to note that
there was no idea of God as forgiving sin. The
wicked soul was devoured by serpents, cast into
flames, or otherwise destroyed. The good man
himself had to encounter sore trials in the other
world. Snares lay in his path ; monsters assailed
hioa. His safety lay in grasping the sacred spear,
and repeating magical words from the sacred
books. Thus, at last he reached the happy fields.
. in which he could labour as on earth, but reap
harvests far more abundant than he had done
before.
24
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
The
principle
of moral
retribution
accepted.
In estimating the character of the Egyptian
system, the doctrine of a future life must, by no
means, be left out of aocount. The principle of
moral retribution was accepted ; and if Greece
really borrowed it from Egypt, she did not re-
tain so firm a hold of it. But we would gladly
know how the belief affected men during life,
and in the prospect of death. The Egyptian
deities were strictly, sternly just. What then, as
he faced the regions of Amenti the other world
were the thoughts of a man who had, on the
whole, sought to live virtuously, but who, like
all of us, had "bitter thoughts of conscience
bom?" We remember the triumphant language
of the prophet Micah " Who is a God like unto
Thee, that pardoneth iniquity?" and even, in the
earliest days of Israel, the mercy of Jehovah was
declared in equally emphatic terms with His
righteousness.^ Now, of mercifulness, in the
sense of forgiving sin, there is no trace whatever
in the Egyptian conception of the divine. Surely
a most marked deficiency.
The strong impression which the future world
made on the Egyptian mind is very noteworthy.
Whence could it spring ? The usual explanation
is that it was "nothing but a mystic representa-
tion, arising out of sun-worship." " The sun sank
No trace
of merci-
fulness in
the sense
of forgiving
sin in the
Egyptian
conception
of the
Divine.
The usual
explanation
of the
impression
of the
future
world on the
E^ptian
See Exodus sxxiv. 6, 7.]
Tiele, p. 70.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 25
in the west and disappeared ; he died. Yet he
was not destroyed; he moved across the dark
under-world, and soon, with undiminished bright-
ness, " flamed in the forehead of the morning
sky." ^ So every good man would triumph over
death. Such is the explanation ; but it seems to Jxpianation
halt. For though day succeeds night, night again *'*^"^"
succeeds day ; and if the solar phenomenon had
been the foundation of the belief, we should have
expected a balanced dualism, victory and defeat
alternating in a perpetually renewed struggle be-
tween light and darkness, life and death, good* and
evil. We believe that in Amun, the "hidden one," An early
conception
we can still trace an early conception of the g{,*I?^f^g
supreme divinity, brought, probably, by the A,nu"-the
Shemites from the plains of Shinar. The sun was
naturally turned to as a representative of Amun ;
and they were often blended into one Amun Ra,
the hidden and revealed in one. The other deities
Belief in
seem to have been personified attributes. With a future
existence
regard to belief in a future existence it seems n^g^^ssariiy
necessarily to accompany a belief in deity. J^company
We cannot say that the character of the deity!^ "*
Egyptians stood high, either intellectually or The
morally. No writing of theirs survives which be- of the
Egyptians.
tokens genius or even deep thought. They had
massive, not graceful, architecture. Art soon
became stationary. In later ages there was an
1 Milton, in Lycidas.
26 Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
incongruous blending of Egyptian and Grecian
Elements in architocture. Plodding, patient, industrious, they
Kgyptian
character, doubtloss wsre. But they were also tyrannical ;
given to wine ; and careless in morals. Some
add, and not without reason, " lying, thieving,
treacherous, cringing, and intensely prejudiced
against strangers.'*^
The In Egypt we may behold a despot ruling a
*"o ,e^ nation of slaves. The sovereign reigned as repre-
senting divinity. Limitation of his power was
simply inconceivable.^ In no nation, ancient or
modern not in ancient Assyria or modern Turkey
was " the right divine of kings " ^ so deeply im-
planted in the mind of the subjects.
2. Babylonian and Assyrian Systems.
^e religion ^^j^ come now to spcak of the reHgion of Babylon
and Assyria, and Assyria.
The Tigro-Euphrates valley, with its streams and
rich alluvial plains, was a very early seat of civiHza-
tion. Monuments exist which may carry us as far
Inti iiity ^^^^ ^ three thousand years before the Christian
monuments, ^ra, or probably farther. The first inhabitants
^ So R. S. Poole, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible.
* Tiele points out how unlike Egypt was to Israel in tliia
respect. The existence of the prophetic order secured to Israel
almost a constitutional govei-nment, or its equivalent.
^ The right divine of kings to govern wrong."
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 27
appear, from the evidence of language, to have been The first
m 1 1 rT 1 1 inhabitants
Turanian, rather than Shemitic their language Turanian.
being of the Ural-Altaic class. The name Akka-
dian (mountaineer) is now usually given to them.
Another important tribe, evidently Shemitic, then a shemitic
pressed into those fertile regions probably from fjos?*^ *"**'
the Syro- Arabian desert. The two races appear ^'^^^^^-
to have mingled in Southern Chaldsea, and a high
degree of civilization was early attained.
Their reliorion bore abundant traces of their Traces of
*-* double
double origin. The Akkadian faith like Turanian Jjjp^ugior
systems generally was Animistic or Shamanistic,
that is to say, fundamentally, spirit- worship. Every
obJQct in nature, whether animate or inanimate,
was supposed to be ruled by a spirit. Malignant
spirits were especially numerous; many of them
ghosts, that is, the spirits of the dead. The
spirits, however, were all subject to the control of
a priest, or wizard. By the power of spells and
incantations, the wizard could compel them to do
his bidding. The Akkadian liturgies that have '{^^
been preserved are almost all exorcisms mere ^iT'^"^'
magical formula). ''''''^'^'
The Shemitic race, that came in later and largely The
blended with the Akkadians, had a religion of a race had
^ a religion
higher type. M. Renan has asserted that all j g,^^^^*''
Shemites had a monotheistic instinct ; but the
assertion cannot be accepted unless the term mono-
theism be divested of its ordinary meaning. Most
28 GhHstianity and Ancient Paganism.
Mest of the of the Sliemitic races have heen conspicuously
races idolatrous, as well as polytheistic ; and if it be
idolatrous
an4 poly- said that one deity was almost always regarded
as superior to the rest, the same assertion may he
made regarding other than Shemitic peoples.^
The sun- The suu-god held a high place among the
who^^''"^^'^^^ Shemites who occupied Chaldaea ; and the moon-
cSdffia. god, one almost equally high. In countries like
Arabia and Chaldaea, the magnificence of the starry
heavens, and the moon " walking in her brightness,"
compel attention by their mystery, their beauty,
and their beneficence.^ We cannot be surprised if,
with the mass, admiration passed into adoration.
Astronomy was studied, and it became astrology
one might say, inevitably so.
The Babylonian faith continued to show clear
Bab Ion traces of its twofold origin. Life in Babylon must
have been " almost intolerable ; " ^ superstition
conjured up a thousand terrors ; unseen malignant
beings were everywhere, and everj^where plotting
The early mischief. Hcuce, masric early became developed
development ' , o j r
of magic -j^^Q g^ regular science. Divination, augury, fortune-
telling, necromancy, and kindred base beliefs flour-
ished in foul luxuriance.
* Thus, Herr Jellinghaus, a missionary who spent years
among the Kols in India, says they may almost be classed as
monotheists. They believe in innumerable spirits, but in the
sun-spirit as supreme.
' Very notable in this connexion are the words in Job xxxL
26-28.
So Prof. Sayce.
court of
Nebuchad-
nezzar.
Ch^tianity and Ancient Paganism. 29
"Stand uow," exclaims the prophet Isaiah, addressing Baby-
lon, *' with thine enchantments and with the multitude of thy
sorceries, wherein thou hast laboured from thy youth." ^
The prophet also calls on the " astrologers, the
star-gazers, and the monthly prognosticators/' to The place
.of inter-
foretell, if they can, and avert, the destruction preters of
' ' dreams, etc,
which was fast overtaking the haughty city. It ** *^
would appear that in the court of Nehuchadnezzar,
the highest place was given to expounders of
dreams, soothsayers, and astrologers; and that
only after them came the civil administrators of
the empire.
The doctrine of one God shines out clear and The
doctrine of
unmistakable in various important documents. In 9^e God
^ m vanouB
Smith's Chaldean Account of Genesis this is very SmSte.
fully shown.
"At the head of the Babylonian theology stands Anu a
deity who is sometimes identified with the heavens sometimes
considered as the Ruler and God of heaven."
In one important part of the tablet recording J
the
tablet
God.'
creation, only one God is mentioned, and simply as creatiJn^the
"the God.*' The fragments of the tablet "might ooli^
belong to the purest system of religion.*' These ^s^ Se
are important statements. It would be very inter-
esting if we could determine the date of the re-
markable document on which Mr. Smith thus
comments. Professor Sayce thinks that the poem
on creation (Chaldeati Genesis) is not probably older
than the days of Assur-bani-pal, the grandson of
* Luuah xlvii 12.
30
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
The date
uf the
poem on
Creation,
Sennacherib which would bring it down to the
7th century b.c. ; but he also holds that similar
views prevailed at a much earlier date among the
Akkadians. The professor speaks of the time
when monotheistic ideas " arose." The question,
however, is whether they had not existed from the
beginning, at least among the Shemitic portion of
the people. We believe that God had " never left
Himself without witness," and that there was, in
addition to this, a monotheistic tradition. There,
doubtless, was a vacillation, an oscillation, between
monotheism and polytheism ; but the former belief,
though frequently overlaid, was never wholly ex-
tinguished. Such is the inference which we feel
ourselves compelled to draw from all the available
evidence.
The worship of Anu was gradually superseded.
His daughter was Istar (Ashtaroth or Astarte), con-
nected with whom there was a far more sensual
worship than that of Anu. This in time supplanted
the older and purer system.^ All this is easily
understood ; but if we hold that the worship of one
God arose out of gross polytheism, and then sank
back into it, we are landed in inextricable diffi-
culties.
Ood's
witness to
riimself
and
monotheistic
tradition.
Mono-
theistio
belief
never ex-
dngnished.
The
difficulty
of supposing
that the
worship of
one God
arose out
of poly-
theism and
then sank
back into
it
^ " The worship of Istar became one of the darkest features of
Babylonian theology. As this worship increased in favour, it
gradually superseded that of Anu, until in time his temple
the house of heaven came to be regarded as the temple v'
Vemis." 0. Smith,
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. o\
\VTien the great monotheistic idea is surrendered, The muiti-
plicHtioii of
deities easily multiply. "We need not give a Ijst deities
of Babylonian gods. Merodach seems to have been g^ e^^er
a national divinity, the protector of Babylon ; and JheS^^
with him was probably identified Bel, whose name
is generally supposed to be a variant form of Baal,
i.e., master, owner.
Certain parts of Babylonian worship were exces- Jj^J^!^
eively impure. There was a law in Babylon that worehip.
every woman, once in her life, should prostitute
herself to any stranger that asked her in the temple
of the chief goddess. Even Herodotus deuounces
the practice as " in the highest degree abominable."
It seems to have been from Babylon that the hor-
rible pollution passed over into Greece and Sicily,
and various other places.
The Assyrian nation was greatly influenced by The
the Babylonian, which evidently was the older of ot the
the two.^ The people have been well called " the ^^^o^-
Romans of Asia."* They were a nation of fero-
cious warriors, in whose nature cruelty seems to
have been ingrained. They blinded, impaled, tor-
tured, or flayed alive, their prisoners ; while the
Eg)T)tians, we may note, were by no means so
merciless. Their character was reflected in their
religion. Human sacrifices were frequent.
Magic, sorcery, and divination were hardly less Jjjf*,^
prevalent in Assyria than in Babylon. The pro- '^^^
' Aa stated in Oened* z. 11. ' By Q. Hawlioaon.
32
Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
phet Nahum, in his magnificent description of the
siege and capture of Nineveh, the capital, styles it
"the mistress of witchcrafts/*
The chief
divinity
of the
Phoenicians.
Their
worship.
Hamsm
sacrifices.
3. Phcenician System.
"We next speak of the Phoenicians, whc were early
distinguished as an enterprizing commercial people.
Wo are still douhtful as to their origin and their
relation to the other Canaanite races. Their chief
divinity was Baal also called Moloch, who seems to
have been the sun-god. The sun could be viewed as
a beneficent being, or as a relentless tyrant flaming
with wrath ; and generally, or at all events fre-
quently, he was regarded in the latter aspect.
Only blood human blood could appease the anger
of the deity when it was deeply roused. Hence
the priests scourged and gashed themselves ; and
liis votaiies strove to propitiate him by sacrificing
their best and dearest. Milton's celebrated de-
scription is not drawn in colours over-dark :
Moloch, horrid king, bedewed with blood
Of infant sacrifice and parents' tears,
Though, for the noise of drums and cymbals loud.
The children's cries unheard that passed through fire
To his grim idol.
The firstborn especially were thus sacrificed, and
on occasions of great public calamity multitudes of
youths of the noblest families were burnt alive.
Thus at Carthage, which was colonized from Tyre,
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 33
wlien Agathocles had inflicted a severe defeat on
the citizens, at least two hundred children of the
nohlest hirth were sacrificed ; ^ and when, in turn,
the Carthaginians had gained a victory, their most
beautiful captives were in Hke manner offered up.
Our readers ynB. remember the frequent mention Jlstament
of this dreadful rite in the Old Testament. Among re'r*-
Shemitic races, the Hebrews alone were taught to
hold it in abhorrence.
This terrible hardness of character was accom-
panied might we not say caused ? ^ ^by another JiyfoitL*
leading characteristic of Phoenician worship its rhoeniciM
shameful lasciviousness. It equalled in this respect,
if it did not surpass, the Babylonian system. We
cannot dwell on the disgusting subject. The old
Akkadian religion had been marked by cruelty ;
but impurity, as an essential part of worship, was
foreign to it. This deplorable distinction clung es-
pecially to Shemitic races Israel alone excepted, israei aione
f^ ' ^ among
The characteristics of the three religicfns we have raceTfree
from
in woisnip.
mentioned Babylonian, Assyrian, and Phoenician jm^rf
belonged in a greater or less degree to the cognate
* The language of Diodorus u not quite clear ; but, as Grote
observeb, the number of children offered up was certainly 200,
and probably 500, History of Greece, vni., p. 604,
"Lust hard by hate." So Milton. Or, as Robert Burn*
has it
I waive the quantum of the sin,
The hazard of concealing ;
But oh ! it hardens all within,
And petrifies the feeling.
shi
34
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
The moral
degradation
of the
seven
nations of
Canaan.
The purity
of Israel-
itish relig:ion
inexplicable
on
naturalistic
principles.
races such as Ammonites, Moabites, etc. The
" seven nations of Canaan " are mentioned in the
Pentateuch as all alike sunk in the depths of moral
corruption ; so that the land was ready to " spue
them out." This renders the severely pure morahty
of the religion of Israel truly remarkable, and, on
naturalistic principles, inexplicable. We have no
right to suppose that, in original temperament or
character, the Hebrews differed radically from
their brethren. By what conceivable process, then,
of natural evolution could their religion arise P
The chief
systems
in the
interior
of Asia
Minor.
A.88yrian
.deas widely
diSuaed.
4. Ltdian and Phrygian Ststbha.
We come now to speak of the chief systems
that prevailed in the interior of Asia Minor,i
particularly in Lydia and Phrygia. In describing
these, we require to state carefully the dates to
which we refer ; for, in those regions, the dis-
placement of races and religions was very frequent.
Turanians, Shemites, Aryans, all clashed together
within the peninsula. The Turanians came first.
But from the I2th to the 7th century b.c, the
predominant power in Asia Minor was Assyria;
aud Assyrian (or Babylonian) ideas on religion
were, in consequence, widely diffused, extending
even to the ^gean Sea. The Persian dominion
followed; and Zoroastrian rites to a considerable
' Strabo, who knew the region well, speaks es|>ecially -^f
Oappadooia as haviug adopted Persian rites to a large extent
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 35
extent superseded, or rather, bleuded with the zoroaatrian
. . . rites
Assyrian, aud also with the still more ancient superseded
^ ' or blended
Turanian worship, which had never been wholly XJ^^y^ian
extinguished. It probably was from their Tu- ^fh^tu^
ranian descent that the religious of Lydia auc' Turamaa.
Phrygia were especially marked as passionate and Turanian
orgiastic. Excitement was wrought up to frenzy pjJ^'^^^J"*
by the beating of drums, the clashing of cymbals, '^**
and the wildest dances. The worshippers, the priests
especially, ran howling, cutting themselves with
knives. All this was terribly apt to end in un-
bridled debauchery. Such was the worship of the
Great Mother and the god Sabazios. VVlien these
rites, along with the closely allied worship of
Dionysus (Bacchus), had been introduced into
Rome about the year 176 b.c, the Senate was
compelled to suppress them by the strong arm of
law as being utterly intolerabla
6. HiTTiTE System.
Recently most important discoveries have
been made regarding the Hittites a race, or
union of races, that rose into power in the 16th
century b.c, and for centuries contended valiantly
with the Egyptians on the one side and the
Assyrians on the other. It miarht have been Hittite fajih
^ " not purer
hoped that their faith would prove, on investiga- ^^^^
tion, to be of a higher type than the systems
t3tf Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
which have already passed under review. It is
not so, however.
" The religion of the HilLites seems to have been appropriated
from the worst features of Babylonian, Phenician, and, latterly,
Egyptian idolatry." ^
We must pause m this sorrowful review. As
a well-informed writer puts it,
The "The whole philo80i)hy of the religion of Asia Minor is
philosophy summed up in three words. We find them engraven on a tomb
reli^on found at Kotiaion, in Phrygia : ' This is what I say to my
of Asia friends : Give yourselves up to pleasure and enjoyment : live. For
summed up. you must die. Therefore drink, enjoy, dance.'* '
6. Grecian System.
teiie tiiai -^^^ ^^^ ^"^ P^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Hellas,
^Khe^ and to a people with whom we modems have
far closer intellectual sympathy, whose thoughts,
even when we may not sjTnpathize with them,
we can at least understand. The religion of
Greeks.
The Greece must have been in a lar^e degree derived
religion of <- <_>
derived from "^^^^"^ ^'SYV^ ^"^ ^^^^^ more, the East; but the
tti^EasT*^ shaping spirit of the highly endowed Greeks en-
tirely changed its original character. It made the
Character"'' deitios thofoughly human gigantic men and
QrSk women. They had human passions, virtues, vices.
They ate and drank, quarrelled and fought, very
much as the lively Greeks were accustomed to do
among themselves ; and these divinities were some-
' So Canon Tristram.
* Berne des dewe Mondes, Oct. 1873, p. 936.
Cho^istianity and Ancient Paganism. 37
times so merry at a friend's expense, it might
be that " inextinguishable laughter " shook the
skies. Such, at least, is the system that appears
in the Homeric poems. How far it may have The system
^ "> ascribed to
been the production of one, or perhaps two minds, i^JeliS
we cannot, with assurance, say ; the Greek writers and^iieJori
generally ascribed its rise to the joint influence of
Homer and Hesiod ; bat one would think it could
only by degrees have assumed its peculiar type.
The great popularity of Homer imprinted it deeply
on the mind of the people. Changes, however,
came on; foreign rites pressed in. Before the
Persian war a great alteration was visible in many
respects. The earlier Greeks had been a stirring. The
^ character
joyous, careless race, not much occupied with o^^J.^
religion ; but gradually there came to bo magni- ^^^^^^i*^-
ficent temples, priests, solemn ceremonies, mysteries, jise of
Wild orgiastic religions also appeared, or, if not ^-.
new, they were carried to much greater excess than religions.
before, the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus) for
example, of the Thracian goddess Cotytto, and the
Syrian god Adonis (Tammuz, as in Ezek. viii. 14).
In the theology of Homer, as a careful student ^ ^1^^"^*
of the Iliad and Odyssey has admitted, " elements {Jeo^ogy
of a profound corruption abound." Later systems ' oer.
were still worse. But philosophy arose. Grave,
thoughtful men were shocked at the popular con-
ceptions of deity, and began to denounce them.
> Mr. aiadstone.
38
Christianity and Ancient Faganisno.
The idea
of the
divine
purged in
the hands
of the
sacfts.
The de-
basement
of the
religion of
the common
people.
Its confce-
quences.
The
retrospect
profoundly
priinful.
In the hands of a succession of sages the abstract
idea of the divine was more and more purged of
base alloy ; but, in proportion as it became refined,
the notion grew dimmer ; until, in the case of
Ajistotle, deity was a power, or a principle, rather
than a person. Even Plato never inquired about
the personality of God ; he seems rather to think
of a diffused soul of the world. ^ But philosophic
speculation was not for the common people. Their
religion became lower and lower. Offences against
God and human nature ere long flourished in rank
luxuriance. As both cause and effect of all this,
a light scoffing infideKty extended among all the
educated. Then patriotism and public spirit died.
AH that was magnanimous in Greek character
faded away; the *' hungry Greekling " (Grceculus
esuriens) was ready to say, or do, anything for a
bit of bread. Art itself became debased. Even
the population began to die out ; in various places,
in order to prevent fertile regions from being
changed into deserts, Roman colonists were
brought in; and "shocldng immorality was the
cancer that ate into the life of Greece." '^
The retrospect we have been engaged in is pro-
foundly painful. " Immortal Greece dear land of
glorious lays,'* exclaims Keble, speaking of the
classic poetry with all a poet's passion. Yet notwith-
standing her subtle intellect, and vivid imagination
^ So Zeller. > So Thirlwall.
Christianity and Anient Faganiam. 39
and perfect taste, she sank into an abyss thus The abyss
of shame
fathomless of shame and ruin. Why ? Even an^ ruin-
Byron saw the reason :
** Enough, no foreign foe could queU
Thy soul, till from itself it fell.
And self-abasement paved the way
To villain bonds and despot sway."
It is through the beautiful we reach the good,
said Schiller. Say rather, through the good the
beautiful. At all events, when the love of the
good has passed away, the perception of the
beautiful peiishos soon after. This is one of the "^^ lesson
lessons which is inscribed on the history of Hellas, ^^^y '
as if "graven with an iron pen and lead," and
80 inscribed "in the rock for ever."
7. Roman System.
We come now to Rome. The Romans were The
... character
originally in many things different from the ^^^^
Greeks. Less speculative ; more practical ; simpler,
truer, graver ; more law-abiding ; with a better
family life; and possessed of a deeper religious
instinct. The early religion of Rome had con- The
^ *-' resemblance
siderable resemblance to that of Greece, both ^V^^^ ^"'}^
' religion oi
having sprung out of one Aryan faith ; but, for SaT'o/"
some time, the two systems tended to diverge, ^""^^
each being influenced by its own environment. It
is interesting to note that the Roman religion had
40 Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
Points of special points of correspondence with the old
correspon-
dence with Persian, as unfolded in the Zend-avesta.^ Much
the old '
Persian, moro importance was attached to rites than
to beliefs or emotions the worship tending to a
punctilious extemalism ; prayer became a kind of
magical formula ; much stress was laid on cere-
monial purity ; the mythology was meagre. A
new departure took place towards the end of the
regal period. Images were now introduced ; and
temples, increasing in splendour, began to appear.
iS^rnes^**" The religion became more and more political, and
LliTmore was rcgulatcd by the State. But cold formalism
could not satisfy the popular mind and heart.
Greek and First, Grock and then Asiatic gods and goddesses
Asiatic gods ' o o
press in, pressod iu. Infidelity succeeded, at least among
the higher classes. The poet Ennius, a Calabrian
Greek, was among the first to propagate it. During
the two centuries that preceded the birth of Christ,
The spread unbelief Spread like a pestilence, and immorality
^^ ^^ kept pace with it. Each was both cause and effect
anmoiahty. ^ -t
of the other. In vain did the elder Cato strive to
keep out the infection ; in vain did he inveigh
against the Greeks as the " parents of every vice;"
corruption rushed on, as Augustine says, " like a
headlong torrent." Family life greatly changed ;
divorce became fashionable ; and women in many
cases, women of the highest rank became shame-
^ So the Zend and Latin languages have epecial points iu
common.
Chriaticmity and Ancient Paganism, 41
less in their degradation. Even noted historical
personages, with whose names we do not readily
associate the idea of vice, were men of abandoned
life. Thus Dr. Arnold speaks with severe repro- ^r- ^Arnold
^ ^ on Juhua
bation of " the utter moral degradation " of Julius ^'*'^^-
GaBsar. A deep darkness, almost amounting to
despair, seemed settling down on the minds of
men. Suicide prevailed, in consequence, to an un-
paralleled extent.
But the nemesis of infidelity is superstition. The ^he
' ^ tiemeats of
old Italic religion had been comparatively pure. ^"^<^"*y
Thus in the very name of the chief god, Jupiter
Optimus MaximuSf we find the ideas of supreme
goodness and supreme power.^ But when these
had perished, something was felt to be needful in
their place; and* dark, gloomy faiths hideous The
brutal mysteries ^from Egypt, Asia Minor, and superstition
Babylon flowed in to fill the intolerable void. In
Greece itself, as religion declmed, magic and sor-
cery, its miserable substitutes, had greatly flourished.
So in Rome. Conjurors, soothsayers, astrologers,
and fortune-tellers filled every street, and insinuated
themselves into every household. " Professed ^^""^
atheists trembled in secret at the mysterious power **^*'^^*^
of magical incantations ; " many invoked the
shades of the dead, or strove to penetrate into the
' So Cicero : Te, Capitoliue, quern propter beneficia popi^lufl
Romanus optimum, propter vim maximum, nominavit. Pro
domo $ua, e, 57.
42
Clii'xstianity and Ancient FayauisTn
Matthew
Arnold's
sketch of
the mental
condition of
the higher
clasfies in
Home.
secrets of futurity by examining the entrails of a
murdered child.^
Mr. Matthew Arnold, with a few strokes, has
given us a vivid sketch of the mental condition of
the higher classes in Rome :
On that hard Pagan world disgust And secret loathing fell,
And weariness and sated lust Made human life a hell.
In bis cool hall, with haggard eyes, The noble Roman lay,
He drove abroad in furious guise Along the Appian Way ;
He made a feast, drank fierce and fast, And crowned hia hair
with flowers
No easier and no quicker passed The impracticable hours.
M. Renan's testimony is the same. He states
that, under the empire, Rome became a very hell
{un vrai enfer).
Renan'8
testimony.
Greek and
Roman
philosophy.
Stoidsm.
The
conception
of man as
man not
foreign to
it.
It may, perhaps, be thought that in the preceding
estimate we have overlooked the value of Greek
and Roman philosophy. On that head, then, we
still add a few words.
Morally, the best philosophical system was
Stoicism. We have spoken above of the value of
this philosophy in the development of jurisprudence.
The later Stoicism certainly enunciated various im-
portant principles in ethics. Thus the cosmopolitan
idea the conception of man as man was not
foreign to it. It admitted that slaves were not
mere things, but possessed of rights. Stoicism did
not readily lose itself in speculation ; it clung
firmly to the idea of duty, and was intensely prao-
' Merivale's History of Rome, voL n. p. 514.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 43
tical. Seneca expresses sentiments which have so The
.. , 1111 Christian
much of a Christian nnsr that many have held that "^g of
*-' *^ Seneca's
he must have derived them from intercourse with sentiments.
St. Paul ; though that is scarcely probable.
We must cherish for such men as Epictetus and Epictetua
^ and Marcus
Marcus Aurelius that kind of wondering regard -^-ureiius.
with which we think of Buddha. Seneca, however,
was a mere rhetorician ; his fine periods were flatly
contradicted by his life.
But Stoicism cherished an immeasurable pride ; TJ^f. ppde
^ ' of Stoicism.
and it wrapped itself in an icy, self- worshipping
selfishness. Its theology was pantheistic,^ really,
if not confessedly. It held that all things were
ruled by the iron necessity of fate. On the whole,
the most favourable estimate that can possibly be
formed of this haughty philosophy is that of Reuss :
" The fine ideas of Roman Stoicism were buds which only the Reusa's
sun of the Gospel could develop into beauty and perfectiim ; |^timate of
but which, if left alone, would never have produced rich fruits."
We have thus failed to trace in the groat Pagan
systems of antiquity any grand conceptions which
Christianity did or could incorporate with itself.
At the same time, there were in most, or all, of sciour^"
them what have been called " unconscious pro- of better
' things in
phecies"^ of better things. Prophecies, or even I'aganism.
anticipations, in any strict sense of the word, these
assuredly were not ; but they were questionings,
^ So Zeller. * By Arohlnshop Trench especially.
u
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
A consciouB
emptiness
of the
heart
The
coining of
Christ.
The age
. .ong pre-
paration
for it.
Com-
mingling
of creeds
consequent
on the
conquests
of Alex-
ander and
extension
of Roman
dominion.
yearnings, aspirations a feeling that the heart was
empty, and the desire, sometimes the hope, that it
might yet he filled. And HE who sees the end
from the beginning, was all the while preparing to
answer those questions, satisfy those cravings, and
fulfil, yea exceed, the highest anticipations ever
formed by
The prophetic soul
Of the wide world, dreaming on things to come.
Christ came, says St. Paul, " in the fulness of the
time." For His coming, it is easy to see that a
manifold preparation had been made, extending
throughout the ages. With a view to this grand
consummation, the kingdoms of the world had risen
and fallen. All things had been "shaken,"^ in
order that the false and the fleeting might be
shaken off, and that the true and the eternal might
have room to grow and unfold their holy beauty.
It was indeed " the fulness of the time," in the
largest sense of these significant words ; but we
must here limit our view to religion, and one
aspect of the "fulness."
We have seen the deplorable condition into
which each of the great religions of Paganism had
fallen. The conquests of Alexander the Great,
and the extension of Roman dominion, had led
largely to a commingling of creeds. Traces of
Oriental systems could be found even in Britain.
* Haggai ii 6, 7.
ChristiavAty and Ancient Pagantmi. 45
But the union of eastern and western thought no happy
results
had produced no happy results. Eg^-pt, Babylon, f^rom^the
Assyiia, Phenicia, Lydia, Phrygia, Greece, Rome ^dVe,tern
these and other nations had toiled, as we may ^^^^^^-
express it, to scale the heavens and there find
God ; but every attempt had ended in vanity and
vexation of spirit. We can hardly feel surprise
that the difficulty of ascertaining truth and the J^^uity of
endless conflict of opinion led many thoughtful ?ruth'S'^
men to discard the consideration of religion alto- SSd
the con-
gether. Why should they pursue a shadow that sideration
ever eluded their grasp ? What Justin Martyr
says of the philosophers of his time the com-
mencement of the second century applies with
equal force to the century preceding :
Justin
" Moat of the philosophers never consider the question whether o^*^"*
there be one God or many ; whether there be a Divine Pro- philosophers
. , . , of his tune.
videnoe or not
Thus, growing scepticism among the educated, and
grosser and grosser superstition among the conunon
people, were the melancholy characteristics of the
age which ushered in the Christian era.
But God had not forsaken the world. He had, JJ'ff^i^akeB
as St. Paul expresses it, " suffered all nations to ^ ^ *
walk in their own ways," ^ though, at the same
time, He had " never left Himself without witness.'/
The history of the race bears, in several respects, a
resemblance to that of an individual. Man is very
A Acta xiT. 1&
46
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
proud ; he will not seek the help of God until he
feels himself helpless. To the question of the
patriarch, " Canst thou by searching find out
The failures Qod ?," he would boldlv have answered, Yes, until
in the ^ "^ ' '
finHu**** ^^ ^^^ repeatedly failed in the proud attempt.
God. More than three thousand years had passed since,
The need of great Droblem ;
a divine
revelation
demonstra-
ted.
The
advent
of the Light
of the
world.
in Chaldea and Egypt, he had first essayed the
and the demonstration of the
necessity of a divine revelation had been over-
whelmingly ample. At least some of the higher
minds had seen it ; and Plato sighed for a (heios
logos. Or, if man did not fully see it, yet the
yearning heart of heaven could wait no longer.
And, therefore, as the apostle plainly puts it,
** After that, in the wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew
not God, it pleased God by the foolishness [i.e., what man called
foolishness] of the preaching to save them that believe."*
In the moral world, as in the physical, the
dawn precedes the sunrise. The Sun of Right-
eousness came not unheralded. The first streaks
of day had appeai'cd long ago, and the reddening
of the eastern sky announced the speedy advent
of the " Light of the world."
* Archdeacon Farrar has repeatedly used the phrase., "ethnic
inspiration." We think the expression unhappy, and fear it
will be misunderstood and misapplied. But the Archdeacon
has lately said that Heathenism was '* a vast failure," and " the
light of any other religion compared with that of Christianity,
but as ft bUu* to the lun,"
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 47
8. The Faith of Israel.
For two thousand years, and possibly more,
one race had stood apart from all others, " dwell-
ing alone, and not reckoned among the nations."
It is in the dirlne training of this people and The true
'- ^ ^ evolution
not where many vainly seek it that we are to Jj E^^fo^nd
look for the true evolution, or development, of IrafiTng of
I Israel.
religion.
There are men who question the accuracy of our
conceptions regarding Abraham. But even the Moses ^-
destructive criticism, in the last resort, postulates J^bmhin.
an Abraham, or some equivalent starting-point ;
otherwise, Moses bec6mes an inexplicable phe-
nomenon. The grandeur of the position occupied The
^ " ^ ^ ^ grandeur of
by the latter is, of course, undeniable. Kuenen ^^^^^'^
has said:
* * Even from the time of Mows, Yahveh (Jehovah) comes forward Kuenen on
with moral commandments. This is the starting point of ^^ p- ^
T . , ,. . , , , , , , inandinenta.
Israel a ncn religious development ; the germ of those glorious
truths which were to ripen in the course of centuries."
It is not too great a stress which is thus laid on
the ethical character of the Mosaic faith. The
Ten Commandment-8 arose in serene imperishable
majesty at least fifteen centuries before Christ. ^^ t^* '^
*" ' the history
There is no parallel fact in the history of Pagan ^^^'^
systemi. "Be ye holy, for I am holy" was i\ie frilseS
sublime oracle of Israel's God, and of Israel's God ^Isid^S.
alone.
48
Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
Yahveh
not a mere
tribal God.
Recognized
as a power
above all
powers,
pure yet
com-
passionate.
His people
freed from
superstitious
terrors by
His power
and
presence.
Many critics assert that Yahveh was at first
newed as only a tribal god, who protected Israel,
while rival deities protected other nations. That
belief is based on the pure assumption that the
history of Abraham, as given in Genesis, is of
comparatively late origin ; for the Lord is there
spoken of as " Almighty," as " Judge of all the
earth," and so on. But waiving the case of
Abraham, and supposing we could admit that the
people in Egypt, enslaved and in every way de-
moralized, rose no higher than to conceive of
Yahveh as only their god ; yet He was, at all
events, recognized as a power above all powers
a personality a Creator ruling nature, never
identified with it awfully pure, yet infinitely
compassionate forgiving iniquity, and trans-
gression, and sin, yet punishing the impenitently
wicked a Being that abhorred all the cruel and
abominable rites in which the Pagan gods were
believed to delight whose power and presence
freed His people from all the superstitious terrors
and the miserable magic which formed so large a
part of the worship of surrounding nations. Even
if the so-called higher criticism could prove that
some of the conceptions now referred to were
possibly inserted in the Pentateuch at a com-
paratively recent date, yet no one can deny that,
at all events, by the eighth century before Christ,
there are declarations regarding Jehovah and His
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 49
p in
'hth
worship wluch, in truth and sublimity, have never subume
* declariition
Since been surpassed. Take that passage, tor ex- 5"^n^^*jm^g
ample, in the prophet Micah which has extorted ^IJ^^^
the admiration of Professor Huxley : Sntu?y
before
" Wherewith shall I come before the Lord, and bow myself before Christ.
the high God ? Shall I come with burnt ofiferings, with calvea
of a year old ? Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of
rams, or with ten thousands of rivers of oil ? Shall I give my
first-born for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the
sin of my soul ? He hath showed thee, man, what is good j
and what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and
to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy Gkxi ? "
Not less remarkable than these lofty utterances His t^^tred
' of evil in
is the declaration that Jehovah hated evil in His J^p^
own people even more than in less favoured
nations :
"Tou only have I known of all the families of the earth;
therefore will I punish you for your iniquities."
The gods of the nations were thorough partizans;
they sided with their worshippers through right and
wrong. Jehovah loved His people much, but right- ^K'^T|
eousness still more. Admirable is the passionate "^
denunciation of the hypocrisy which would divorce
two things that ought ever to be linked in indis-
soluble wedlock religion and morality :
" Shall I count them pure with the wicked balances and the bag
of deceitful weights, and the scant measure that is abominable ? "
The vehemence and measureless scorn with which Denunaa-
tdon of
polytheism and idolatry are denounced are also poijtheism
most striking. In all other nations the deities '**'''*'^-
50 Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
multiplied ; and image- worship rooted itself more
and more deeply as time went on.
The hope- "W"e must pauso in our enumeration of the cha-
fulness of
^^^^^ racteristics of the Hebrew Scriptures. Yet one
other must still be noted their hopefulness.
When the great monarchies which walled Israel
in especially Egypt and Assyria- were trampling
down the liberties of nations and spreading around
them their abominable idolatries, and when, to all
appearance, the cause both of God and of man was
rhe Hebrew lost, the uoblo seors of Israel never despaired, never
seers never ^
fnTe^'gard^ ouco despoudod, iu regard to the future of Israel
fStire of or of the world. AU things they knew were in
th^worid. the hands of One who was Almighty, AU-wise,
and All-gracious. " Be still, and know that I am
God," that is, be calmly confident, and trust in
Me: such was the command. One unchanging
purpose a purpose of mercy ran throughout the
ages. Let them in patience possess their souls:
for in " the day of the Lord" "the latter day"
every crooked thing was to be made straight;
the Lord alone should be exalted ; all iniquity was
to stop her mouth ; the meek should inherit the
earth, and delight themselves in the abundance of
rhe no peace. More and more the hopes of the nation
nition made wcro made to centre on an individual" the Coming
One " " the Messiah " " the Prince of peace ; "
and in Him aU the families of the earth were to
he blessed; He would be a light to lighten the
to centre
in an in-
dividual.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 61
Gentiles, as well as the glory of the people of
Israel.
And while prophet after prophet was raised up,
all moved hy one Spirit, but each unfolding the
message of instruction, admonition, or encourage-
ment, or applying it to the special circumstances
of his time, and while the whole ceremonial wor- Th*
p providential
ship was one vast prophecy of good thmgs to come, training of
and recognised by thoughtful men as such ^ the f^ciiJL
providence of God was marvellously training the
nation for its lofty function. Events that appeared
simply evil were overruled to work out good. The
captivity in Egypt the sojourn in the wilderness
the division of the nation into two halves the The
captivity in Babylon the persecutions under Syrian events
kings and the conquest of Judaea by the Romans Jjg^^^o*!^
it is not difficult to see how each of these events ^l^t^!^
was fitted to raise the mind of the people to truer ceptioM^of
conceptions of God, and teach them deeper lessons
of righteousness, of sin, and of salvation.
Meanwhile, the wide diffusion of the Greek Ian- The
' diffusion of
guage, the translation into it of the Old Testament, JangS^faa
and the contact of Greek and Jewish thought pTep'Sation.
especially in such centres as Alexandria were
very important preparations for the proclamation
and reception of the Gospel over the civilized
world.
^ See Kurtz on the Bacrifidal worship of the Old TestaiiMot
for proof ol thub
52
Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
Virgfl'8
expectation.
Augiistine.
8i John.
The
teaching
of Christ.
IIL
Thus, then, at the pre- appointed time in "the
fulness of the time " dawned " the Light of Life "
on men. And now as Virgil sang, in expectation
of some glorious change that was hastening on
** Magnus ab integro 8a)clorum Dascitur ordo ; " ^
or in the words of Augustine :
** Christ appeared to the men of a worn-out dying world, that
when every thing around was sinking into decay, they might,
through Him, receive a new and youthful life ;"
or in the far sublimer language of St. John :
** The WokI was made flesh, and dwelt among us ; and we
beheld His glory the glory as of the only begotten of the
Father ; full of grace and truth : and as many as received Him,
to them gave He power to become the children of God."
He taught. He taught those truths to which
though often feebly and fitfully the human reason
and conscience have borne witness throughout the
ages. He gave the metal without alloy : His
words were pure, as " silver purified seven times."
Then, the majestic verities enunciated by the
prophets of Israel He explained, applied, and also
developed and enlarged. He taught by words ;
He taught by deeds. His entire life was one con-
tinuous revelation of God and truth.
He wrought
With human hands the creed of creecU,
In loveliness of perfect deeds
More strong than all poetic thought.
* Now oommenceth anew the mighty roll of the agea.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 6^
He died. The good Shepherd gave His life for
the sheep. That death, that Cross, that love The death
. . . .- . of Christ
victorious over agony, is the divmest manifestation
of the Divinity. It is the full expression of the
mind and heart of God ; so that, when once it has
taken place, HE who longs adequately to reveal
Himself to His creatures, and whom to know is
life eternal, can enter into ineffable repose and say,
"It is enough: My creatures can know Me now."
And Christ rose again rose to the immediate The
presence of God. There He is exalted a Prince oraIriSt
and a Saviour, " to give repentance and forgiveness
of sins to Israel," and to all.
Such very briefly were the truths which His The
T 1 1 1 i 1 i 11 commission
disciples were commanded to proclaim to all nations, of nie
*^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ disciples
" beginning at Jerusalem." But it is one thing to
know the truth, and another thing to obey it. We
are all familiar with the sorrowful confession of
the poet Ovid:
Video meliora proboque,
Detcriora BequorJ
Moral truths were not unfrequently inculcated by 5^(,,ty ^f
heathen sages. But these sages felt and deplored *^ ^'^^^^
the exceeding difficulty of inducing others to follow
their precepts. They regarded the mass of men as Their view
hopelessly sunk in ignorance and vice, and only a "^'"'*1 ."'
small number as so happily constituted that they
would ever seek to rise to the serene heights of
* I see the right, and T approve it too.
Condemn the wrong, and yet the wrong pursue.
64
Chmdianity and Ancient Paganism.
The effect
of the pro-
clamation
of the
Gk>8pel.
A stupend-
ous and
unparalleled
spiritual
revolution.
The dis-
appearance
of the
forms of
Pagan
faith.
The gods
of Egypt
wisdom and virtue. But lo ! a marvel. For whcD
once the silver trump of the "glad tidings*'
sounded abroad, the lowest depths of society were
stirred ; and the grandest conceptions which the
human mind can form regarding God, and the
soul, and holiness, and sin, and reconciliation, and
love, and heaven, and heU, now filled the minds,
and moved the hearts, and shaped the lives of mul-
titudes, who, until now, had been dead to every-
thing but grovelling ideas and debasing lusts. A stu-
pendous spiritual revolution; in suddenness and com-
pleteness whoUy without a parallel. An entire trans-
formation in the individual believer, and through
individuals a gradual transformation of society.^
It was a conflict of centuries before the great
systems which we have been considering gave
way before the victorious march of Christianity.
But successively and completely all of them did
give way. All those vast forms of Pagan faith
have melted away like snow in the sunbeam. Or
rather say, the great thirst which the Gentile
nations sought to quench by diinking of muddy
and polluted streams, could now be slaked at the
river, "clear as crystal, proceeding out of the
throne of God and the Lamb."
The brutish gods of Egypt have perished. We
have visited the Serapeum that vast subterranean
* Nos ergo ioli innoceiUeSy We alone are innocent, was
Teitullian's bold, but unanswered, challenge. ApU. 45
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 55
receptacle of dead gods and found it filled with
immense granite sarcophagi, each containing the
embalmed form of an ox-god, Apis.^ Was the
resurrection expected ? No resurrection for them ^o
is possible. Baal no longer exalts himself as the Jorlh^n.
rival of Jehovah. Chemosh, " the abomination of
the Moabites," and bloody Moloch, are alike for-
gotten. In Babylon, Bel has " bowed down ** and
Nebo has ** stooped," never to rise again ; and
Dagon of the Philistines has fallen once more,
and now not even the stump of him is left.
Even so have passed away the deities of Greece ije deities
, o' Greece.
and Rome. The Parthenon still crowns the Acro-
polis of Athens ; but Pallas Athene, the guardian
goddess, has fled ; her very name is scarcely re-
membered there. On snowy Olympus "black-
clouding Zeus " no longer holds his throne ; and
the god of the silver bow, Phoebus Apollo, is dis-
carded alike at Delos and at Delphi. A Christian
church stands en the spot where once arose the
majestic temple of Jupiter, the guardian of the
Capitol. Meantime the Roman empire has been The break
. . ... up of the
broken in pieces ; but the religion of Christ, sur- Roman
viving that convulsion, has converted and tamed
the wild barbarians who overwhelmed the ancient
world, and has given birth to a form of civilization what the
11 p ^ t 111*11 ^^ifion of
With the contmuance of which are inseparably linked chnat haa
the dearest hopes of humanity.
^ There seem to be sixty-four of these saroophag'
56
Ghristianity and Ancient Paganism,
The secret
of this
power.
The onmi-
potence of
Christ.
rhe truth
taught by
Christ
viewed by
Ilim as
alt
And whence this unexampled power P That
problem exercises and perplexes the minds of many
at; this day. It was the fuller, deeper truth He
taught, say some. It was His character match-
less in purity and love, say others. Yes ; but there
was more, much more ; and we have no reason to
believe, if as Mr. Matthew Arnold says, the Syrian
stars look down upon a grave from which He nevci-
rose, that Christianity could have long survived His
crucifixion.^ Not the so-called omnipotence of
truth, but the omnipotence of Him who is the
Truth, has won the victory. As said the Apostle :
* ' Being by the right hand of God exalted, and having received
of the Father the promise of the Holy Ghost, HE hath shed forth
this which ye now hear and see."
Christ Himself spoke of the truth He taught as
at once light and salt. Yiew it for a moment
under the latter aspect Mere worldly gifts and
^ It would be easy to adduce from many writers far removed
from orthodox Christianity, strong language regarding the un-
equalled elevation and purity of Christ's character. Our limits
restrict us t:; jne or two quotations. Spiuoza says : " The eternal
wisdom has manifested itself in all things, but chiefly in the
human mind, and most of all in Jesus Christ." (^Eterna
^pientia sese in omnibus rebus, maxim6 in humana meiite,
omnium maxim6 in Christo Jesu manifestavit. Epist. xxi.)
Goethe said, *' I bow before Jesus Christ as a revelation of
supreme morality." Still stronger is the testimony of John
Stuart Mill. Mr. John Morley indeed finds fault with Mr. Mill
for his admiration, and uses depreciatory language, but without
any attempt to support the charges made. Is this consistent
with Mr. Morley's ideas of delicacy and justice ?
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 57
graces tend lamentably to become corrupt, and to
nerish in tbeir corruption. Without religion, with- The
out the religion of Christ, the human race could of chnsi
*-' ^ ^ ^ essential
never raise, and never maintain, the noble fabric ^g^^tio^ ^^
of a true manhood and an enduring civilization. JJj^J^^*"
Certainly there was much in the culture of ancient
Greece that was intellectual and refined ; much
that was stately and seemed strong in that of
ancient Rome ; but the preserving element, the
salt, was wanting ; and either form of civilization
ere long became morally corrupt, and sank in ruins.
But now ^whatever elements of truth or beauty Christianity
accepts and
whatever pure forms of life appear in any land ^^f^^^nt,
or age, Christianity despises them not, nay, she ^d^uty.
thankfully accepts them. She blends them with her
own diviner life, so warding off corruption, and
rendering these otherwise perishable treasures, ** an
everlasting possession." Forms of social life which
ancient sages sometimes dreamt of, but despaired
of realizing in a world like this, have been suc-
cessfully wrought out and maintained by the
Gospel; for its legitimate offspring ever is that JbieiS^^
godliness which is "profitable unto all things, ^^^'
having promise of the life that now is, as well as
of that which is to come."
We read, a short time affo, in a paper written ^r. Fred.
"^ r r Harrison's
by a well-known leader among the Comtists Mr. JJ,^^
Frederic Harrison that "Christianity does not Christianity.
58 Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
even claim to be co-extensive with human life."
Either Mr. Harrison or we must have entirely mis-
christianity ^^^^ the Now Testament. To our apprehension it
human iif claims to touch human life at every point to
at every ...
point. mould and magisterially direct every thing in in-
dividual, domestic, and public life. For it lays
down principles which penetrate man all through,
building up the individual anew from the very
foundation of his being, and, through the individual,
as we have said, reforming and regulating society.
Accepted, it regenerates the man ; and, so far as
accepted, it regenerates the world. It reconciles
man with man by reconciling man with God.
The In the preceding pages we have sought to state
of^u^o^ and illustrate facts avoiding, as far as possible,
civilization, j^gpe Speculation. Yet one question unavoidably
suggests itself, after this long review of fallen
civilizations and extinct systems of belief. What
of our own civilization ? is it secure ? We answer,
coiSn on ^^^* ^ ^^^ Christianity is secure. " Civilization
dviiizatioiL -^ Q^ ^^y^ g^-^ YictoT Cousin, "means Christ-
ianity." If we draw inferences from the past,
we must hold that were materialism, agnosticism,
or even mere deism to prevail to any considerable
The con- cxtout, tho couseouences would be most serious.
sequences
of the Morality would sradually give way. Then the
prevalence ' *-' >/ o j
foraf 0?*^* wem^si* of which we spoke above ^ would soon step
onbeUef. ^^ j^ ^^j^^ would au infidelity, calling itself
^ See page 41.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 69
scientific or pMlosopliic, rear its proud head and
try to suppress all faith ; bastard forms of belief,
and low, superstitious practices would force them-
selves in, and infect, ere long, the savants them-
selves. Les incredules les plus credulcs} said PascaL
Even already we witness, to our astonishment, the Esoteric
^ / . Buddhism
spread, to some extent, in Europe and America, of in Europe
theosophy, " esoteric Buddhism," and various kindred ^^^^rica.
foUies precisely as, of old,^lotinus and Porphyry
had a legitimate successor in lamblichus, and
soaring philosophy was debased into magic and
theurgy.
These things are, no doubt, humbling. Yet we
do not bate a jot of heart or hope. Christianity
cannot perish. Even now, while we mourn over
the falling away of some, one plainly sees that, ^reaS^
taking the human race as a whole, Christianity is d^^pening.
steadily extending and deepening. Trial may be
in store, the forces of belief and unbeKef may be
ranging themselves for a final struggle; but, ere
long, to Him, who now rules in the midst of His
enemies, " every knee shall bow, and every tongue J*? uitimat*'
confess." Does there seem a tone of pride while
rebuking pride in these words of ours ? If so,
we desire to put the feeling from us remembering
the words of the blessed Master : " I, if I be lifted
up from the earth, will draw all men unto Myself."*
* Unbelievers are the most credulous of alL
60
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
The
attraction
of the
He was first lifted up on the cross, before He was
lifted up to His throne in heaven ; and it is now
only by the manifestation of His cross and its deep
meanings that hard hearts are melted and drawn
to Him with irresistible attraction ; and doubtless
the bright consummation of a regenerated and
rejoicing world would be sooner reached, if only we.
His followers, had more of the Master's spirit
ever seeking in meekness and love like His
Christ and
iris people.
The
function of
the Church
to shine.
With winning words to conquer willing hearts
And make persuasion do the work of fear.
He who said of Himself, " I am the Light of the
world," said also of His people, " Ye are the light
of the world." He is the Sun. His Church is the
Moon ; which, in His absence, is commanded to
shine, full -orbed and cloudless, on the world.
Oh, Church of the Living God ! " arise, shine,
for thy light is come ; and the glory of the Lord
is risen upon thee."
APPENDIX
On 'rtkif Rfxioions of Uncivilized Anciknt Nations.
We have already intimated that little notice need be taken o!
these. Nearly everything we know about them is fitted t*
excite disgust and horror.
1. Druidism was the faith of the Celtic (including the Cyunic) Notices of
races. We have notices of it in seven or eight classical writers jn'^ciassiciil
particularly Caesar, Tacitus, and Pliny. A few hints may be writers, etc
gathered from old Gaelic and Welsh poems such as th<)t^e of
Ossian and Taliessin ; but their historical value is questionable.
The Druids, the religious leaders of the people, were of three Three
classes. The lowest consisted of the bards ; the second of those Druids,
who watched natural phenomena; the highest were more
properly priests. An arch-druid presided over all ; who ap-
parently wielded unbounded power.
There were also three classes of Druidesses. The highest Three
formed a kind of Vestal virgins ; who lived in sisterhoods and Druidesses.
never married. These predicted coming events, cured diseases,
raised storms or calmed them, and transformed themselves into
whatever shape they pleased. In fact, the lingering superstitions
about witches in Western Europe are traceable back to Druidio
times.
With regard to the deities the Roman poet Lucan speaks thus i
Here Hesua' horrid altar stands,
Here dire Teutates human blood demands ;
Here Taranis by wretches is obeyed,
And vies in slaughter with the Scythian maid.*
The oak tree, the acorn, and especially the mistletoe a small Suciwd tree,
plant that grows on the oak were especially sacred. Worship
was performed in dark groves.^ Human sacrifices v.ere frequent, ^^^g^
Otcsar informs us that they made enormous figures of wicker
work, and filled them with humau beings, whom they burnt to
death.
^ Rowe's Lucan, Book i.
^ Lucan, Pharsalia, Bookiii., gives a striking descripiioB #^
ft gloomy grove near Marseilles.
62
Christianity and Ancient Paganism.
Even the priestesses performed such dreadful services. Strabo
speaks thus of these among the Cirabri : ** The women who
follow the Cimbri to war are accompanied by grey-haired
prophetesses. They go with drawn swords through the camp^
strike down the prisoners they meet, and drag them to a brazen
caldron. There is an erection above this, on which the priestess
cuts the throat of the victim, and watches how the blood flows
into the vessel. Others tear open the bodies of the captives and
judge from the quivering entrails as to future events."
Excommunication by the Druids was a tremendous infliction.
It must have involved death or unconditional submission to the
priests,"
Excom-
municatior
and its
penalty.
Ancient
German
religion
morally
no higher
than the
Celte.
Nature-
worship its
foundation.
No account
of the
Slavonian
faith in an
old form.
2. The Religion op the Ancient Germans. Caesar and
Tacitus supply us with interesting information regarding this
system ; and the Edda of Scandinavia tells ug much regarding
its character at a later date. It was morally no higher than that
of the Celts.
Nature-worship was its main foundation. Sun, Moon, Fire,
Earth, were greatly worshipped. Woden (in the Edda, Odin)
was the chief deity ; he was the god of war. Thunor (Thor)
was the god of thunder. He wielded, and made much use of
a tremendous hammer. Lok, or Loki, was an evil being, at
war with the gods ; but at present a tortured prisoner. Walhalla
was heaven. It was a place where the blessed warriors every
day hacked each other to pieces, then got cured, and wound up
the day by drinking mead an intoxicating beverage out ol
the skulls of slaughtered enemies.
Human sacrifices especially of captives were frequent. A
King of Sweden is said to have sacrificed nine of his sons in
succession, in order to prolong his own life. A kind of wild-
beast ferocity marked the people : the celebrated death-song
of Ragnar Lodbrok "breathes slaughter" throughout. All
hopefulness seems banished from this faith. Balder, the
brightest of the gods, is slain ; and we are approaching the
dreadful time
When Lok shall burst his sevenfold chain,
And night resume her ancient reign.
3. The Reuqign of the Ancient Slavonians. We have
no satisfactory account of this faith in a very old form. The
last stronghold of it was the island of Rugen, in the Baltic.
Christianity and Ancient Paganism,
63
The account
of Saxo
Granamati-
CUB.
This was destroyed in 1168 by Waldemar, King of Denmark.
Saxo Grammaticus, a contemporary of Waldemar's, gives a long
account of the chief idol there worshipped. He describes it as
a gigantic figure, with four heads and four necks two breasts
and two backs. Cattle were sacrificed to it. In sweeping the
temple, the priest did not dare to breathe ; and for every
necessary inspiration he had to quit the temple. At the reUgious
festivals intemperance was deemed a merit. The idol had a
horse, of whose tail or mane to pull a single hair was sacrilege.
It bore the god whenever he fought against his enemies, and
was often found in the morning covered with sweat and mud
in consequence. A standard consecrated to the god entitled
those who bore it to pillage even the temples, and to commit
any kind of outrage. Such is the testimony of Saxo
Grammaticus.
The religion of the SlavonianB was evidently very childish ;
but it was not so ferodoiu as that of the Celts or the Germans.
Slavonias
religion
ehildish.
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