REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. ^ 
 l^eceived , igo . [ 
 
 t/^ccession No. 82983. Class No. 
 
NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS 
 OF THE WORLD 
 
 Sir William Muir, Prof. Legge, LLD., The Revs. 
 J. Murray Mitchell, LLD., and H. R. 
 Reynolds^ D.D. 
 
 SELECTED FROM THE 
 
 LIVING PAPERS SERIES 
 
 FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY 
 
 New York Chicago Toronto 
 
 The Religious Tract Society, London, 
 
 lll^ 
 

CONTENTS 
 
 I. 
 
 THE RISE AND DECLINE OF ISLAM. 
 By Sir WILLIAM MUIR, K.C.S.L, LL.D., D.C.L. 
 
 II. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND CONFUCIANISM COMPARED IN THEIR 
 TEACHING OF THE WHOLE DUTY OF MAN. 
 By JAMES LEGGE, LL.D. 
 
 III. 
 
 THE ZEND-AVESTA AND THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIS. 
 
 By J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE HINDU RELIGION : A SKETCH AND A CONTRAST. 
 
 By J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D. 
 
 V. 
 
 BUDDHISM : A COMPARISON AND A CONTRAST BETWEEN 
 
 BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 By the Rev. HENRY ROBERT REYNOLDS, D.D. 
 
 VI. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND ANCIENT PAGANISM. 
 
 By J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D. 
 
 82983 
 
THE 
 
 RISE AND DECLINE 
 
 OF 
 
 ISLAM 
 
 BY 
 
 SIR WILLIAM MUIR, K.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L. 
 
^tgnmem xxl the Txhcu 
 
 The progress of Islam was slow until Mahomet cast aside 
 the precepts of toleration, and adopted an aggressive, mili- 
 tant policy. Then it became rapid. The motives which 
 animated the armies of Islam were mixed material and 
 spiritual. Without the truths contained in the system, 
 success would have been impossible, but neither without the 
 sword would the religion have been planted in Arabia, nor 
 beyond. The alternatives offered to conquered peoples 
 were Islam, the Sword, or Tribute. The drawbacks and 
 attractions of the system are examined. The former were 
 not such as to deter men of the world from embracing the 
 faith. The sexual indulgences sanctioned by it are such as 
 to make Islam " the Easy way." 
 
 The spread of Islam was stayed whenever military success 
 was checked. The Faith was meant for Arabia and not 
 for the world, hence it is constitutionally incapable of 
 change or development The degradation of woman hin- 
 ders the growth of freedom and civilization under it. 
 
 Christianity is contrasted in the means used for its pro- 
 pagation, the methods it employed in grappling with and 
 overcoming the evils that it found existing in the world, in 
 the relations it established between the sexes, in its teaching 
 with regard to the respective duties of the civil and spiritual 
 powers, and, above all, in its redeeming character, and then 
 the conclusion come to that Christianity is Divine in its 
 origin. 
 
UNIVERSITT 
 
 THE RISE AND DECLINE OF ISLAM, 
 
 ONGST the reliarions of the earth, Islam isiamprt 
 
 eminent u 
 
 must take the precedence in the rapidit}^ ^^S^ 
 and force with which it spread. Within 
 a very short time from its planting in 
 Arabia, the new faith had subdued great and 
 populous provinces. In half a dozen years, count- 
 ing from the death of the founder, the religion 
 prevailed throughout Arabia, Syria, Persia, and 
 Egypt; and before the close of the century, it 
 ruled supreme over the greater part of the vast 
 populations from Gibraltar to the Oxus, from the 
 Black Sea to the river Indus. 
 
 In comparison with this grand outburst, the first Propaffatio* 
 efforts of Christianity were, to the outward eye, christfanity 
 faint and feeble ; and its extension so gradual, that 
 what the Mahometan religion achieved in ten or 
 twenty years, it took the faith of Jesus long cen- 
 turies to accomplish. 
 
 The object of these few pages ia, first, to inquire 5*j^*^ *^^ 
 briefly into the causes which led to the marvellous 
 rapidity of the first movement of Islam ; secondly, to 
 consider the reasons which eventually stayed its 
 ad ranee; and, lastli/, to ascertain wby Mahometan 
 
The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 countries have kept so far in the rear of other lands 
 in respect of intellectual and social progress. In 
 short, the question is, how it was that, Pallas-like, 
 the Faith sprang, ready armed, from the ground, 
 conquering and to conquer ; and why, the weapons 
 dropping from its grasp, Islam hegan to lose its 
 pristine vigour, and finally relapsed into inactivity. 
 
 Two periods 
 in the 
 
 mission of 
 Mahomet. 
 
 I. Ministry 
 at Mecca; 
 A.i>.0i)-623. 
 
 The Rapid Spread of Islam. 
 
 The personal ministry of Mahomet divides itself 
 into two distinct periods. First, his life at Mecca, 
 as a preacher and a prophet. Second, his life at 
 Medina, as a prophet and a king. 
 
 It is only in the first of these periods that Islam 
 at all runs parallel with Christianity. The great 
 hody of his feUow-citizens rejected the ministry 
 of Mahomet, and bitterly opposed his claims. His 
 efforts at Mecca were, therefore, confined to teach- 
 ing and preaching, and to the publishing of the 
 earlier " Suras " or chapters of his " Revelation." 
 After some thirteen years spent thus, his converts, 
 to the number of about a hundred and fifty men 
 and women, were forced by the persecution of the 
 Coreish (the ruling tribe at Mecca, from which 
 Mahomet was descended), to quit their native 
 city and emigrate to Medina.' A hundred more 
 ' See Life of Mahomet, p. 188. Smith aud Elder. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 
 
 I 
 
 limited. 
 
 had previously fled from Mecca for the same 
 cause, and found refuge at the coui-t of the 
 Negus, or king of Abyssinia; and there were 
 already a small company of followers amongst the 
 citizens of Medina. At the utmost, therefore, the 
 number of disciples gained over by the simple 
 resort to teaching and preaching, did not, during 
 the first twelve years of Mahomet's ministry, 
 exceed a few hundreds. It is true that the soil 
 at Mecca was stubborn and (unlike that of Judsea) 
 wholly unprepared. The cause also, at times, 
 became the object of sustained and violent op- 
 position. Even so much of success was conse- 
 quently, under the peculiar circumstances, remark- 
 able. But it was by no means singular. The pro- 
 gress fell far short of that made by Christianity 
 during the corresponding period of its existence,* 
 and indeed by many reformers who have been the 
 preachers of a new faith. It gave no promise what- 
 ever of the marvellous spectacle that was about 
 to follow. 
 
 Having escaped from Mecca, and found a new u djaag, 
 and congenial home in Medina, Mahomet was not MeSnaf * 
 long in changing his front. At Mecca, surrounded 
 by enemies, he taught toleration. He was simply 
 the preacher commissioned to d6liver a message, 
 and bidden to leave the responsibility with his 
 Master and his hearers. He might argue with the 
 
 ' Lif0 of Mahomstf p. 172, where the results are oomparad. 
 
The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 Arabia 
 conTerted 
 from 
 
 Medina at 
 the point of 
 the sword. 
 
 A.D.6S0. 
 
 A.V.68S. 
 
 disputants, but it must be "in a way most mild and 
 gracious;" for "in religion" (sucb was his teaching 
 before he reached Medina) " there should be neither 
 violence nor constraint."^ At Medina the precepts 
 of toleration were quickly cast aside, and his whole 
 policy reversed. No sooner did Mahomet begin to 
 be recognizv3 i and obeyed as the chief of Medina, 
 than he proceeded to attack the Jewish tribes 
 settled in the neighbourhood, because they refused 
 to acknowledge his claims and believe in him as 
 a prophet foretold in their Scriptures ; two of these 
 tribes were exiled, and the third exterminated in 
 cold blood. In the second year after the Hegira, or 
 flight from Mecca (the period from which the Ma- 
 hometan era dates), he began to plunder the caravans 
 of the Coreish, which passed near to Medina on 
 their mercantile journeys between Arabia and Syria. 
 So popular did the cause of the now militant and 
 marauding prophet speedily become amongst the 
 citizens of Medina and the tribes around, that 
 after many battles fought with varying success, he 
 was able, in the eighth year of the Hegira, to 
 re-enter his native city at the head of ten thou 
 sand armed followers. Thenceforward, success 
 was assured. None dared to oppose his preten- 
 sions. And before his death, in the eleventh year 
 of the Hegira, all Arabia, from Bab-el-Mandeb 
 and Oman to the confines of the Syrian desert, 
 
 Life of Mahomet, p. 341 ; Suraii. 267; xiix. 46. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 
 
 was forced to submit to the supreme authority 
 of the now kingly prophet, and to recognize the 
 faith and obligations of Islam. ^ 
 
 This Ibldm, so called from its demanding the entire ^J ' 
 " surrender " of the believer to the will and service d^^^- 
 of God, is based on the recognition of Mahomet as 
 a prophet foretold in the Jewish and Christian 
 Scriptures, the last and greatest of the prophets. 
 On him descended the Goran, from time to time, an 
 immediate revelation from the Almighty. Idolatry 
 and Polytheism are with iconoclastic zeal denounced 
 as sins of the deepest dye ; while the unity of the 
 Deity is proclaimed as the grand and cardinal doc- 
 trine of the Faith. Divine providence pervades the 
 minutest concerns of life; and predestination is 
 taught in its most naked form. Yet prayer is en- 
 joined as both meritorious and effective ; and at five 
 stated times every day must it be specially per- 
 formed. The duties generally of the moral law are 
 enforced, though an evil laxity is given in the matter 
 of polygamy and divorce. Tithes are demanded as 
 alms for the poor. A fast during the month of 
 Ramzan must be kept throughout the whole of 
 every day ; and the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca, 
 an ancient institution, the rites of which were now 
 
 * The only exceptions were the Jews of Kheibar and the Christians 
 of Najrjin, who were permitted to continue in the profession of their 
 faith. They were, however, forced by Omar to quit the peninsula, 
 which thenceforward remained exclusively Mahometan. 
 
 " Islam " is a synonym for the Mussulman faith. Its original 
 meaniiig is '' surrender " of oneself to God. 
 
The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 Arabia 
 apostatixea: 
 but is 
 speedily 
 reconquered 
 and 
 
 redaimsd, 
 A.D. 63t. 
 
 divested of their heathenish accompaniments, 
 maintained. The existence of angels and devils is 
 taught ; and heaven and hell are depicted in ma- 
 terial colours, the one of sensuous pleasure, the 
 other of bodily torment. Finally, the resurrection, 
 judgment, and retribution of good and evil, are set 
 forth in great detail. Such was the creed there 
 is no god but the Lord, and Mahomet is his prophet 
 to which Arabia now became obedient. 
 
 But immediately on the death of Mahomet, the 
 entire Peninsula relapsed into apostasy. Medina 
 and Mecca remained faithful ; but everywhere 
 else the land seethed with rebellion. Some 
 tribes joined the " false prophets," of whom four 
 had arisen in different parts of Arabia; some 
 relapsed into their ancient heathenism; while 
 others proposed a compromise, they would observe 
 the stated times of prayer, but would be excused 
 the tithe. Everywhere was rampant anarchy. 
 The apostate tribes attacked Medina, but were 
 repulsed by the brave old Caliph Abu Bekr, 
 who refused to abate one jot or tittle, as the suc- 
 cessor of Mahomet, of the obligations of Islam. 
 Eleven columns were sent forth, under as many 
 leaders, trained in the warlike school of Ma- 
 homet. These fought their way step by step 
 successfully ; and thus, mainly through the wisdom 
 and firmness of Abu Bekr, and the valour 
 and genius of Khalid, "the Sword of God," th# 
 
The Rapid S'pread of Islam, 
 
 Arab tribes, one by one, were overcome, and forced 
 back into tbeir allegiance and the profession of 
 Islam. The re-conquest of Arabia, and re-im- 
 position of Mahometanism as the national faith, 
 which it took a whole year to accomplish, is thus 
 described by an Arabian author, who wrote at the 
 close of the second century of the Mahometan era : 
 
 After his decease, there remained not one of the followers of 
 the Prophet that did not apostatize, saving only a small company 
 of his * ' Companions " and kinsfolk, who hoped thus to secure 
 the government to themselves. Hereupon, Abu Bekr displayed 
 mai'vellous skill, energy, and address, so that the power passed 
 into his hands. . . . And thus he persevered imtil the apostate 
 tribes were all brought back to their allegiance, some by kindly 
 treatment, persuasion, and craft ; some through terror and fear 
 of the sword ; and others by the prospect of power and wealth, 
 as well as by the lusts and pleasures of this life. And so it 
 came to pass that all the Bedouin tribes were in the end con- 
 verted outwardly, but not from inward conviction.^ 
 
 The temper of the tribes, thus reclaimed by force JJj^g t^us 
 of arms, was at the first strained and sullen. But weij^Hhe 
 the scene soon changed. Suddenly the whole 
 peninsula was shaken, and the people, seized with 
 a burning zeal, issued forth to plant the new faith 
 in other lands. It happened on this wise. 
 
 first, sullen. 
 
 The columns sent from Medina to reduce the re- ^^^^^^ ^y 
 
 war cry, 
 
 bellious tribes to the north-west on the Gulf of JJ^S* 
 Ayla, and to the north-east on the Persian Gulf, TJ^^l^^ 
 came at once into collision with the Christian "'' 
 Bedouins of Syria on the one hand, and with those 
 
 ' Apology of Al Kindy^ the Christian^ p. 18. Smith & Elder, 
 1882. This rsmarkuble Apolo^fist will be noticed further below. 
 
10 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 of Mesopotamia on the other. These, again, were 
 immediately supported by the neighbouring forces 
 of the Roman and Persian empires, whose vassals 
 respectively they were. And so, before many months, 
 
 \^tm^ Abu Bekr found his generals opposed by great and 
 imposing armies on either side. He was, in fact, 
 waging mortal combat, at one and the same 
 moment, with the Kaiser and the Chosroes, the 
 Byzantine emperor and the great king of Persia 
 The risk was imminent, and an appeal went forth 
 for help to meet the danger. The battle-cry re- 
 sounded from one end of Arabia to the other, and 
 electrified the land. Levy after levy, en masses 
 started up at the call from every quarter of the 
 
 nthxuiasm. Peninsula ; and the Bedouin tribes, as bees from 
 their hive, streamed forth in swarms, animated by 
 the prospect of conquest, plunder, and captive 
 damsels; or, if slain in battle, by the still more 
 coveted prize of the " Martyr " in the material 
 paradise of Mahomet. With a military ardour 
 and new-born zeal in which carnal and spiritual 
 aspirations were strangely blended, the Arabs 
 rushed forth to the field, like the war-horse of 
 Job, " that smelleth the battle afar off, the thundei 
 of the captains and the shouting." Sullen con- 
 straint was in a moment transformed into an 
 absolute devotion and fiery resolve to spread the 
 faith. The Arab warrior became the Missionary 
 of Islam. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 11 
 
 It was now the care of Omar, the second Caliph Arabs, a 
 
 military 
 
 or Ruler of the new-born empire, to establish a ^Jj^j'^^jj^^. 
 system whereby the spirit militant, called into mobilized bj 
 existence with such force and fervour, might be "' 
 rendered permanent. The entire Arabian people 
 was subsidized. The surplus revenues, which, 
 in rapidly increasing volume, began to flow from 
 the conquered lands into the Moslem treasuries, 
 were to the last farthing distributed among the 
 soldiers of Arabian descent. The whole nation was 
 enrolled, and the name of every warrior entered 
 upon the roster of Islam. Forbidden to settle 
 anywhere, and relieved from all other work, the 
 Arab hordes became, in fact, a standing army 
 threatening the world. Great bodies of armed 
 men were kept thus ever mobilized, separate and 
 in readiness for new enterprise. 
 
 The change which came over the policy of the Mission of 
 
 " XV Islam 
 
 Founder of the faith at Medina, and paved the ^Srba^^^ 
 way for this marvellous system of world-wide 
 rapine and conversion to Islam, is thus described 
 by a thoughtful and sagacious writer : 
 
 .... Medina was fatal to the higher capabilities of Islam. 
 Mahomet became then a king ; his religion was incorporated 
 in a State that had to struggle for its life in the fashion famiHar 
 to the rough-handed sons of the desert. The Prophet was 
 turned into the legislator and commander ; his revelations were 
 now laws, and now military orders and manifestoes. The 
 mission of Islam became one that only the sword could accom- 
 plish, robbery of the infidel became meritorious, and conquest 
 the supreme duty it owed to the world. . . 
 
12 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 The religion which lived an unprospering and precarious 
 life, 80 long as it depended on the prophetic word alone, became 
 an aggressive and victorious power, so soon as it was embodied 
 in a State.^ 
 
 ^*K?emer. Another learned and impartial authority tells us: 
 
 The Mussulman power under the first four Caliphs was 
 nothing but a grand religio-political association of Arab tribes 
 for universal plunder and conquest under the holy banner of 
 Islam, and the watch- word " There is no God but The Lord, 
 and Mahomet is His Apostle." On pretext of spreading the 
 only true religion, the Arabs swallowed up fair provinces lying 
 all around ; and, driving a profitable business, enriched them- 
 selves simultaneously in a worldly sense.* 
 
 Religious The motivcs which nerved the armies of Islam 
 
 merit of 
 
 Khe^tjFot^ ^^^^ ^ strange combination of the lower instincts 
 khs Lord. ^ nature with the higher aspirations of the spirit. 
 To engage in the Holy War was the rarest and 
 most blessed of all religious virtues, and conferred 
 on the combatant a special merit ; and side by side 
 with it lay the bright prospect of spoil and female 
 slaves, conquest and glory. " Mount thy horse," 
 said Os^maibn Zeid to Abu Bekr as he accompanied 
 the Syrian army a little way on its march out of 
 Medina. " Nay," replied the Caliph, " I will not 
 ride ; but I will walk, and soil my feet a little 
 space in the ways of the Lord. Verily, every 
 footstep in the ways of the Lord is equal in merit 
 to manifold good works, and wipeth away a 
 
 ' Principal Fairbaim: "The Primitive Polity of Islam," 
 Contemporary Review, December, 1882, pp. 866, 867. 
 Herr von Kremer, CuUurgesehichte cUs Orients, unter den 
 
 Chalifen, vol. i., p. 383, 
 
The Hapid Spread of Islam. 13 
 
 multitude of sins."^ And of the " Martyrs," those 
 who fell in these crusading campaigns, Mahomet 
 thus described the blessed state : 
 
 Think not, in any wise, of those killed in the ways of the 
 liord, a^ if they were dead. Yea, they are alive, and are 
 nourished with their Lord, exulting in that which God hath 
 given them of His. favour, and rejoicing in behalf of those who 
 have not yet joined them, but are following after. No terror 
 afflicteth them, neither are they grieved. Sura in. 
 
 The material fruits of their victories raised the Material 
 
 n . . . fruits of 
 
 Arabs at once from bemsr the needy inhabitants Moslem 
 of a stony sterile soil, where, with difficulty, they 
 eked out a hardy subsistence, to be the masters 
 of rich and luxuriant lands flowing with milk and 
 honey. After one of his great victories on the 
 plains of Chaldaea, KhMid called together his 
 troops, flushed with conquest, and lost in wonder 
 at the . exuberance around them, and thus ad- 
 dressed them: "Ye see the riches of the land. 
 Its paths drop fatness and plenty, so that the 
 fruits of the earth are scattered abroad, even as 
 stones are in Arabia. If but as a provision 
 for this present life, it were worth our while to 
 fight for these fair fields, and banish care and 
 penury for ever from us." Such were the aspira- 
 tions dear to the heart of evety Arab warrior. 
 Again, after the battle of Jal61a, a few years later, 
 the treasure and spoil of the Persian monarch 
 captured by the victors, was valued at thirty 
 
 ' AnnaU ofth* Earlp Caliphate, p. 9. Smith & Elder, 1889. 
 
14 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 million of dirhems (about a miUion sterling). The 
 royal fifth (the Crown share of the booty) was sent 
 as usual to Medina, under charge of Ziad, who, in 
 the presence of the CaHph Omar, harangued the 
 citizens in a glowing description of what had been 
 won in Persia, fertile lands, rich cities, and endless 
 spoil, beside captive maids and princesses. 
 Rich booty In relating the capture of Medain (the ancient 
 capital of Ctcsiphon), tradition revels in the untold wealth 
 i.D. 637. which fell into the hands of Sad, the conqueror, 
 and his followers. Besides millions of treasure, 
 there was endless store of gold and silver vessels, 
 rich vestments, and rare and precious things. 
 The Arabs gazed bewildered at the tiara, brocaded 
 vestments, jewelled armour, and splendid surround- 
 ings of the throne. They tell of a camel of silver, 
 life-size, with a rider of gold, and of a golden horse 
 with emeralds for teeth, the neck set with rubies, 
 the trappings of gold. And we may read in Gibbon 
 of the marvellous banqueting carpet, representing 
 a garden, the ground of wrought gold, the walks of 
 silver, the meadows of emeralds, rivulets of pearls, 
 and flowers and fruits of diamonds, rubies, and 
 rare gems. The precious metals lost their cor 
 ventional value, gold was parted with for its weight 
 in silver ; and so on. * 
 
 It is the virtue of Islam that it recognizes a 
 
 * Gibbon's Decline and Fally chapter li. ; and AnnaU of thu 
 Sarly Caliphate, p. 184. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. It 
 
 special Providence, seeing the hand of God, as in success in 
 everything, so pre-eminently also in victory. When SiS^d 
 Sad, therefore, had estahlished himself in the 
 palace of the Chosroes, he was not forgetful to 
 render thanks in a Service of praise. One of the 
 princely mansions was turned for the moment into 
 a temple, and there, followed by his troops, he 
 ascribed the victory to the Lord of Hosts. The 
 lesson accompanying the prayers, was taken from a 
 Sura (or i?hapter of the Corein) which speaks of 
 Pharaoh and his riders being overwhelmed in the 
 Red Sea, and contains this passage, held to be 
 peculiarly appropriate to the occasion: 
 
 How many Qardens and Fountains did they leave behind, 
 
 And Fields of com, and fair Dwelling-places, 
 And pleasant things which they enjoyed ! 
 
 Even thus have We made another people to inherit the same.' 
 
 Such as fell in the conflict were called Martyrs ; dom*"*m'the 
 a halo of glory surrounded them, and special joys by mSS** 
 awaited them even on the battle-field. And 
 so it came to pass that the warriors of Islam had 
 an unearthly longing for the crown of martyr- 
 dom. The Caliph Omar was inconsolable at 
 the loss of his brother, Zeid, who feU in the fatal 
 " Garden of Death," at the battle of Yem^ma : 
 " Thou art returned home," he said to his son, 
 Abdallah, "safe and sound, and Zeid is dead. 
 Wherefore wast not thou slain before him ? I 
 
 Ibtd ; and Sura xliv. t. 25. Wej that ie, the Lord. 
 
 crusaders 
 
16 The Rise and Decliifie of Islam, 
 
 wish not to see thy face.*' "Father," answered 
 S,wf of '"" Abdallah, '' he asked for the crown of martyrdom, 
 *^^ " and the Lord granted it. I strove after the same, 
 hut it was not given unto me."^ It was the 
 proud boast of the Saracens in their summons 
 to the craven Greeks and Persians, that " they 
 loved death more than their foes loved life.'* 
 Familiar with the pictures drawn in the Coran 
 of the beautiful "' Houries " of Paradise,^ the 
 Saracens believed that immediate fruition on the 
 field of battle was the martyr's special prize. 
 We are told of a Moslem soldier, fourscore years 
 of age, who, seeing a comrade fall by his side, 
 cried out, ** Paradise ! how close art thou 
 beneath the arrow's point and the falchion's flash ! 
 Hashim ! even now I see heaven opened, and 
 black-eyed maidens all bridally attired, clasping 
 thee in their fond embrace." And shouting thus, 
 the aged warrior, fired again with the ardour of 
 youth, rushed upon the enemy, and met the envied 
 fate. For those who survived there was the less 
 ethereal but closer prospect of Persian, Greek, or 
 
 * Annals of the Early Caliphate, p. 46. 
 
 See, e.g., Sura Ixxriii. ; " Verily for the Pious, there is a blissful 
 abode : gardens and vineyards ; and damsels with swelling bosoms, 
 of a fitting age ; and a full cup. Lovely large-eyed girls, like pearls 
 hidden in their shells, a reward for that which the faithful shall 
 have wrought. Verily We have created them of a rare creation, 
 virgins, young and fascinating. . . . Modest damsels averting their 
 eyes, whom no man shall have known before, nor any Jinn," etc. 
 
 The reader will not fail to be struck by the materialistic cha- 
 vaeter of Mahomet's Paradise. 
 
The Bapid Spread of Islam. 17 
 
 Coptic women, botli maids and matrons, who, on 
 "being taken captive by their right hand," were 
 forthwith, according to the Coran, without stint 
 of number, at the conqueror's will and pleasure. 
 These, immediately they were made prisoners, 
 might (according to the example of Mahomet him- 
 self at Kheibar) be carried off without further 
 ceremony to the victor's tent ; and in this respect 
 the Saracens certainly were nothing loth to execute 
 upon the heathen the judgment written in their 
 law. So strangely was religious fanaticism fed 
 and fostered in the Moslem camp by incentives 
 irresistible to the Arab ; fight and foray, the spoil 
 of war and captive charms. 
 
 The courage of the troops was stimulated by the Martial 
 
 . . , passages 
 
 divine promises of victory, which were read (and on reciteS?" 
 like occasions still are read) at the head of each battle.' 
 column drawn up for battle. Thus, on the field of 
 Cadesiya, which decided the fate of Persia, the 
 Sura Jehddy with the stirring tale of the thousand 
 angels that fought on the Prophet's side at Bedr 
 was recited, and such texts as these : 
 
 Stir wp the faithful unto battle. If there he 
 twenty stedfast among yoUy they shall put two hundred 
 to flight of the unbelievers, and a hundred shall put 
 to flight a thousand. Victory is from the Lord. He 
 is mighty and imse. I the Lord will cast terror into 
 the hearts of the infidels. Strike off their heads and 
 their fingers' ends. Beware lest ye turn your back 
 C 
 
 A.D. 635. 
 
Yermuk 
 A.D. 634 
 
 18 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 in battle. Yerily^ he tlmt turneth his hack shall 
 draw down upon hi^nself the wrath of God. His 
 abode shall be hell fire; an evil journey thither. 
 And we are told that on the recital of these 
 verses " the heart of the people was refreshed, and 
 their eyes lightened, and they felt the tranquillity 
 that ensueth thereupon." Three days they fought, 
 and on the morning of the fourth, returning with 
 unahated vigour to the charge, they scattered to 
 the winds the vast host of Persia. ^ 
 Defeat of JS'or was it otherwiso in the great hattle of the 
 
 Byzantine ^ 
 
 viSuk.^^^ Yermuk, which laid Syria at the feet of the Arahs. 
 The virgin vigour of the Saracens was fired by a 
 wild fanatical zeal " to fight in the ways of the 
 Lord," obtaining thus heavenly merit and a worldly 
 prize the spoil of Syria and its fair maidens 
 ravished from their homes ; or should they fall 
 by the sword, the black-eyed houries waiting 
 for them on the field of battle. "Of warriors 
 nerved by this strange combination of earth and 
 heaven, of the flesh and of the spirit, of the in- 
 centives at once of faith and rapine, of fanatical 
 devotion to the Prophet and deathless passion for 
 the sex, ten might chase a hundred half-hearted 
 Romans. The forty thousand- Moslems were 
 stronger far than the two hundred and forty thou- 
 sand of the enemy." The combat lasted for weeks; 
 
 See Sura Jehad. Also Annals of the Early Caliphate^ p. 167 
 etaeq. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islwrn. 19 
 
 aid of 
 
 material 
 
 force. 
 
 but at the last the Byzantine force was utterly 
 routed, and thousands hurled in wild confusion 
 over the heetling cliffs of the Yerm{ik, into the 
 yawning chasm of "Wacusa. ^ 
 
 Such, then, was the nature of the Moslem pro- "^f^^ ^^ 
 paganda, such the agency by which the faith was 
 spread, and such the motives at once material 
 and spiritual, by which its martial Missionaries 
 were inspired. No wonder that the effete empires 
 of Rome and Persia recoiled and quivered at the 
 shock, and that province after province quickly 
 fell under the sway of Islam. It is far from my 
 intention to imply that the truths set forth by the 
 new faith had nothing to do with its success. On 
 the contrary, it may well be admitted that but 
 for those truths success might have been impos- 
 sible. The grand enunciation of the Divine Unity, 
 and the duty of an absolute submission to the 
 same; the recognition of a special Providence 
 reaching to the minutest details of life; the in- 
 culcation of prayer and other religious duties ; the 
 establishment of a code in which the leading prin- 
 ciples of morality are enforced ; and the acknow- 
 ledgment of previous revelation in the Jewish and 
 Christian Scriptures, told not only on the idolaters 
 of Arabia and the Fire- worshippers of Persia, but 
 on Jews and Samaritans, and the followers of a 
 debased and priest-ridden Christianity. All this 
 
 JbmaU ofths Early Caliphate^ p. 105, et. seq. 
 
 
20 
 
 The Rise and Declitte of Islam. 
 
 Alternatives 
 offered to the 
 conquered 
 nations: 
 Islam, the 
 Sword, or 
 Tribute. 
 
 is true; but it is still not the less true that 
 without the sword, Islam would never have been 
 planted even in Arabia, much less ever have 
 spread to the countries beyond. The weapons of 
 its warfare were " carnal," material, and earthly ; 
 and by them it conquered. 
 
 The pressure brought to bear on the inhabitants 
 of the countries overrun by Saracen arms was of 
 the most stringent character. They were offered 
 the triple alternative Islam, the Sw^ord or 
 Tribute. The first brought immediate relief. 
 Acceptance of the faith not only stayed the enemy's 
 hand, and conferred immunity from the perils of 
 war, but associated the convert with his conquerors 
 in the common brotherhood and in aU the privileges 
 of Islam. 
 
 Reading the story of the spread of Islam, we 
 are constantly told of this and that enemy, that 
 " being beaten, he believed and embraced the 
 faith.*' Take as an example of an every- day occur- 
 rence, the story of Hormuzan. A Persian prince 
 of high rank long maintained a border warfare 
 against the Moslems. At last he was taken 
 prisoner, and sent in chains to Medina. As he 
 was conducted into the Great Mosque, Omar 
 exclaimed, ** Blessed be the Lord, that hath 
 humbled this man and the like of him ! " He bade 
 them disrobe the prisoner, and clothe him in sack- 
 doth. Then, whip in hand, he upbraided him for 
 
 Aeoeptanoe 
 of Islam, 
 immediate 
 relief from 
 the Bvord. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 21 
 
 his oft- repeated attacks and treacliery. Hormuzan 
 made as if fain to reply ; then gasping, like one faint 
 from thirst, he hegged for water to drink. " Give 
 it him," said the Caliph, *' and let him drink in 
 peace." " Nay," cried the wretched captive, trem- 
 bling, *' I fear to drink, lest some one slay me 
 unawares." " Thy life is safe," said Omar, " until 
 thou hast drunk the water up." The words were 
 no sooner said than Hormuzdn emptied the vessel 
 on the ground. " I wanted not the water," he said, 
 " but quarter, and thou hast given it me." " Liar 1 " 
 cried Omar, angrily, " thy life is forfeit." " But 
 not," interposed the bystanders, " until he drink 
 the water up." " Strange,*' said Omar, " the 
 fellow hath deceived me ; and yet I cannot spare 
 the Hfe of one who hath slain so many noble 
 Moslems. I swear that thou shalt not gain by thy 
 deceit, unless thou wilt forthwith embrace Islam." 
 Upon that, ** believing, he made profession of the 
 true faith upon the spot;" and thenceforth, re- 
 siding at Medina, he received a pension of the 
 highest grade. ^ 
 
 On the other hand, for those who held to their Tribute <md 
 
 humiliation. 
 
 ancestral faith, there was no escape from the second 
 or the third alternative. If they would avoid the 
 sword, or having wielded it were beaten, they must 
 become tributary. Moreover, the payment of tribute 
 is not the only condition enjoined by the Cor^n. 
 
 * See Annals, etc., p. 253. 
 
Christians. 
 
 22 Tke Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 " Fight against them (the Jews and Christians) until 
 they pay tribute with the hand, and are humbled" ^ 
 The command fell on willing ears. An ample 
 interpretation was given to it. And so it came to 
 pass that, though Jews and Christians were, on the 
 payment of tribute, tolerated in the profession of 
 their ancestral faith, they were yet subjected (and 
 iHsabiiities still are Subjected) to severe humiliation. The 
 Jews and uaturo and extent of the degradation to which 
 they were brought down, and the strength of 
 the inducement to purchase exemption and the 
 equality of civil rights, by surrendering their 
 religion, may be learned from the provisions which 
 were embodied in the Code named The Ordi- 
 nance of Omar^ which has been more or less 
 enforced from the earliest times. Besides the 
 tribute and various other imposts levied from 
 the "People of the Book,"^ and the duty of re- 
 ceiving Moslem travellers quartered upon them, 
 the dress of both sexes must be distinguished by 
 broad stripes of yellow. They are forbidden to 
 appear on horseback, and if mounted on a mule or 
 ass, their stirrups must be of wood, and their 
 saddles known by knobs of the same material. 
 Their graves must not rise above the level of the 
 soil, and the devil's mark is placed upon the lintel 
 of their doors. Their children must be taught by 
 
 * Swa IX. T. 30. ' So Jews and Christians as possessing 
 
 Uie Bible are named in the Cor&n. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam, 2*3 
 
 Moslem masters, and the race, however able or well 
 qualified, proscribed from any- office of high 
 emolument or trust. Besides the churches spared 
 at the time of conquest, no new building can be 
 erected for the purposes of worship ; nor can free 
 entrance into their holy places at pleasure be 
 refused to the Moslem. No cross must remain 
 in view outside, nor any church bells be rung. 
 They must refrain from processions in the street 
 at Easter, and other solemnities ; and from any- 
 thing, in short, whether by outward symbol, word, 
 or deed, which could be construed into rivalry, 
 or competition with the ruling faith. Such was 
 the so-called Code of Omar. Enforced with less 
 or greater stringency, according to the intolerance 
 and caprice of the day, by different dynasties, 
 it was, and (however much relaxed in certain 
 countries), it still remains, the law of Islam. One 
 must admire the rare tenacity of the Christian 
 faith, which, with but scanty light and hope, held 
 its ground through weary ages of insult and de- 
 pression, and still survives to see the dawning of 
 a brighter day. ^ 
 
 Such, then, was the hostile attitude of Islam ccntinump 
 militant in its early days ; such the pressure brought in times of 
 to bear on conquered lands for its acceptance ; 
 and such the disabilities imposed upon recusant 
 Jews and Christians. On the one hand, rapine, 
 
 * Se Annalif eto., p. 213. 
 
24 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 plunder, slavery, tribute, civil disability; on the 
 other, security, peace, and honour. We need 
 not be surprised that, under such constraint, 
 conquered peoples succumbed before Islam. Nor 
 were the temporal inducements to conversion 
 confined to the period during which the Saracens 
 were engaged in spreading Islam by force of 
 arms. Let us come down a couple of centuries 
 from the time of Mahomet, and take the reign 
 of the tolerant and liberal-minded Sovereign, 
 Al Mamun. 
 
 Amongst the philosophers of all creeds whom 
 that great Cal:*ph gathered around him at Bagh- 
 dad, was a noble Arab of the Nestorian faith, 
 descended from the kingly tribe of the Beni 
 Kinda, and hence called Al Kindy, A friend of 
 this Eastern Christian, himself a member of the 
 Royal family, invited Al Kindy to embrace 
 Islam in an epistle enlarging on the distin- 
 guished rank which, in virtue of his descent, 
 he would (if a true believer) occupy at court, 
 and the other privileges, spiritual and material, 
 social and conjugal, which he would enjoy. In 
 reply, the Christian wrote an Apology of singular 
 eloquence and power, throwing a flood of light on 
 the worldly inducements which, even at that com- 
 paratively late period, abounded in a Moslem state 
 to promote conversion to Islam. Thus Al M&miin 
 himself, in a speech delivered before his council, 
 
 Evidence of 
 h\ Kindy in 
 second 
 century of 
 Uegira, 
 A.i>. 830. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 
 
 25 
 
 characterizes certain of his courtiers accused as speech of 
 secret adherents of the Zoroastrian faith : 
 
 Though professing Islam, they are free from the same. This 
 they do to be seen of me ; while their convictions, I am well 
 aware, are just the opposite of that which they profess. They 
 belong to a class which embrace Islam, not from any love of 
 this our Faith, but thinking thereby to gain access to Our court, 
 and share in the honour, wealth, and power of the Realm. 
 They have no inward persuasion of that which they outwardly 
 profess } 
 
 Affain, speakinsr of the various classes brousrht converts 
 
 f^) ' r <=> *-> from sordid 
 
 over to Islam by sordid and unworthy motives, natives. 
 Al Kindy says : 
 
 Moreover, there are the idolatrous races, Magians and Je-ws, 
 low people aspiring by the profession of Islam to raise them- 
 selves to riches and power, and to form alliances with the 
 families of the learned and honourable. There are, besides, 
 hypocritical men of the world, who in this way obtain indul- 
 gences in the matter of marriage and concubinage which are 
 forbidden to them by the Christian faith. Then we have the 
 dissolute class given over wholly to the lusts of the flesh. And 
 lastly, there are those who by this means obtain a more secure 
 and easy livelihood.* 
 
 Before leaving this part of our subject, it may ^nSSSth 
 be opportune to quote a few more passages from SSesiw 
 Al Kindy, in which he contrasts the induce- Moslem* 
 ments that, under the military and political pre- 
 dominance of Islam, promoted its rapid spread, 
 and the opposite conditions under which Chris- 
 tianity made progress, slow indeed comparatively, 
 
 ' The Apology of Al Kindy, written at the court of Al Ma.mun 
 A.H, 215 (a.d. 830), with an Essay on its age and authorship, p. 
 xii. Smith & Elder, 1882. Ibid., p. 34. 
 
 'nuur^.' 
 
26 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 The 
 
 Christian 
 
 Confessor 
 
 and the 
 
 Moslem 
 
 Martyr. 
 
 but sure and steady. First, he compares the 
 Christian confessor with the Moslem " Martyr : " 
 
 I marvel much, he says, that ye call those Martyrs that fall 
 in war. Thou hast read, no doubt, in history of the followers 
 of Christ put to death in the persecutions of the kings of Persia and 
 elsewhere. Say, now, which are the more worthy to be called 
 martyrs, these, or thy fellows that fall fighting for the world and 
 the power thereof ? How diverse were the barbarities and kinds of 
 death inflicted on the Christian confessors ! The more they were 
 slain, the more rapidly spread the faith ; in place of one sprang up 
 a hundred. On a certain occasion, when a great multitude had been 
 put to death, one at court said to the king, " The number of them 
 increaseth, instead of as thou thinkest diminishing." "How 
 can that be ?" exclaimed the king. "But yesterday," replied 
 the courtier, "thou didst put such and such a one to death, and 
 lo, there were converted double that number ; and the people 
 say that a man appeared to the confessors from heaven strengthen- 
 ing them in their last moments. " Whereupon the king himself 
 was converted. In those days men thought not their lives dear 
 unto them. Some were transfixed while yet alive ; others had 
 their limbs cut off one after another ; some were cast to th wild 
 beasts, and others burned in the fire. Such continued long to 
 be the fate of the Christian confessors. No parallel is found 
 thereto in any other religion ; and all was endured with con- 
 stancy and even with joy. One smiled in the midst of his 
 great suffering. "Was it cold water," they asked, "that 
 was brought unto thee?" "No," answered the sufferer, "it 
 was one like a youth that stood by me and anointed my wounds ; 
 and that made me smile, for the pain forthwith depai-ted." 
 
 Now tell me seriously, my Friend, which of the two hath the 
 best claim to be called t^. Martyr, ** slain in the ways of the 
 Lord": he who sun-endereth his life rather than renounce his 
 faith ; who, when it is said, Fall down and worship the sun and 
 moon, or the idols of silver and gold, work of men's hands, 
 instead of the true God, refuseth, choosing rather to give up 
 life, abandon wealth, and forego even wife and family ; or he 
 that goeth foi-th, ravaging and laying waste, plundering and 
 spoiling, slaying the men, carrying away their children into 
 captivity, and ravishing their wives and maidens in his unlawful 
 embrace, and then shall call it " Jeh^d in the ways of the Lord?" 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 
 
 27 
 
 . . . And not content therewith, instead of humbling thyself 
 before the Lord, and seeking pardon for the crime, thou sayest 
 of such a one slain in the war that *' he hath earned Paradise," 
 and thou namest him "a Martyr in the ways of the Lord " ! ^ 
 
 And aarain, contrastinar the spread of Islam, AiKindy's 
 
 . . , . ,. r . , contrast of 
 
 "its rattling quiver and its glittering sword," with ie spread of 
 the silent progress of Christianity, our Apologist, ^rf^tiSft^* 
 after dwelling on the teaching and the miracles 
 of the Apostles, writes : 
 
 They published their message by means of these miracles ; 
 and thus great and powerful kings and philosophers and learned 
 men and judges of the earth hearkened unto them, without the 
 lash or rod, with neither sword nor spear, nor the advantages 
 of birth or " Helpers ; " ^ with no wisdom of this world, or 
 eloquence or power of language, or subtlety of reason ; with no 
 worldly inducement, nor yet again with any relaxation of the 
 moral law, but simply at the voice of truth enforced by miracles 
 beyond the power of man to show. And so there came over to 
 them the kings and great ones of the earth. And the philosophers 
 abandoned their systems, with all their wisdom and learning, 
 and betook them to a saintly life, giving up the delights of this 
 world together with their old-established usages, and became 
 followers of a company of poor men, fishers and publicans, who 
 had neither name nor rank, nor any claim other than that they 
 were obedient to the command of the Messiah He that gave 
 them power to do such wonderful works. ^ 
 
 And yet once more, comparing the Apostles with TheApo8ti 
 the military chiefs of Islam, Al Kindy proceeds: 
 
 After the descent of the Holy Ghost and the gift of tongues, 
 the apostles separated each to the country to which he was 
 called. They wrote out in every tongue the Holy Gospel, and 
 
 with the 
 chiefs oi 
 Islam. 
 
 ' Apology^ p. 47, et. seq. 
 
 Alluding to the ^^ Ansdr,' or martial "Helpers" of Mahomet at 
 Medina. Throughout, the Apologist, it will be observed, is drawing 
 a contrast with the means used for the spread of Islam. 
 
 3 Apology, p. 16. 
 
28 
 
 lite Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 the story and teaching of Christ, at the dictation of the Holy 
 Ghost. So the nations drew near unto them, believing their 
 testimony ; and giving up the world and their false beliefs, 
 they embraced the Christian faith as soon as ever the dawn of 
 truth, and the light of the good tidings, broke in upon them. Dis- 
 tinguishing the true from the false, and error from the right 
 direction, they embraced the Gospel and held it fast without 
 doubt or wavering, when they saw the wonderful works and 
 signs of the apostles, and their lives and conversation set after 
 the holy and beautiful example of our Saviour, the traces 
 whereof remain even unto the present day. . . . How different 
 this from the life of thy Master (Mahomet) and his Companions, 
 who ceased not to go forth in battle and rapine, to smite with 
 the sword, to seize the little ones, and ravish the wives and 
 maidens, plundering and laying waste, and carrying the people 
 into captivity. And thus they continue unto this present day, 
 inciting men to these evil deeds, even as it is told of Omar the 
 Caliph. "If one amongst you," said he, "hath a heathen 
 neighbour, and is in need, let him seize and sell him." And 
 many such thuigs they say and teach. Look now at the lives 
 of Simon and PavJ, who went about healing the sick and 
 raising the dead, by the name of Christ our Lord; and mark 
 the contrast.^ 
 
 Such are the 
 conclusions 
 of a native 
 of Chaldeea. 
 
 Ilindrancea 
 or iiiduce- 
 
 inberent m 
 the faith 
 itself. 
 
 Sucli are the reflections of one who lived at a 
 Mahometan Court, and who, moreover, flourishing 
 as he did a thousand years ago, was sufficiently 
 near the early spread of Islam to be able to con- 
 trast what he saw, and heard, and read, of the 
 causes of its success with those of the Gospel, and 
 had the courage to confess the same. 
 
 Apart, now, from the outward and extraneous 
 aids given to Islam by the sword and by the civil 
 arm, I will inquire, for a moment, what natural 
 effect the teaching of Islam itself had in attracting 
 
 Apology,]^, b7. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 29 
 
 or repelling mankind. I do not now speak of any 
 power contained in the truths it inculcated to con- 
 vert to Islam hy the rousing and quickening of 
 spiritual impulses ; for that lies beyond my present 
 purpose, which is, to inquire whether there is not 
 in material causes and secular motives enough in 
 themselves to account for success. I speak rather 
 of the effect of the indulgences granted by Islam, 
 on the one hand, as calculated to attract ; and of 
 the restraints imposed and sacrifices required, on 
 the other, as calculated to repel. How far, in fact, 
 did there exist inducements or hindrances to its 
 adoption inherent in the religion itself ? 
 
 What may be regarded as the most constant Require 
 and irksome of the obligations of Islam is the isiam: 
 
 Prayer. 
 
 duty of prayer, which must be observed at stated 
 intervals, five times every day, with the contingent 
 ceremony of lustration. The rite consists of certain 
 forms and passages to be repeated with prescribed 
 series of prostrations and genuflexions. These 
 must be repeated at the right times, but any- 
 where, in the house or by the wayside, as well as 
 in the Mosque; and the ordinance is obligatory 
 in whatever state of mind the worshipper may- 
 be, or however occupied. As the appointed hour 
 comes round, the Moslem is bound to turn aside 
 to pray, so much so that in Central Asia we read 
 of the police driving the backward worshipper by 
 the lash to discharge the duty. Thus, with the 
 
30 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 mass of Mussulmans, the obligation becomes a mere 
 formal ceremony, and one sees it performed any- 
 where and everywhere by the whole people, like 
 any social custom, as a matter of course. No 
 doubt, there are exceptions; but with the multi- 
 tude it does not involve the irksomeness of a 
 spiritual service, and so it sits lightly on high 
 and low. The Friday prayers should as a rule 
 be attended in the Mosque; but neither need 
 there be much devotion there; and once per- 
 formed the rest of the day is free for pleasure 
 or for business.^ The prohibition of wine is a re- 
 striction which was severely felt in the early days 
 of the faith ; but it was not long before the 
 universal sentiment (though eluded in some quar- 
 ters) supported it. The embargo upon games of 
 chance was certainly unpopular; and the pro- 
 hibition of the receipt of interest was also an 
 important limitation, tending as it did to shackle 
 the freedom of mercantile speculation ; but 
 they have been partially evaded on various 
 pretexts. The Fast throughout the month of 
 Ramz^n was a severer test; but even this lasts 
 only during the day; and at night from sunset 
 till dawn, all restrictions are withdrawn, not only 
 
 Prohibition 
 of wine, 
 games of 
 chance, and 
 usury. 
 
 Fast of 
 Ramzfin. 
 
 * I am not here comparing the value of these obserrances with 
 those of other religions. I am inquiring only how far the obligations 
 of Islam may be held to involve hardship or sacrifice such as might 
 have retarded the progress of Islam by rendering it on its first 
 introduction unpopular. 
 
The Rajpid Spread 
 
 iu respect of food, but of all otherwise lawful 
 gratifications.^ 
 
 There is nothiag, therefore, in the requirements littiethatii 
 and ordinances of Islam, excepting the Fast, that is S^these*^ 
 
 , . ordinances. 
 
 very irksome to humanity, or which, as involving 
 any material sacrifice, or the renunciation of the 
 pleasures or indulgences of Hfe, should lead a man 
 of the world to hesitate in embracing the new faith. 
 
 On the other hand, the license allowed by the indulgences 
 Goran between the sexes, at least, in favour of the matter 
 
 . of wives and 
 
 the male sex, is so wide, that for such as have the concubines, 
 means and the desire to take advantage of it, there 
 need be no limit whatever to sexual indulgence. It 
 is true that adultery is punishable by death, and 
 fornication with stripes. But fchen the Coran gives 
 the believer permission to have four wives at a 
 time. And he may exchange them; that is, he 
 may divorce them at pleasure, takiog others in 
 their stead.^ And, as if this were not license 
 enough, the divine law permits the believer to 
 consort with all female slaves whom he may be the 
 master of, such, namely, as have been taken in 
 war, or have been acquired by gift or purchase. 
 These he may receive into his harem instead of 
 wives, or in addition to them; and without any 
 limit of number or restraint whatever, he is at 
 liberty to cohabit with them. 
 
 ' See Sura ii., r. 88. 
 
 * Stwa^ ir. 18. " Exchange " is the word used in the Conm. 
 
32 The Rise and Declim of Islam. 
 
 Polygamy, A few instances taken at random will enable the 
 and divoroB.* reader to judge how the indulgences thus allowed 
 tafaS!^ ' ^y ^^ religion were taken advantage of in the early- 
 days of Islam. In the great plague which devast- 
 ated Syria seven years after the Prophet's death, 
 Kh^lid, the Sword of God, lost forfij sons. Abdal 
 Rahman, one of the " Companions ** of Mahomet, 
 had issue by sixteen wives, not counting slave- 
 girls.^ Moghira ibn Shoba, another " Companion," 
 and Governor of Kufa and Bussorah, had in his 
 harem eighty consorts, free and servile. Coming 
 closer to the Prophet's household, we find that 
 Mahomet himself at one period had in his harem 
 no fewer than nine wives, and two slave-girls. 
 Of his grandson Hasan, we read that his vagrant 
 passion gained for him the unenviable soubriquet 
 of The Divorcer; for it was only by continually 
 divorcing his consorts that he could harmonize 
 his craving for fresh nuptials with the require- 
 ments of the divine law, which limited the 
 number of his free wives to four. We are told 
 that, as a matter of simple caprice, he exercised 
 the power of divorce seventy (according to other 
 traditions ninety) times. When the leading men 
 complained to Aly of the licentious practice of his 
 son, his only reply was, that the remedy lay in their 
 own hands, of refusing Hasan their daughters alto- 
 
 ' Each of his widows had 100,000 golden pieces left her. Li/t ^ 
 U^homet, p. 171. 
 
The Rapid Spread of Islam. 33 
 
 gether.^ Such are the material inducements, the 
 "works of the flesh," which Islam makes lawful 
 to its votaries, and which promoted thus its early- 
 spread. 
 
 Descending now to modern times, we still find that Practice in 
 this sexual license is taken advantage of more or less times. 
 in different countries and conditions of society. The 
 following examples are simply meant as showing 
 to what excess it is possible for the believer to 
 carry these indulgenees, under the sanction of his 
 religion. Of the Malays in Penang it was written The Maiayi 
 not very long ago : " Young men of thirty to 
 thirty- five years of age may be met with who 
 have had from fifteen to twenty wives, and chil- 
 dren by several of them. These women have 
 been divorced, married others, and had children 
 by them." Regarding Egypt, Lane tells us: "I ^^g^oj, 
 have heard of men who have been in the habit e^^^^ 
 of marrying a new wife almost every month." ^ 
 Burkhardt speaks of an Arab, forty-five years old, 
 who had had fifty wives, "so that he must have 
 divorced two wives and married two fresh ones on 
 the average every year." And not to go further 
 
 ' " These divorced wives were irrespective of his concubines or 
 slave-girls, upon the number and variety of whom there was no 
 limit or check whatever." Annals^ p. 418. 
 
 Lane adds, " There are many men in this country who, in the 
 course of ten years, have married as many as twenty, thirty, or 
 more wives ; and women not far advanced in age have been wives 
 to a dozen or more husbands successively.' 
 entirely within the religioui sanction. 
 
34 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 than the sacred city of Mecca, the late reigning 
 Princess of Bhop^l in Central India, herself an 
 orthodox follower of the Prophet, after making the 
 pilgrimage of the Holy places, writes thus : 
 
 The Princess 
 of Bnop&l's 
 accoTint of 
 Mecca, 
 
 Islam 
 sanctions a 
 license 
 between th 
 sexes which 
 Christianity 
 forbids. 
 
 Women frequently contract as many as ten marriages, and 
 those who have only been married twice are few in number. 
 If a woman sees her husband growing old, or if she happen to 
 admire anyone else, she goes to the Shereef (the spiritual and 
 civil head of the holy city) ; and after having settled the matter 
 with him, she puts away her husband, and takes to herself 
 another, who is perhaps young, good-looking, and rich. In 
 this way a marriage seldom lasts more than a year or two. 
 
 And of slave-girls, the same high and impartial 
 authority, still writing of the Holy city and of her 
 fellow Moslems, tells us: 
 
 Some of the women (African and Georgian girls) are taken 
 in marriage ; and after that, on being sold again, they receive 
 from their masters a divorce, and are sold in their houses, 
 that is to say, they are sent to the purchaser from their master's 
 house on receipt of payment, and are not exposed for sale in the 
 slave-market. They are only married when purchased for the 
 first time. . . . When the poorer people buy (female) slaves they 
 keep them for themselves, and change them every year as one 
 would replace old things by new ; but the women who have 
 children are not sold.^ 
 
 What I desire to make clear is the fact that 
 such things may he practised with the sanction 
 of the Scripture which the Moslem holds to he 
 
 * Filgrimage to Mecca, by Her Highness the reigning Begiun of 
 Bhopal ; translated by Mrs. W. Osborne, 1870, pp. 82, 88. Slave-girls 
 cannot be married until freed by their master. What Her Highness 
 tells us of women divorcing their husbands, is of course entirely ultra 
 vires, and shows how the laxity of conjugal relations allowed to the 
 male sex has extended itself to the female also, and that in a city 
 where, if anywhere, we should have expected to find the law observed. 
 
Tfte Rapid Sjpread of Islam. 35 
 
 divine, and that these same indulgences have from 
 the first existed as inducements which helped 
 materially to forward the spread of the faith. I 
 am very far, indeed, from implying that excessive 
 indulgence in polygamy is the universal state of 
 Moslem society. Happily this is not the case. 
 There are not only individuals, but tribes and 
 districts, which, either from custom or preference, 
 voluntarily restrict the license given them in the 
 Goran ; while the natural influence of the family, 
 even in Moslem countries, has an antiseptic ten- 
 dency that often itself tends greatly to neutralise 
 the evil.^ Nor am I seeking to institute any con- 
 trast between the morals at large of Moslem 
 countries and the rest of the world. If Christian 
 nations are (as with shame it must be confessed) 
 in some strata of society immoral, it is in the teeth 
 of their Divine law. And the restrictions of that oJ^gganitJ 
 law are calculated, and in the early days of Chris- froSSmai 
 tianity did tend, in point of fact, to deter men, ^ ^ ^^'^'^'^ 
 devoted to the indulgences of the flesh, from em- 
 
 ' In India, for example, there are Mahometan races among whom 
 monogamy, as a rule, prerails by custom, and individuals exercising 
 their right of polygamy are looked upon with disfavour. On the 
 other hand, we meet occasionally with men who aver that rather 
 against their will (as they will sometimes rather amusingly say) 
 they have been forced by custom or family influence to add by 
 polygamy to their domestic burdens. In Mahometan countries, 
 however, when we hear of a man confining himself to one wife, 
 it does not necessarily follow that he has no slaves to consort with 
 in his harem. I may remark that slave-girls have by Mahometan 
 laws no conjugal rights whatever; but are like playthings at the 
 biolute discretion of their master. 
 
36 The Rise and Decline oj Islam. 
 
 bracing the faith.^ TLe religion of Mahomet, on 
 the other hand, gives direct sanction to the sexual 
 indulgences we have been speaking of. Thus it 
 panders to the lower instincts of humanity, and 
 makes its spread the easier. In direct opposition 
 to the precepts of Christianity, it " makes provision 
 for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." Hence 
 Islam the Islam has been well called by its own votaries the 
 
 "EasT 
 
 y- Easy Way. Once more, to quote Al Kindy : 
 
 Thou iBvitest me (says our Apologist to his Friend) into the 
 ** Ef^y way of faith and practice." Alas, alas ! for our Saviour 
 in the Gospel telleth us, ' ' When ye have done all that ye are 
 commanded, say, "We are unprofitable servants ; we have but done 
 that which was commanded us." Where then is our merit ? 
 The same Lord Jesus saith, ** How strait is the road which 
 leadeth unto Ufe, and how few they be that walk therein ! How 
 wide the gate that leadeth to destruction, and how many there 
 be that go in thereat!" Different this, my Friend, from the 
 comforts of thy wide and easy gate, and the facilities for enjoy- 
 ing, as thou wouldst have me, the pleasures offered by thy faith 
 in wives and damsels ! ^ 
 
 wy 
 
 ' The case of the Corinthian offender is much in point, as showing 
 how the strict discipline of the Church must have availed to make 
 Christianity unpopular with the mere worldling. 
 
 ' Apology^ p. 51. I repeat that, in the remarks I have made 
 
 under this head, no comparison is sought to be drawn betwixt the 
 
 morality of nominally Christian and Moslem peoples. On thii 
 
 subject I may be allowed to quote from what I have said elsewhere : 
 
 Laarity The Itloslem advocate will urge . . the social evil as the necessary 
 
 nomiifal result of inexorable monogamy. The Cora,n not only denounces any 
 
 Christians ; illicit laxity between the sexes in the severest terms, but exposes the 
 
 transgressor to condign punishment. For this reason, and because 
 
 the conditions of what is licit are so accommodating and wide, a 
 
 certain negative virtue (it can hardly be called continence or chastity) 
 
 pervades Mahometan society, in contrast with which the gross and 
 
 systematic immorality in certain parts of every European community 
 
 may be regarded by the Christian with shame and confusion. In 
 
/ 
 The Spread of Islam Stayed. 37 
 
 n. 
 
 Why the Spread op Islam was Stayed. 
 
 Having thus traced the rapid early spread of J^^^nary 
 Islam to its proper source, I proceed to the remain- ^J^f' 
 ing topics, namely, the causes which have checked So^iida 
 its further extension, and those likewise which have 
 depressed the followers of this religion in the scale 
 of civilization. I shall take the former first, just 
 remarking here in respect of tho latter, that the 
 depression of Islam is itself one of the causes 
 which retard the expansion of the faith. 
 
 As the first spread of Islam was due to the ^gei^ 
 sword, so when the sword was sheathed Islam ^n*S?y,to 
 ceased to spread. The apostles and missionaries of cSuading 
 Islam were, as we have seen, the martial trihes of 
 
 a purely Mahometan land, however low may he the general level of 
 
 moral feeling, the still lower depths of fallen humanity are unknown. 
 
 The " social evil," and intemperance, prevalent in Christian lands, 
 
 are the strongest weapons in the armoury of Islam. We point, and 
 
 justly, to the higher morality and civilization of those who do 
 
 observe the precepts of the Gospel, to the stricter unity and virtue 
 
 which cement the family, and to the elevation of the sex ; but in 
 
 vain, while the example of our great cities, and too often of our 
 
 representatives abroad, belies the argument- And yet the argument 
 
 is sound. For, in proportion as Christianity exercises her legitimate Vanishes in 
 
 influence, vice and intemperance will wane and vanish, and the cimstianSy 
 
 higher morality pervade the whole body; whereas in Islam the exercises 
 
 deteriorating influences of polygamy, divorce, and concubinage, ^^^pg 
 
 have been stereotyped for all time." The Coran: its Composition 
 
 and Teaching, and the Testimony it bears to the Eoly Scriptures, 
 
 p. 60. 
 
38 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 Arabia; that is to say, tlie grand miKtary force 
 organized by Omar, and by him launched upon 
 the surrounding nations. Gorged with the 
 plunder of the world, these beganj after a time, 
 to settle on their lees, and to mingle with the 
 ordinary population. So soon as this came to 
 pass, they lost the fiery zeal which at the first 
 had made them irresistible. By the second and 
 third centuries, the Arabs had disappeared as the 
 standing army of the Caliphate, or, in other words, as 
 a body set apart for the dissemination of the faith. 
 The crusading spirit, indeed, ever and anon burst 
 forth, and it still bursts forth, as opportunity oflfers, 
 simply for the reason that this spirit pervades the 
 Coran, and is ingrained in the creed. But with the 
 special agency created and maintained during the 
 first ages for the spread of Islam, the incentive of 
 crusade ceased as a distinctive missionary spring of 
 action, and degenerated into the common lust of 
 conquest which we meet with in the world at large. 
 With The extension of Islam depending upon military 
 
 cessation of j. o x ./ 
 
 rSTceased succcss, stoppcd whorevcr that was checked. The 
 to spread. religion advaucod or retired, speaking broadly, as 
 the armed predominance made head or retroceded. 
 Thus the tide of Moslem victory, rushing along 
 the coast of Africa, extinguished the seats of 
 European civilization on the Mediterranean, over- 
 whelmed Spain, and was rapidly advancing north, 
 when the onward wave was stemmed at Tours; 
 
The Spread of Islam Stayed, 
 
 and so with the arms, the faith also, of Islam was 
 driven back into Spain, and bounded by the 
 Pyrenees. So likewise, the hold which the religion 
 seized both of Spain and Sicily came to an end 
 with Mussulman defeat. It is true that when once 
 long and firmly rooted, as in India and China, 
 Islam may survive the loss of military power, and 
 even flourish. But it is equally true, that in no 
 single country has Islam been planted, nor has it 
 anywhere materially spread, saving under the 
 banner of the Crescent, or the political ascendancy 
 of some neighbouring state. Accordingly, we find 
 that, excepting some barbarous zones in Africa 
 which have been raised thereby a step above the 
 grovelling level of fetishism, the faith has in 
 modern times made no advance worth mentioning. ^ 
 From the Jewish and Christian religions there has 
 
 ' Much loose assertion has been made regarding the progress of Islam Alleged 
 in Africa; but I have found no proof of it apart fromanned, political, igj'^^^'* 
 or trading influence, dogged too often by the slave trade ; to a great Africa, 
 extent a social rather than a religious movement, and raising the 
 fetish tribes (haply without intemperance) into a somewhat higher 
 stage of semi-barbarism. I have met nothing which would touch 
 the argument in the text. The following is the testimony of Dr. 
 Koelle, the best possible witness on the subject : 
 
 " It is true, the Mohammedan nations in the interior of Africa, 
 namely, the Bornuese, Mandengas, Pulas, etc., invited by the weak 
 and defenceless condition of the surrounding negro tribes, still 
 occasionally make conquests, and after subduing a tribe of Pagans, 
 by almost exterminating its male population, and committing the 
 most horrible atrocities, impose upon those that remain the creed 
 of Islam; but keeping in view the whole of the Mohammedan 
 world, this fitful activity reminds one only of those green branches 
 sometimes seen on trees, already, and for long, decayed at the core 
 from age." Food for Reflection^ p. 37. 
 
40 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 (again speaking broadly) been no secession what- 
 ever to Islam since the wave of Saracen victor}' was 
 stayed, excepting by the force of arms. Even in the 
 palmy days of the Abbasside Caliphs, our Apologist 
 could challenge his adversary to produce a single con- 
 version otherwise than by reason of some powerful 
 material inducement. Here is his testimony : 
 
 Al Kindy's 
 challenge to 
 produce a 
 Christian 
 convert to 
 Islam apart 
 from 
 
 material in- 
 ducements. 
 
 Now tell me, hast thou ever seen, my Friend (the Lord be 
 gracious tinto thee !) or ever heard, of a single person of soimd 
 mind any one of learning and experience, and acquainted with 
 the Scriptures renouncing Christianity otherwise than for some 
 worldly object to be reached only through thy religion, or for 
 some gratification withheld by the faith of Jesus ? Thou wilt 
 find none. For, excepting the tempted ones, all continue sted- 
 fast in their faith, secure under our most Gracious Sovereign, 
 in the profession of their own religion.^ 
 
 III. 
 
 Low Position of Islam in the Scale of 
 Civilization. 
 
 Social and 
 
 intellectual 
 
 depresiion. 
 
 Islam 
 
 intended for 
 the Arabs. 
 
 I PASS on to consider why Mahometan nations 
 occupy so low a position, halting as almost every- 
 where they do in the march of social and intellectual 
 development. 
 
 The reason is not far to find. Islam was meant 
 for Arabia, not for the world ; ^for the Arabs of 
 the seventh century, not for the Arabs of all time ; 
 and being such, and nothing more, its claim of 
 
 ^ Apologift p. 84. 
 
The Decadence of Islam. 41 
 
 divine origin renders change or development im- 
 possible. It has within itself neither the germ of 
 natural growth, nor the lively spring of adaptation. 
 Mahomet declared himself a prophet to the 
 Arabs ;^ and however much in his later days 
 he may have contemplated the reformation of 
 other religions beyond the Peninsula, or the further 
 spread of his own (which is doubtful), still 
 the rites and ceremonies, the customs and the 
 laws enjoined upon his people, were suitable (if 
 suitable at all) for the Arabs of that day, and in 
 many respects for them alone. Again, the code 
 containing these injunctions, social and ceremonial, 
 as well as doctrinal and didactic, is embodied with 
 every particularity of detail, as part of the divine 
 law, in the Cor&n ; and so defying, as sacrilege, all 
 human touch, it stands unalterable for ever. From 
 the stiff and rigid shroud in which it is thus 
 swathed, the relis:ion of Mahomet cannot emerge, wants tne 
 
 . . faculty of 
 
 It has no plastic power beyond that exercised in adaDtatiou 
 its earliest days. Hardened now and inelastic, it can 
 neither adapt itself, nor yet shape its votaries, 
 nor even suffer them to shape themselves, to the 
 varying circumstances, the wants and developments 
 of mankind. 
 
 We may iudge of the local and inflexible cha- Local 
 
 ''<''-> ^ ceremonies; 
 
 racter of the faith from one or two of its ceremonies. Pilgrimage. 
 To perform the pilgrimage to Mecca and Mount 
 
 Annuls, pp. 61, 224. 
 
42 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 Arafat, with the slaying of victims at Mina, and 
 the worship of the Kdaba, is an ordinance obliga- 
 tory (with the condition only that they have the 
 means) on all believers, who are bound to make 
 the journey even from the furthest ends of the 
 earth; an ordinance intelligible enough in a 
 local worship, but unmeaning and impracticable 
 when required of a world-wide religion. The 
 Fast of same may be said of the Fast of Ramz^n. It is 
 
 RamzSn. 
 
 prescribed in the Cordn to be observed by all with 
 undeviating strictness, during the whole day, from 
 earliest dawn till sunset, throughout the month, with 
 specified exemptions for the sick, and penalties for 
 every occasion on which it is broken. The com- 
 mand, imposed thus with an iron rule on male and 
 female, young and old, operates with excessive 
 inequality in different seasons, lands, and climates. 
 However suitable to countries near the equator, 
 where the variations of day and night are imma- 
 terial, the Fast becomes intolerable to those who 
 are far removed either towards the north or the 
 south ; and, still closer to the poles, where night 
 merges into day, and day into night, impracticable. 
 Again, with the lunar year (itself an institution 
 divinely imposed), the month of E-amzan travels in 
 the third of a century from month to month over 
 the whole cycle of a year. The Fast was estab- 
 lished at a time when Kamzan fell in winter, and 
 the change of season was probably not foreseen 
 
The Decadence of Islam. 43 
 
 by the Prophet. But the result is one which, 
 under some conditions of time and place, involves 
 the greatest hardship. For, when the Fast comes 
 round to summer, the trial in a sultry climate, like 
 that of the huming Indian plains, of passing the 
 whole day without a morsel of bread or a drop of 
 water, becomes to many the occasion of intense 
 suffering. Such is the effect of the Arabian 
 legislator's attempt at circumstantial legislation in 
 matters of religious ceremonial. 
 
 Nearly the same is the case with all the religious 
 obligations of Islam, prayer, lustration, etc. But ^^^^ 
 although the minuteness of detail with which these ow^ng'to*" 
 are enjoined, tends towards that jejune and formal be^in^th* 
 worship which we witness everywhere in Moslem 
 lands, still there is nothing in these observances 
 themselves which (religion apart) should lower the 
 social condition of Mahometan populations, and 
 prevent their emerging from that normal state of 
 semi-barbarism and imcivilized depression in which 
 we find all Moslem peoples. For the cause of this 
 we must look elsewhere; and it may be recognized, 
 without doubt, in the relations established by the 
 Goran between the sexes. Polygamy, divorce, 
 servile concubinage, and the veil, are at the root of 
 Moslem decadence. 
 
 In respect of married life, the condition allotted BepreaOm 
 
 ^ . . . ofthe 
 
 by the Coran to woman is that of an inferior femaOei 
 dependent creature, destined only for the servicej. 
 
44 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 of lier master, liable to be cast adrift without tlie 
 assignment of a single reason, or the notice of a 
 single hour. While the husband possesses the 
 power of divorce, absolute, immediate, unquestioned, 
 QO privilege of a corresponding nature has been 
 reserved for the wife. She hangs on, however 
 unwilling, neglected, or superseded, the perpetual 
 slave of her lord, if such be his will. When 
 actually divorced, she can, indeed, claim her dower, 
 her hirey as it is called in the too plain language 
 of the Coran ; but the knowledge that the wife can 
 make this claim is at the best a miserable security 
 against capricious taste ; and in the case of bond- 
 maids even that imperfect check is wanting. The 
 power of divorce is not the only power that may be 
 exercised by the tyrannical husband. Authority 
 to confine and to heat his wives is distinctly vested 
 in his discretion.^ " Thus restrained, secluded, de- 
 graded, the mere minister of enjoyment, liable at 
 the caprice or passion of the moment to be turned 
 adrift, it would be hard to say that the position of 
 a wife was improved by the code of Mahomet."^ 
 Divorce. Evcu if the privilege of divorce and marital tyranny 
 be not exercised, the knowledge of its existence 
 as a potential right must tend to abate the self- 
 respect, and in like degree to weaken the influence 
 of the sex, impairing thus the ameliorating and 
 civilizing power which she was meant to exercise 
 > Sura IV. V. 33. * Life of Mahomet y p. 348. 
 
The Decadence of Islam. 
 
 45 
 
 upon mankind. And the evil has been stereotyped 
 by the Goran for all time. 
 
 I must quote one more passage from Principal Principal 
 Fairbairn on the lowering influence of Moslem homeuS^" 
 
 . under Islam. 
 
 domestic life: 
 
 The god of Mohammed . . . "spares the sins the Arab loves. 
 A religion that does not purify the home cannot regenerate the 
 race ; one that depraves the home is certain to deprave humanity. 
 Motherhood is to be sacred if manhood is to be honourable. Spoil 
 the wife of sanctity, and for the man the sanctities of life have 
 perished. And so it has been vrith Islam. It has reformed and 
 lifted savage tribes ; it has deprived and barbarised civilized 
 nations. At the root of its fairest culture, a worm has ever 
 lived that has caused its blossoms soon to wither and die. "Were 
 Mahomet the hope of man, then his state were hopeless ; before 
 him could only be retrogression, tyranny, and despair."^ 
 
 Still worse is the influence of servile concubinage, pemoraiiz- 
 Tlie following is the evidence of a shrewd and able S^serviil^** 
 observer in the East : 
 
 All Zenana life must be bad for men at all stages of their 
 existence. ... In youth, it must be ruin to be petted and 
 spoiled by a company of submissive slave-girls. In manhood, 
 it is nd less an evil that when a man enters into private life, 
 his affections should be put up to auction among foolish, fond 
 competitors full of mutual jealousies and slanders. We are 
 not left entirely to conjecture aa to the effect of female influence 
 on home life, when it is exerted under these unenlightened 
 and demoralizing conditions. That is, plainly, an element lying 
 at the root of all the most important features that differentiate 
 progress from stagnation. * 
 
 Such are the institutions which ffnaw at the root petenorat- 
 
 " ingmflnenoe 
 
 of Islam, and prevent the growth of freedom and estlbiSd 
 
 The City of Ood, p. 97. Hodder & Stoughton, 1883. 
 " The Turks in India, by H. Qt. Keene, o.s.i. Allen & Company, 
 1879. 
 
 between tba 
 sexes. 
 
46 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 civilization. "By these tlie unity of the household 
 is fatally broken, and the purity and virtue of the 
 family tie weakened ; the vigour of the dominant 
 classes is sapped ; the body politic becomes weak 
 and languid, excepting for intrigue ; and the throne 
 itself liable to fall a prey to a doubtful or contested 
 succession,"^ contested by the progeny of the 
 various rivals crowded into the royal harem. From 
 the palace downwards polygamy and servile con- 
 cubinage lower the moral tone, loosen the ties of 
 domestic life, and hopelessly depress the people. 
 The VeiL Nor is the Ycil albeit under the circumstances 
 
 a necessary precaution less detrimental, though 
 in a different way, to the interests of Moslem 
 society. This strange custom owes its origin 
 to the Prophet's jealous temperament. It is for- 
 bidden in the Coran for women to appear unveiled 
 before any member of the other sex, with \_ie 
 exception of certain near relatives of specified pro- 
 pinquity.^ And this law, coupled with other restric- 
 tions of the kind, has led to the imposition of the 
 Boorka or Furdah (the dress which conceals the 
 person, and the veil), and to the greater or less 
 seclusion of the Harem and Zenana. 
 
 Annals, etc., p. 457. 
 
 See Sura xxiv. v. 32. Tlie excepted relations are : " Husbands, 
 fathers, husbands' fathers, sons, husbands' sons, brothers, brothers' 
 sons, sisters' sons, the captives which their right hands possess, 
 such men as attend them and hare no need of women, or children 
 below the age of puberty " 
 
The Decadence of Islam. 47 
 
 This ordinance, and the practices flowing from it, Society 
 must survive, more or less, so long as the Cor^n the^ ^ 
 
 withdrawal 
 
 remains the rule of faith. It may appear, at first f ^^\ 
 sight, a mere negative evil, a social custom com- 
 paratively harmless ; hut in truth it has a more 
 debilitating effect upon the Moslem race perhaps 
 than anything else, for by it Woman is totally with- 
 drawn from her proper place in the social circle. 
 She may, indeed, in the comparatively laxer license 
 of some lands, be seen flitting along the streets 
 or driving in her carriage ; but, even so, it is like 
 one belonging to another world, veiled, shrouded, 
 and cut off from intercourse with those around 
 her. Free only in the retirement of her own 
 secluded apartments, she is altogether shut out 
 from her legitimate sphere in the duties and 
 enjoyments of life. But the blight on the sex 
 itself, from this unnatural reg^alation, sad as it is, 
 must be regarded as a minor evil. The mischief 
 extends beyond her. The tone and framework of 
 society, as it came from the Maker's hands, are 
 altered, damaged, and deteriorated. From the veil 
 there flows this double injury. The bright, refining, 
 softening influence of woman is withdrawn from the 
 outer world ; and social life, wanting the gracious 
 influences of the female sex, becomes, as we see 
 throughout Moslem lands, forced, hard, unnatural, 
 and morose. Moreover, the Mahometan nations, J^uncated'" 
 for all purposes of common elevation, and for all ^o^eS ' 
 
raedan 
 society 
 
 48 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 efforts of philantliropy and liberty, are (as they 
 live in public and beyond the inner recesses of 
 tbeir homes) but a truncated and imperfect ex- 
 hibition of humanity. They are wanting in one 
 The defects of its coustitueut parts, the better half, the human- 
 
 of Moham- ^ . . 
 
 izing and the softening element. And it would 
 be against the nature of things to suppose that the 
 body thus shorn and mutilated, can possess in itself 
 the virtue and power of progress, reform, and 
 elevation. The link connecting the family with 
 social and public life is detached, and so neither is 
 en rapport, as it should be, with the other. Eeforms 
 fail to find entrance into the family, or to penetrate 
 the domestic soil, where alone they could take root, 
 grow into the national mind, live and be per- 
 petuated. Under such conditions the seeds of 
 civilization refuse to germinate. No real growth 
 is possible in free and useful institutions, nor any 
 permanent and healthy force in those great move- 
 ments which elsewhere tend to uplift the masses 
 and elevate mankind. There may, it is true, be 
 some advance, from time to time, in science and 
 in material prosperity ; but the social groundwork 
 for the same is wanting, and the people surely 
 relapse into the semi-barbarism forced upon them 
 by an ordinance which is opposed to the best in- 
 stincts of humanity. Sustained progress becomes 
 impossible. Such is the outcome of an attempt 
 to improve upon nature, and banish Woman, the 
 
The Decadence of Islam. 49 
 
 help-meet of man, from tlie position assigned by- 
 God to her in the world. 
 
 At the same time I am not prepared to say that Jefesi!/^" 
 in view of the laxity of the conjugal relations Sfngcir- 
 inherent in the institutions of Islam, some such 
 social check as that of the Veil (apart from the 
 power to confine and castigate) is not needed for 
 the repression of license and the maiatenance of 
 outward decency. There is too much reason to 
 apprehend that free social intercourse might other- 
 wise he dangerous to morality under the code oi 
 Mahomet, and with the example before men 
 and women of the early worthies of Islam. So 
 long as the sentiments and habits of the Moslem 
 world remain as they are, some remedial oi 
 preventive measure of the kind seems indispens- 
 able. But the peculiarity of the Mussulman polity^ 
 as we have seen, is such that the sexual laws and 
 institutions which call for restrictions of the kind, 
 as founded on the Coran are incapable of change ; 
 they must co-exist with the faith itself, and last 
 while it lasts. So long, then, as this polity prevails, 
 the depression of woman, as well as her exclusion 
 from the social circle, must injure the health and 
 vitality of the body politic, impair its purity and 
 grace, paralyze vigour, retard progress in the direc- 
 tion of freedom, philanthropy, and moral elevation, 
 and generally perpetuate the normal state of 
 Mahometan peoples, as one of semi-barbarism. 
 
50 The Rise aivl Jjrdhie of Islam. 
 
 R^apituia- To recapitulate, we have seen : 
 
 First. That Islam was propagated mainly by the 
 sword. With the tide of conquest the religion 
 went forward ;" where conquest was arrested it 
 made no advance heyond ; and at the withdrawal 
 of the Moslem arms the faith also commonly 
 retired. 
 
 Second. The inducements, whether material or 
 spiritual, to embrace Islam, have proved insufficient 
 of themselves (speaking broadly) to spread the 
 faith, in the absence of the sword, and without the 
 influence of the political or secular amL 
 
 Third. The ordinances of Islam, those especially 
 having respect to the female sex, have induced an 
 inherent weakness, which depresses the social 
 system, and retards its progress. 
 
 Contrast ^^ ^^ reader should have followed me in the 
 
 oiristianity argument by which these conclusions have been 
 
 reached, the contrast with the Christian faith has no 
 
 doubt been suggesting itself at each successive step. 
 
 I hnstianity Christianity, as Al Kindy has so forcibly put it, 
 
 ')'?Spag.tcd gained a firm footing in the world without the 
 
 sword, and without any aid whatever from the 
 
 secular arm. So far from having the countenance 
 
 of the State, it triumphed in spite of opposition, 
 
 persecution, and discouragement. "My kingdom," 
 
 said Jesus, * is not of this world. If My kingdom 
 
 )Ot 
 110 
 
 i)y force, 
 
The Decadence of Islam. 5 1 
 
 were of this world, then would My servants fight 
 that I should not he delivered to the Jews ; but 
 now is My kingdom not from hence. . . For this 
 end came I into the world, that I should hear 
 witness to the truth. Every one that is of the 
 truth, heareth My voice." ^ 
 
 The religion itself, in its early days, offered no Nor by 
 worldly attractions or indulgences. It was not, ^ucements. 
 like Islam, an "Easy way.** Whether in with- 
 drawal from social observances deeply tainted with 
 idolatry, the refusal to participate in sacrificial 
 ceremonies insisted on by the rulers, or in the 
 renunciation of indulgences inconsistent with a 
 saintly life, the Christian profession required self- 
 denial at every step. 
 
 But otherwise the teaching of Christianity AdaptiTe 
 
 principles 
 
 nowhere interfered with the civil institutions of andpiastio 
 
 faculty of 
 
 the countries into which it penetrated, or with any Christianity 
 social customs or practices that were not in them- 
 selves immoral or idolatrous. It did not, indeed, 
 neglect to guide the Christian life. But it did so by 
 the enunciation of principles and rules of wide and 
 far-reaching application. These, no less than the 
 injunctions of the Oor&n, served amply for the 
 exigencies of the day. But they have done a vast 
 deal more. They have proved themselves capable 
 of adaptation to the most advanced stages of 
 social development and intellectual elevation. And 
 
 John xyiii. 36, 37. 
 
Examples: 
 Slayery. 
 
 52 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 what is infinitely more, it may be claimed for the 
 lessons embodied in the Gospel that they have 
 been themselves promotive, if indeed they have 
 not oeen the immediate cause, of all the most 
 important reforms and philanthropies that now 
 prevail in Christendom. The principles thus laid 
 down contained germs endowed with the power of 
 life and growth which, expanding and flourishing, 
 slowly it may be, but surely, have at the last home 
 the fruits we see. 
 
 Take, for example, the institution of Slavery. It 
 prevailed in the Eoman Empire at the intrjduction 
 of Christianity, as it did in Arabia at the rise of 
 Islam. In the Moslem code, as we have seen, the 
 practice has been perpetuated. Slavery must be 
 held permissible so long as the CorsLn is taken to 
 be the rule of faith. The divine sanction thus im- 
 pressed upon the institution, and the closeness with 
 which by law and custom it intermingles with 
 social and domestic life, make it impossible for any 
 Mahometan people to impugn slavery as contrary 
 to sound morality, or for any body of loyal believers 
 to advocate its abolition upon the ground of prin- 
 ciple. There are, moreover, so many privileges 
 and gratifications accruing to the higher classes 
 from its maintenance, that (excepting under the 
 strong pressure of European diplomacy) no sincere 
 and hearty effort cail be expected from the Moslem 
 race in the suppression of the inhuman traffic, the 
 
"'^ 
 
 The Decadence of Islam. 63 
 
 ^_ , 
 
 horrors of wHcli, as pursued by M^oslem slave 
 traders, their Prophet would have been the first to 
 denounce. Look now at the wisdom with which 
 the Gospel treats the institution. It is nowhere in 
 so many words proscribed, for that would, under 
 the circumstances, have led to the abnegation of 
 relative duties and the disruption of society. It is 
 accepted as a prevailing institution recognized by 
 the civil powers. However desirable freedom 
 might be, slavery was not inconsistent with the 
 Christian profession: "Art thou called being a ioor.vii^2i. 
 servant P care not for it : but if thou mayest be 
 made free, use it rather." The duty of obedience 
 to his master is enjoined upon the slave, and 
 the duty of mildness and urbanity towards his 
 slave is enjoined upon the master. But with all 
 this was laid the seed which grew into emancipa- 
 tion. ** Our Father" gave the keynote of freedom. 
 " Ye are aU the children of God by faith in Christ gf- ^- . 
 Jesus." " There is neither . . bond nor free, 
 for ye are all one in Christ Jesus." "He that l^^"^ 
 is called in the Lord, being a servant, is the Lord's 
 freeman." The converted slave is to be received 
 *' not now as a servant, but above a servant, a brother Philemon w 
 beloved." The seed has borne its proper harvest. 
 Late in time, no doubt, but by a sure and certain 
 development, the grand truth of the equality of the 
 human race, and the right of every man and woman 
 to freedom of thought, and (within reasonable 
 
64 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 limit of law) to freedom of action, lias triumplied; 
 and it has triumphed through the spirit and the 
 precepts inculcated hy the gospel eighteen hundred 
 years ago. 
 Relations j^or is it otherwise with the relations established 
 
 between the 
 
 '^^^'* oetween the sexes. Polygamy, divorce, and concu- 
 
 binage with bondmaids, have been perpetuated, as 
 we have seen, by Islam for all time ; and the ordi- 
 nances connected therewith have given rise, in the 
 laborious task of defining the conditions and limits of 
 what is lawful, to a mass of prurient casuistry defiling 
 the books of Mahometan law. Contrast with this 
 our Saviour's words, ** He which made them at the 
 
 ifatt, six. 4. heginning made them male and female. , What 
 therefore God hath joined together let no man put 
 asunder. ^^ From which simple utterance have 
 resulted monogamy, and (in the absence of 
 adultery) the indissolubility of the marriage bond. 
 While in respect of conjugal duties we have such 
 
 . Cor. vii. 8. large, but sufficiently intelligible, commands as *' to 
 render due benevolence," whereby, while the obli- 
 gations of the marriage state are maintained, 
 Christianity is saved from the impurities which, in 
 expounding the ordinances of Mahomet, surround 
 the sexual ethics of Islam, and cast so foul a stain 
 upon its literature. 
 
 vim!l^^ ' Take, again, the place of woman in the world. 
 We need no injunction of the veil or the harem. 
 As the temples of the Holy Ghost, the body is to 
 
The Decadence of Islam, 55 
 
 be kept undefiled, and every one is "to possess iThe8.iT.4 
 his vessel in sanctification and honour." Men are 
 to treat " the elder women as mothers ; the younger i Tim. v. 2. 
 as sisters, with all purity.'* "Women are to " adorn 
 themselves in modest apparel, with shamef acedness 1 1'im. a 
 and sobriety." These, and such like, maxims 
 embrace the whole moral fitness of the several 
 relations and duties which they define. They are 
 adapted for all ages of time, and for all conditions 
 of men. They are capable of being taken by every 
 individual for personal guidance, according to his 
 own sense of propriety, and they can be accom- 
 modated by society at large with a due reference 
 to the habits and customs of the day. The attempt 
 of Mahomet to lay down, with circumstantial 
 minuteness, the position of the female sex, the 
 veiling of her person, and her withdrawal from 
 the gaze of man, has resulted in seclusion and 
 degradation; while the spirit of the gospel, and 
 injunctions like that of " giving honour to i ^t ui. ^ 
 the wife as to the weaker vessel,'' have borne 
 the fruit of woman's elevation, and have raised 
 her to the position of influence, honour, and 
 equality, which (notwithstanding the marital supe- 
 riority of the husband in the ideal of the Christian 
 family) she now occupies in the social scale. 
 
 In the type of Mussulman government, which ^^^ 
 (though not laid down in the Goran) is founded ^^**^- 
 upon the spirit of the Faith and the precedent of the 
 
56 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 Christianity 
 leaves 
 humanity 
 free to 
 expand. 
 
 Prophet, tlie civil is indissolubly blended with the 
 spiritual authority, to the detriment of rehgious 
 liberty and political progress. The Ameer, or com- 
 mander of the faithful, should, as in the early 
 times, so also in all ages, be the Imdm, or religious 
 chief ; and as such he should preside at the weekly 
 Cathedral service. It is not a case of the Church 
 being subject to the State, or the State being 
 subject to the Church. Here (as we used to see 
 in the Papal domains) the Church is the State, 
 and the State the Church. They both are one. 
 And in this, we have another cause of the back- 
 wardness and depression of Mahometan society 
 Since the abolition of the temporal power in Italy, 
 we have nowhere in Christian lands any such 
 theocratic union of Caesar and the Church, so that 
 secular and religious advance is left more or less 
 unhampered. Whereas in Islam, the hierarchicho- 
 political constitution has hopelessly welded the 
 secular arm with the spiritual in one common 
 sceptre, to the furthering of despotism, and elimi- 
 nation of the popular voice from its proper place 
 in the concerns of State. 
 
 And so, throughout the whole range of political, 
 religious, social and domestic relations, the 
 attempt made by the founder of Islam to provide 
 for ail contingencies, and to fix everything afore- 
 hand by rigid rule and scale, has availed to cramp 
 and benumb the free activities of life, and to 
 
 TheCoran 
 
 checks 
 
 progress. 
 
Conclusion. 61 
 
 paralyze the natural efforts of society at healthy 
 growth, expansion, and reform. As an author 
 already quoted has so well put it : " The Gordn 
 has frozen Mahometan thought ; to obey it is to 
 abandon progress" ^ 
 
 Writers have indeed been found who, dwelling isisiam 
 upon the benefits conferred by Islam on idolatrous any nation? 
 and savage nations, have gone so far as to hold 
 that the religion of Mahomet may in consequence 
 be suited to certain portions of mankind, as if the 
 faith of Jesus might peaceably divide with it the 
 world. But surely to acquiesce in a system which 
 reduces the people to a dead level of social de- 
 pression, despotism, and semi-barbarism, would be 
 abhorrent from the first principles of philanthropy. 
 With the believer, who holds the gospel to be 
 " Good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all 
 people,'* such a notion is on higher grounds un- 
 tenable ; but even in view of purely secular con- 
 siderations it is not only untenable, but altogether 
 unintelligible. As I have said elsewhere: 
 
 LukaiLIti 
 
 The eclipse in the East, which still sheds its blight on the 
 ancient seats of Jerome and Chrysostom, and shrouds in dark- 
 ness the once bright and famous Sees of Cyprian and Augustine, 
 has been disastrous everywhere to liberty and progress, equally 
 as it has been to Christianity. And it is only as that eclipse 
 shall pass away, and the Sun of Kighteousness again shine forth, 
 that we can look to the nations now dominated by Islam sharing 
 with us those secondary but precious fruits of Divine teaching. 
 Then with the higher and enduring blessings which our faith 
 
 * Dr. Fairbaim, G<mtmporary Eeview^ p. 866. 
 
58 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam. 
 
 bestows, but not till then, we may hope that there will follow 
 likewise in their wake freedom and progress and all that tends 
 to elevate the human race.^ 
 
 No dacrifioe 
 for Bin, or 
 redemptive 
 grace. 
 
 Although, with the view of placing the argument 
 on independent ground, I have refrained from touch- 
 ing the peculiar doctrines of Christianity, and the 
 inestimable benefits which flow to mankind there- 
 from, I may be excused, before I conclude, if I 
 add a word regarding them. The followers of 
 Mahomet have no knowledge of God as a Father ; 
 still less have they knowledge of Him as " Our 
 Father," the God and Father of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ. They acknowledge, indeed, that Jesus 
 was a true prophet sent of God ; but they deny 
 His crucifixion and death, and they know nothing 
 of the power of His resurrection. To those who 
 have found redemption and peace, in these the 
 grand and distinctive truths of the Christian faith, 
 it may be allowed to mourn over the lands in 
 which the light of the Gospel has been quenched, 
 and these blessings blotted out, by the material 
 forces of Islam ; where, together with civilization 
 and liberty, Christianity has given place to gross 
 darkness, and it is as if now "there were no 
 more sacrifice for sins." We may, and we do, look 
 forward with earnest expectation to the day when 
 knowledge of salvation shall be given to these 
 
 * The Early Caliphate and Rise of Islam y being the Rede Lectora 
 for 1881, delivered before the University of Cambridge, p. 28. 
 
Conclusion. 59 
 
 nations " by the remission of their sins, through the 
 tender mercy of our God, whereby the dayspring 
 from on high hath visited us, to give light to Jji??,** 
 them that sit in darkness, and in the shadow of 
 death, to guide our feet into the way of peace." 
 
 But even apart from these, the special blessings contrast 
 of Christianity, I ask, which now, of the two J^^an*^^ 
 faiths, bears, in its birth and growth, the mark ^^^ 
 of a Divine hand, and which the human stamp ? 
 Which looks likest the handiwork of the God of 
 Nature who " hath laid the measures of the earth," Job xxxviu 
 
 5. 
 
 acd "hath stretched the line upon it," but not the 
 less with an ever- varying adaptation to time and 
 place ? and which the artificial imitation ? 
 
 " As a Reformer, Mahomet did indeed advance his people to jg|jQ, 
 a certain point ; but as a Prophet he left them fixed immovably 
 at that point for all time to come. As there can be no return, 
 8o neither can there be any progress. The tree is of artificial 
 planting. Instead of containing within itself the germ of growth 
 and adaptation to the various requirements of time, and clime, 
 and circumstance, expanding with the genial sunshine and the 
 rain from heaven, it remains the same forced and stunted thing 
 aH when first planted twelve centuries ago."^ 
 
 Such is Islam. Now what is Christianity P 
 Listen to the prophetic words of the Founder Him- compared by 
 
 * * (Jilll>l to 
 
 self, who compares it to the works of Nature ; ^oi'^Natl^e 
 
 '^ So is the kingdom of Ood, as if a man should cast seed into jy3^j.jj jy^ ^ 
 the ground ; 27, 28. 
 
 ''And should sleep, and rise night and day, and the seed should 
 spring and grow up, he knoweth not how. 
 
 '* For the earth hringeth forth fruit of herself: first the hUtde^ 
 then the ear, after that the full corn i/n the ear." 
 
 * The Corany etc., p. 66. 
 
60 
 
 The Rise and Decline of Islam, 
 
 Mark iy. 80, 
 31. 32. 
 
 Islam the 
 work of 
 man: 
 
 Christianity 
 the work of 
 God. 
 
 Psalm bczii. 
 i7, 8, 18, 19. 
 
 And again: 
 
 ^^Whereunto shall we liken the hingdom of Ood, or with what 
 comparison shall we compare it f 
 
 **It is like a grain of mustard seed, which when U is sown in 
 the earth, is less than all seeds that be in the earth ; 
 
 ** But when it is sown, it groweth up and becometh greater than 
 all herbs, wnd shooteth out greai branches, so that the fowls of the 
 air may lodge under the shadow of it. " 
 
 Which, is Nature^ and which is Arty let the 
 reader judge. Which hears the impress of man's 
 hand, and which that of Him who " is wonderful 
 in counsel, and excellent in working ? " 
 
 In fine, of the Arabian it may be said : 
 
 " Hitherto shali thou com^y hvt no further, and here shall thy 
 proud waves be stayed," 
 
 But of Christ, 
 
 " His name shall endure for ever. His namt shaU be continued 
 as long as the sun. And men shall be blessed m Him; all nations 
 shall call Him blessed. 
 
 " He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the 
 river unto the ends of the earth. 
 
 ** Blessed be the Lord God, the God of Israd, who only doeth 
 wondrous things. And blessed be His glorious name for evei'; and 
 fet the whole earth be filled with His glory. Amen, and A m^n. *' 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND CONFUCIANISM 
 COMPARED 
 
 IN THEIR 
 
 Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES LEGGE, LL.D. 
 
 
 iv 
 
 
Argument of the %xul 
 
 The writer does not institute a comparison between Christianity as 
 a whole and Confucianism. He does not dwell upon the teaching 
 of Christianity as to the moral and spiritual condition of man by 
 nature, nor on the redeeming and regenerating power of Chris- 
 tianity, but confines himself to a comparison between the teaching 
 of the respective systems on the whole duty of man. 
 
 The whole duty of man, according to Christianity, is comprised 
 in the word love. Christ's love to us is to be the measure, and 
 His death for us the motive, of our love to one another. This 
 love will prompt to obedience, self-control, and self-denial. The 
 Christian will seek to be perfect, according to the prayer of the 
 Apostle for the entire sanctification of believers. Christianity 
 teaches the cultivation of the more winning as well as the sterner 
 graces of character. 
 
 Confucianism teaches men the discharge of their duties in the 
 various relations of life. It regards the moral nature as conferred 
 on men by God, and so gives a religious sanction to the per- 
 formance of human duties. The worship of God is confined to the 
 sovereign. The religious sensibilities of the people flow into the 
 worship of parents and ancestors, as a part of filial piety, which is 
 regarded as the first and chief of human duties. The general rule 
 of Confucius and the golden rule of Christ are compared, and the 
 original character of the latter is vindicated. The absence of any 
 glow of piety in the teaching of Confucius, and the uncertainty in 
 which he left his followers about religion, are pointed out. 
 
 The superiority of Christian to Confucian teaching is shown to 
 consist in the importance it attaches to the duties of religion, in 
 the nearness of God to men which it reveals, the advantages which 
 this nearness confers, in placing all our social duties under the guar- 
 dianship of God, and the strength it assures to us in the battle 
 with temptation, in the motive to which it appeals for obedience, in 
 the duties which it inculcates with reference to the five relations 
 of society, in the perfection of the example it offers for our imita- 
 tion in our sinless High Priest and Saviour, who is the revelation 
 of the Father. Confucianism is shown to be incapable of produc- 
 ing fruits comparable to the character formed by Christianity when 
 its principles have free course. The aggressive character of 
 Christianity, and what is needed in order to win the Chinese to 
 Christ, are indicated. 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND CONFUCIANISM COMPARED 
 
 IN THEIR TEACHINQ OP 
 
 THE WHOLE DUTY OF MAN. 
 
 ROM the teackings of Christianity and "F^^^^f 
 Confucianism I have selected and con- cS?? 
 fined myself to one important point, by 
 their treatment of which we may form 
 a jud-gment as to their comparative worth. The 
 subject chosen, however, as the ground of com- 
 parison between them is a testing one, and that in 
 which the cause of Confucianism is specially strong. 
 The courses and styles of life, to the attainment 
 of which they respectively call their followers, will 
 enable the reader to decide which of them is the 
 more suited to secure the complete and harmonious 
 development of our nature, to make men good, and 
 to make them happy. 
 
 It was one of the deep, if somewhat enigmatic 
 utterances of Confucius (Analects xv. 28), " Man confudus 
 
 ^ ' ' on man 
 
 can enlarge his principles of conduct; it is not p^n^piea 
 those principles that enlarge man." His idea was, 
 that man is greater than any system which he 
 may be called to follow, and that there is that in 
 
4 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 him which constitutes him its judge, and will 
 enahle him to supplement and complete it, if that 
 he necessary. In accordance with that saying, I 
 will endeavour to set forth what Christianity and 
 Thewhoie Confuciauism lay down as The Whole Duty 
 
 duty 01 man. " 
 
 OF Man, and then ask my readers to judge of 
 their own selves which of the two is the right 
 teaching ; or, if it shall he thought that hoth are 
 good, then to say which is the hetter. 
 J?cS-*^^ Let us begin with Christianity. I prefer to do 
 tiiT^bjSt- ^^' because my readers are probably all acquainted 
 with it. I cannot tell them anything about its 
 teaching on the point in hand which they have not 
 often heard and read. I must refer to it, how- 
 ever, stirring up their minds, it may be, only by 
 way of remembrance, but preparing them thereby 
 all the better to appreciate and estimate what I 
 shall shortly tell them about the teaching of Con- 
 fucianism. What, then, is the Whole Duty of 
 Man according to Christianity ? 
 
 There will probably occur to most, in answer to 
 J?iSer"^ this question, the words of the Hebrew preacher 
 (Eccles. xii. 13) : " Let us hear the conclusion of 
 the whole matter ; Fear God, and keep His com- 
 mandments: for this is the whole duty of man." 
 When the preacher thus spoke of " the command- 
 ments of God," he, no doubt, had in his mind 
 what we call " The Ten Commandments ; " the 
 "Ten Words," as the Hebrew text of the Bible 
 
vn their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 5 
 
 has it, in wMch God summed up His legislation for 
 the infant nation at mount Sinai. Of those com- 
 mandments " the mediator/' Moses, himself gave The 
 
 summary of 
 
 a summary in the two sentences : ** Thou shalt ^'^^ Ten 
 
 ' Command- 
 
 love Jehovah thy God with all thine heart, and Sm2.^^ 
 
 with all thy soul, and with all thy might " (Deut. 
 
 vi. 5) ; and " Thou shalt love thy neighbour as 
 
 thyseH''(Lev. xix. 18). 
 
 It may be said that this was a summary of the 
 
 Jewish law, while in this Tract we have to do with 
 
 Christianitv. But Christ made it His own. On Adopted by 
 
 Christ. 
 
 one occasion, when He was asked by a lawyer, one 
 of the Pharisees, which was the great command- 
 ment (Matt. xxii. 36), He answered : '* Thou shalt 
 love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and 
 with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is 
 the great and first commandment. And a second 
 like unto it is this : Thou shalt love thy neigh- 
 bour as thyself. On these two commandments 
 hangeth the whole law and the prophets." Did 
 not Christ in these words adopt the Mosaic sum- 
 mary of the Jewish law, and repeat it with His 
 own authority? 
 
 But we have been told that that second sentence 
 in the summary of man's duty, as originally de- 
 livered, follows the injunction, " Thou shalt not SS^^ 
 bear any grudge against the children of thy people," ^pp^**^***"* 
 so that it was only of national, and not of universal, 
 application. This objection, however, cannot be 
 
6 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 urged against the re-affirmation of it by Christ, 
 
 when, replying to a vicious application of it, in His 
 
 Sermon on the Mount (Matt. v. 43), He pronounced, 
 
 Whom we " But I sav unto you, Love your enemies." Then 
 
 are to love. jj'^ 
 
 we have His parable of the G-ood Samaritan (Luke 
 X. 30-37), in answer to the question, "Who is 
 my neighbour?" teaching us that all who need 
 our sympathy and assistance, without distinction 
 of nation or creed, should be regarded as our 
 neighbours, and be loved and helped by us. 
 
 According to Christianity, therefore, the whole 
 duty of man is comprised in the one little word 
 Love. That is " the fulfilling of the law." And 
 Christ went beyond *'tho law." It was impos- 
 sible to insist more strongly on the love of God 
 than Moses, or rather than Jehovah Himself 
 speaking by the mouth of Moses, had done ; 
 but the love of our neighbour appears in the 
 Gospels enjoined more emphatically than in the 
 summary of it which has come to us with our 
 Christ's love Lord's approval and commendation. He said : " A 
 
 to us to be . 
 
 the measure ncw commaudmont I ffive unto you, that ye love 
 
 of our love " J f J 
 
 Sio^CT. ^ another, even as I have loved you, that ye 
 also love one another " (John xiii. 34 ; comp. xv. 
 12). These words show the depth of His meaning 
 in the declaration in the Sermon on the Mount, 
 that He was come not to destroy the law or the 
 prophets, but to fulfil them. And thus those who 
 heard them understood Him. Witness the Ian- 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. *i 
 
 guage of *' the beloved disciple : '* " Hereby know oimsfB 
 
 "^ ... atoning 
 
 we love, because He laid down His life for us ; and sacrifice to 
 
 ' ^ ' be the 
 
 we ouofht to lay down our lives for the brethren " ^0*7 ' 
 
 o "^ our love to 
 
 (1 John iii. 16). one another. 
 
 Where there is love not to say this love there 
 will be the performance of all its promptings. The 
 duties which we owe will be discharged sincerely, 
 and to the extent of our ability. This implies of what is 
 
 ^ implied in 
 
 course the exercise of self-government, and the thiaiove. 
 regulation of all the faculties in the continent of 
 our nature. Every contrary lust and selfish desire, 
 every angry impulse and passion must be denied 
 lodgment even in the deep and hidden recesses of 
 the breast. He who is seekiner to fulfil his whole The aim 
 
 . . . . of the 
 
 duty as enjoined by Christ will be striving, under christian. 
 the constraint of love, to be perfect emotionally, 
 intellectually, and practically, a true son of God 
 his Father, a faithful servant of Christ his Lord. 
 The object of the Christian ministry is ** for the 
 perfecting of the saints'* (Eph. iv. 12). The 
 Apostle Paul wrote to the Corinthians, " This also The 
 
 ^ ^ ^^^ Apostle's 
 
 we pray for, even your perfecting" (2 Cor. xiii. 9). JJ^y^'^J^fg. 
 His prayer for the Thessalonians was, " The God Jtiieveri 
 of peace Himself sanctify you wholly, and may 
 your spirit and soul and body be preserved entire, 
 without blame " (1 Thess. v. 23). The summary summary 0/ 
 of his teaching, as inculcated on the Philippians, teaching. 
 was : *' Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are 
 true, whatsoever thin2:s are h(Jiiourab]e, whatsoever 
 
8 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 tilings are just, whatsoever things are pure, what- 
 soever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of 
 good report, ^if there be any virtue, and if there 
 he any praise, think on these things " (Phil. iv. 8). 
 Such is a brief exhibition of the teaching of 
 Christianity on the duty of man. I will leave it 
 for the present, and proceed to show the teaching 
 Confucian of Confuciauism on the same subject. And I am 
 
 teaching. 
 
 glad to be able to place in the forefront a descrip- 
 tion of it by the highest Chinese authority. 
 
 The second emperor of the present dynasty 
 
 (1662-1722), certainly a very great man, pubKshed 
 
 in 1670 what has become known in Europe as the 
 
 Khang-hsi Sacred Edict, a collection of sixteen 
 
 Sefo?S' Precepts, by which his people should form their 
 
 5^4er. characters, and order their conduct, involving 
 
 all principles essential to their goodness and 
 
 happiness, and to the prosperity of the empire. It 
 
 was enacted that, on the first and fifteenth day 
 
 of every month, it should be read in the hearing 
 
 of the soldiery and people in each statistical division 
 
 of the country. The emperor's son and successor, 
 
 whose reign is called the Yung-chang period 
 
 tiS^oX (1723-1735), published in 1724 an Amplification 
 
 Precepts. ^f ^^g Prcccpts in a high style of composition, 
 
 forming a volume of elegant essays or sermons, 
 
 which should be read on those days. But such 
 
 finished Chinese compositions are not intelligible 
 
 to a promiscuous audience without commentary 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 9 
 
 and paraphrase ; and by-and-by there appeared 
 
 a colloquial Exposition of the Essays, admirably couoquiai 
 
 * * _^_^ '' exposition 
 
 adapted for popular use, by Wang Yd-po, the of them. 
 Salt-comptroller of Shen-hsi province. A Han 
 Fang tells us that, having been appointed governor 
 of Canton province in 1808, and become acquainted 
 with Wang's paraphrase, he selected four scholars 
 with very distinct enunciation, to deliver it on 
 the appointed days in the Canton dialect. *' The 
 people," he says, "thronged round them, and such The delivery 
 a change was effected that they exceedingly loved p"^^- 
 to hear, and found it easy to practise." He then 
 distributed it throughout the districts, and charged 
 the local officers to proclaim it everywhere, "and 
 not leave a single person, even along the thinly- 
 inhabited coasts of the sea, ignorant and dis- 
 obedient." The Paraphrase has thus very generally 
 superseded the balanced sentences of the AmpHfica- 
 tion. The public reading of it approaches more 
 nearly to our popular preaching than anything 
 else in China. Other expositions of the Precepts, other 
 
 * ^ exposituwa. 
 
 some of them profusely illustrated, and others in 
 easy verse, are also widely known. The publication 
 of the Khang-hsi edict has been a great success. 
 
 The text of the seventh Precept is this; "Dis- '^^^ 
 countenance and put away strange principles, in 
 order to exact the correct doctrine." " The correct 
 doctrine " is Confucianism, or the whole duty of 
 man as inculcated by the great sage and the other 
 
10 Ckristianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 and older sages, whose views it was his boast that 
 The strange he transmitted. " The stranffe principles " are all 
 
 principles. o i c 
 
 systems of doctrine of a contrary character, and 
 teaching other ways of life. Chief among them 
 are Buddhism and Taoism, which, though tolerated 
 and even supported to some extent by the govern- 
 ment of China, are not regarded as orthodox, and 
 should be discountenanced and put a\^ay. Chris- 
 tianity also is mentioned, and men are warned 
 against believing it; but it was very little that 
 they knew about it in China two hundred years 
 The imperial ago. Ou what "the corrcct doctrine** is, the 
 
 AjnplJfieron . i a ^'n 
 
 the correct imperial Amplifier says : 
 
 doctrine. 
 
 * * Man, born in the position intermediate between heaven and 
 earth, has nothing to attend to but the relationships of society 
 and the regular constituents of moral worth, which are daily 
 called mto exercise. All should observe and pursue these, the 
 wise as well as the simple. The sages and worthies do not 
 approve of the search after what is abstruse, and the practice of 
 what is marvellous." 
 
 The ^ The Paraphrast expands these and one or two 
 
 Paraphrasrs ^ * 
 
 expansion, nioro sentcuces in the following manner : 
 
 ** What is most to be feared for the manners and customs of 
 the people is that they become violent and selfish. But if men' 
 hearts be not good, how can their manners and customs be 
 generous and right? The heart of man, indeed, is naturally 
 perfectly upright and correct ; but through the existence of 
 corrupt doctrines, men all get to practise and learn what is not 
 good. That their hearts may be good, therefore, we must look 
 to what they learn and practise, and make sure that it is correct 
 and right. Here is man, with his head towards heaven and his 
 feet planted on the earth, in the middle of all existing things ; 
 he is endowed with a natural rectitude all complete ; and there 
 axe the requirements of duty in his lot. la there anything 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 11 
 
 besides, anything marvellous or rare, that he has to do? There 
 are simply the relations of ruler and minister, of father and son, 
 of husband and wife, of elder brother and younger, and of friend 
 and friend. No one, whether intelligent or stupid, may neglect, 
 even for a single day, the courses proper to those relationships. 
 If, besides those courses, beyond your proper lot, you go aboiit 
 to seek after refined and mysterious dogmas, and to engage in 
 strange and marvellous performances, you wUl show yourselves 
 to be very bad men." 
 
 In what they thus say on the seventh Precept, ^J^l^*^ 
 neither the Amplifier nor his Paraphrast tells us 
 what the "regular constituents of our moral 
 nature *' are, nor what are the duties of the several 
 memhers of the five relations. They did not think 
 it necessary to enter on these suhjects, their Chinese 
 readers being familiar with them from their early 
 years. It will he well for me, however, to touch 
 briefly on both topics at this point, in order to 
 clear the way for the further prosecution of my 
 argument. It is not necessary nor in accordance 
 with the plan of this Tract, to discuss what is said 
 about the heart of man being naturally upright 
 and correct. "The five regular constituents of The five 
 
 " regular 
 
 our moral nature" are the principles, attributes X^^*SmI 
 and faculties, of benevolence, righteousness, pro- ^^.ture. 
 priety, wisdom, and sincerity. The duties of the 
 human lot in the five relations, as stated by Mencius, 
 are " between father and son, affection ; between 
 ruler and subject, righteousness ; between husband 
 and wife, attention to their separate functions ; 
 between elders and youngers, a proper distinction ; 
 
12 Christianity and Confucianism Comparea 
 
 and between friends, fidelity."^ A more detailed 
 account of these duties is given in what we may 
 nie^chineso call the Chinese Primer, the first book which boys 
 learn at school. " Affection between father and son ; 
 concord between husband and wife ; kindness on 
 the part of the elder brother, and deference on the 
 part of the younger ; order between seniors and 
 juniors; sincerity between fiiends and associates; 
 respect on the part of the ruler, and loyalty on 
 that of the minister : these are the ten righteous 
 courses equally binding on all men." ^ 
 
 But in these additions to the statements of the 
 
 authorities which I have been using, there is 
 
 nothing to indicate clearly that in "the correct 
 
 doctrine,*' the Confucian orthodoxy of China, there 
 
 Only social is required of men anything but the discharge of 
 
 treated in their dutiGs in the relations of society. It is not 
 
 these state- 
 ments. ^0 be wondered at that some Christian writers, in 
 
 comparing Confucianism and Christianity, and not 
 well acquainted with the former, should contend 
 that we have in it " an attempt to substitute a 
 morality for a theology." ^ I will point out imme- 
 diately wherein their view is defective; but at 
 present we freely grant to them that in the above 
 
 1 See Mendus, lu, L, 4. 8. 
 
 2 This is taken from The Classic in Lines of Three Characteri. 
 (San Tsze King), by Wang Po-hao, better known poi hajjs as Wang 
 Yung lin, of our 13th century. The fullest treatment of the 
 duties is in The Booh of the Record of Rites. 
 
 * See Dr. Matheson, The Faiths of tlie World. Lecture m. 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. Vd 
 
 expositions of man's duties there is no mention of 
 any duty wMcli lie owes to God. There are the 
 five relations of society : let him manifest his cog- 
 nizance of them, and to the utmost of his ability 
 discharge their requirements. There are the five 
 constituents of his moral nature ; let him show his 
 appreciation of them, and regulate that discharge in 
 accordance with them. Let him do this, and there 
 is nothing more that he ought to do. I do not say JJ'?*^}^^-"^ 
 that this is a poor ideal of human duty, or that it Jeiation"^ 
 is not a high ideal of it; but it does not say a word and'ood"' 
 about any relation between man and God. The first 
 and great commandment of Christ is: "Thou shalt 
 love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with 
 aU thy soul, and with all thy mind." On this 
 those Confucian teachers are absolutely silent. 
 
 Does the religion of China, then, teach anything 
 about any worship of God or of other beings ? No 
 one who has sufficiently studied writings that have 
 come down to us from an antiquity greater than 
 that of Confucius, and with his approval, or those 
 still older than the beginning of our era, and pur- 
 porting to record his words and sentiments, ^ill 
 venture to say that it does not. ^ 
 
 In the first place, the relations of society and ^^J|^^^" 
 the duties belonging to them are set forth as the jorth^he^ 
 appointments of Heaven or God. We have a and duties 
 treatise called "The Doctrine of the Mean," by the appoint 
 
 , . ment of 
 
 the grandson of Confucius. It contains a con- heaven. 
 
14 Chrostianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 A. moral 
 
 densed exhibition of Ms teaching, and begins with 
 this sentence : " What heaven has conferred is 
 called The Nature ; an accordance with the 
 nature is called The Path of Duty ; the regula- 
 tion of the path is called The System of Instruc- 
 tion." A great monarch, in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, B.C., proclaimed : 
 
 "The great God has conferred even on the inferior people a 
 moral sense, compliance with which would show their nature 
 im variably right." ^ 
 
 A poem of the ninth century B.C. commences thus : 
 
 ** Heaven, in giving birth to the multitudes of the people, to 
 every faculty and relationship annexed its law. The people 
 possess this normal nature, and they consequently love its 
 normal virtue. Heaven beheld the ruler of Chau, brilliantly 
 affecting It, by his conduct below, and to maintain him, It 
 son, gave birth to Chung Shan-fii."* 
 
 These passages testify that while man is by his 
 moral nature constituted a law to himself, he is so 
 by the act and decree of God ; a religious sanction 
 is given to all his relationships and his performance 
 
 ferred by 
 God. 
 
 A religious 
 sanction 
 given to all 
 man's duties 
 
 andrelation. ^f ^J^gij, ^^^'gg^ 
 
 In the second place, among the relations of 
 
 1 See The Sacred Books of the East, ni., p. 90. 
 * Tlie Sacred Books of the East, m., p. 425. I have 
 /endfied the stanza in The Book of Ancient Poetry, pp. 334-7: 
 
 Heaven made the race of men, 
 
 With nature good and large ; 
 Functions of body, powers of mind, 
 
 Their duties to discharge. 
 All men this normal nature own ; 
 Its normal nature all men crown. 
 
 With love sincere and true. 
 Heaven by our Sovereign's course was moved 
 And him to aid, Its son approved, 
 
 (}ave birth to Chung Shan-f^ 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 15 
 
 society is that of father and son, or of parent and 
 
 cHld. The " affection " belonging to it takes, on 
 
 the part of the son, the form of filial piety. My J^ ^H^_^ 
 
 readers will all have heard of this as the distin- SristiSSle 
 
 guishing characteristic of the Chinese race. It is eser^ce. 
 
 so. Filial duty is with them the first and great 
 
 commandment. " It is/' they say, " the first and 
 
 chief of all human virtues." I do not wish to 
 
 detract from their commendations of it, nor to deny 
 
 the general estimate of their observance of it. I 
 
 look, indeed, on the long-continued existence and 
 
 growth of the Chinese nation as a fulfilment of 
 
 the promise annexed to our fifth commandment, 
 
 " Honour thy father and mother, that thy days 
 
 may be long in the land which the Lord thy God 
 
 giveth thee." But now Confucianism inculcates The worship 
 
 , of the dead 
 
 the worship of the dead as a part of filial piety. ^^^^^ 
 The sage himself specifies five things as necessary ^^^y- 
 to its full discharge : the utmost reverence, the 
 amplest and most ungrudging support, the greatest 
 anxiety when parents are ill, every demonstration 
 of grief in mourning for them, and the utmost 
 solemnity in sacrificing (or presenting oblations) to 
 them. ^ Quotations need not be multiplied. To 
 bow before the shrines of ancestors and parents, to 
 present offerings to them, and to pray to them, 
 these things are as much essential to filial duty as 
 obedience to the commands of parents, reverently 
 1 The Sacred Books of the East, m., p. 480. 
 
16 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 An element lionouring them, copying their good example, and 
 in the ministeriner to their wants. Thus in this highest 
 
 highest ^ 1 1 
 
 moralities of ^f j^-\^q moralitios of Confucianism there is also the 
 
 Ck)niuciaa> 
 
 "^ element of religion. And it would be easy to sub- 
 
 stantial :> further this point by adducing the worship 
 which the system enjoins, not only of ancestors 
 and parents, but also of the departed great, of all 
 who have distinguished themselves as legislators, 
 inventors of useful arts, general benefactors, and 
 patriots.^ 
 G^l^con- ^^ *^ ^^^^ place, there is in Confucianism a 
 fudanism. ^Q^ship of God Himsclf . From time immemorial, 
 there has been in China the belief of one Supreme 
 Being, first indicated by the name heaven, and 
 then by the personal designation of God as the 
 Supreme Lord and Ruler. For between three and 
 four thousand years at the least, there has been 
 the worship of this Being; but as formally ap- 
 proved and organized by the ordinances of the 
 ^^edto State, it is confined to the Sovereign for the time 
 "*^- being. He renders it in the suburbs of his capital 
 
 on a few occasions in the course of the year, attended 
 by certain of his nobles and official functionaries ; 
 but of the people there are none with him. It was 
 preStaTon ^* ^^^t, uo doubt, a representative worship by the 
 gj^^ehead g^^^ ^f ^^^ Family ; it continued to be the same 
 when the Family grew into the Tribe ; it is still 
 
 ^ Seethe writer's ReUgions of China (Hodder and Stoughton), 
 pp. 88-90. 
 
 o; 
 family. 
 
in their Teaching of the y^c^eSiity^T Man, 17 
 
 .. > .;-'^' fl/ 
 
 the same wlien the tribe has ^ultiplies^. 'and be- Never 
 come the most populous empire oa-tfae" earth. It through th 
 
 ^ * ^ ^ nation or 
 
 has never been extended through the nation or {J^^",^^ 
 joined in by the multitudes of the people. A most 
 wonderful fact, and most deplorable ! The greatest 
 occasion of the imperial religious celebration is at 
 the earliest dawn on the morning of the winter 
 solstice at " the Altar of Heaven.*' Some of the 
 prayers, or psalms rather, with which the various 
 oblations have been occasionally accompanied, have 
 been remarkable, and have risen to a high style of 
 devotion ; but, after all, the whole service is but a T^e eervie 
 
 ' ' ' a form of 
 
 form of state ceremonial, of which the people have cerSaoniai. 
 hardly any knowledge, and which does not contri- Does not 
 bute to maintain in them a real religious life to any miiintainin 
 
 . * " them a real 
 
 great extent. Where it has that effect, the result feUgious lifa 
 
 ^ ^ . . . *^ ^^^ great 
 
 is due mainly to a sentence of Confucius, in which, ^^'^^^ 
 as if to guard against its being considered merely j 
 a worship of the great forms or forces of nature, he j 
 pronounced that " The ceremonies of the sacrifices 
 to Heaven and Earth are those by which we serve 
 the Supreme God."^ 
 
 Debarred from this direct worship of God, the The spiritual 
 
 * ^ ^ susceptibili- 
 
 spiritual sensibilities and susceptibilities of the aJJ^edlnto 
 masses of the Chinese have flowed all the more of'an^^stow 
 into the worship of their parents and ancestors, and 
 the way has been all the easier for the dissemination 
 among them of the magical pretensions and psy- 
 
 ' The Doctrine of the Mean, ch. xix. 6. 
 C 
 
18 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 chical fancies of Taoism and the idolatries ana 
 What transmigrations of Buddhism. There remains for 
 
 remains for *=" 
 
 *^6- them only the natural and indistinct reverence of 
 
 Heaven, with groanings and complaining appeals 
 to It, or to God in heaven, when they are suffering 
 under calamity or other cause of distress. I 
 have seen '* the falKng of the tear " in the hitter- 
 ness of grief, and "the upward glancing of the eye" 
 
 I^oiS?'''' to the sky above. Recently I was struck with 
 
 ^^y- a passage in the story of a young lady pressed to a 
 
 certain course which, though not contrary to what 
 was right, did not command her full approval It 
 was not evil, but might be misinterpreted so as to 
 give to another passage in her life the appearance of 
 being evil, though it had been good and even praise- 
 
 Her trust in worthy in itself . She wished to avoid it, and to 
 trust in Heaven to bring about, in a perfectly 
 legitimate way, the object which it was intended 
 to serve. " I have heard," she says, " that Heaven 
 is sure to bring to pass the thing of which Heaven 
 has originated the purpose." It was an expression 
 it seemed to me of simple and genuine piety. Such 
 a sentiment and such language, however, are rarely 
 met with in Chinese society or writings. And 
 where they do occur, it is as calculations of the 
 understanding more than gushings of the heart 
 They are argumentative rather than emotional, 
 expressing the fear to offend Heaven and not the 
 wish to please it. They come short, very far short, 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 19 
 
 of that love of God which is the first and great No incite- 
 commandment of Christianity. I have been read- Godin** **^ 
 VQg Chinese books for more than forty years, and ^oo^- 
 ftny general requirement to *' love God," oi; the 
 mention of anyone as actually " loving " Him, has 
 yet to come for the first time under my eye. 
 
 The three considerations which I have urged make 
 it clear that the Confucian system is not a morality 
 merely, but also a religion. That the sage, however, 
 " the Master," as his disciples liked to style him, Confucian, 
 did not speak of the higher aspects of the system iSgion 
 which he found existing in his country ; and that 
 he shrank from discussing metaphysical subjects, 
 and even all questions about the existence and 
 operations of God : this is a fact which we must 
 accept, and which no explanation that we may try 
 to give of it will alter. Morality, and its promotion. Morality 
 with the culture of the understanding through the culture of 
 
 T . the under- 
 
 study of the ancient uterature, were his chosen standing, 
 
 ' the chosen 
 
 themes; and it is with his moral teaching, as I SudSL 
 have expressly stated, that we have specially to do 
 in this Tract. 
 
 We return therefore to the consideration of that; 
 and the first and chief thing that claims our at- 
 tention is the general rule in which Confucius The general 
 summed up all his inculcation of the duties of the coi^udTiB. 
 human relations : " What ye would not that men 
 should do to you, do not ye do to them." He 
 enunciated this rule several times. Its similarity 
 
20 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 Contrast to ^' tliG golden Tule *' of our Lord never fails to 
 
 with the 
 
 golden rule strike the Christian when he hears or reads it for 
 
 of Christ. 
 
 the first time. It is negative, indeed, while Christ's 
 is positive ; but the Chinese sage knew that man 
 ought to take the initiative in doing to others what 
 he would have others do to him. Eight, perhaps 
 \ nine, of our Ten Commandments are really pro- 
 hibitions. Was it a knowledge of the difficulty 
 which men find in giving to others what is their 
 due, and of their proneness to think of themselves 
 first, and act with a view to their own advantage, 
 which made Confucius give the negative form to 
 his comprehensive rule? 
 Misunder- To sav that " he did not mean to do anvthing 
 
 standing of i i . 
 
 theruie of moro by it than suggest a law for the well-being 
 of the State," preventing retaliations which would 
 end in political anarchy : ^ this is a strange under- 
 valuing both of the man and his object. At the 
 same time, there is one passage in Confucius* history 
 from which it is natural to conclude that the rule 
 was prompted chiefly by his sentiment of justice or 
 instinctive feeling of what was right One of his 
 contemporaries, Lao-tsze, the reputed founder of 
 Taoism, had been led, by the peculiar nature of his 
 philosophical system, to teach " the returning of 
 good for evil." This seemed "strange doctrine'^ 
 to some of the disciples of Confucius, and thej 
 consulted him about it. His reply was: "What 
 
 1 Dr. Matheron's Lecture m., The Faith* of the Worlds p. 86, 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 2\ 
 
 then will you return for good ? Recompense injury The highest 
 with justice, and return good for good." Higher ^Mch 
 than this he could not rise. ^aJeSr 
 
 Passing now to " the golden rule of Christ," we ^'^"^ ^^ ^ 
 must pronounce it a greater error to argue that He 
 was indebted for it to what we may call " the silver 
 rule of Confucius." And yet this has been more 
 than surmised. It has been said: 
 
 Dr. Mathe- 
 ' ' That Confucius is the author of this precept is undisputed, ^o"'s ^^ec- 
 and therefore it is indisputable that Christianity has incorporated of the 
 an article of Chinese morality." World,v.%\ 
 
 There is not the slightest evidence that any ^kS^t*"'*^ 
 knowledge of the Chinese sage or of his teachings goSIn mie 
 had penetrated to Judea at so early a time ; and teaSiml of 
 Christ subjoined to His rule a statement of the 
 sources from which He formulated it in the words, 
 " This is the law and the prophets." It was with 
 Him the essence of the two commandments, to love 
 God supremely, and to love our neighbours as our- 
 selves. This is the secret of its positive form. It The secret oi 
 
 * the positive 
 
 is the outgushing demand of love, while the other ^"^^ ^ 
 is the constrained expression of justice. And hence ^^^^'**- 
 it was that in the same Sermon on the Mount, 
 Christ pronounced, in language more unequivocal 
 and full than that of Lao-tsze, " I say unto you, 
 Love your enemies; do good to them that hate 
 you ; pray for them that despitefuUy use you and 
 persecute you '* (Luke vi. 27, 28). 
 I have, in the above pages, endeavoured to set 
 
22 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 The defects 
 of Con- 
 fucianism. 
 
 No glow of 
 piety in the 
 sayings of 
 Confucius. 
 
 forth generally the teaching of Christianity and 
 Confucianism on the whole duty of man. Where 
 the former is most emphatic, the latter is all but 
 silent. The old religion of China was very de- 
 fective in what it required of man to God, and 
 **the Master*' said very little to supplement it 
 There was no glow of piety in his utterances. He 
 never called his disciples to join with him in 
 adoring God, as the perfection of beauty, the 
 Framer of our bodies, and the Father of our spirits, 
 in Whom we live and move and have our being, 
 the Source of all our good, and the Fountain of 
 our greatest comfort and consolation. He left hia 
 countrymen to the uncertain gropings and vague 
 monitions of natural religion. I do not ask my 
 readers to join with me and pronounce a stem 
 condemnation of him for this. He had no mission 
 to teach religion. He had no book to instruct him 
 as to the character and doings of God, at all akin 
 to our Scriptures. He had no gift or aptitude for 
 anything like theology. 
 
 But when we turn to the Confucian teaching of 
 the duties of man to other men, we ought to accord 
 to it much appreciation. It is at once comprehen- 
 sive and minute. The analysis of society into the 
 five relations covers the whole ground. It is a piece 
 of philosophical generalization of which we should 
 not be slow to recognize the value and truth. And 
 the duties incumbent in those relations are enjoined 
 
 He had no 
 mission to 
 teach 
 
 religion, no 
 Scripture to 
 teach him 
 about God. 
 
 Much to 
 adiuire in 
 his practical 
 teaching. 
 
m 
 
 their Teaching of tne Whole Duty of Man. 23 
 
 in hundreds of passages with explicitness and point. 
 One is often grieved to read the incautious asser- incautious 
 tions of writers who think that apart from our ab^oJtThe* 
 Christian Scriptures there are no lessons for men heathendom. 
 about their duties, and that heathendom has in 
 consequence never been anything but a slough of 
 immoral filth and outrageous crime. Such writers 
 betray their ignorance of the systems and peoples 
 about which they affirm such things, and their 
 ignorance also of the sacred volume which they 
 wish to exalt. Their advocacy is damaging 
 rather than beneficial to Christianity. 
 
 But while I do not hesitate to avow this con- Aiihuman 
 
 duties set 
 
 viction, I am at the same time persuaded that JSiyS^^ 
 there is not a single human duty set forth by S'anhT"^ 
 Confucianism which is not also recognized and ii^/*'^*"" 
 
 more fully enjoined by Christianity. In Chris- 
 tianity, moreover, there is no admixture of 
 error in regard to the ground jof the duty, christian 
 or the details of its requirements from which freefrom 
 
 Gixor 
 
 the account of it in Confucianism is by no 
 means free. In The Eclipse of Faithy of the 
 late Professor Henry Rogers, he says (p. 196) that 
 
 "If hia sceptical opponent would do as he had done, and 
 compile a selection of the principal precepts and maxims from 
 the most admirable ethical works of antiquity, and compare 
 them with two or three of the summaries of similar precepts in 
 the New Testament, he would at once feel how much more vivid, 
 toucliing, animated, and even comprehensive was the scriptural 
 expression of the same truth." 
 
24 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 Wlien he so expressed himself, Professor Rogers 
 was thinking of the ancient Grecian moralists, and 
 ^nfudua especially of Aristotle. The sage of China needs 
 '^****^' not to hide a diminished head, when placed amidst 
 the Stagirite and his compeers; but the judgment 
 is true as well, if it be applied to his sayings and 
 those of all his school, in comparison with the 
 teachings of Christianity. I can set to my seal 
 that it is so. 
 
 On the ground of all that has been said above, 
 
 I venture now to ask the assent of my readers to 
 
 the following conclusions regarding the superiority 
 
 of the Christian teaching of the whole duty of man. 
 
 Christianity I. It is Superior to the Confucian teaching be- 
 
 attachea ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 jjj>^emi^rt. cause it attaches so much greater importance to 
 rei&i^ the duties of religion, and gives so much fuller a 
 disclosure of their reasonableness and nature. Con- 
 fucianism, indeed, affirms the relation between men 
 and God ; but its understanding of that relation is 
 incomplete, and its teaching both about it and the 
 duties springing from it is consequently imperfect. 
 No direct It koops the masscs of the people at an awful 
 God in Con- distauco from God. Only " the One man," the sove- 
 
 fucianism. 
 
 reign of the Chinese race, is permitted to present 
 
 to Him directly the offerings of reverence, gratitude, 
 
 The and prayer. Christianity, on the contrary, teaches 
 
 God how God is never far from any one of us, how 
 
 according to p 
 
 Christianity. He acccptoth not the persons of prmces, neither 
 regardeth the rich man more than the poor, how 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 25 
 
 we all have to do with Him and how He is always 
 
 near to all that call on Him. Of the difirnity and The peace, 
 
 , . safety, and 
 
 strength, the peace, security, and hope which this \^^^ 
 relation hetween God and him imparts to man's 
 being and experience amid the vicissitudes of life, 
 so various and often painful, I do not speak; 
 our subject is his duty. But any system which 
 does not make provision for the discharge of our 
 religious duties, which does not in fact summon 
 men to them, and encourage them to resort to 
 them, and delight themselves in them, must be 
 pronounced incomplete and insufficient. Such a 
 flystem is Confucianism. 
 
 II. The Christian teaching is superior to the 
 Confucian because it makes God the Guardian of ^a^rdflSJij 
 
 of human 
 
 all the duties obligatory on men even in their Jutie 
 
 accor 
 theb 
 Moses. 
 
 social relations. With what majesty and power thrbooklof 
 
 the announcement, " I am the Lord," or ** I am 
 the Lord your God," comes in at the close of very 
 many of the ordinances in the Mosaic legislation I 
 For example, "Therefore shall ye keep Mine 
 ordinance that ye commit not any one of these 
 abominable customs, and that ye defile not your- 
 selves therein : I am the Lord your God" 
 (Leviticus xviii. 30). " Thou shalt love thy 
 neighbour as thyself : I am the Lord " (Leviticus 
 xix. 18). Not less powerfully though less rhe- isevr 
 
 . ,, . . . T . < -ivT m i i Testamenl 
 
 torically, it is said m the New lestament : teaching. 
 'Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or what- 
 
 C 2 
 
26 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 The 
 
 Christian 
 rule. 
 
 Confucian- 
 ism leaves 
 a mp,n to 
 his own 
 strength. 
 
 Christianity 
 assures him 
 of Divine 
 help. 
 
 soever ye do, do all to the glory of God" 
 (1 Cor. X. 31). And tliis injunction is completed, 
 according to the Christian rule, by the same apostle : 
 " Whatsoever ye do, in word or in deed, do all in 
 the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God 
 the Father through Him" (Col. iii. 17). Con- 
 fucianism prefers to speak in this wise : " If you 
 do this, if you do not do that, how can you regard 
 yourself as a man ?" That is all very well. But 
 it leaves man to fight the battle of temptation in 
 his own strength. He is strongest, however, when 
 he is most humble. The assurance of God's presence 
 and guardianship doubly arms him. It helps him, 
 if he fall, to rise again ; and if he seem to fail or 
 be overthrown, he can yet write victory on his 
 shield. To use the words of the Apostle Peters 
 ** This is acceptable, if, for conscience towards God, 
 a man endure grief, suffering wrongfully" (1 
 Peter iL 19). 
 
 III. StiU looking merely at the duties springing 
 out of the social relations, the Christian teaching 
 is superior to the Confucian, because the motive 
 on which it requires their discharge is nobler and 
 more powerful. That motive, we have seen, is 
 love, while the Confucian motive is the sentiment 
 of justice or right. "Now love takes the per- 
 formances out of the category of duty in which 
 there is the element of constraint, and transforms 
 them into that of gracious ministry. The love 
 
 CJhristianity 
 appeals to 
 the motive 
 of love. 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 27 
 
 will always operate in the sphere of right ; but its 
 constraint is of itself. At the very best the doer 
 of justice is a servant of God, but the doer of love 
 is a child of God. The service of duty may be 
 slow and grudging ; the service of love is prompt ^ow love 
 and untiring. Duty asks, "Is this enough?" 
 Love asks, " Can I do anything more ?" This is 
 the operation of all love. Can its range and 
 effectiveness over the whole being be calculated 
 when the true nature of the Christian attribute is 
 appreciated, when its measure, as has been pointed 
 out above, is the love with which Christ loved us ? 
 
 ly. The Christian teaching in regard to the christian 
 five relations of society themselves is better than fucian 
 
 _^^ "^ teaching 
 
 the Confucian. We have spoken of the relation J^'tL'^''''^^^* 
 between parent and child, and of the filial duty ^tS'a^d 
 obligatory on the child. It includes in Con- ^itSe<L 
 fucianism the worship of the deceased parent as 
 well as of remoter ancestors. Honour to the 
 living parent is what Christianity requires ; but it 
 knows nothing of the worship of the dead, and of 
 oblations and prayers to them. We accept with 
 sorrow the fact that our parents have gone by 
 death away from our circle; we cherish the 
 memory of them and seek to copy their virtues ; 
 but we find that it would be in vain to try and 
 have communion with them over any religious 
 feast. Our belief and practice are more true and 
 healthy than those of the Confucian. 
 
it^ Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 
 And while the requirements of filial duty in the 
 latter are so stringent that I have often known them 
 become a grievous yoke, a burden which Chinese 
 sons were unable to bear, little is found in the Con- 
 fucian writings to instruct or caution parents in their 
 treatment of their children. More than enough is 
 said of the rights of the parent, less than enough 
 of the rights of the children. There are two 
 texts in the New Testament, of the wisdom of 
 which my readers will not entertain any doubt, 
 ^eptT while yet I have always found them very dis- 
 to thJduty* tasteful not only to Chinese literati but also to 
 tochUdJ?n the people. One is that in which the Apostle 
 to the Paul wrote to the Corinthians: "The children 
 
 ought not to lay up for the parents, but the 
 parents for the children" (2 Cor. xii 14). The 
 other is also from St. Paul (Colossians iii. 21) : 
 " Fathers, provoke not your children, that they be 
 not discouraged." 
 
 Another of the five relations of society is that 
 of husband and wife; "it is the one, indeed," 
 as Chinese writers say, *' out of which all the other 
 relations grow." And many fine and beautiful 
 sentiments are found in them on marriage. But 
 The position j^q positiou of womau in China has always been 
 
 of woman in a ' 
 
 always an ^u inferior one. Girls are of small account in a 
 
 inferior oDo. family as Compared with boys. Infanticide, mainly 
 
 owing, I believe, to the poverty of the people, is 
 
 more common than in any western country, but it 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 29 
 is always female infanticide. A woman should The 
 
 , prevalaxiC6 
 
 not have any mind of her own, nor take the in- ot infanti- 
 
 itiative even in what is good.^ If she come out of 
 
 the strict seclusion of her own apartments and 
 
 domestic duties, her influence will prove to be for 
 
 eviL^ There is indeed only one wife, " one correct 
 
 wife,'* in a family, hut from the oldest times concu- concubinae 
 
 the rule in 
 
 binage has been the rule in China. The ancient cMna. 
 Y^o, whose beneficent influence, according to 
 Confucius, "corresponded to that of Heaven, and 
 whose virtue was so great that the people could 
 find no name for it,"^ yet gave his two daughters 
 in marriage to the same man at the same time.* 
 The life of woman in China is truly a hard and ^^^^j^^iJ* 
 inferior one. It is not till she becomes a mother K^one. 
 that she shares in the regard due to the higher 
 party in the relation of parent and child. Even 
 then she is subject to the law of " the three 
 obediences," ^ and is bound, if a widow, to obey her 
 eldest son, as she had, in the earlier stages of her 
 life, been bound to obey first her parents, and then 
 her husband. I have often thanked the Apostle 
 Peter in spirit for his words, *' Ye husbands, give christian 
 
 teaching on 
 
 honour to the woman as unto the weaker vessel, as ahusband'i 
 
 duties. 
 
 being also joint-heirs of the grace of life" (1 Peter 
 
 1 The Sacred Books of the East, in., p. 350. 
 
 * The She King, or Boole of Ancient Poetry, p. 347. 
 
 * Confucian Analects, vin., ch. 19. 
 
 * The Sacred Books of the East, m., p. 36. 
 
 See the Prolegomena to my Chinese Classics, i., pp. 104, KM. 
 
30 Christianity and Confucianism Compared 
 Nothing iii. 7). In all my readino; in Chinese literature I have 
 
 parallel to ' . . 
 
 this in Con- not met with so kindly and arenerous a sentiment. 
 There is not so much to object to in the Con- 
 fucian teaching about the other three relations oi 
 society. I pass on to the last point of superiority 
 in the Christian teaching, with the general remark 
 that too much authority is assigned to the superior 
 member in each category, and too much deference 
 required from the inferior. 
 
 Y. The Christian teaching of human duty is 
 superior to the Confucian, because it is com- 
 mended and enforced by the perfect example of its 
 of(?)SJSS^^ Author. " What I wish to do," said Mencius, the 
 The Chinese ablcst cxpouuder of the Confucian system: "What 
 BootTit'pt.*' I wish to do is to learn to be like Confucius." 
 
 He goes on to adduce the estimate of "the 
 Master " given by several of " the disciples," with 
 the opinion of one of whom we must here content 
 ourselves, that of Yu Jo : 
 
 " There is the Ch'l-Hn among quadrupeds, the phoenix among 
 birds, the Tha,i mountain among ant-hills, and the Ho and the 
 sea among rain-pools. (Though they are different in degree), they 
 are the same in kind ; and so the sages among men are also the 
 same in kind. But they stand out from their fellows, and rise 
 above the crowd ; and from the birth of mankind till now there 
 never has been one so complete as Confucius." 
 
 I have no pleasure in shattering this idol, nor 
 
 would I lay a rude hand or an effacing finger on 
 
 the reputation of the Chinese " Master." He was 
 
 . a great man and a good man, and deserved well 
 
 of his own country and of the world. Yet it is a 
 
 i.. 2. 22. 
 
in their Teaching oj the Whole Duty of Man. 31 
 
 true saying that " the hest of men are but men at 
 the best." He was not a perfect character. On 
 one occasion, immediately after enunciating his 
 - silver rule," he subjoined : Sl'ptlsct 
 
 character, 
 " In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not according 
 one of which have I as yet attained. To serve my father as I confessiou 
 would require my son to serve me : to this I have not attained ; 
 to serve my ruler as I would require my minister to serve me : 
 to this I have not attained ; to serve my elder brother as 1 
 would require my younger brother to serve me : to this I have 
 not attained ; to set the example in behaving to a friend as I 
 would require him to behave to me: to this I have not attained. " * 
 
 The Chinese character which I have here trans- 
 lated by " I," is the personal name of Confucius, 
 and ties his readers down to accept his words as 
 his own acknowledgment of his personal imper- 
 fection. They are not the words of a sham 
 ** humility," as Chinese commentators contend, 
 nor an example merely of the way in which men 
 should measure others as they measure themselves ; 
 but we do not think less of him, we think indeed 
 more of him, because he was thus conscious of 
 his own incompetencies, and that he fell short of 
 his own standard of duty. 
 
 One of the four things, again, which Confucius ^J^^^* 
 was fond of teaching was " truthfulness ; " 2 and '^*- 
 yet it is difficult to maintain that, according to our 
 idea of the duty of a historian, he was not untruthful 
 in his accounts of men and events.^ I cannot resist 
 
 ^ The Doctrine of the Mean, 13. 4. 2 Confucian Analects, 
 Se the Prolegomena to The Chinese CUmicf, Vol v. pp, 
 
J52 Christianity and Confucianism Com/pared 
 
 Confucius 
 was not 
 truthful in 
 his accounts 
 of men and 
 events. 
 
 No con- 
 sciousness of 
 sin in Christ, 
 
 His appeal 
 to His 
 enemies. 
 
 A sinless 
 High Priest 
 needed by 
 us. 
 
 The 
 
 testimony of 
 enemies. 
 
 the impression that his example in this respect has 
 lowered the standard of this important virtue 
 among his countrymen. 
 
 Confucius was not a perfect character ; and I 
 appeal to my readers whether, if any acknowledg- 
 ment on the part of Christ, similar to that which 
 I have just adduced, were to he found in our Gospels, 
 it would not sound very strange, and he disturbing 
 to their faith. Christ could say, on the contrary, to 
 his enemies, "Which of you convicteth me of sin" 
 (John viii. 46) ? After nearly nineteen centuries, 
 throughout Christendom, the instances are very 
 exceptional of any men who have ventured to 
 insinuate a judgment concerning Him, different 
 from that of the writer of the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews : " He was in all points tempted like as 
 {we are, yet) without sin" (iv. 15). "Such a high 
 priest became us, holy, guileless, undefiled, separated 
 from sinners" (vii. 26). Even such men as 
 Rousseau, and the late John Stuart Mil], whom 
 we must class among unbelievers, have borne 
 concurrent testimony as to the impression made 
 by His life and words upon their minds.^ 
 
 Christ was indeed the perfect Teacher, and the 
 perfect Exemplar of what He taught The more 
 that we press on to be like Him, the more do we 
 
 ^ See Present Day Tract, No. iiL , Chritt the Central Evidence 
 of Oliristianity, by the Rev. Principal Cairns. See th^jre also, 
 pp. 12-16, the discriminating observations on ** Modeni Theoriei 
 
 of Christ's Moral Excellence,'' 
 
in their Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 33 
 
 feel that we fail to be so. But He said, '' He that Christ our 
 hath seen Me, hath seen the Father ; " and the example. 
 more conscious we are of copying His example, and revelation of 
 
 . ^' . the Father. 
 
 endeavouring to realize in ourselves " the mind _ 
 
 O Our peace m 
 
 that was in Him," the greater is our peace, and the Ji^/pJ^g^es-*^ 
 brighter our hope that we are going on to be ^d!'^" 
 " perfect, even as our heavenly Father is perfect." 
 
 I have not, in writing this Tract, played the 
 part of an advocate whose object is to win his 
 cause. My endeavour has been to describe the 
 case of both systems on the point laid down at the 
 outset, to describe it dispassionately, and yet 
 sufficiently for my readers to form a judgment on 
 the subject discussed themselves. 
 
 I think that the evidence of facts bears out the 
 conclusion as to the superiority of Christianity to 
 which I have come. It is, indeed, an eternal truth An appeal to 
 
 the fruits of 
 
 that "by their fruits" we know both men and the two 
 
 ' systems 
 
 systems ; but though I have tried, over a long series 
 of years, to weigh the moral condition of the 
 Chinese people as compared with our own, and 
 that of other nominally Christian peoples, I have 
 felt the difficulty of doing so in an even balance, 
 and there has frequently occurred to me the 
 warning in the Sermon on the Mount: ** Judge 
 not that ye be not judged." 
 
 Take the Chinese people as a whole, apart from 
 *He points on which I have already given my 
 
 inion, and there is much about them to like and 
 
34 Christianity and ConfucianisTn Compared 
 
 Chinese 
 virtues. 
 
 even to admire. They are cheerful, temperate, 
 industrious, and kindly ; and in those respects they 
 will bear a comparison, perhaps a favourable com- 
 parison, with the masses of our own population. 
 The ancient and universal use of tea as their 
 ordinary drink has been beneficial to their habits. 
 I found those of them who had any position in 
 society for the most part faithful to their engage- 
 ments and true to their word. I thought of them 
 better, both morally and socially, when I left them, 
 than when I first went among them, more than 
 thirty years before. Their civilisation has developed 
 under very different conditions from our own. They 
 are less enlightened, very much less enlightened, 
 and less capable of comprehensive views, and more 
 superstitious. They have learned almost nothing 
 from abroad, and are more conservative, thinking 
 much of the past, and little of the future. Still 
 they deserve our esteem ; and they measure for- 
 eigners from their own standpoints, weighing them 
 as well as they can in the balances of " benevolence, 
 righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity." 
 Their Confucianism has done much for them, and 
 its teaching of human duty has modified the 
 practical influence which the systems of Taoism 
 and Buddhism have on multitudes of them. 
 The short- Qu tho othep hand, we ourselves in this and 
 
 comings of 
 
 Christendom. jjr^Q other uatious of Christendom come far short 
 of the standard of duty and character which 
 
 Their 
 
 civilisation, 
 enlighten- 
 ment, and 
 sui)erstition. 
 
 Their con- 
 servatism. 
 
in thdr Teaching of the Whole Duty of Man. 35 
 
 we ought to be aiming after. Where our Chris- The fruits o< 
 tian principles, religious and moral, indeed, have incompar- 
 
 ^ , , ably better 
 
 free course, as they have in millions, they pro- t^au those 
 
 duce a humanity with which there is nothing S^e 
 
 in China worthy to be compared ; but in our social prindpiS 
 
 and national condition there are many things that 00*1^^!^^ 
 
 may well make us lay our hands on our mouths. 
 
 and cease from judging hardly of the heathen 
 
 Chinese. The best promise of a better state for 
 
 ourselves and the world is in the growing conviction 
 
 that we need to rise more to the height of our 
 
 privileges, and in the individual and combined 
 
 efforts constantly called forth to remove evils that 
 
 are brought to light. This is one remarkable 
 
 feature of the different influence which the two 
 
 systems that we have been comparing have on 
 
 their adherents. Confucianism tends to make men Confucian- 
 ism makes 
 
 satisfied with what they are, while true Christianity ^^"fied!' ' 
 makes them dissatisfied that they are not better, m^kes thS 
 Then the former system has not in it an impulsive with them- 
 spirit of propagandism. I have hep-rd the saying 
 among the people that "the Four Books do not 
 go out beyond the four seas environing the Middle 
 Land ; " whereas the last command of Christ was 
 that His followers should " go and make disciples ag^essive 
 of all the nations." No one who has become chS^^ 
 imbued with the principles of Christianity can be 
 satisfied till he has realised " a new moral world " 
 in himself, and sees a real progress to the same 
 
36 GhriBtiamty and Confucianism Compared. 
 
 goal in tlie manners and institutions of his own 
 country and in the world at large. How so many 
 centuries have elapsed since the delivery of the 
 Sermon on the Mount, and the " lifting up " on the 
 i-be slow Cross, and the risinsr from the tomb, and Christen- 
 
 proprress of ^ 
 
 a^yste^!^ dom should remain so imperfectly Christian, and so 
 great a portion of mankind be still non- Christian : 
 this is a mystery which I will not try to fathom. 
 
 cKtilnH" But there is a spirit in Christianity that nerves 
 its members to continue the struggle with what is 
 evil in and around themselves, and maintains the 
 consecration of time and labour and talents to 
 bring " all the nations " to the fellowship of the 
 Gospel. If we are to do our part in weaning the 
 Chinese from their inordinate attachment to their 
 sage and his teaching, and bringing the nation to 
 "mew its mighty age, and kindle her undazzled 
 eyes at the full midday beam," it can only be by 
 
 How the our showing that, in all our intercourse with them, 
 
 to be won to politically, commercially, and in other ways, we 
 are ruled by the principles of love and righteous- 
 ness, which blend together in " the golden rule " 
 of Christ, " Whatsoever ye would that men should 
 do unto you, even so do ye also unto them." 
 
A A 
 
 THE ZEND-AVESTA 
 
 AND 
 
 THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIS 
 
 BY 
 
 J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D. 
 
^tsumeni (xt the TxacU 
 
 Of the great religions of antiquity that have survived to the 
 present time, the system which is affirmed by its followers to 
 have been promulgated by the famous Zoroaster is one of the 
 most remarkable. It is now professed only by the Parsees of 
 India and their brethren, the Zoroastrians of Persia ; but it was 
 once a widely-extended and influential faith, with notable cha- 
 racteristics pecuHar to itself. The sacred book of the Zoroas- 
 trians is the Zend-Avesta (or Avesta). Of the founder of the 
 religion we cannot speak with certainty ; and the same thing 
 may be said of the history of Zoroastrianism up to the time of 
 Darius, the son of Hystaspes. Little was known in Europe 
 regarding the system till 177 1. 
 
 The Tract examines in succession the theology, the ritual, 
 the ethics, and the jurisprudence of the Avesta. The theology 
 is not homogeneous ; the Avesta contains a quasi monotheism, 
 dualism, and polytheistic nature-worship. Starting with the 
 same root-ideas as Hinduism, Zoroastrianism developed them 
 differently ; it rose nearer to Monotheism, and it avoided Pan- 
 theism. One great excellence of the system is that it connects 
 nothing immoial with the character or worship of God. Its 
 most distinctive mark is its strong duahsm ; it asserts the 
 existence from eternity of two principles or powers one good, 
 one evil : the former the creator of all good, the latter the creator 
 of all evil. The Zoroastrian must share in the great struggle 
 between good and evil ; which is finally to issue in the triumph 
 of the former. There is no image-worship in Zoroastrianism. 
 Fire is the great visible object of homage. But everything in 
 the good creation is, or may be, worshipped. Homage is ren- 
 dered both to the outward object and the being presiding over it. 
 
 Nothing in the Zoroastrian ritual is more remarkable than 
 its elaborate purifications in connection with ceremonial defile- 
 ment. Among Gentile religions, Zoroastrianism ranks high in 
 point of morality ; but the whole Avesta is lacking in depth both 
 of reflection and emotion. Finally, a brief comparison is made 
 between Zoroastrianism and Christianity. 
 
THE ZEND-AVESTA 
 
 AND TH> 
 
 RELIGION OF THE PARSiS. 
 
 Iery few of the religions of antiquity ofthe 
 
 '-' J. V surviving 
 
 have survived to the present day. For ^njgj?^,^' 
 example, the impure divinities of Syria Sm'isl^e ol 
 and the brutish gods of Egypt have Sikabfe'^ 
 completely disappeared. 
 
 Peor and Baalim 
 
 Forsake their temples dim. . 
 
 Nor is Osiris seen 
 
 In Memphian grove or green, 
 
 Trampling the unshowered grass with lowings loud. 
 
 The divinities of Greece and Borne have, in like 
 manner, passed away. Zeus no longer sways from 
 the summit of Olympus his sceptre over "gods 
 and men ; " and a Christian church now occupies 
 the spot on which stood in ancient days the temple 
 of Jupiter, the guardian of the Capitol. 
 
 Of those ancient systems of religion that have 
 come down to our times one of the most remarkable 
 
The Zend-Avesta^ and the 
 
 is the one whicli is embodied in the Zend-Avesta.^ 
 
 The faith propounded in the Avesta is usually 
 
 First called Zoroastrianism ; since, accordinar to its pro- 
 
 inculcated . . i, i -11,111 
 
 by zoro- fessors, it was ono:inally inculcated by the celebrated 
 
 aster. . 
 
 Zoroaster. It is also frequently called Parsiism, 
 
 still as being still followed by the interesting body of 
 
 pLSs people in Western India, known by the name of 
 
 Pdrsis, and also by the small remnant of the same 
 
 race in Persia. 
 
 There are not a few questions connected with 
 the Avesta and the history of Zoroastrianism which 
 are still matters of keen controversy. We shall 
 not enter into these, but shall, in a great degree, 
 confine our attention to matters in which there 
 exists a large measure of agreement among Ori- 
 ental scholars. Happily, these are not few in 
 number; nor are they by any means devoid of 
 interest. In these days, when so much attention 
 is paid to the comparative study of religions, the 
 Avesta faith ought by no means to be overlooked. 
 ithas The system possesses some striking peculiarities. 
 
 S^'a^*^^ Farther, it has had a very remarkable history. 
 totory^^ Most important problems are involved in its re- 
 lations to Hinduism, Judaism, the Babylonian 
 religion, the Gnostic heresies, and the great system 
 of Manicheeism; and in the Mithraic mysteries, ^ 
 
 ^ The name Avesta is more correct than Zend-Avesta. More 
 exact would be the spelling Avastdj but we adopt the more 
 usual form. 
 
Religion of the Farsis. 
 
 which were mainly of Persian origin, its influence 
 spread extensively over the Roman empire, and 
 even as far west as Britain. 
 
 Much had been written regarding Zoroaster, and 
 many had been the speculations regarding his 
 doctrines ; but no satisfactory conclusions could 
 be reached so long as the Avesta remained un- 
 known. Even before the Christian era Zoroaster had 
 become a mythical personage, and forged oracles 
 were ascribed to him which only increased the 
 perplexity. The laborious researches of scholars Dr. Hyde'i 
 like Dr. Thomas Hyde^ are deserving of high 
 respect ; but such men had to reason from data 
 always insufficient and often untrustworthy. A 
 new era in the study of Zoroastrianism began with 
 
 researches. 
 
 the labours of Anque til du Perron. The story of Anquetiidn 
 
 ^ -^ Pen-on. 
 
 the travels and researches of this enthusiastic ex- 
 plorer reads almost like a romance. He went to 
 India in quest of the venerable book ascribed to 
 Zoroaster; found it among the Parsi priests of 
 Surat; and, after years of toDsome investigation 
 into its doctrines, returned in triumph with hi& 
 prize to Europe. He published a French transla- 
 tion of it, with accompanying dissertations, in 1771. 
 The work at once excited the greatest interest. 
 This, after some time, began to diminish, mainly 
 
 * Veterum Persarum et Parthorum ct Medorum religionia his- 
 toria. 2nd edition. Oxford, 1760. The first edition, with a 
 slightly different title, was publisiied at Oxford in 1700. 
 
The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 ID consequence of the faulty character of the trans- 
 lation, which was frequently very obscure, and 
 not infrequently incorrect. During rather more 
 than the last fifty years, however, the study of the 
 Avesta has been prosecuted by a succession of able 
 men with unflagging zeal, and with no inconsider- 
 able success. 
 Date of the We cau traco the Avesta, as we find it, up to 
 
 Avesta, 
 
 the time of the Sasanian dynasty in Persia. The 
 Persian empire was restored in the year 226 after 
 Christ by Ardashir Babegan, the first of the 
 Sasanian line. He was a man of no common force 
 of character ; bold and successful as a warrior, 
 and skilful in administration. In building up his 
 kingdom he called religion to his aid. He earnestly 
 sought to collect the writings that inculcated the 
 ancient faith of Zoroaster; and several of his 
 successors persevered in the attempt. The canon 
 of the Avesta was fixed under Sh^pur II., about 
 the year 350 ; revision and condensation were 
 effected in the reign of Khosru Parviz, between 
 631 and 579. The Avesta, as we possess it, may 
 thus be safely traced back at least to the sixth 
 state of the conturv after Christ. We must allow for errors 
 
 text. ' . . 
 
 of transcription in the case of what had long been 
 a dead language. Uncouth and imintelligible 
 phrases abound in the work ; the text is often 
 manifestly incorrect, and critics are sorely tempted 
 to try the undesirable expedient of conjectural 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 
 
 emendation. Still, on the whole, here stands the 
 Avesta, very nearly as it must have stood some 
 thirteen, or even fifteen, centuries ago. But farther: 
 although collected in the days of the Sasanian kings, 
 we have no reason to believe that it was then 
 composed. An extensive literature existed in Persia ^^^^.^ 
 before the Macedonian conquest. The tradition of Macedoufan 
 the Parsisis that Alexander *'the accursed wretch <'*^^<i^^='^ 
 Sikandar," as they call him burnt all their books, 
 with the exception of a few fragments. The tradi- 
 tion cannot count for much ; for the great conqueror 
 was generally tolerant in matters of religion, and 
 pursued, as far as possible, a policy of conciliation. 
 The disappearance of the ancient books is rather Disappear- 
 
 ^*- , anceofthe 
 
 to be regarded as the result of the centuries of ^f^f- 
 confusion that succeeded the Macedonian conquest 
 over the countries in which the Zoroastrian faith 
 generally prevailed. Be this as it may, we have The greater 
 reason to believe that by far the greatest part of ^:;^^^^^^ 
 the Avesta was composed at various dates ranging beSKaie 
 over the space from about the seventh to the fourth cenSy b.c. 
 century before Christ. Portions may be still more portions 
 
 ^ ^ _ more recent 
 
 recent ; and it is possible, and even probable, that 
 some additions were made as late as the fourth 
 century after Christ, or even later. The work, as 
 it stands, is not only fragmentary, but chaotic ; 
 wonderfully little skill having been exhibited in 
 the arrangement of its component parts. 
 
 About Zoroaster himself we must say a few 
 
The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 probably . 
 Mede. 
 
 words. Some able men doubt his very existence, 
 and find in his history only a mythical description 
 of elemental war an atmospheric storm.^ On 
 the whole, however, we hold that he actually 
 Zoroaster^ existed, and that he was possibly a Bactrian, but 
 probably a Mede. There is reason to believe that, 
 while the Medes were under Assyrian dominion, 
 their religion had to some extent become mixed 
 with that of the conquerors ; but that, when the 
 foreign yoke was thrown off, an earnest attempt 
 was made to revive the ancient Aryan faith. With 
 this reformation we may perhaps, provisionally, 
 connect the name of Zoroaster. Thus, in round 
 numbers, we can with some probability assign his 
 era to the commencement of the sixth century, or 
 perhaps 610 b.c. Such, at least, was Dr. Hang's 
 final opinion.^ 
 
 On these questions, however, we can as yet 
 attain to no more than plausible conjecture, and 
 all dogmatism is out of place.^ Even the name of 
 
 Hit era. 
 
 * Professor Darmesteter and others. See his treatise, Ormuzd 
 et Ahriman, passim. 
 
 ' Haug, who at first maintained that Zoroaster might have 
 been as ancient as Moses, and must have been before 1000 B.C., 
 in later years altered his opinion, and supported the view uuw 
 expressed. It nearly agrees with that of the Parsis. But the 
 question is by no means finally settled. Professors Roth and 
 Tiele will not admit the older part of the Avesta to be later 
 than from 1000 to 800 B.C. 
 
 * M. Renan justly remarks : II n'est pas bon dans ces difficile* 
 etudes de croire tenir I'absolue v6rite. Journal AaicUique, 
 1880, p. 27. 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 
 
 tlie great teacher in Zend, Zarathustra has re- 
 ceived no satisfactory explanation. We may be- 
 lieve stillj it is only a plausible conjecture tbat 
 the Avesta religion arose to the south-east of the 
 Caspian Sea, among a race still semi-nomadic, but 
 inclining more and more to pastoral and agricultural 
 Ufe. It seems to have powerfully affected Bactria Late nd 
 
 ^ \ Blow growth 
 
 and Media, before it entered Persia. In the last- of zoro- 
 
 ' astriamsm 
 
 named country the precepts of the Avesta were ^^ Persia. 
 but partially submitted to during the earlier reigns, 
 from that of Cyrus downwards ; but the power of 
 the Magi the priests with a short interruption 
 after the death of the Pseudo-Smerdis, appears to 
 have gone on steadily increasing, until the Mace- 
 donian conquest shattered it to pieces. The suc- 
 cessors of Alexander reigned eighty years over 
 Persia. Under the Parthian power which suc- 
 ceeded, the Magi slowly recovered a certain mea- 
 sure of their authority ; and Yalkhash (Yolegeses), 
 one of the later kings, seems to have begun the 
 work of collecting the scattered fragments of 
 the sacred books. The Parthian dominion was its high 
 overthrown by Ardashir Babegan, who has been second 
 mentioned above; and, under him and his empire. 
 successors, Zoroastrianism obtained a far more 
 influential position than it had ever previously 
 held. This it retained until Persia was conquered 
 by the Arabs, in the middle of the seventh century 
 after Christ. 
 
10 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 Division of 
 the Avesta. 
 
 Prayers and 
 
 eacrificial 
 
 rites. 
 
 rhe 
 
 legislation 
 of the 
 Avesta. 
 
 Objects 
 invoked. 
 
 The Avesta, as it now stands, is not so large in 
 size as tlie Christian Bible. It consists of the 
 following parts: 
 
 The Yasna, including the five G^thas, or 
 Hymns. 
 
 The Yandidad. 
 
 The YisPARAD. 
 
 The Yashts. 
 
 A few short prayers called Afrigan, Nyavish, 
 and Gah. 
 
 The SiROZAH, or Calendar of the thirty days 
 of the month. 
 
 The meaning of the word Yasna is sacrifice. 
 This division of the Avesta contains the prayers 
 offered along with sacrificial rites. The Gathas, 
 which are its most important part, are written 
 in a different dialect from the rest of the Avesta, 
 and are very probably of a more ancient date. 
 
 The Yandidad contains the legislation of the 
 Avesta. The name is characteristic; it signifies 
 given against the demons. 
 
 The Yisparad contains a collection of prayers 
 very similar to those in the Yasna. The name 
 means all heads, or chiefs ; it is so called because 
 the chief objects of the good creation are invoked 
 in iti 
 
 The Yashts. This name is connected with 
 
^' 
 
 ,o 
 
 Rdigion of the W<t^vU,rj^^^ 11 
 
 Yasna, which has been explained above. The Prayers 
 
 , 7 . . 4 -T-r -1 addressed to 
 
 term yasht -pTo-perlj means tcorshippuig. A Yasht one deity. 
 is properly a prayer or hymn in which one deity 
 is more especially singled out for adoration. 
 
 It certainly is not easy to see any logical prin- 
 ciple ruling the division and arrangement of the 
 parts of the Avesta. 
 
 We proceed, however, to the examination of the 
 book as we find it. We shall speak successively 
 of the following subjects: 
 
 I. The Theological system of the Avesta. 
 II. The Ritual. 
 III. The Ethical and Judicial systems. 
 
 I. The Theology. 
 
 "When we proceed to examine the theoloerv of conflicting 
 
 ^ ^"^ doctrine* in 
 
 the book we are at once struck with the conflicting the theology 
 character of its doctrines. We discover in one 
 place either Monotheism, or what approaches it; 
 in another place, decided Dualism; in a third, 
 Polytheism. We cannot divest ourselves of the 
 belief that such jarring creeds imply diversity ol 
 origin. If they arose in the same country, they 
 must have done so at different epochs. Yet when 
 we strive to arrange the systems in the chrono- 
 logical order of their sequence, we are perplexed 
 by the fact that no division of the Avesta is homo- 
 geneous in its doctrine ; discordant voices often 
 
12 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 unexpectedly break in upon us. The most that 
 we can say is that the Gathas, on the whole, come 
 nearest to Monotheistic teaching; the Yandidad 
 is more tinged with Dualism; while the Yasna 
 (except the Gathas) and the Yisparad are more 
 Polytheistic, and the Yashts are the most decid- 
 edly so of all. Difficult as it is to theorize on the 
 chronological relations of these systems of thought, 
 one is irresistibly driven to do so. Professor 
 Spiegel, who has devoted a laborious life to the 
 study of the Avesta, holds that the order was not 
 first polytheism, then dualism, then monotheism, 
 but that the monotheism preceded the dualism. 
 We also believe that a kind of monotheism came 
 first. But this point requires explanation. 
 
 There can be little doubt that Ahura Mazda, 
 the chief divinity in the Avesta, was originally the 
 same as the Yaruna Asura of the Yeda. (Ahura 
 is simply the Zend form of Asura, which means 
 Lord.) Yaruna is etymological! y the same as the 
 Greek \vpav6s, heaven ; and Yaruna was the 
 heaven-god. A very lofty character is ascribed 
 to this deity ; if the Yeda ever approaches the con- 
 ception of holiness, it is in connection with Yaruna 
 it does so. The counterparts of Yaruna, the heaven- 
 god, are found in Zeus, Ju-piter, and Ahura Mazda; 
 and it may be held as demonstrated that the con- 
 ception of a supreme divinity, wise, powerful, and 
 good, was common to the four great divisions ol 
 
 DuaJism. 
 
 Polytheism. 
 
 The chrono- 
 logical 
 relations of 
 these 
 
 systems in 
 the Avesta. 
 
 Ahixra 
 
 MaLdaand 
 
 Varuna 
 
 originally 
 
 the same 
 
 deity. 
 
 Their 
 
 counterparts 
 are Zeus 
 and Jupiter. 
 
 The 
 
 conception 
 of a supreme 
 divinity 
 common to 
 the great 
 divisions of 
 the Aryan 
 race. 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 
 
 the Aryan race, the Greeks, Romans, Hindus, 
 
 and Iranians. It must have belonged to them 
 
 before they separated from each other. Yet, "^^ff^^ 
 
 although supreme, this divinity was not sole ; he *^* 
 
 was, in the phrase which meets us so frequently 
 
 from the time of Homer downwards, " the father 
 
 of gods and men ; " but he received no exclusive 
 
 homage. 
 
 After the other branches of the Aryan family Iranians 
 
 and HinduSi 
 
 had migrated to the west, the Iranians and Hindus 
 evidently remained for some time together; and 
 hence, many elements are common to the two 
 systems of religious thought. But, ere long, the 
 Indo-Iranian stream divided into two parts, which 
 were never to re-unite. Each of the two systems 
 of faith now received its own special development. 
 
 In India, Yaruna was gradually divested of his Varunaiost 
 serene majesty. Even in Yedic times Indra, the position in 
 tumultuous god of the lower sky, who had none 
 of his lofty attributes, was exalted into the place of 
 Yai-una; and other gods were gradually multiplied. 
 But in Iran the authority of Ahura Mazda (ie., the JJ^ 
 wise Lord^) became more fully recognized than *^^^* 
 before. His moral attributes also were never ob- cS^terof 
 scured. Still, Ahura Mazda falls very far below *^^^*^'^ 
 the divinity who is revealed in the Jewish Scrip- 
 tures. He is not a purely spiritual being. He is f j^tur^^ 
 
 l^eing. 
 ^ Haug does not admit that Mazda means wise. He rendert 
 it joint-creator^ or creator of ail. 
 
14 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 The e-dl 
 prindple 
 everlasting 
 8 tnily as 
 Ahura. 
 
 Vanous 
 representa- 
 tions 
 
 concerning 
 Ahura. 
 
 not omnipresent, nor omnipotent. H3 is not creator 
 of all things ; for the Evil Principle, residing in 
 primeval darkness, is from everlasting as truly 
 as Ahura himself. There is an inconsistency in 
 the statements regarding Ahura*s relation to the 
 Amesha-spentas (literally, holy immortals) y who 
 are a kind of archangels. They are said to be 
 seven; but this number is made up only by in- 
 cluding Ahura Mazda as one of them, while yet, 
 in many passages, he is said to have created them. 
 Ahura is represented as praying for help even to 
 such inferior divinities as Mithra, An^hit, Tistriya, 
 and Ysiyu, who preside respectively over the sun 
 (see infra), the waters, the star Sirius, and the wind. 
 Again, Ahura is repeatedly called " the greatest of 
 the yazatas,** a name generally given to divini- 
 ties of the second class. There is also considerable 
 confusion in the statements regarding his relation 
 to Spenta Mainyu, the good or beneficent spirit. 
 Ahui-a is frequently identified with the latter ; but 
 in many places a kind of distinction is preserved. 
 Dr. Haug represents the Gfathas which inculcate, 
 as he maintains, the original Zoroastrian faith as 
 asserting that from the beginning there was a pair 
 of beings twins in Ahura Mazda ; one of whom 
 was the good spirit, and the other the evil spirit.^ 
 
 1 They are the two moving causes in the universe, united from 
 the beginning, and therefore called twina They are present 
 everywhere; in Ahura Mazda as well as in men. H(mg'% 
 Eways, p. 303. 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 15 
 
 This seems to involve the tremendous consequence 
 that evil is an essential attribute of the self-existent 
 deity a tenet with which we are reluctant to 
 charge the Avesta. The view of Haug that the 
 two opposed spirits are in Ahura Mazda, seems 
 scarcely borne out by the original text ; and even 
 if it were, we must not press too far the logical 
 result of certain phrases. The Avesta in truth no reasoned, 
 contains no reasoned-out system; but its whole mthe 
 teaching asserts that to the nature of God evil is 
 abhorrent. The Avesta has, indeed, a very imper- 
 fect conception of what sin and evil are ; but, so 
 far as its knowledge goes, it denounces and detests 
 them. 
 
 Closely connected with Ahura is a hierarchy of ^gg^^^- 
 celestial beings, the Amesha-spentas,^ mentioned SSi" 
 above. They are very generally adored along with ^^ ^' 
 Ahura. Thus: '*We sacrifice to Ahura Mazda, 
 bright and glorious ; we sacrifice to the Amesha- 
 spentas, all-ruling, all-beneficent." ^ The function 
 of these " holy immortals " is to inspect and aid 
 the whole of the good creation. Their designations The 
 
 designations 
 
 are as lollows : ofthehoiy 
 
 immortals. 
 
 1. Vohumano (literally, good mind). The name 
 
 ^ The temi Amesha-spentas was in later times corrupted into 
 Amshaspands ; and the names now usually assigned them are 
 aa follows : Bahman, Ardibahisht, Shahrlvar, Spendermad, 
 Khordad, and Amerdad. None of these names has any re- 
 semblance to the Hebrew name of any angel or archangel 
 2 Hapten Yasht 6. 
 
sovereignty. 
 
 16 The Zend-Avesta^ and the 
 
 Thegeniua orisiiiallv denotes submission to the revealed law. 
 
 of truth. '' 
 
 He became the genius of truth, and also of flocks. 
 Truth and 2. Asha vasistha (the best rectitude) denotes oon- 
 
 holiness. ... 
 
 f ormity to divine order ; truth and holiness. He 
 presides over fire. He also cures diseases. 
 
 3. Khshathra vairya {supreme sovereignty). He 
 represents royal dominion. He presides over metals. 
 Thegeniua 4. Speuta Armaiti (holy msdom). She became 
 
 oftheaarth. ,. -, i 
 
 the genius of the earth. 
 Health and 5, 6, Haurvatat and Ameretat are generally 
 
 immortality. , . . . 
 
 mentioned together. Their names signify health 
 and immortality. They denote the fulness of 
 blessing. 
 The In the Gathas, the Amesha-spentas seem ab- 
 
 sntaa m stract idcas, or qualities, rather than personal beings. 
 Their names sound like attributes of Ahura Mazda ; 
 and many passages appear to require them to be so 
 understood. In others they are represented as his 
 gifts bestowed on faithful worshippers. If not 
 attributes, their relation to Ahura Mazda is such 
 that we are almost compelled to conclude either that 
 they were simply repetitions of him seven being 
 a kind of sacred number among the Aryans, as 
 weU as various other races, or that there were 
 seven original separate divinities, of whom Ahura 
 was chief. In any case, the distinction between 
 Ahura and the Amesha-spentas became clearer as 
 time went on. They latterly formed a kind of 
 celestial council. 
 
 le (^<athAS. 
 
Religion of the Farsis. 17 
 
 Yazatas. This term means worthy of worship, The 
 
 . Yazatas, or 
 
 and IS occasionally used m that comprenensive "^^^' 
 sense. More frequently, however, it denotes a ^^^^ 
 very large class of beings who are inferior in point 
 of dignity to the Amesha-spentas. Yery many of 
 them resemble divinities of the Yedas; but others 
 have no counterparts in the Indian system. 
 
 Of the first kind are genii presiding over natural 
 objects, especially those connected with the four 
 elements fire and light, air, earth, and water. 
 Yery great importance is attached to Fire (Atar) ; P^^* 
 so much so that the Persians havy often been called f^^^ *** 
 par excellence fire-worshippers. Atar is the son of character- 
 Ahura Mazda ; ^ he is the beneficent, the warrior ; (fire). 
 he is a full source of glory, a full source of healing. 
 He is a most potent opponent of the evil principle.^ 
 He is most quick and powerful in helping those 
 that bring him dry wood, well cleansed, and well 
 examined in the light of day.^ The fire is never 
 to be allowed to go out. Its altar must be kept 
 pure; it is a heinous sin to pollute the sacred 
 element in any way whatever. 
 
 Airyaman is also a genius of fire. He is the ^PJ^^' 
 much-desired. The prayer addressed to him is 
 called the mightiest of spells: the most healing 
 of all cures for disease. Every form of evil flees 
 before it. 
 
 emiuof 
 
 Sirooah i. and ii. 9. ^ Farvaidin Yasht xxii. 77, 78. 
 Atash Nyayiflh 16. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 The Zend-Avesta^ and the 
 
 Great 
 
 importance 
 also attached 
 to Light. 
 
 Mithra. 
 
 Functions 
 and attri- 
 butes of 
 Mithra. 
 
 Spread of 
 the worship 
 of Mithra. 
 
 rijtriya. 
 
 Equal importance is attached to the genii con- 
 nected with Light. A very high place among 
 these is assigned to Mithra. He is originally the 
 god of the luminous heaven. As such he knows 
 everything ; having a thousand ears and ten thou- 
 sand eyes. He is strong, sleepless, ever watching. 
 He is the lord of wide pastures. He swings in his 
 hands a cluh with a hundred knots, the strongest 
 of all weapons. With arms uplifted he drives in 
 a heautiful chariot of gold, which is drawn on one 
 wheel hy four swift horses, living on heavenly food, 
 and deathless, whose forefeet are shod with gold, 
 and their hind feet with silver. He is the strongest, 
 the most valiant, the most active, the most fiend- 
 smiting of all gods. He precedes the undying, 
 swift-horsed sun ; which, in later days, came to be 
 identified with him. The praises heaped upon 
 Mithra make him almost equal to Ahura Mazda, 
 with whom he is especially associated, "May 
 Mithra and Ahura, the high gods, come to our 
 help ! " ^ It was towards the Christian era that 
 the worship of Mithra, mixed apparently with cruel 
 rites borrowed from Babylon, spread far and wide 
 in the west. 
 
 Another exalted being is Tistriya, the genius of 
 the star Sirius. He presides over the first month 
 of summer. He is the great leader of the fixed 
 stars in their contest with the planets; for, sin- 
 
 i Mihir Yasht 113. 
 
Religion of the Parsis, 19 
 
 gularly enough, these two classes of beings are a leader in 
 
 the strife 
 
 opposed to each other in the ffreat strife between between 
 ..... . 8^^^ *"*^ 
 
 good and evil. Tistriya is the chief author of rain ; evu. 
 
 he is the chief opponent of Apaosha, the fiend who 
 causes drought. Tistriya, in the shape of a beau- conflict with 
 tiful white horse with golden ears and harness, 
 meets the fiend in the shape of a black horse, 
 black with black ears, black with a black back, 
 black with a black tail, stamped with brands caus- 
 ing terror. They meet, hoof against hoof, and 
 fight for three days and three nights. Tistriya is 
 beaten and flees. He loudly complains that men nis defeat. 
 do not sacrifice to him as they do to other yazatas ; 
 otherwise, he would have had the strength of ten 
 horses, ten camels, ten bulls, ten mountains, and 
 ten rivers. Ahura Mazda comes to his aid by ms rescue. 
 ffering him a sacrifice. He returns and van- 
 quishes the fiend ; and then come wind and cloud 
 and rain and sleet, and the seven continents of the 
 world are soon refreshed by ** the friendly showers, 
 the fertilizing waters."^ Ahura Mazda says of Ahura 
 
 . . Mazda's 
 
 "the bright and glorious Tistriya," " 1 have created testimony 
 
 *-''-' ' ' concerning 
 
 him as worthy of sacrifice, prayer, propitiation, and ^^^ 
 glorification as myself, Ahura Mazda/' 
 
 Of the genii of the waters the most celebrated is oeniiof th 
 Ardvi sura Anahit, i.e., the high, powerful, undefiled. AnSMt 
 She descends from the region of the stars. She is 
 * Tir Yaeht 20-33. 
 
20 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and Pit 
 
 What she 
 doee. 
 
 Description 
 of her. 
 
 wide-spreading, health-giving, herd-increasing, fold- 
 increasing. She guards living beings, as a shepherd 
 does his flock. She has a thousand reservoirs and 
 a thousand channels, each as large as a man 
 could ride across in forty days, mounted on a good 
 horse. Ahura Mazda created for her four horses 
 wind, rain, cloud, and sleet so that it is con- 
 tinually blowing, raining, hailing, or snowing on 
 earth. She has a golden necklace on her beautiful 
 neck, and golden rings in her ears. The description 
 of the goddess is very graphic ; and it has been 
 suggested that it must have been drawn from the 
 inspection of a statue raised in her honour. This 
 is possible, as Artaxerxes Mnemon erected statues 
 to her, and is said to have introduced her worship 
 among the Persians.^ She seems to have become 
 identified with the Babylonian goddess Mylitta, 
 whose attributes were ascribed to the genius of the 
 waters; although originally the latter was very un- 
 like in character to the immoral " queen of heaven." 
 
 Tegetable 
 
 world. 
 
 Homa. 
 
 fto-w the 
 ivesta 
 ipeaksof it. 
 
 Of the productions of the vegetable world the 
 most celebrated was Homa, or Haomo. The 
 Homa is a plant with thick stalks and yellow flowers, 
 growing chiefly on the mountains of Ghilan in 
 northern Persia. The Avesta speaks of it in the 
 most exalted terms. It flourishes in resplendent 
 
 } It exiflted, however, before his tiine, for Herodotus mentioDa 
 
Religion of the Par sis. 21 
 
 fflory on " the hiffliest height " of the heavenly Effects ot 
 
 ...... Ti Ml its juice. 
 
 mountain Hara Berezaiti ; * its jmce cures all ills 
 of mind and body. The juice is extracted by pound- 
 ing the plant with a pestle in a mortar. It is the 
 enlivening, the beautiful, the lordly, the golden- 
 eyed,2 the victorious,* and the giver of victory. It 
 is the most precious part of the offering. Later 
 Parsiism ^though not the Avesta speaks of two 
 Homas, a terrestrial one which is yellow, and a 
 celestial one which is pure white. 
 
 This exaltation of Homa in the Avesta reminds 
 us of the position assigned in the Veda to Soma. 
 (The two words are the same, with the usual 
 dialectic difference.) Soma, among the Hindus, 
 became a stiU mightier deity than Homa, being 
 sometimes called the creator of heaven and earth. 
 
 The spirits of the air are not of much importance. Genii of tiu 
 The most important is Y&yu the wind; who is 
 said to belong in part to the good, and in part 
 to the bad, creation. The reason of this distinc- 
 tion is obvious; but it is remarkable that the 
 same division is not made in the case of fire and 
 water. 
 
 Of the spirits of the earth the most important is ^^h' *^ 
 Spenta Armaiti, who is also one of the Amesha 
 spentas. 
 
 1 Gosh Yasht, 17. 
 JukA Yasht 37. Bahram Yasht 67. 
 
22 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 Diyiniiies 
 not known to 
 the Hindus. 
 
 tJraosna the 
 genius of 
 obedience. 
 
 The beings hitherto mentioned, with the excep- 
 tion of Anahit, were originally common to the 
 Indo-Iranian race. There are other divinities who 
 are of purely Iranian origin, and unknown in India. 
 The most important of these are the following. 
 
 Sraosha. This name is derived from a verb signi 
 fying to hear. Sraosha is the genius of obedience to 
 the law. He is a mighty -speared and lordly divin- 
 ity ; tall in form, fiend-smiting, the best protector of 
 the poor, guarding the faithful like a shepherd's 
 dog. Like Mithra, he never sleeps ; he watches 
 all the world with club uplifted, from the hour 
 when the sun is down ; indeed, since " the two 
 spirits made the world " he has never slept ; night 
 and day he battles with the demons. His strong 
 arm smites, and their skulls are shattered by the 
 blow. 
 
 The Law (daena) and the holy formulae or 
 spells are also worshipped as divine. So are the 
 sacred . books, especially the Gathas. Sacrifice is 
 offered to them, and they are frequently invoked 
 for aid. 
 
 Ashi Yanguhi (good piety) is highly celebrated. 
 She is beautiful ; her rays are far-piercing ; she 
 brings all earthly blessings. Splendid garments, 
 and hoards of silver and gold brought from distant 
 lands are the portion of her votaries. 
 
 A very remarkable class of divinities is that of the 
 Fravashis. There is considerable obscurity ool 
 
 The holy 
 formulee. 
 
 The 
 
 Frayashis 
 a remark- 
 able class ol 
 beings. 
 
Religion of the Par sis. 23 
 
 to say contradiction in the descriptions of them. 
 Originally they probably were the souls of the what they 
 dead ; but, in process of time, all living beings gjf<ie* 
 animals, as well as men sky, waters, earth, fire, 
 and plants, were believed to have each a fravashi. 
 Beings yet unborn possess them. Even Ahura Mazda 
 has a fravashi. The fravashi seems sometimes a 
 kind of guardian angel ; sometimes it nearly cor- 
 responds with the archetypal ideas of the Platonic 
 philosophy. It is quite possible that the original 
 conception of the fravashi was modified in later 
 times by Babylonian ideas. " The awful fravashis 
 of the faithful" are irresistible, overpowering. 
 Ahura Mazda confesses that they bring him 
 assistance ; indeed, it is through their brightness and 
 glory that he maintains the sky and the life-giving 
 waters ; and had not the fravashis of the faithful 
 helped him, the whole material world would have 
 fallen under the power of the demons. 
 
 Space is also worshipped.^ So is Time, There space and 
 are both " the sovereign time of the long period/* 
 and " time without bounds." Space and Time 
 are not personified ; they have no genius specially 
 connected with them. The position held by 
 ** boundless Time " has led to some controversy. 
 A text wliich means "in boundless Time"^ had 
 been rendered by Anquetil *' bi/ boundless Time '* ; 
 and on this mainly was founded the beHef that 
 IiMger Sirozah 30, 21. Vand. xix. 9. 
 
24 The Zend-Avestay and the 
 
 infimte Time was the supreme diyinity of ibe 
 Avesta.^ Undoubtedly an influential sect of 
 Zoroastrians the Zarvanites ^held this doctrine 
 in the time of the Sasanian kings ; and indeed it 
 had been known from before the Christian era. 
 Still, it is certainly not the doctrine of the Avesta 
 proper ; it is a later refinement introduced by specu- 
 lative minds. 
 The whole It soems needless to so into srreater detail. Suffice 
 
 of the good 
 
 S^Sppld ^^ ^^ ^^y ^^^* there is nothing in the whole of the 
 good creation that is not held to be deserving of 
 worship. Prayers are addressed to human souls, 
 the souls of animals, vegetables, springs of water, 
 rivers, mountains, the earth, the wind, the sky, 
 the stars, etc., etc. In the case of those objects 
 that have a presiding divinity, it must be carefully 
 noted that the homage is rendered both to the 
 divinity and the outward object. It is often diffi- 
 cult to say which is intended ; in fact, the mind of 
 the worshipper oscillates between them, and fre- 
 quently blends, not to say confounds, the two. 
 But so it was in Greece and Rome, the river and 
 the river-god were the same, yet different; and so it 
 is among the Hindus. The question as to the real 
 object of the invocation is less difficult when an 
 abstract conception a quality or a feeling is 
 
 Worship of exalted to divinity. In such cases the abstract 
 idea is personalized and worshipped. In other 
 ^ So Gibbon, and many more. 
 
prayers. 
 
 Religion of the Furs is. 25 
 
 words, the being who presides over, or inspires, the 
 feeling, is the object addressed ; there are not two 
 objects. Even so the Greeks and Romans wor- 
 shipped the goddess of love, the goddess of wisdom, 
 the god of war, and so on. The only peculiarity 
 lies in the great extent to which the Zoroastrian 
 carries the personifications and deifications. 
 
 We may quote the following prayer, offered on specimen of 
 the last day of each month, as giving a good idea 
 of the remarkable manner in which different objects 
 of worship are thrown together in the invocations. 
 
 SOth day. (Dedicated to) Aneran (.. Anaghra, or lignite 
 Light.) 
 
 We sacrifice to the eternal and sovereign luminous space. We 
 sacrifice to the bright Gardnmana [heaven]. We sacrifice to the 
 sovereign place of eternal weal. We sacrifice to the Chinvat 
 bridge, made by Mazda. We sacrifice to ApA,m Napdt, the 
 swift-horsed, the high and shining lord, who has many wives. 
 We sacrifice to the water made by Mazda and holy. We sacrifice 
 to the golden and tall Homa. We sacrifice to the enlivening 
 Homa, who makes the world grow. We sacrifice to Homa, who 
 keeps death far away. We sacrifice to the pioixs and good 
 Blessing. We sacrifice to the awful, powerful, cursing thought 
 of the wise, a god. We sacrifice to all the holy gods of the 
 heavenly world. We sacrifice to all the holy gods of the 
 material world. I praise, I invoke, I meditate on, and we 
 Baorifice to, the good, strong, beneficent Fravashis of the hoi; 
 
 We proceed now to speak of evil beings. The evU beingi 
 Avesta, as Professor Darmesteter rather sarcasti- 
 cally remarks, is " very rich in demons." Daevas, 
 drujas, yatus, pairikas, dvarants, dregvants, and 
 
 
 
 r>^ 
 
26 The Zend-Avesta^ and the 
 
 80 on ; we have them of varied classes, and in 
 numbers without number.^ 
 The chief The chief of these and the creator of all of them 
 
 evil being, ^ ^ ... 
 
 m"^u8 ^^ Angro mainyus or Ahriman. His name m 
 th^h^ui Zend means hurtful sjnrit. He is from all eternity ; 
 pint. j^g -g wholly evil; his original dwelling was in 
 
 primeval, uncreated darkness, which existed in 
 boundless space, far apart from the primeval, un- 
 created light. Angro mainyus was at first ignorant 
 of the productions, and apparently of the existence, 
 of the good spirit ; but when he became aware of 
 these, he " broke into the fair creation," ^ determined 
 to counterwork, and if possible destroy, it. For 
 
 1 The dualism of the Avesta has sometimes been called the 
 product of philosophic thought. But the Medo-Persian, while 
 strong in action, was in speculation weak. And dualism exists 
 among some very simple races ; for example, the Santals of 
 India. These hold the sun -god to be good. All other super- 
 human beings are malevolent ; and every calamity comes from 
 the demons. Even so, the Zoroastrian ascribed all evil to the 
 demons. Demons were therefore multiplied ; for he had many 
 evils to contend with. Unlike the Hindus in their progress down 
 the rich Gangetic valley, he had to maintain a perpetual struggle 
 for existence. Cold blasts from the Caspian and the Elburz 
 mountains chilled his blood and killed his crops ; in summer he 
 suffered from drought ; and he was perpetually in danger from 
 the incursions of savage nomades. All such misfortunes were, 
 he believed, the work of devils. Then, as the conception of the 
 moral character of Ahura Mazda was developed, the conception 
 of his adversary, Ahriman, was developed proportionally ; the 
 brighter light caused a darker shadow. Dualism thus sprung 
 from no profoiyjd speculation. A higher idea of Divine power 
 or a deeper insight into the moral government of the world would 
 hftve checked its growth. 
 
 ' Farvardin Yasht 77. 
 
Religion of the PavHis. 27 
 
 every pure being created by the good spirit, Angro 
 
 mainyus created a corresponding evil being ; iu 
 
 place of health, he made disease ; ^ and for life, 
 
 death. The good spint (we have seen) is surrounded 
 
 by six immortal holy ones. Angro mainyus HiaooundL 
 
 created six arch-demons, the grisly council of hell, 
 
 whose very names seem mockeries of those of the 
 
 pure hierarchy of heaven. The entire struggle The great 
 
 between srood and evil light and darkness lasts between 
 
 ^ " ^ good and 
 
 for twelve thousand years ; and we are now in the ^JgiJ.^** 
 thick of the fight. All creation is divided, and ranged f^^^ 
 in two hostile camps. Angels, men, animals, plants, 
 and inanimate nature are so. Even the heavenly 
 bodies are divided : the fixed stars are on the side 
 of the right, while the planets are with the evil one. 
 It is not easy (as we have said above) to see why 
 this distinction between stars and planets is made; 
 but, for the sake of symmetry, some division of the 
 heavenly bodies was required. The side assigned 
 to animals is often no less surprising ; thus, frogs, 
 turtles, cats, and even ants are partizans of the 
 demon. But the world-wide contest is not to endure Not to 
 
 endure foi 
 
 for ever. Zoroaster was created by Ahura Mazda to ever, 
 oppose the great enemy and all his auxiliary hosts. 
 Zoroaster was the only being that could daunt 
 Angro mainyus.^ He smote the fiend with the 
 
 * He created 99,999 diseases. A favourite uuinber iu the 
 Aveeta. 
 
 > Aahi Yasht 20. 
 
The Zend-Avesta^ and the 
 
 holy spells, and especially with the one called 
 Ahuna vairya (or Honover), which was as strong 
 a weapon as a stone of the size of a house. Still, 
 however, the battle raged. Three sons of Zoroaster 
 will yet be miraculously bom,^ who will carry on 
 his work, in which the last of them Soshyant, or 
 Sosiosh will be completely victorious. Angro 
 Its final mainyus will be overthrown; he will be cast into 
 
 issue. 
 
 hell, and (as is generally held) destroyed. Then 
 comes the frasho-kereti, the perpetuation of life. 
 The fair creation that had been slain by the fiend 
 revives ; the good live in a renovated world ; and 
 everlasting joy prevails. 
 
 The battle 
 field. 
 
 The Avesta does not explain how the good spirit 
 left the region of uncreated light, and the bad 
 spirit that of uncreated darkness. Both of these 
 regions are finite in extent, existing in infinite 
 space ; and the battle-field lies between them. 
 
 Heaven. Garonm^na is often mentioned as the dwelling- 
 
 place of Ahura Mazda. The name means "the 
 house of song." Ahura there sits on a throne of 
 gold, surrounded by the Amesha spentas and 
 Yazatas. Paradise is often identified with it. 
 
 HdL Hell is full of darkness and horror. It is situated 
 
 1 We might explain how ; but our readers would not pardon 
 us if we did. The whole representation is outrageously extra 
 vj^ant. Yet the Avesta stands committed to the worst part ai 
 it. See Yasht xiii. 62. 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 29 
 
 in the north, under the earth ; its mouth is beside 
 
 the mountain Arezura. In heaven the good are The food of 
 
 , heaven and 
 
 fed with butter made in spring ; in hell the wicked i^eu. 
 eat poison, and have to endure a poisonous stench. 
 It would seem that the good man at death is con- 
 ducted to Garonmana, the heaven of Ahura ; hut 
 that (as has just been said) the earth after its 
 renovation becomes his dwelling-place. 
 
 n. Thb Kitual. 
 
 The following remarks may suffice as a state- 
 ment of the chief ritual observances of the Parsis. 
 We shall speak in succession of their care of the 
 sacred fire, their prayers, offerings, and purifica- 
 tions. 
 
 The fire is kept in a special building called ^'***^ 
 Atash Bahram ; in the innermost, and most sacred 
 division of the building. This is separated from 
 the rest by a wall ; but the door remains open. 
 The fire is kept burning day and night ; it would 
 be regarded as an awful calamity if it were to be 
 extinguished. It is constantly watched by two 
 priests. The fire is on a stone altar, and is within 
 an urn, which is occasionally of silver, but gene- 
 rally of bronze. The um may be of any size; 
 Anquetil saw one which was three feet and a half 
 in height. The fire is large, and the flames rise it is fed 
 high. It is fed chiefly with sandal wood. No woodcMeflj 
 
30 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 moist or green wood can be used The priest has 
 a pair of tongs about one foot and a half in length, 
 with which he supplies large pieces of wood as re- 
 other fuel, quired. Incense of gum benzoin is also burnt along 
 with the sandal wood ; and for this a large spoon 
 is used. There is a room in the building for storing 
 sandal wood, quantities of which are brought by 
 worshippers ; and this the priests cut up into 
 suitable pieces. Everything issuing from the 
 mouth defiles; hence the lower part of the face 
 of the priest is covered with a veil of muslin, to 
 prevent his breath reaching the sacred element. 
 
 Prayer, how Prayors are chaunted memoriter by the priest 
 
 oif ered in , 
 
 pubUc. (Mobed), in front of the fire. Every portion of the 
 
 day has its allotted prayer. While these are offered 
 within the inner apartment, the people without read 
 or repeat prayers, facing the fire. These are in Zend, 
 in the Gujarati character ; they are pronounced 
 generally without being understood. Every man 
 prays by himself; there is no common worship. 
 Sometimes the worshipper may add an extempore 
 supplication of his own in the vernacular. Women 
 occasionally attend. 
 
 While praying, the priest holds in his left hand 
 the harsorn (beresma). This originally was a 
 bundle of small twigs, generally of date or pome- 
 granate, bound tightly together with a small twig. 
 It is now generally composed of small silver rods. 
 
Religion of the P arsis. 31 
 
 The priest sits with his legs crossed, when repeating 
 the prayers, holding the harsom in his left hand. 
 Prayers for the dead are recited daily in the Atesh 
 Bahram. Richer people generally have the service 
 performed in their own houses; but poor people 
 come to the fire-temple. The Mohed performs 
 this service in the forenoon, chaunting a particular 
 kind of prayer called Afrigan. It is especially 
 during the recitation of these prayers that the 
 harsom is now used. 
 
 So much for public worship; but even the The 
 
 domestic fire 
 
 domestic fire is always sacred, and must be treated is also 
 
 '' ^ sacred. 
 
 as such. It, too, must never be extinguished. In 
 the first part of the night, in the second, and the 
 third, "Fire calls for help to the master of the 
 house : * Up ! put on thy girdle over thy clothes, 
 wash thy hands, take wood, bring it to me, and 
 let me burn bright.' " ^ This threefold call must 
 be obeyed. Now-a-days the Parsis usually cover 
 the fire with ashes at night, to prevent its going 
 out; and in the morning the first food it gets must 
 be sandal wood. The mistress of the house attends 
 to this duty. A handful of sandal wood is put on 
 the fire by each member of the family. 
 
 We may next speak of offerings. When asked hfw'ST 
 how the demon could be repelled by him, Zoro- 
 aster said: "The sacred mortar, the sacred cup, impieironti 
 Vandidad xviiL 18-22. 
 
32 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 tlie Homa, and the \A'ords taught by Mazda ; these 
 are my weapons, my best weapons." ^ All these 
 things occupy an important place in connexion 
 with offerings. 
 
 The sacred The mortar (h^vana) is of metal, as is also the 
 pestle. In it are pounded small t-r^'g^o of the Homa 
 plant, which was referred to above (p. 20). Water 
 is added to the sap which is expressed, and the 
 mixture when filtered is collected in a "sacred 
 cup." When the due prayers have accompanied 
 the process of preparation, this liquid becomes 
 endowed with almost divine attributes. 
 
 The sacred The Soma of the Hindus was fermented and 
 
 cup. 
 
 intoxicating ; and no doubt it was ths great exhila- 
 ration produced by the beverage that led a simple- 
 minded people to ascribe to it such transcendant 
 attributes and powers. The Avesta supplies no 
 evidence of the Iranians confounding intoxication 
 with a divine afflatus.^ So far well ; only, no ex- 
 planation then remains of the boundless and endless 
 laudation of Homa. The Magi seem never to have 
 asked themselves why tasting the least drop of 
 this disagreeable drink should destroy a thousand 
 devils.^ 
 
 The great Iranian heroes of the ancient times 
 
 * Vandidad xix. 9. 
 
 ^ Ahura Mazda is described as "never intoxicated" (Vand. 
 xix. 20). To Indra, on the contrary, the Veda says: "Thy 
 inebriety is intense." 
 
 Yasna x. U (De Harlez, p. 287). 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 33 
 
 offered up animal sacrifices. Thus Thraetono Animal 
 
 Ai k 1 ' -rr 1 ' ' r> pt sacrifice was 
 
 onered up to Asm Vanffum a sacrifice of a nun- offered in 
 
 ^ ancient 
 
 dred male horses, a thousand oxen, and ten thou- ^^^y^- 
 
 sand lambs. ^ The practice of animal sacrifice 
 
 was continued to a late period ; for Xerxes 
 
 sacrificed at the site of Troy, " a thousand oxen, 
 
 while the Magi poured out libations in honour of 
 
 the ancient heroes.''^ Animal sacrifices are not 
 
 unknown in the Vandidad. Thus, for a certain 
 
 very grave offence the guilty person must " slay a 
 
 thousand head of small cattle, and offer the entrails 
 
 to the fire."* In other cases also animal offerings Not so now 
 
 were required, until in comparatively recent times ; 
 
 but all such observances seem now to have entirely 
 
 ceased. 
 
 But the normal offering was different. It was The 
 presented by Ahura Mazda himself to Anahita, offering. 
 *' with homa and flesh, the baresma, the wisdom 
 of the tongue, the deeds, the libations, and the 
 rightly spoken words." * (The wisdom of the tongue 
 means, no doubt, the sacred formulae.) 
 
 In the present day, however, the flesh (myazda) 
 has ceased to be offered. The priest takes the cup 
 containing the Homa in his right hand, raises it 
 in his right hand before the sacred fire, and drinks 
 a small quantity. The rest is poured into a well. 
 
 Aban Yasht 33. 
 
 * Herodotus vii. 43. So also the Magi "propitiated ihe 
 river Strymou by sacrificing white horses to it." Herod, vii. 113, 
 Vand. xviii. 70. * Aban Yasht 17. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 The Homa offering is made in private houses as 
 well as in fire- temples ; and the ceremony should be 
 performed twice a day. The other offerings are 
 chiefly bread, flowers, fruits, especially dates and 
 pomegranates leaves, mainly those of pomegranates, 
 branches of homa, and less frequently fresh milk. 
 
 Offerings are still made to the sea, consisting 
 chiefly of flowers and fruits, such as cocoa nuts. 
 On one remarkable occasion in Bombay there was 
 an offering of thirty (if it was not three hundred) 
 tubs of sugar candy. 
 
 Punficatdon 
 
 from 
 
 ceremonial 
 
 defilement 
 
 is of 
 
 supreme 
 
 importance. 
 
 Means of 
 purification. 
 
 Ceremonial purity is with the Parsi a matter of 
 supreme importance. Defilement is easily incurred, 
 and hence the means of purification are earnestly 
 prescribed in the Avesta. The glory of the Zoro- 
 astrian law is said to consist in its so fully and 
 clearly declaring the ceremonies needful for cleans- 
 ing the defiled. 
 
 The distinction between ceremonial and moral 
 defilement is far from clear in the Avesta. The 
 one is regarded as equally dreadful with the other, 
 and as requiring equal expiation. Nay, the Avesta 
 would regard the crime of murder as less heinous 
 than that of a single man carrying a dead body to 
 the sepulchre. 
 
 The great material agents of purification are 
 water and gomez, or nirang (urina bovis). But the 
 efficacy of these agents depends on their right pre- 
 
Religion of the Parsis 36 
 
 paration and application. Should the requisite 
 ceremonies and prayers have been neglected, the 
 potency of the means is gone; and then, as 
 Anquetil puts it, there is "no purification, no 
 purifier, no priest, and no Parsi! " 
 
 Everything that issues from the human body is 
 regarded as dead, and as belonging to the demons. 
 Even the hair and nails when cut off are the same ; Disposal of 
 
 . . . , . hair and 
 
 and elaborate prescriptions are given as to their naiis. 
 disposal. If these rites are neglected, and the hair 
 and nails allowed to fall about as they may, the 
 power of the demons is increased as much as if a 
 sacrifice were offered them. Holes must therefore 
 be dug, far away from fire, water, and the barsom, 
 and the nails and haii must be deposited'separately 
 in these; three, six, or nine furrows must be drawn 
 around the holes with a knife, and certain prayers 
 must be offered. When all this is rightly per- 
 formed, a certain bird eats up the nails (it does not 
 seem that the bird does the same to the hair) ; 
 otherwise they would have become so many spears, 
 knives, bows, arrows, and sling-stones in the hands 
 of the demons. It is right to mention, however, 
 that these ceremonies are often neglected by modern 
 Parsis, at least in India. 
 
 The great source of defilement is contact with a SoS^Sact 
 dead body.^ In death is the cliief triumph of the body. 
 
 * " It grieves the sun, holy Zoroaster, to shine upon a man 
 defiled by the dead ; it grieveti the muuu ; it grieves the stars." 
 
The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 demon. Hence the dread of death, which is suffi- 
 ciently marked among the Hindus, becomes still 
 more intense among the Parsis. The moment the 
 breath is out, the fiend (Hruj) Nasu rushes upon 
 it from the regions of the north, in the shape of a 
 raging fly. The body is now utterly unclean, and 
 pollutes every one near it. But the demon can be 
 expelled by bringing in " a dog with four eyes " 
 a white dog, according to modem usage, and the 
 Druj, as soon as the dog looks at the body, flies 
 back to hell. ^ 
 Hoy, in From the livine: who have been polluted by 
 
 such cases, *=* r J 
 
 contact with the dead, the Druj is expelled by the 
 application of consecrated water and nirang, in 
 some cases by using only one of these. By a most 
 complex form of ceremonies the demon is driven from 
 post to post all down from the top of the head to 
 the point of the toes; and when the prescribed 
 prayers accompany all this, the triumph is complete, 
 and the baffled fiend flies back to the regions of 
 the north "in the shape of a raging fly, with knees 
 and tail sticking out, all stained with stains, and 
 
 the demon 
 is expelled, 
 
 (Vand. ix. 41). Or as Professor De Harlez renders it : "It is 
 with regret the sun shines on the impure ; it is in spite of them- 
 selves that the moon and stars give him light." 
 
 1 Vandidad xviL 9, 10. Darmesteter holds the text to be 
 genuine which declares the corpse to be in the power of the drvj 
 (demon) until the dog has seen it or "eaten it up, or until 
 flesh- eating birds have flown to it " (Vand. viL 3). We have 
 the same thing distinctly mentioned of the dog in Vand. viii. 3b 
 
Religion of the Par sis. 37 
 
 like in appearance to the foulest monsters."^ About 
 thirty parts of the body are mentioned, from which 
 the demon has to be successively expelled ; it is a 
 terribly long battle, but it ends in certain victory. 
 
 The 2:reatest of all the purifications is the The chief 
 
 *^ _ ^ ^ ^ purification 
 
 Barashnum, a ceremony which lasts for nine nights, ^^i^nu,^ 
 (The signification of the name is not fully ascer- 
 tained.) Originally the rite was used only as a means 
 of removing the defilement arising from contact 
 with a corpse of a dog or a man. But it has long 
 been used to cleanse away defilement in other 
 cases. Nine holes have to be dug in a space 
 cleared from trees ; a furrow has to be drawn round 
 each with a metal knife, and other furrows up to 
 the number of twelve ; three holes hold water, six 
 hold nirang ; prayers are recited ; the unclean per- 
 son is sprinkled with nirang from a spoon of brass 
 or lead ; the hands are then washed first, otherwise 
 everything goes wrong ; then the various parts of 
 the body are sprinkled, as mentioned in last para- 
 graph, until finally the demon, whose power has 
 been becoming weaker at each sprinkling, is com- 
 pletely beaten off and driven away to hell. 
 
 The new-born child must be washed with water, 
 not generally now with nirang ; before this, it is im- 
 pure. Before the age of fifteen, and generally be- initiation 
 tween nine and eleven, initiation into the Zoroastrian astrianisiB 
 
 how per* 
 
 faith takes place by means of prayers, purifications, 'ormed. 
 
 * Vaudidad viii. 71- 
 
88 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 and tlie putting on of the kusti ^ (a string made oi 
 seventy- two woollen threads twisted together), and 
 the sadarah or sacred shirt, which is of muslin with 
 short sleeves. If after the age of fifteen any one 
 walks four steps without these accoutrements, 
 the demons wither him up, and he himself becomes 
 a hobgoblin. All of this applies equally to men 
 and women. Except during ablutions, the kusti 
 and sadarah must be worn day and night. 
 
 A spiritual teacher should be provided for the 
 young Parsi. 
 
 Morning Every morning fresh nirang is brought to the 
 
 house. The hands are dipped into it ; then a small 
 quantity is applied to the face, hands, and feet. But 
 in greater purifications the Kquid is drunk; three 
 sips are taken. Then (probably to banish the taste) 
 pomegranate leaves are chewed, -'though this seems 
 no part of the prescribed ritual. 
 
 Treatment When any one dies, men first wash the body, 
 
 of the dead ... . 
 
 dress it in white garments, and lay it on a stone 
 slab in the front room. The priest comes and reads 
 prayers. The women are in the same room with 
 the body, the men outside. During the last prayer 
 a white dog, kept usually in the fire-temple, is 
 brought near the corpse, and induced, if possible, 
 to look at it. Two, now generally four, men lay 
 the body on an iron bier. The dog is commonly 
 
 ' The threads of the kmti can be spvin only by the wives of 
 the Mubeds. 
 
Religion of the P arsis. 39 
 
 brought in twice ; and the whole ceremony may The funeral 
 
 miTTi'i rv procession. 
 
 occupy forty mmutes. Then the hody is borne on 
 by the four men a fifth man preceding to clear 
 the way, so that not even the shadow of an un- 
 believer may fall on the corpse. The Mobeds 
 walk two and two, generally holding a hand- 
 kerchief between them. Ceremonies are performed The scene 
 
 . ^ of thfc 
 
 close to the cfukhma or '* tower of silence," as ceremonies, 
 it is usually called in English. This is a circular 
 pit, very deep, round which is a stone pavement 
 about seven feet wide. On this the corpses are ex- 
 posed naked. The ^ face of the dead is uncovered ; 
 the birds of prey come in multitudes, and very soon 
 the flesh is all devoured. Every morning the bones 
 are swept down into the great receptacle the pit. 
 
 Every day of the month is consecrated to some uoiy Uj*. 
 divinity. Besides this, the 1st, 8th, 15th, and 
 23rd days of the month are sacred to Ahura Mazda; 
 from the 3rd to the 8th to the Amesha spentas. 
 The six Gahambars are in commemoration of the 
 six periods of creation. ^ The last is the most im- 
 portant. It lasts ten days from 10th to 20th 
 March which is the end of the year. It is espe- 
 cially marked by ceremonies in commemoration of 
 
 * There is something touching in the expression used regarding 
 the dead man : " Lay him down, clothed with the light of 
 heaven, and beholding the sun." Vand. vi. 41, 
 
 ' See Haug'a Essays, p. 192. 
 
40 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 (Jommemora- 
 tion and 
 services for 
 the dead. 
 
 I'astivals. 
 
 the dead. During these ten days the souls of the 
 dead are believed to quit their dwellings in the other 
 world, and revisit their relatives on earth. 
 
 Besides this, there are special services for the 
 dead, performed on the day of the month on which 
 they died. 
 
 The New Year is a great festival. 
 
 There is a festival in honour of Mithra at the 
 autumnal equinox. 
 
 Every new moon and full moon are festivals. 
 
 The three 
 great 
 prayers, 
 viz. : 
 
 The Ahuna 
 Tairya. 
 
 Prayers have already been frequently mentioned 
 as connected with various rites. But there are 
 prayers for every division of the day. There are 
 three different gahs between morning and evening, 
 of different lengths ; and two gahs from evening 
 to morning, each six hours long. Different prayers 
 are appointed for each gah. 
 
 There are three great prayers, the potency of 
 which is extolled continually and in the strongest 
 possible language. These are the Ahuna vairya, 
 the Ashem Yohu, and the Yenhe Hatam. 
 
 The Ahuna vairya is so called from the three 
 initial words Yatha ahu vairyo. It existed before 
 heaven, earth, water, or fire ; and it is the most 
 effective weapon that Ahura Mazda himself can use 
 to crush the demons. It is much to be regretted 
 that of this very important part of the Avesta, we 
 Lave at least six conflictinsj versions from scholars 
 

 Religion of the J^kl^^^>^ 41 
 
 of high. name. In the midst of this perplexity, 
 the ordinary Parsi will console himself with the 
 reflection that the efficacy of the prayer depends 
 entirely on the right sounds being uttered, and not 
 at all on the sense attached to them. But we can- 
 not be certain even of the sounds ; for the com- 
 mentary on the prayer given in the 19th chapter 
 (Ha) of the Yasna must be founded on readings 
 considerably different from those which the present 
 MSS. contain. The translation of Haug is the Hang's 
 following : ** As a heavenly lord is to be chosen, s# 
 is an earthly master (spiritual guide) for the sake 
 of righteousness , to be the giver of the good thoughts, 
 the good actions of life towards Mazda; and the 
 dominion is for the lord (ahura) whom he has given 
 as a protector to the poor** With all possible 
 respect to the learned man who supplies this version 
 it is surely impossible that this can be the mean- 
 ing of the most potent, '* most fiend-smiting " 
 prayer in the Avesta. Professor de Harlez DeHariezi 
 
 . paraphrase 
 
 paraphrases it thus : " As there exists a supreme 
 master, perfect, so there is a master of the law estab- 
 lishedto maintain and propagate holiness; the regu- 
 lator of good thoughts and of actions springing out 
 of the order of things referring to Mazda. Sovereign 
 power belongs to Ahtira ; he has constituted him 
 (viz., the master of the law) protector {shepherd) of 
 the poor." Professor Darmesteter renders the prayer Darmes- 
 as follows : " The will of the Lord is the law of holi- reading. 
 
42 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 ness. The riches of Yohnmano shall he given to 
 him who works in the world for Mazda, and wields 
 according to the will of Ahura the power he gave him 
 to relieve the poor.^^ The sense of the last render- 
 ing is clear ; but it is not easy to see how the 
 Professor extracts it from the present text. Finally, 
 let it be remembered that holiness or righteousness, 
 as used in this passage and elsewhere in the Avesta, 
 merely means ceremonial purity.^ 
 
 The Ashem Yohu prayer, which, if not quite so 
 potent, is used still more frequently than the 
 Ahuna vairya, is translated by Haug as follows : 
 " Righteousness is the best good ; a blessing it is ; a 
 blessing be to that which is righteousness towards 
 perfect righteousness." Darmesteter makes it 
 " Holiness is the best of all good. Well is it for that 
 holiness which is the perfection of holiness.*' 
 
 We leave our readers to judge for themselves 
 of the value of these much -lauded invocations, if 
 invocations they be. We need not add the third 
 great " prayer " the Yenh^ Hat&m. 
 
 The Ashem 
 
 Vohu 
 
 prayer. 
 
 vanous Tho tcrms of homage and invocation used in the 
 
 terms of ' r\ v l^ i i 
 
 homage and prayors are various. One irequently employed is 
 yazamaide, which Darmesteter renders literally, 
 we sacrifice to. It also, however, means we worship, 
 
 * So even Haug admits. * * It means what is right or meritorious 
 in a ritualistic or materialistic sense, and does not necessarily 
 imply holiness." Essays, p. 141. 
 
Religion of the P arsis. 43 
 
 IM pray to} Other terms signify to invoice^ to 
 praise, to glorify, to celebrate. These words seem 
 to be used indiscriminately ; at least, no distinction 
 can he perceived between the homage rendered to 
 higher and to lower beings ; assuredly there is no 
 such difference implied as is drawn by certain 
 tlioologians between dulia and latria. 
 
 But finally on this head. The prevailing Rjerisa 
 conception of prayer in the Avesta is that of incantation 
 a s})ell or incantation. Sometimes, we hear of 
 formulae that are on no account to be communi- 
 cated except to the nearest relatives. When we 
 see how prayer is thus transformed into a species 
 of conjuration, we cannot be surprised that the 
 practice of magic, as the very name implies, has 
 been so often traced back to the Magi, the followers 
 of Zoroaster. 
 
 It is remarkable that prayer itself is prayed to 
 in the Avesta. The Ahuna vairya is especially 
 thus honoured.^ 
 
 Fasting occupies so important a place in most no 
 systems of religion that its entire absence from the allowed, 
 list of prescribed duties in the Avesta attracts the 
 more attention. There is no trace of asceticism 
 in the Avesta precepts or the Parsi practice. The 
 reader will at once see how much is involved in 
 
 ^ De Harlez renders it, not so exactly toe honour 
 2 Hormazd Yasht 22, etc. 
 
44 
 
 The Zend-Aveda, and the 
 
 Zoroastrian 
 ideas of 
 eating, 
 drinking, 
 and health. 
 
 this characteristic. Milton speaks of " spare Fast, 
 that oft with gods doth diet " ; but to the Zoro- 
 astrian such language appears entirely ridiculous.' 
 He holds that by good eating and drinking he 
 keeps his body in health, and so fits himself to 
 carry on a more vigorous warfare against the 
 demon and all his works. Certainly, the typical 
 Parsi is at the opposite pole of thought from the 
 pale recluse, worn to a skeleton by abstinence and 
 vigils ; and when the bodily mortification is carried 
 to still greater lengths, the Zoroastrian can only 
 trace the self-denial to the influence of the demons. 
 In like manner, celibacy and monasticism can 
 never in any way be approved by Zoroastrians. 
 
 Self-denial 
 traced to the 
 influence of 
 demons. 
 
 Division of 
 
 human 
 
 duty. 
 
 III. The Ethical and Judicial Systems. 
 
 It has been mentioned above that Ahura Mazda 
 has no immoral attributes ascribed to him. As no- 
 thing evil can form a part of his worship, so nothing 
 evil should be practised by his worshippers. 
 
 The Avesta frequently mentions a tiireefold 
 division of human duty, viz.. Good Thought, Good 
 Word, and Good Deed. 
 
 It dwells earnestly on the importance of Truth- 
 fulness. Mithra, the divinity of Light, is especially 
 the guardian of Truth ; and '* to He to Mithra," or 
 
 ^ He who fills himself with food is filled with the good spirit 
 muoh more than he who does not so. Yand. iv. 48. 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 45 
 
 perjure oneself, is a very grievous sin. Promises Duties and 
 and contracts must be faithfully observed. 
 
 Kindness and charity to followers of the true 
 faith are inculcated. 
 
 Theft, robbery, personal assault, and murder are 
 all strongly reprobated. 
 
 Marriage is much encouraged. It is implied JJSeOto 
 that monogamy was the general rule. Yet one ^- 
 extraordinary practice is recognized in the later 
 books of the Avesta marriage with the nearest 
 of kin. The Parsis have naturally been slow 
 to admit that brother was allowed to marry 
 with sister, and even mother with son ; but the 
 testimony of ancient authors leaves little or no 
 doubt as to the existence of such unnatural 
 
 connexions. 
 
 The practice of prostitution, adultery, sodomy, Son^S'*"*' 
 and such crimes is strongly denounced. S^mm. 
 
 1 See Yasna xiii. 28. The rendering of this verse by Prof. 
 De Harlez agrees with that of M. Hovelacque. It is as follows: 
 " I praise marriage between relatives, pure, which is the greatest 
 among marriages present or to come," etc. etc. Unless we are 
 to discard the testimony of a multitude of Greek and Eoman 
 writers, marriages which we should call incestuous were pretty 
 frequent among the Persians, It is for this reason the poet 
 Catullus (Carmen xc. 4) exclaims against " the impious reUgion 
 of the Persians" (Persarum impia religio). See the question 
 carefully examined by Dr. West, Pahlavi Texts, Part II. 
 Appendix p. 389, etc. Between the 6th and 9th centuries after 
 Christ, marriages between the nearest of kin were earnestly 
 recommended by the priests. Modem Parsis highly approve 
 of the marriage of cousins german ; but they discourage the 
 union of those more nearly allied in blood. 
 
46 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 Agriculture 
 en ouraged. 
 
 The observance of magical rites is in a few casea 
 mentioned and reprobated. 
 
 The Avesta dwells with all possible earnestness 
 on the importance of agriculture. Its ideas on 
 this subject are embodied in quaint, and some- 
 times coarse, phraseology ; but it is interesting 
 to note the anxiety of the authors of the Avesta 
 that the people should cease to be nomadic and 
 take to a settled life. " Whoso cultivates barley 
 cultivates righteousness." ^ 
 
 The putting to death of the creatures of the evil 
 principle was a high religious duty. If the division 
 of animals into good and bad had been less arbi- 
 trary, this might have called forth a half-approving 
 smile ; the slaughter of tigers, serpents, and other 
 noxious creatures being surely a good thing. But 
 when we hear of tortoises, frogs, cats, ants, etc., 
 being proscribed, we are somewhat startled. "With 
 all the efforts of the Avesta to be exact, there seems 
 to be no division of fishes, and no clear division of 
 birds, into good and bad. Every creature being 
 either of divine or demoniac origin, this omission 
 
 EvU 
 
 animals 
 must be 
 killed. 
 
 ^ Vand. iii. 25, 31. Dr. Haug reminds us that there are 
 metrical lines and rhymes on this subject introduced into 
 the usually very prosaic Vandidad. The chief metrical passage 
 Buy be rendered thus : 
 
 When the barley appears, the demons pine; 
 When the barley is threshed, the demons whine ; 
 When the barley is ground, the demons fly ; 
 When the meal is piepared, the demons disb 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 47 
 
 is on the principles of the Avesta itself a 
 grievous fault. 
 
 The place assigned to the dog is very notable. f^^f.^(,Q 
 One entire division of the Avesta is devoted to the "' *^^ *^^- 
 celebration of his excellence. The shepherd's dog 
 and the house dog are highly lauded ; but the dog 
 of dogs is the water dog, whoever he may be.^ 
 The murder of such a dog is inconceivably heinous. 
 ** Sweetness and fatness will never return to the 
 place where it has been committed, until the mur- 
 derer has been smitten to death, and the holy soul 
 of the dog has been offered a sacrifice for three 
 days and three nights, with fire blazing, with the 
 baresma tied, and the homa uplifted." ^ And the 
 reason of all this is that out of every thousand 
 common he- dogs and every thousand she-dogs two 
 water-dogs are formed, one male and one female. 
 We need not wonder, then, that the correct methods 
 of feeding and breeding dogs are prescribed with 
 all possible solemnity in the Avesta. 
 
 Physical and ceremonial defilements are put on Physical 
 
 ' ' and cere- 
 
 a level with moral offences. Contact with a dead Sements 
 body especially that of a man or dog must with 
 all possible care be avoided. To bury, or bum, a 
 corpse is an unpardonable crime. So is it for one 
 man to carry a dead body. 
 
 The punishments for offences are of various 
 
 * The otter (?) Possibly the beaver. 
 Vand. xiii. 172, 167. 
 
48 The Zend-Avestay and the 
 
 _____^___ i ^ ' - "i^ 
 
 kinds; stripes, fines, imprisonment, and death. 
 They are often capriciously disproportionate to 
 the offence. We hear of five stripes with a horse- 
 whip, and of as many as two hundred. Man- 
 slaughter is- visited with ninety stripes ; but the 
 man who gives bad food to a dog receives two 
 hundred, 
 intiicate There is much intricate leeislation about the 
 
 legislation '-' 
 
 iomen unclcanness of woman in child-birth and at other 
 times ; but on this we will not dweU. 
 
 A woman in child-birth suffering from fever and 
 thirst is not absolutely debarred from water ; but 
 the penalty of drinking it is two hundred stripes ; 
 the reason being that she is unclean and pollutes 
 the holy element. For killing a water-dog the 
 penalty is ten thousand stripes. 
 
 Our readers will ask with some curiosity, Was 
 
 Partial such lesislatiou ever practically carried out? Cer- 
 
 execution t -r* i i 
 
 ill^Sin,, tainly not in the earlier Persian kingdom; and 
 probably not in all its fulness even under the 
 Sasanian monarchs. The Vandidad supplies us 
 with the priestly ideal of right and wrong an 
 ideal which we cannot conceive to have ever been 
 completely realized. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 It is now time to give a brief statement of the 
 impression left on the mind by the review we have 
 taken of the general teaching of the Avesta. 
 
 legislation. 
 
Meligion of the Parsis. 49 
 
 There are several characteristics which entitle 
 the Zoroastrian faith to a high place among Gentile 
 systems of religion. 
 
 1. It ascribes no immoral attributes to the obiect Merits of 
 
 ... Zoroas- 
 
 of worship. Ahura Mazda, the supreme divinity, triamsm. 
 stands ethically much higher than the popular 
 gods of Pagan nations generally. The Avesta, as 
 we have seen, retains much of n ature- worship ; but 
 evil quail Lifj) are never ascribed either to the 
 physical object or the being who presides over it. 
 
 2. The Avesta sanctions no immoral acts as a 
 part of worship. 
 
 3. None of the prescribed forms of worship is 
 marked by cruelty. 
 
 4. In the great contest between light and dark- 
 ness, the Avesta exhorts the true worshipper not 
 to remain passive, but to contend with all his 
 might against the productions of the Evil Prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 5. One remarkable characteristic of the system 
 is the absence of image- worship.^ 
 
 6. The Avesta never despairs of the future of 
 humanity ; it affirms the final victory of good over 
 evil 
 
 Difference 
 
 In regard to all these points there is a striking zoS^ 
 difference between Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. m^SuSm!^^ 
 
 ^ Ab has been mentioned above, image -wcirship was not wholly 
 unknown in ancient Persia. Contact with Hindus led some of 
 the Parsis in India into idolatry ; but all the educated agreed in 
 oondenming it. 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 The Zend-Avesta^ and ike 
 
 Other merits 
 of Zoro- 
 astrianism. 
 
 It is not easy to explain how tlie former system 
 struggled successfully against that fatal gravitation 
 downwards which made primitive Hinduism sink 
 deeper and deeper in the mire; but the fact, at 
 all events, is undeniable. 
 
 Assuredly, we have no wish to undervalue the 
 importance of the great characteristics of Zoro- 
 astrianism that have now been mentioned ; and wo 
 might point to yet other merits, such as (7) its 
 encouragement of agriculture, (8) its inculcation 
 of truth in thought, word, and deed, (9) the position 
 of respect it assigns to women, and (10) the kind- 
 ness towards, at least, Zoroastrians which it incul- 
 cates. Still, it must be confessed that the creed 
 of the Avesta is greatly wanting in many essential 
 respects. It is by no means such a faith as en- 
 lightened reason can accept or defend. 
 
 1. We have seen that th- ^t. vesta contains a 
 mixture of various systems of thought, a quasi 
 monotheism, dualism, and nature- worship. It has 
 often been mentioned as a characteristic of the 
 Bible that, although its composition extended over 
 more than a thousand years, there is a strict unity 
 of monotheistic belief running through it from 
 Genesis to the Apocalypse. Such a harmony per- 
 vades no one portion of the Avesta ; each great 
 division contains conflicting elements. 
 
 But (2) even in its highest representations of 
 divinity the book is deplorably defective. A glance 
 
 Its 
 
 deficiencies 
 and errors. 
 It contains 
 conflicting 
 systems of 
 thougiit. 
 
 Its theism 
 
 very 
 
 defective. 
 
Religion of the P arsis. 51 
 
 at what has been said on page 13 will clearly show 
 this. Or take the formal enumeration of the divine 
 attributes contained in the following passage : 
 
 HOBMAZD YaSHT. 
 
 Ver. 5. Zarathustra said, Reveal to me that name of thine, Eniimeratlfn 
 Ahura Mazda, which is the greatest, the best, the fairest, the attributes, 
 most effective, the most fiend-smiting, the best-healing, that 
 destroys best the malice of devas and men ; 
 
 6. That I may afiBict all devas and men ; that I may afflict 
 all Yatus and Pairikas ; that neither devas nor men may be 
 able to afflict me, neither Yatus nor Pairikas. 
 
 7. Ahnra Mazda answered him, "My name is the one of 
 whom questions are asked, holy Zarathustra ! 
 
 My second name is the giver of herds. 
 
 My third name is the strong one. 
 
 My fourth name is perfect holiness. 
 
 My fifth name is, All good things created by Mazda, the 
 
 offspring of the holy principle. 
 My sixth name is understanding. 
 My seventh name is the one with understanding. 
 My eighth name is knowledge. 
 My ninth name is the one with knowledge. 
 My tenth name is weal. 
 My eleventh name is he who produces weal. 
 My twelfth name is Ahura (the Lord). 
 My thirteenth name is the most beneficent. 
 My fourteenth name is he in whom there is no harm. 
 My fifteenth name is the unconquerable. 
 My sixteenth name is he who makes the trae account. 
 My seven teenth name is the all-seeing. 
 My eight* -en th name is the healer. 
 My ninroeenth name is the Creator. 
 My twentieth name is Mazda (the knowing one). 
 
 9. Worship me, Zarathustra, by day and by night with 
 offerings of libations well accepted. I will come to thee for help 
 and joy ; I, Ahura Mazda. The good holy Sraosha will come 
 V> tbee for help and joy. The waters, the plants, and the 
 fravashis of the holy ones will come to thee for help and joy. 
 
52 
 
 The Zend-Avesta, and iihe 
 
 Contrast 
 with 
 Biblical 
 oonceptions. 
 
 Zoroaa- 
 trianism 
 inferior to 
 Sufiism. 
 
 No worship 
 of God 
 prescribed. 
 
 Ideas of 
 offerings to 
 the gods. 
 
 How little, after all, do these twenty names convey 
 to satisfy the needs and cravings of the human 
 soul ! No idea is hinted of the fatherhood of 
 God. How sublime and melting is that one utter- 
 ance of the Bible, " God is Love," in comparison 
 with all this laboured and labouring description 
 of Ahura Mazda! 
 
 With respect to the idea of communion with 
 God, not only does Zoroastrianism fall immeasur- 
 ably below Christianity, it is decidedly inferior 
 even to Sufiism, which is a later production of 
 the Persian mind itself. 
 
 3. With regard to the worship of God. There 
 doubtless were deep meanings connected with the 
 rite of animal sacrifice, as practised by the ancient 
 heroes; but the Avesta does not prescribe it, 
 and, in overlooking animal sacrifice, it certainly 
 parted with truths both venerable and precious. 
 Prayer in the Avesta becomes, as we have 
 seen, very much a magical formula ; the sounds 
 of which are all-important, not the sense. No 
 common worship is prescribed, the worshipper 
 prays for himself, or is prayed for by the priest. 
 That blending of hearts and interests which 
 is implied in the sublime invocation Our 
 Father, which art in heaven is not known to the 
 Avesta. 
 
 4. The idea which the Avesta has of the offerings 
 presented to the divinities is as low as that of 
 
Religion of the Parsis, 63 
 
 the Yedas. The divinities generally need food; 
 they are all strengthened hy praise. 
 
 5, Our readers will remember that Ahura Mazda 
 neither receives nor asks any peculiar homage. 
 He is honoured as almost every object in the good 
 creation is honoured. Although the Avesta never, 
 or scarcely ever, deviates into the pantheism which 
 confounds the Creator with the creation, yet, in so Degrading 
 lar as worship is concerned, it is chargeable with God 
 degrading the Creator to an equality with his own 
 productions. 
 
 In this respect there is the strongest possible 
 contrast between the Avesta and the Bible. The oontraat 
 
 between th 
 
 latter is strongly, even vehemently, monotheistic ; 4rBU)iT'* 
 it condemns in the sternest language everything 
 which in any degree trenches on the high intrans- 
 ferable claims of Jehovah. " The Lord, whose 
 name is jealous, is a jealous God." " Thou shalt 
 worship the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt 
 thou serve." In place of worshipping the works 
 of God, the Bible, by a bold personification and 
 apostrophe, demands that they shall worship God. 
 " Praise Him, sun and moon ; praise Him, all ye 
 stars of light ! " Instead of being adored, fire is 
 itself commanded to adore (Psalm cxlviii. 3-10). 
 It was not that the seers and poets of Israel had 
 no eye to discern the glory of Nature ; they saw it 
 more clearly than Mede or Persian did, and they 
 celebrated it in still loftier strains ; but they knew 
 
54 
 
 The Zend-Avestay and the 
 
 Defective 
 idea of Sin. 
 
 that the glory had no subsistence apart from Him 
 who gave it birth, and Him they could not too 
 exclusively or ardently adore. 
 
 6. The notion of Sin in the Avesta is exceedingly 
 imperfect. Evil, as dwelling in the heart, is very 
 seldom mentioned ; external pollution is nearly all 
 in all. Hence, such a piercing cry as that of the 
 Psalmist : " Pardon mine iniquity, for it is great," 
 is never heard. Equally unknown is the feeling, 
 akin to rapture, which is expressed in the words 
 of the prophet Micah : " Who is a God like unto 
 Thee, that pardo-neth iniquity ? " We see no sad 
 introspection, no wrestlings of the spirit with in 
 ward corruption, no " bitter thoughts of cpnscience 
 bom," no cry of self-despair like this : " Who can 
 understand his errors? Cleanse Thou me from 
 secret faults." 
 
 7. Coincident with this very imperfect sense of 
 human sinfulness is the entire absence of any deep 
 idea of expiation. The great problem of expiation, 
 which receives so sublime a solution in the Cross, 
 has occupied and distressed not a few who nevei 
 had the light of Judaism or Christianity ; but it 
 seems hardly to have suggested itself to the writers 
 of the Avesta. For ordinary faults they prescribe 
 washings, purifications, or penalties; and some 
 extraordinary crimes are pronounced unpardonable. 
 
 8. The idea of Salvation does not appear in the 
 Avesta. No contrast can be more complete than 
 
 idea of 
 expiation. 
 
 Ko idea of 
 Salvation in 
 the Avesta. 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 55 
 
 that which exists hetween its mode of treating sin 
 and the Christian doctrine of the Atonement". Not 
 a few writers who do not accept the fact of the 
 atonement made hy Jesus Christ have yet been 
 awed by the sublimity of the conception the The 
 
 ' "^ -" sublimity of 
 
 conception of the Son of God becoming the Son of ^^fj^g^'jo^^'^ 
 Man, and, by His obedience unto death, bringing ^^^^"^ 
 sinful man to God ; and nothing, surely, could set 
 in a clearer light the essential evil of sin, and also 
 both the divine righteousness and mercy. Even 
 unbelievers have repeatedly confessed that the 
 doctrine of the atonement has a strange power of 
 stirring the deeper and better emotions of the 
 human heart. 
 
 9. Again, there is not only the guilt of sin ; there Defective 
 are the dreadful consequences of pollution, degra- spiritual 
 
 , ^ purification. 
 
 dation, and death, entailed on the soul which is 
 surrendered to its power. How shall the dead 
 spirit live, and, as on eagle's wings, soar upward 
 to a holy heaven ? Alas ! the Avesta knows not 
 of the need of our " escaping the corruption that is 
 in the world through lust , " nor of our becoming 
 "partakers of the divine nature" by the direct 
 action of the Spirit of God in regenerating and 
 purifying the heart of fallen man. 
 
 10. We have seen that the Zoroastrian idea of 
 moral purity was never able to disengage itself from Moral and 
 
 _ ceremonial 
 
 that of ceremonial purity. The Avesta is, in this p^'i^y 
 
 * '' confounded. 
 
 respect, considerably behind some of the Hindu 
 
56 The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 writings, as well as immeasurably below the 
 Jewish and Christian Scriptures. The explanation 
 Explanation, seems to be this* A sacerdotal caste will, if un- 
 checked, go on multiplying ceremonies and the 
 externals of religion, until the mind becomes wholly 
 absorbed in what is merely ritual. So, doubtless, 
 it would have been in ancient Judea, had not the 
 prophetical office been established. The prophet, 
 clothed with Divine authority, exclaimed : " Bring 
 no more vain oblations." " I will have mercy, and 
 not sacrifice." Words of burning indignation and 
 holy scorn recalled the people to the observance 
 of the weightier matters of the law. But in ancient 
 Persia the laity seem to have left religion entirely 
 to the dictation of the priests. From the reign of 
 Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the Magi slowly 
 regained their power, until it was crushed by the 
 invasion of Alexander; and under the revived 
 empire the Sasanian their authority appears to 
 have been almost uncontrolled from the very 
 outset. 
 fonS'tiSJ 11. The Avesta has no conception of that deep 
 divine principle in the divine administration, "Whom 
 
 ^ovemment ^-j^^ Lord loveth He chasteneth." Utterly incom- 
 prehensible also to the Zoroastrian would have 
 been the solemn warning which the prophet Amos 
 addresses to the people in the name of God : " You 
 only have I known of all the families of the earth ; 
 .,; therefore will I punish you for your iniquities." 
 
Religion of the Parsis. 67 
 
 When calamity came on the people of Ahura Mazda, 
 they believed it must be from the demon or his 
 servants. 
 
 The A vesta thus knows nothing of the dis- TheAvest* 
 
 knows 
 
 cipline of sorrow a principle not wholly unknown J^e dL**' 
 to various ancient nations which, through the for?ow' 
 influence of the Bible, pervades nearly all modern 
 thought. " Sweet are the uses of adversity : " the 
 principle embodied in these well-known words is 
 recognized by nearly all who are not avowed 
 pessimists. Most educated Parsis will, I think, 
 accept it ; but certainly they have not derived this 
 important truth from the Avesta. 
 
 12. The great ideas of self-denial and self- Noseif- 
 
 'n n t 1 '11 denial. 
 
 sacrifice find no place in the Avesta. 
 
 13. Many of the rites prescribed in the Avesta Many rites 
 
 T 1 1 ! T 1 CA PI ^^ childi54{ 
 
 are exceedingly childish. Some oi them are even some are 
 
 ^ '' disgusting. 
 
 disgusting such as the use of uiina bovis, and I 
 have therefore been compelled to pass them hur- 
 riedly over. 
 
 14. Intellectually, the Avesta is but a shallow inteiiect- 
 book. Many deep questions, connected with the ^^Jj^** 
 divine government of the world, which necessarily 
 occur to every reflecting man, such as those with 
 which the patriarch Job wrestled to agony seem 
 never to have occupied the Zoroastrian mind. 
 
 15. There is a large amount of verse, or else, at 
 least, of rhythmical prose in the Avesta. It may 
 be that the knowledge which now exists of the 
 
 of 
 
 of^ 
 
Gbxist. 
 
 no The Zend-Avesta, and the 
 
 Yet this tract would be incomplete if we did 
 not glance for a moment at the immense supe- 
 riority of the New Testament over the Avesta, 
 ^racter ^^ having the character of Christ depicted in it. 
 Example, it is said, is better than precept. Are 
 then the marvellous truths and precepts, which 
 flowed like beams of light from the lips of Jesus, 
 exemplified in His own life ? Thus, we know that 
 one of the new commands He issued, was " love 
 your enemies ; " but did He Himself act up to that 
 grand ideal ? Hear Him, as His enemies nail Him 
 to the cross, exclaiming " Father ! forgive them ; 
 they know not what they do ; " and your answer 
 to the question must come in tears rather than in 
 words. If those highest of high moral attainments, 
 self-denial and self-sacrifice for the good of others, 
 are ever to be learned, where can we better learn 
 them than at the cross of Christ ? To say that the 
 character of Jesus is faultless is saying little ; it is 
 
 Its gloriously complete, it is possessed of every con- 
 
 perfection. 11 11 . . 11- 
 
 ceivable excellence, it is " orbed into a perfect 
 
 star." Even those who do not believe in Christ as 
 
 the Son of God must admit that, if the Divinity 
 
 were to become incarnate, the result would be such 
 
 a career and character as actually belonged to 
 
 Jesus Christ. The poet reminds us that there are 
 
 Truths which wake, 
 To perish never. 
 
 Such are the truths that Jesus uttered ; and even 
 
 What it 
 
 teaches. 
 
Religion of the Farais. 61 
 
 so, there is one example which has become an im- 
 perishable part of the highest heritage of humanity, 
 and which must shine on, like the brightness of the 
 firmament, yea, with continually increasing glory, 
 for ever and for ever the examiple supplied by 
 the life and death of Christ. 
 
 Now, the immense disparity between Christ ^^j^ 
 and Zoroaster is dawning, we believe, on that chS^d 
 interesting people, the Parsis of India. They SZnTon 
 have been clinging to their ancient faith from a * "^' 
 feeling of nationality rather than of religion, from 
 tradition more than from conviction ; but immense 
 changes are certainly at hand. Of these we cannot 
 now speak. But we believe that, as the ** Magi 
 from the east *' who probably were Zoroastrians 
 hastened to lay their gold, frankincense, and 
 myrrh, at the feet of the new-bom Redeemer, so, 
 ere long, the Parsis will in all probability be the 
 first of eastern races, to take upon them, as a race, 
 the easy yoke of Christ. 
 
 EXFLANATORT AKD SUPPLKMEKTABT N0TX8. 
 
 a. The Avesta is composed in a language usuaUy called Zend, 
 which is cognate with Sanskrit. The translations from tbi 
 Avesta in this Tract are generally those of Darmesteter, as given 
 in his version of the Yandidad and Yashts, forming two volumes 
 of the Sacred Books of the East. In other cases Haiig or De 
 Harlez has been followed. 
 
 b. The Veda is the most ancient of the aacred bookit of tbt 
 Hindus. 
 
62 Ttie Zend-Avesta, and the Religion of the Parsis. 
 
 c. IrS,n is the general Oriental designation of Persia. The 
 term Iranians includes the Bactrians and Medea as well as the 
 ancient Persians. 
 
 d. Ahura Mazda is generally written Hormazd by the Parsis. 
 The usual names of the two principles, as given in the classical 
 writers, are Oromasdes and Arimanes. 
 
 e. In Persia the adherents of the Avesta are now reduced to a 
 very small number. In October, 1879, they were only 8499. 
 A few of these were in Teheran, Kashan, Shiraz, and Bushire ; 
 and in these towns they were treated fairly well. But the 
 great body of Zoroastrians resides in Yezd and Kirman. They 
 are greatly oppressed by the Mohammedans. They are not 
 allowed to travel, and are forbidden to ride even on aAftiie. The 
 form and colour of their dress are strictly prescribed. Zeit- 
 Bchrift der Bevischen Morgenlandischen Oesellschaft, vol. xxxvi., 
 p. 54 
 
 /. In India, according to the census of 1881, the number of 
 Zoroastrians was 85,397. The far greater part of these are in 
 Western India chiefly on the island of Bombay. 
 
 g. Some Parsis, engaged in commerce, reside temporarily in 
 China At least, an equal number may be found in England. 
 Some of these are merchants ; others are students of law, 
 medicine, or engineeting. 
 
THE HINDU RELIGION 
 
 A SKETCH AND A CONTRAST 
 
 BY 
 
 J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A., LL.D. 
 
Argument of the Trai:;t. 
 
 The place of Hinduism which is professed by about a 
 hundred and ninety millions in India among the religions of 
 the world, and its great antiquity are pointed out. 
 
 The comparative simplicity of the system contained in the 
 Vedas, the oldest sacred books of the Hindus, its almost entire 
 freedom from the use of images, its gradual deterioration in 
 the later hymns, its gradual multiplication of gods, the advance 
 of sacerdotalism, and the increasing complexity of its religious 
 rites are set forth. 
 
 The philosophical speculation that was carried on, the 
 different philosophical Schools, the .Buddhist reaction, its 
 conflict with Brahmanism, its final d'^'feat, and its influence 
 on the victorious system are discussed- 
 
 The religious reconstruction represented by the Puranas, 
 their theological character, the modern ritual, the introduction 
 and rise of caste, and the treatment of women are then con- 
 sidered. 
 
 A contrast is drawn between the leading characteristics of 
 Hinduism and those of Christianity, and the effect of Christian 
 ideas on modern Hinduism is exhibited. The history of the 
 Brahmo Somaj under Keshub Chunder Sen is given at some 
 length. 
 
THE HINDU RELIGION. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 [BiiBwjj;g system of reliaious belief which is Hinduism 
 Wm M^ generally called Hinduism is, on many *"<^y- 
 K3 ^^\ ^cco^^^Sj eminently deserving of study. 
 If we desire to trace the history of the 
 ancient religions of the widely-extended Aryan, 
 or Indo-European race, to which we ourselves 
 belong, we shall find in the earlier writings of the 
 Hindus an exhibition of it decidedly more archaic 
 even than that which is presented in the Homeric 
 poems. Then, the growth the historical develop- 
 ment of Hinduism is not less worthy of attention 
 than its earlier phases. It has endured for upwards its . . 
 
 * ^ ^ antiqmty. 
 
 of three thousand years, no doubt undergoing 
 very important changes, yet in many things re- 
 taining its original spirit. The progress of the 
 system has not been lawless ; and it is exceedingly 
 instructive to note the development, and, if possible, 
 explain it. 
 We are, then, to endeavour to study Hinduism 
 
The Hind/ii Religion, 
 
 chronologically. Unless he does so, almost every 
 man who tries to comprehend it is, at first, over- 
 whelmed with a feeling of utter confusion and 
 bewilderment. Hinduism spreads out tefoi" him 
 as a vast river, or even what seems at first 
 
 a dark 
 " Illimitable ocean, without bound, 
 Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height, 
 And time, and place are lost." 
 
 The 
 
 discussion 
 chrono- 
 logical. 
 
 The 
 
 Christian's 
 duty in 
 relation to 
 Kie subject. 
 
 But matters begin to clear up when he begins at 
 the beginning, and notes how one thing succeeded 
 another. It may not be possible as yet to trace 
 all the windings of the stream, or to show at 
 what precise points in its long course it was joined 
 by such and such a tributary ; yet much is known 
 regarding the mighty river which every intelligent 
 man will find it profitable to note and understand. 
 The Christian ought not to rest satisfied with the 
 vague general idea that Hinduism is a form of 
 heathenism with which he has nothing to do, save 
 to help in destroying it. Let him try to realize 
 the ideas of the Hindu regarding God, and the 
 soul, and sin, and salvation, and heaven, and hell, 
 and the many sore trials of this mortal life. He 
 will then certainly have a much more vivid per- 
 ception of the Divine origin and transcendent 
 importance of his own religion. Farther, he will 
 then extend a helping hand to his Eastern 
 brother with far more of sensibility and tenderness; 
 
Tlie Hindu Religion. 
 
 and, in proportion to the measure of his loving 
 sympathy will doubtless be the measure of his 
 success. A yearning heart will accomplish more 
 than the most cogent argument. 
 
 In this Tract we confine ourselves to the laying The 
 
 purpose of 
 
 down of great leading facts and principles; but theivact. 
 these will be dwelt upon at sufficient length to 
 give the reader, we trust, an accurate conception 
 of the general character and history of Hinduism. 
 We shall also briefly contrast the system with 
 Christianity. 
 
 The history of Hinduism may be divided into 
 three great periods, each embracing, in round 
 numbers, about a thousand years. 
 
 The Yedas. 
 
 Regarding the earliest form of Hinduism we The moat 
 must draw our conceptions from the Yeda, or, to writings o( 
 
 India. 
 
 speak more accurately, the four Yedas. The most j 
 important of these is the Rig Yeda ; and internal j 
 evidence proves it to be the most ancient. It con- 
 tains above a thousand hymns ; the earliest of 
 which may date from about the year 1500 B.a 
 The Hindus, or, as they called themselves, the 
 Aryas, had by that time entered India, and were 
 dwelling in its north-western portion, the Panj4b. 
 The hymns, we may say, are racy of the soil. 
 
The Mindu Religion. 
 
 There is no reference to the life led by the people 
 before they crossed the Himalaya mountains, or 
 entered by some of the passes of Afghanistan. 
 
 It would be very interesting if we could discover 
 the pre-Yedic form of the religion. Inferentially 
 this may, to some extent, be done by comparing 
 the teachings of the Yedas with those contained in 
 the books of other branches of the great Aryan 
 family such as the Greeks, the Bomans, and 
 above all, the Iranians (ancient Persians). 
 
 The ancient Hindus were a highly-gifted, ener- 
 getic race ; civilized to a considerable extent ; not 
 nomadic ; chiefly shepherds and herdsmen, but also 
 acquainted with agriculture. Commerce was not 
 unknown; the river Indus formed a highway to 
 the Indian Ocean, and at least the Phenicians 
 availed themselves of it from perhaps the seven- 
 teenth century B.C., or even earlier. 
 
 As soon as we begin to study the hymns of the 
 Yeda, we are struck by their strongly religious 
 character. Tacitly assuming that the book contains 
 the whole of the early literature of India, many 
 writers have expressed themselves in strong terms 
 regarding the primitive Hindus as religious above 
 all other races. But, as we read on, we become 
 convinced that these poems are a selection, rather 
 than a collection, of the literature ; and the con- 
 viction grows that the selection has been made 
 by priestly hands for priestly purposes. An acute 
 
 The hymns 
 are 
 
 strongly 
 religious. 
 
 They are a 
 selection. 
 
The Hindu, Religion, 
 
 critic has affirmed that the Yedic poems are " pre- ^i^ 
 
 ^ * eminently 
 
 eminently sacerdotal, and in no sense popular." ^ sacerdotal. 
 We can thus explain a pervading characteristic of 
 the book which has taken most readers by surprise. 
 There is a want of simplicity in the Veda. It is 
 often most elaborate, artificial, over-refined, one 
 might even say, affected. How could these be the 
 thoughts, or those the expressions, of the imperfectly 
 civilized shepherds of the Panjab ? But if it be 
 only a hymn book, with its materials arranged 
 for liturgical purposes, the difficulty vanishes.* 
 We shall accordingly take it for granted that the 
 Yeda presents only the religious thought of the 
 ancient Hindus, and not the whole of the religious 
 thought, but only that of a very influential portion 
 of the race. With all the qualifications now stated, 
 the Yeda must retain a position of high importance 
 for all who study Indian thought and life. The 
 religious stamp which the compilers of the Yeda 
 impressed so widely and so deeply has not been 
 obliterated in the course of thirty centuries. 
 
 The prevailing aspect of the religion presented Their 
 in the Yedic hymns may be broadly designated as Nature. 
 Nature- worship. 
 
 All physical phenomena in India are invested 
 
 * Barth. 
 
 * Bergaigne, in his able treatise, La Religion VMique, insists 
 earnestly ou what Le calls tlie *' liturgical contamination of the 
 m^-ths." See Vol. III. p. 320. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 
 
 physical 
 phenoraena 
 b India. 
 
 Their eflfect 
 on the 
 religion. 
 
 The deities 
 are " the 
 bright ones," 
 according to 
 the language 
 of the sacred 
 books of 
 India. 
 
 witli a grandeur which they do not possess in 
 northern or even southern Europe. Sunlight, 
 moonlight, starlight, the clouds purpled with the 
 heam of morning, or flaming in the west like fiery 
 chariots of heaven ; to behold these things in their 
 full magnificence one ought to see them in the 
 East. Even so the sterner phenomena of Nature, 
 whirlwind And tempest, lightning and thunder, 
 flood and storm-wave, plague, pestilence, and 
 famine ; all of these oftentimes assume in the East 
 a character of awful majesty before which man 
 cowers in helplessness and despair. The con- 
 ceptions and feelings hence arising have from the 
 beginning powerfully affected the religion of the 
 Hindus. Everywhere we can trace the impress of 
 the grander manifestations of Nature the impress 
 of their beneficence, their beauty, their might, their 
 mystery, or their terribleness. 
 
 The Sanskrit word for god is deva, which means 
 bright, shining. Of physical phenomena it was 
 especially those connected with light that en- 
 kindled feelings of reverence. The black thunder- 
 cloud that enshrouded Nature, in which the demon 
 had bound the life-giving waters, passed away; 
 for the glittering thunderbolt was launched, and 
 the streams rushed down, exulting in their freedom ; 
 and then the heaven shone out again, pure and 
 peaceful as before. But such a wonder as the Dawn 
 with far- streaming radiance, returning from the 
 
The Hindu Religion, 9 
 
 land of mystery, fresh in eternal youth, and scat- 
 tering the terrors of the night before her ; who 
 could sufficiently admire ? And let it be remem- 
 bered that in the Hindu mind the interval between 
 admiration and adoration is exceedingly small. . 
 Yet, while it is the Dawn which has evoked the 
 truest poetry, she has not retained the highest place 
 in worship. 
 
 No divinity has fuller worship paid him than Irire much 
 Agni, the Fire {Ignis). More hymns are dedicated 
 to him than to any other being. Astonishment at 
 the properties of fire ; a sense of his condescension 
 in that he, a mighty god, resides in their dwellings ; 
 his importance as the messenger between heaven 
 and earth, bearing the offerings aloft; his kind- 
 ness at night in repelling the darkness and the 
 demons which it hides ; all these things raised Agni 
 to an exalted place. He is fed with pure clarified 
 butter, and so rises heavenward in his brightness. 
 The physical conception of fire, however, adheres 
 to him, and he never quite ceases to be the earthly 
 flame ; yet mystical conceptions thickly gather 
 round this root- idea ; he is fire pervading all Nature; 
 and he often becomes supreme, a god of gods. 
 
 All this seems natural enough ; but one is i 
 
 hardly prepared for the high exaltation to which J exalted. 
 Soma is raised. Soma is properly the juice of a j 
 milky plant (asclepias acida, or sarcostemma vimi- ' 
 nale), which, when ferm^ited, is intoxicating. The 
 
10 
 
 7^ Hindu Religion. 
 
 Soma 
 becomes a 
 very mighty 
 god. 
 
 simple-minded Aryas were both astonished and de- 
 lighted at its effects : they liked it themselves ; and 
 they knew nothing more precious to present to 
 their gods. Accordingly, all of these rejoice in it. 
 Indra in particular quaffs it " like a thirst)'^ stag ; " 
 and under its exhilarating effects he strides vic- 
 toriously to battle. Soma itself becomes a god, 
 and a very mighty one ; he is even the creator and 
 father of the gods ; ^ the king of gods and men ; '^ 
 all creatures are in his hand. It is surely extra- 
 ordinary that the Aryas could apply such hyper- 
 bolical laudations to the liquor which they had 
 made to trickle into the vat, and which they knew 
 to be the juice of a plant they had cut down on the 
 mountains and pounded in a mortar ; and that in- 
 toxication should be confounded with inspiration. 
 Yet of such aberrations we know the human mind 
 is perfectly capable. 
 
 We have first referred to Agni and Soma, as 
 being the only divinities of highest rank which 
 still retain their physical character. The worship 
 paid to them was of great antiquity ; for it is also 
 prescribed in the Persian A vesta, and must have 
 been common to the Indo-Iranian branch of the 
 Aryan race before the Hindus entered India. Eut 
 we can inferentially go still further back, and speak 
 of a deity common to the Greeks, Romans, Persians, 
 and Hindus. This deity is Yaruna; the most 
 * R. V. ix. 42, 4. . 2 ix. 97, 24. 
 
 Connection 
 
 with 
 
 Persian, 
 
 Greek, and 
 
 Roman 
 
 systems. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 11 
 
 remarkable personality in tlie Yeda. The name, "Vanma.the 
 which is etymologically connected with Ovpavoc, sig- i^eaTen. 
 nifies " the encompasser," and is applied to heaven 
 especially the all- encompassing, extreme vault 
 of heaven not the nearer sky, which is the region 
 of cloud and storm. It is in describing Yarun a [The 
 
 I sublimity of 
 
 that the Yeda rises to the greatest subhmity tteVedic 
 
 ^ ' description 
 
 which it ever reaches. A mysterious presence,) **' ^^^ 
 a mysterious power, a mysterious knowledge 
 amounting almost to omniscience, are ascribed to 
 Yaruna. The winkings of men's eyes are num- 
 bered by him. He upholds order, both physical 
 and moral, throughout the universe. The winds 
 are his breath, the sun his eye, the sky his garment. 
 He rewards the good, and punishes the wicked. Yet 
 to the truly penitent he is merciful. It is absolutely contrast 
 confounding to pass from a hymn that celebrates laudations 
 the serene majesty and awful purity of Yaruna soma, 
 to one filled with measureless laudations of Soma 
 or Agni. Could conceptions of divinity so incon- 
 gruous co-exist P That they could not spring up 
 in the same mind, or even in the same age, is 
 abundantly manifest. And, as we have mentioned. The loftier 
 
 ^ _ ... . conceptions 
 
 the loftier conceptions of divinity are unquestion- J^g^^'^j^J 
 ably the earlier. It is vain to speak, as certain 
 writers do, of religion gradually refining itself, as 
 a muddy stream can run itself pure ; Hinduism 
 resembles the Ganges, which when it breaks forth 
 from its mountain cradle at Hard war, is com- 
 
ments. 
 
 12 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 paratively pellucid, but, as it rolls on, becomes more 
 and more muddy, discoloured, and unclean.^ 
 
 Yarious scholars affirm that Yaruna, in more 
 ancient, pre-Yedic times, held a position still 
 higher than the very high one which he still 
 retains. This is probable ; indeed it is certain that, 
 before later divinities had intruded, he held a place 
 
 ladnk / of unrivalled majesty. But, in the Yedas, India 
 ' / is a more conspicuous figure. He corresponds to 
 
 the Jupiter Pluvius of the Romans. In north- 
 western India, after the burning heat, the annual 
 return of the rains was hailed with unspeakable 
 
 His achieve- joy; it was like life Succeeding death. The clouds 
 that floated up from the ocean were at first thin 
 and light ; ah ! a hostile demon was in them 
 carrying off the healing waters, and not permitting 
 them to fall ; but the thunderbolt of Indra flashed; 
 the demon was driven away howling, and the 
 emancipated streams refreshed the thirsty earth. 
 Yaruna was not indeed dethroned, but he was o\- 
 scured, by the achievements of the warlike Indra ; 
 and the super-sensuous, moral conceptions that were 
 connected with the former gradually faded from 
 
 * The religion of the Indo-European race, while still united, 
 'recognized a supreme God; an organizing God; almighty 
 omniscient, moral .... This conception was a heritage of 
 the past .... The supreme God was originally the God of 
 heaven. So Darmesteter : Conteviporary iCeview, Oct., 1879. 
 Roth had previously written with much learning and acuteness 
 to the same effect. 
 
The Hindu Reli^iM:^^ q0^ 1-3 
 
 the minds of the people, and Yaruna ere long 
 became quite a subordinate figure in the Pantheon. 
 
 The deities are generally said in the Yeda to be Number and 
 
 ' ^^ relations oi 
 
 " thrice eleven " in number. "We also hear of three ^"ti^ 
 
 uncertain. 
 
 thousand three hundred and thirty -nine. There is 
 no systeniy no fixed order in the hierarchy ; a deity 
 who, in one hymn, is quite subordinate, becomes 
 in another supreme; almost every god becomes 
 supreme in turn ; in one hymn he is the son of some 
 deity, and in another that deity's father, and so (if 
 logic ruled) his own grandfather. Every poet exalts 
 his favourite god, till the mind becomes utterly 
 bewildered in tracing the relationships. 
 
 We have already spoken of ^^pgfp Yaruna, and 
 Indra, as well as Sjyjia. Next to these in im- 
 portance may come the deities of light, viz., the 
 Sun, the Dawn, and the two Asvina or beams 
 that accompany the dawn. The "Winds come 
 next. The Earth is a goddess. The Waters are 
 goddesses. It is remarkable that the Stars are 
 very little mentioned; and the Moon holds no 
 distinguished place. 
 
 In the religion of the Rig Yeda we hardly see Haniiyany 
 
 . * fetishism in 
 
 fetishism if by fetishism we mean the worship ^J^k 
 oi small physical objects, such as stones, shells, 
 plants, etc., which are believed to be charged (so 
 to speak) with divinity ; though this appears in the 
 fourth Yeda the Atharva. But even in the ^-ig 
 Yeda, almost any object that is grand, beneficent, or 
 
14 
 
 The Hindu Religion, 
 
 Early 
 tendency 
 towards 
 pantheism. 
 
 Reverence 
 of the dead. 
 
 terrible, may be adored ; and implements associated 
 with worship are themselves worshipped. Thus, 
 the war-chariot, the plough, the furrow, etc., are 
 prayed to. 
 
 A pantheistic conception of Nature was also 
 present in the Indian mind from very early times, 
 although its development was later. Even in the 
 earliest hymns, any portion of Nature with which 
 man is brought into close relation may be adored.^ 
 
 We must on no account overlook the reverence 
 paid to the dead. The Pitris (patres) or Fathers 
 are frequently referred to in the Yeda. They 
 are clearly distinguished from the devas or gods. 
 In later writings they are also distinguished from 
 men, as having been created separately from them ; 
 but this idea does not appear in the Yeda. Yama, 
 the first mortal, travelled the road by which none 
 returns, and now drinks the Soma in the inner- 
 most of heaven, surrounded by the other Fathers. 
 These come also, along with '-he gods, to the 
 banquets prepared for them on earth, and, sitting 
 on the sacred grass, rejoice in the exhilarating 
 draught. 
 
 The hymns of the Rig Y. celebrate the power, 
 exploits, or generosity of the deity invoked; and 
 sometimes his personal beauty. The praises 
 lavished on the god not only secured his favour, 
 but increased his power to help the worshipper. 
 ' TexU, Y. 412. 
 
 The subjects 
 of the hymns 
 of the Ilig 
 Veda. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 15 
 
 There is one prayer (bo-called) whicli is es- ThehoUest 
 
 r J \ I prayer. 
 
 teemed pre-eminently holy ; generally called ^from 
 the metre in which it is composed the Gayatri.^ 
 It may he rendered thus : 
 
 "Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the Divine Sun 
 (or Vivifier) ; may he enlighten our understandings I " 
 
 It has always been frequently repeated in important 
 rites. 
 
 So far we have referred almost exclusively to 
 the Rig Yeda. The next in importance is the Atharva 
 Atharva, sometimes termed the Brahma Yeda; 
 which we may render the Veda of incantations. 
 It contains six hundred and seventy hymns. Of inferior 
 
 1 T T\ T morally and 
 
 these a few are equal to those lu the R12: v. : but, spiritually 
 
 ^ ^ _ . b ' ' to the Rig 
 
 as a whole, the Atharva is far inferior to the other '^*^^*- 
 in a moral and spiritual point of view. It. 
 abounds in imprecations, charms for the destruc- | 
 tion of enemies, and so forth. Talismans, plants, 
 or gems, are invoked, as possessed of irresistible 
 might to kill or heal. The deities are often 
 different from those of the Rig V. The Atharva 
 manifests a great dread of malignant beings, whose 1 
 wrath it deprecates. We have thus simple demon- f Explanation 
 worship. How is this great falling-oif to be ex- terior*tion. 
 plained ? In one of two ways. Either a con- 
 siderable time intervened between the composition 
 of the two books, during which the original faith 
 * Rig. V. iiL 62, 10. 
 
Tne 
 offeringi^ 
 
 16 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 had rapidly degenerated, probably through contact 
 with aboriginal races who worshipped dark and 
 sanguinary deities ; or else there had existed from 
 the beginning two fornis of the religion the 
 higher of which is embodied in the hymns of the 
 Rig y., and the lower in the Atharva, We 
 believe the latter explanation to be correct ; 
 although doubtless the superstitions of the ab- 
 origines must all along have exerted an influence 
 on the faith of the invaders. 
 
 The offerings presented to the gods consisted 
 chiefly of clarified butter, curdled milk, rice, cakes, 
 and fermented Soma juice, which was generally 
 mixed with water or milk. All was thrown into 
 the fire, which bore them or their essences to the 
 gods. The Soma was also sprinkled on the sacred 
 grass, which was strown on the floor; and on 
 which the gods and fathers were invited to come 
 and seat themselves, that they might enjoy the 
 cheering beverage. The remainder was drunk by 
 the officiating priests. The offerings were under- 
 stood to nourish and gratify the gods as corporeal 
 beings. 
 I Animal victims were also offered up. We 
 
 hear of sheep, goats, bulls, cows, and buffaloes 
 being sacrificed, and sometimes in large numbers. 
 But the great offering was the Asvamedha, or 
 sacrifice of the horse. The body of the horse was 
 hacked to pieces ; the fragments were dressed 
 
 victims. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 17 
 
 part was boiled, part roasted ; some of tlie flesh 
 was then eaten by the persons present, and the 
 rest was offered to the gods. Tremendous was the 
 potency at least as stated in later times of a 
 hundred such sacrifices ; it rendered the offerer 
 equal or superior to the gods; even the mighty 
 Tndra trembled for his sovereignty, and strove to 
 hinder the consummation of the awful rite. 
 
 Human sacrifice was not unknown ; though Human 
 
 n . . . , . sacrifice. 
 
 there are very few allusions to it in the earlier 
 hymns. 
 
 Even from the first, however, the rite of sacrifice sacrifice 
 
 deemed of 
 
 occupies a very high place ; and allusions to it are ^^^Se 
 exceedingly frequent. The observances connected 
 with it are said to be the " first religious rites." 
 Sacrifice was early believed to be expiatory ; it 
 removed sin. It was substitutionary ; the victim 
 stood in place of the offerer. All order in the 
 universe depends upon it ; it is " the nave of the 
 world- wheel.** Sometimes Vishnu is said to be 
 the sacrifice ; sometimes even the Supreme Being 
 himself is so. Elaborated ideas and a complex 
 ritual, which we could have expected to grow up 
 only in the course of ages, appear from very early 
 times. We seem compelled to draw the inference 
 that sacrifice formed an essential, and very im- 
 portant, part of the pre-Vedic faith. ^ 
 
 * The rites, says Haug, "must have existed from times im- 
 luemorial." Aitareya Brdhmana, pp. 7, 9. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 No image- 
 worship. 
 
 In the Yeda, worship is a kind of barter. In 
 exchange for praises and offerings, the deity is 
 asked to bestow favours. Temporal blessings are 
 implored, such as food, wealth, life, children, cows, 
 horses, success in battle, the destruction of enemies, 
 and so forth. Not much is said regarding sin, and 
 the need of forgiveness. A distinguished scholar^ 
 has said that " the religious notion of sin is wanting 
 altogether;" but this affirmation is decidedly too 
 sweeping. 
 
 The worship exemplified in the Veda is not 
 image- worship. Images of the fire, or the winds, 
 or the waters, could hardly be required ; and, 
 while the original Nature- worship lasted, idols 
 must have been nearly unknown. Yet, tlie 
 description of various deities is so precise and 
 full that it seems to be probably drawn from 
 visible representations of them. Worship was 
 personal and domestic ; not, in any way, public. 
 Indeed, two men praying at the same time had to 
 pray quite apart, so that neither might disturb the 
 other. Each dealt with heaven, so to speak, solely 
 on his own behalf. 
 No temples. Wb hear of no places set apart as temples in 
 Yedic times. 
 
 No public 
 worship. 
 
 A Yeda consists of two parts called Mantra or 
 Sanhifd, and Brdhmana. The first is composed of 
 
 * Weber, History of Indian Literature, p. 38. 
 
The Hindu Religion, 19 
 
 hymns. The second is a statement of ritual, and I'^e 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ treatises on 
 
 is generally in prose. The existing Br^hmanas "*"*^- 
 are several centuries later than the great body of 
 the Hymns, and were probably composed when the 
 Hindus had crossed the Indus, and were advancing 
 along the Gangetic valley. The oldest may be- 
 about the date of 800 or 700 B.C. 
 
 The Brahmanas are very poor, both in thought ' 
 and expression. They have hardly their match 
 in any literature for " pedantry and downright 
 absurdity."^ Poetical feeling, and even religious 
 feeling, seem gone ; all is dead and dry as dust. 
 By this time the Sanskrit language had ceased to 
 be generally understood. The original texts could 
 hardly receive accessions ; the most learned man 
 could do little more than interpret, or perhaps 
 misinterpret, them. The worshipper looked on ; 
 he worshipped now by proxy. Thus the priest, 
 had risen greatly in importance. He alone knew 
 the sacred verses and the sacred rites. An error ; Growth oi 
 
 I pnestly 
 
 in the pronunciation of the mystic text might \yo^^f- 
 bring destruction on the worshipper: what could 
 he do but lean upon the priest ? The latter could 
 say the prayers, if he could not pray. All this 
 worked powerfully for the elevation of the 
 Brahmans, the "men of prayer;" they steadily 
 grew into a class, a caste ; and into this no one 
 could enter who was not of priestly descent. 
 
 1 Max Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 389 
 
2u 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Moral 
 
 character of 
 the Veda. 
 
 Schools for Schools Were now found necessary for the study of 
 sacredbo^oks, the sacred books, rites, and traditions. The im- 
 
 rites, and i i -i i ^ i 
 
 traditions, portanco which these attach to theology doctrine 
 is very small : the externals of religion are all 
 in all. The rites, in fact, now threw the very 
 gods into the shade ; everything depended on their 
 due performance. And thus the Hindu ritual 
 gradually grew up into a stupendous system, the 
 most elaborate, complex, and burdensome which 
 the earth has seen. 
 
 It is time, however, to give a brief estimate of 
 the moral character of the Veda. The first thing 
 that strikes us is its inconsistency. Some hymns 
 especially those addressed to Yaruna rise as 
 high as Gentile conceptions regarding deity ever 
 rose ; others even in the Rig V sink miserably 
 low ; and in the Atharva we find, " even in the 
 lowest depth, a lower still." 
 
 The character of Indra who has displaced or 
 overshadowed Varuna^ has no high attributes. 
 He is " voracious ; '* his " inebriety is most intense ;" 
 he "dances with delight in battle." His wor- 
 shippers supply him abundantly with the drink 
 he loves ; and he supports them against their foes, 
 ninety and more of whose cities he has destroyed. 
 We do not know that these foes, the Dasyus, wore 
 morally worse than the intrusive Aryas ; but the 
 feelings of the latter towards the former were of 
 
 1 " The haughty Indra takes precedence of all gods." Rig V. 
 1. 65. 
 
 Indra 
 
 supersedes 
 
 Vaniiia. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 21 
 
 unexampled ferocity. Here is one passage out of 
 multitudes similar : 
 
 '* Hurl thy hottest thunderbolt upon them ! Uproot them I 
 Cleave them asunder I Indra, overpower, subdue, slay the 
 demon ! Pluck him up ! Cut him through the middle ! Crush 
 his head ! " 
 
 Indra, if provided with Soma, is always 
 indulgent to his votaries; he supports them per 
 fas et nefas. Yaruna, on the other hand, is 
 grave, just, and to wicked men, severe.^ The Detenoi*. 
 
 tion begins 
 
 supersession of Yaruna by Indra, then, is early, 
 easily understood. We see the principle on 
 which it rests stated in the Old Testament. 
 " Ye cannot serve the Lord," said Joshua to the 
 elders of Israel ; " for He is a holy God." Even 
 80 Jeremiah points sorrowfully to the fact that the 
 Pagan nations clung to their false gods, while 
 Israel was faithless to the true. As St. Paul 
 expresses it : " they did not like to retain God in 
 their knowledge." Unless this principle is fully 
 taken into account, we cannot understand the 
 historical development of Hinduism. 
 
 The Yeda frequently ascribes to the gods, to 
 use the language of Max Miiller, "sentiments and 
 passions unworthy of deity." In truth, except injvarunathe 
 the case of Yaruna, there is not one divinity that) posIessecTo? 
 IS possessed oi pure and elevated attributes. / elevated 
 
 ^ "^ I attributes. 
 
 ^ ' These two personages [Indra and Varuna] sum up the 
 two conceptions of divinity, between which the religious con- 
 Bciousness of the Vedic Aryans seems to oscillate." Bergaigne, 
 La Religion Vedique, Vol. III. p. 149. 
 
22 
 
 The HiTidu Religion, 
 
 II. 
 
 Speculation 
 begins. 
 
 Rise of 
 asceticism. 
 
 Philosophy; and Ritualism. 
 
 During the Yedic period certainly towards its 
 conclusion a tendency to speculation had begun 
 to appear. Probably it had all along exi^^ted in 
 the Hindu mind, but had remained latent during 
 the stirring period when the people were engaged 
 in incessant wars. Climate, also, must have af- 
 fected the temperament of the race; and, as the 
 Hindus steadily pressed down the valley of the 
 Ganges into warmer regions, their love of repose 
 and contemplative quietism would continually | 
 deepen. And when the Brahmans became a fully' 
 developed hierarchy, lavishly endowed, with no 
 employment except the performance of religious 
 ceremonies, their minds could avoid stagnation 
 only by having recourse to speculative thought. 
 Again, asceticism has a deep root in human nature ; ) 
 earnest souls, conscious of their own weakness, 
 will fly from the temptations of the world. Various 
 causes thus led numbers of men to seek a life of 
 seclusion ; they dwelt chiefly in forests, and there 
 they revolved the everlasting problems of existence, 
 creation, the soul, and God. The lively Greeks, 
 for whom, with all their high intellectual endow- 
 ments, a happy sensuous existence was nearly all 
 
The Hindu Religion. 23 
 
 in all, were amazed at the numbers in Northern 
 India, who appeared weary of the world and in- 
 different to life itself. By and for these recluses 
 were gradually composed the Aranyakas, or forest 
 treatises ; and out of these grew a series of more 
 regular works, called Upanishads.^ At least 250 1 
 of these are known to exist. They have been 
 called '' guesses at truth ; " they are more so than 
 formal solutions of great questions. Many of them 
 are unintelligible rhapsodies ; others rise almost to 
 sublimity. They frequently contradict each other ; 
 the same writer sometimes contradicts himself. 
 One prevailing characteristic is all-important ; their 
 doctrine is pantheism. The pantheism is some- They are 
 
 ^ pantheistiA 
 
 times not so much a coldly reasoned system as an 
 aspiration, a yearning, a deep-felt need of some- 
 thing better than the mob of gods who came in the 
 train of Indra, and the darker deities who were still 
 crowding in. Even in spite of the counteracting 
 power of the Gospel, mysticism has run easily into 
 pantheism in Europe; and orthodox Christians 
 sometimes slide unconsciously into it or at least 
 into its language.^ But as has been already noted, 
 
 ^ The meaning of the term is not quite certain. Sessions, or 
 Instructions, may perhaps be the rendering. So Monier Williams. 
 
 ^ For example, Wwdsworth : 
 
 Thou, Thou alone 
 Art everlasting, and the blessed Spirits 
 Which Thou includest, as the sea her waves. 
 
 Excursion. Book IV. 
 
24: The Hindu Religion. 
 
 a strain of pantheism existed in the Hindu mind 
 from early times. 
 
 Accordingly, these hermit sages, these mystic 
 dreamers, soon came to identify the human soul 
 with God. And the chief end of man was to seek 
 that the stream derived from God should return 
 to its source, and ceasing to wander through the 
 wilderness of this world, should find repose in the 
 bosom of the illimitable deep, the One, the All. 
 The Brahmans attached the Upanishads to the 
 Yeda proper, and they soon came to be regarded 
 as its most sacred part. In this way the influence 
 these treatises have exercised has been immense 
 more than any other portion of the earlier Hindu 
 writings, they have moulded the thoughts of suc- 
 ceeding generations. Philosophy had thus begun. 
 Six The speculations of which we see the commence- 
 
 philosophic * 
 
 schools. ment and progress in the Upanishads were finally 
 developed and classified in a series of writings 
 called the six Sastras or <^r.sflw5. These constitute 
 the regular, official philosophy of India. They are 
 without much difficulty reducible to three leading 
 schools of thought the Nyaya, the S^nkhya, and 
 the Yedanta. 
 
 Roundly and speaking generally, we may cha- 
 racterize these systems as theistic, atheistic, and 
 pantheistic respectively. 
 
 'fheNyftya. It is doubtful, howcver, whether the earlier form 
 of the Nyaya was theistic or not. The later form 
 
The Hindu Religion. 25 
 
 is s ; but it says nothing of the moral attributes 
 of God, nor of His government. The chief end of 
 man, according to the Nyaya, is deliverance from 
 pain ; and this is to be attained by cessation from 
 all action, whether good or bad. 
 
 The Sankhya declares matter to be self-existent The 
 
 ^ ... Sankhya. 
 
 and eternal. Soul is distinct from matter, and also 
 eternal. When it attains true knowledge it is 
 liberated from matter and from pain. The Sankhya 
 holds the existence of God to be without proof. 
 
 But the leading philosophy of India is un-l The 
 
 I V6clfl.ntft 
 
 questionably the Yedanta. The name means " the! 
 end or scope of the Ycda ; " and if the Upanishads] 
 were the Yeda, instead of treatises tacked on to it, 
 the name would be correct : for the Vedanta, like 
 the Upanishads, inculcates pantheism. 
 
 The form which this philosophy ultimately as- 
 sumed is well represented in the treatise called the 
 Vedanta Sara, or Essence of the Yedanta. A few 
 extracts will suffice to exhibit its character. " The 
 unity ot the soul and God ; this is the scope of all 
 Vedanta treatises." We have frequent references 
 made to the " great saying " Tat twam^ i.e.. That 
 art thou, or Thou art God; and Aham Brahma, {.e., 
 I am God. Again it is said, *'The whole universe 
 is God." God is " existence (or more exactly, an 
 existent thing ^), knowledge, and joy." Knowledge, 
 not a knower ; joy, not one who rejoices. 
 ^ Or, the thing that really is ^the 6tfrtn if. 
 
26 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 It teaches 
 
 absolute 
 
 idealism. 
 
 Doctrine of 
 " the Self." 
 
 Everything else has only a seeming existeuce, 
 which is in consequence of ignorance (or illusion) 
 Ignorance makes the soul think itself different 
 from God ; and it also " projects " the appearance 
 of an external world. 
 
 '* He who knows God becomes God." " When 
 He, the first and last is discerned, one's own acts 
 are annihilated." 
 
 Meditation, without distinction of subject and 
 object, is the highest form of thought. It is a 
 high attainment to say, "I am God;" but the 
 consummation is when thought exists without an 
 object. 
 
 There are four states of the soul waking, 
 dreaming, dreamless sleep, and the " fourth state," 
 or pure intelligence. The waking man is in dense 
 ignorance ; in sleep he is freed from part of this 
 ignorance ; in dreamless sleep he is freed from still 
 more ; but the consummation is when he attains 
 something beyond this, which it seems cannot be 
 explained, and is therefore called the fourth state. 
 
 The name, which in later writings is most fre- 
 quently given to the *' one without a second," ^ is 
 Atman, which properly means Self. Much is said 
 of the way in which the self in each man is to 
 recover, or discover, its unity with the Supreme or 
 real self. For as the one sun shining in the 
 heavens is reflected, often in distorted images, in 
 1 Ekamadyitiyam. 
 
statements. 
 
 The Hindu Rd'igion. 717 
 
 multitudes of vessels filled with water, so the one 
 Self is present in all human minds.^ There is not inconsistent 
 perhaps there could not be consistency in the 
 statements of the relation of the seeming to the 
 real. In most of the older hooks a practical, or 
 conventional, existence is admitted of the Self in 
 each man, but not a real existence. But when the 
 conception is fully formulated, the finite world is 
 not admitted to exist, save as a mere illusion. All 
 phenomena are a play a play without plot or pur- 
 pose, which thu Absolute plays with itself.^ This is 
 surely transcendent transcendentalism. One regrets 
 that speculation did not take one step more, and 
 declare that the illusion was itself illusory. Then 
 we should have gone round the circle, and returned 
 to sensiM communis. We must be pardoned if 
 we seem to speak disrespectfully of such fantastic 
 speculations ; we desire rather to speak regretfully 
 of the many generations of men which successively 
 occupied themselves with such unprofitable dreams ; 
 for this kind of thought is traceable even from 
 Yedic days. It is more fully developed in the 
 Upanishads. In them occurs the classical sentence 
 80 frequently quoted in later literature, which 
 declares that the Absolute being is the " one [thing] 
 without a second.'** 
 
 ' This illustration is in the mouth of every Hindu disputant 
 ftb the present day. 
 
 * Bartn, p. 76. Ekamadvitlyam. 
 
88 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 The Git*. The book wMcli perliaps above all others has 
 
 moulded the mind of India in more recent days 
 is the Bhagavad Gita, or Song of the Holy One. 
 It is written in stately and harmonious verse, and 
 has achieved the same task for Indian philosophy 
 as Lucretius did for ancient Epicureanism.-^ It is 
 eclectic, and succeeds, in a sort of way, in forcing 
 the leading systems of Indian thought into 
 seeming harmony. 
 
 Some have thought they could discern in these 
 daring speculations indications of souls groping 
 after God, and saddened because of the difficulty 
 of finding Him. Were it so, all our sympathies 
 would at once be called forth. But no ; we see in 
 
 inteUectua] thcsc writiuffs far more of intellectual pride than of 
 
 pride. " ^ ^ 
 
 spiritual sadness. Those ancient dreamers never 
 learned their own ignorance. They scarcely recog- 
 nized the limitations of the hu un mind. And 
 when reason could take them no farther, they sup- 
 plemented it by dreams and ecstasy until, in the 
 Yoga philosophy, they rushed into systematized 
 mysticism and magic, far more extravagant than 
 the wildest theurgy of the degraded Neoplatonism 
 of the Roman empire. 
 
 A learned writer thus expresses himself : 
 
 ** The unly one of the six schools that seems to recognize the 
 
 Volui tibi suaviloquenti 
 Carmine Pierio ratioiiem exponere nostram 
 Et quasi Mvisreo dulci contingere melle. 
 
The Hindu lidigiov. 29 
 
 doctrine of divine providence is the Yoga. It thus seems that 
 the consistent followers of these systems can have, in their 
 perfected state, no religion, no action, and no moral character."* 
 
 And now to take a brief review of the whole 
 subject. The Hindu sages were men of acute and Indian 
 
 . philosophy a 
 
 patient thought ; but their attempt to solve the sad failure, 
 problem of the Divine and human natures, of 
 human destiny and duty, has ended in total failure. 
 Each system baseless, and all mutually conflicting ; 
 systems cold and cheerless, that frown on love and 
 virtuous exertion, and speak of annihilation or its 
 equivalent, absorption, as our highest hope : such 
 is the poor result of infinite speculation. "The 
 world by wisdom knew not God." Oh that India 
 would learn the much-needed lesson of humility 
 which the experience of ages ought to teach her ! 
 
 While speculation was thus busy, Sacerdotali!?m sacerdotai. 
 
 ism. 
 
 was also continually extending its influence. The 
 Brahman, the man of prayer, had made himself 
 indispensable in all sacred rites. He alone as we 
 have seen knew the holy texts; he alone could 
 rightly pronounce the words of awful mystery and 
 power on which depended all weal or woe. On all 
 religious occasions the priest must be called in, 
 and, on all occasions, implicitly obeyed. For a 
 considerable time the princes struggled against the 
 encroachments of the priests ; but, in the end, they 
 were completely vanquished. Never was sacer- 
 
 * Dr. J. Muir, in North British Review ^ No. xlix. p. 
 
30 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 The tyranny dotal tyranny more absolute ; the proudest pope 
 dotauam. j^ mediODval times never lorded it over Western 
 Christendom with such unrelenting rigour as the 
 Brahmans exercised over both princes and people. 
 The feeling of the priests is expressed in a well- 
 known stanza ; 
 
 "All the world is subject to the gods ; the gods are subject 
 to the holy texts ; the holy texts are subject to the Brahman ; 
 therefore the Brahman is my Gkni." 
 
 Yes, the sacred man could breathe the spell which 
 
 made earth and hell and heaven itself to tremble. 
 
 He therefore logically called himself an earthly 
 
 god. Indeed, the Brahman is always logical. He 
 
 draws conclusions from premises with iron rigour 
 
 of reasoning ; and with side-issues he has nothing 
 
 to do. He stands upon his rights. Woe to the 
 
 being god or man who comes in conflict with 
 
 I him! 
 
 Ritual { The priests naturally multiplied religious cere- 
 
 becomes I . . 1 'i 1 1 
 
 extravagant, mouies, and made ntual the soul of worship. 
 
 Sacrifice especially assumed still more and more 
 exaggerated forms becoming more protracted, 
 more expensive, more bloody. A hecatomb of 
 victims was but a small offering. More and more 
 awful powers were ascribed to the rite. 
 
 But the tension was too great, and the bow 
 snapped. Buddhism arose. We may call this 
 remarkable system the product of the age an in- 
 evitable rebellion acainst intolerable sacerdotalism; 
 
The Hindu Religion, 31 
 
 and yet we must not overlook the importance of 
 the very distinct and lofty personality of Buddha 
 (Sakya Muni) as a power moulding it into 
 shape. 
 
 "Wherever it extended, it effected a vast re- Buddhism, 
 volution in Indian thought. Thus, in regard to 
 the institution of caste, Buddha did not attack it, 
 he did not, it would appear, even formally re- 
 nounce it; as a mere social institution, he seems 
 to have acknowledged it ; hut then he held that 
 all the religious were freed from its restrictions. 
 "My law," said he, "is a law of mercy for all;" 
 and forthwith he proceeded to admit men of every 1 
 caste into the closest fellowship with himself and 
 his followers. Then, he preached he, though not 
 a Brahman in the vernacular languages, an im- I 
 mense innovation, which made his teaching popular. 
 He put in the forefront of his system certain great Moral 
 fundamental principles of morality. He made re- this system, 
 ligion consist in duty, not rites. He reduced duty > 
 mainly to mercy or kindness towards all living 
 beings a marvellous generalization. This set 
 aside all slaughter of animals. The mind of the 
 princes and people was weary of priestcraft and 
 ritualism ; and the teaching of the great reformer 
 was most timely. Accordingly his doctrine spread B?t^*** 
 with great rapidity ; and for a long time it seemed ^^^ 
 likely to prevail over Brahmanism. But various 
 causes gradually combined against it Partly, it was 
 
32 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 overwhelmed by its own luxuriance of growth ; 
 Victory of partlv, Brahmauism, which had all alone: maintained 
 
 Brahman- r ^ ' f o 
 
 ism. 
 
 an intellectual superiority, adopted, either from con- 
 viction or policy, most of the principles of Buddh- 
 ism, and skilfully supplied some of its main de- 
 ficiencies. Thus the Brahmans retained their 
 position; and, at least nominally, their religion 
 won the day. 
 
 m. 
 
 Reconstruction. Modern Hinduism. 
 
 Revival, in BuT the Hiuduism that grew up, as Buddhism 
 fS4, 0? faded from Indian soil, was widely different from 
 
 Hinduism. 
 
 the system with which early Buddhism had con- 
 tended. Hinduism, as it has been developed during 
 the last thousand or twelve hundred years, resembles 
 a stupendous far-extended building, or series of 
 buildings, -which is still receiving additions, while 
 portions have crumbled and are crumbling into 
 ruin. Every conceivable style of architecture, from 
 that of the stately palace to the meanest hut, is 
 comprehended in it. On a portion of the structure 
 here or there, the eye may rest with pleasure ; but, 
 as a whole, it is an unsightly, almost monstrous, 
 pile. Or, dismissing figures, we must describe it 
 as the most extraordinary creation which the world 
 has seen. A jumble of all things ; polytheistic 
 pantheism ; much of Buddhism ; something ap- 
 
The Hindu. Religion. 3^3 
 
 pareatly of Christianity, but terribly disfigured; a 
 science wholly outrageous ; shreds of history twisted 
 into wild mythology ; the bold poetry of the older 
 books understood as literal prose ; any local deity, 
 any demon of the aborigines, however hideous, 
 identified with some accredited Hindu divinity ; 
 any custom, however repugnant to common sense 
 or common decency, accepted and explained ; in a 
 word, later Hinduism has been omnivorous ; it has 
 partially absorbed and assimilated every system of 
 belief, every form of worship, with which it has 
 come in contact. Only to one or two things hac ii oniy the 
 
 position 0/ 
 
 remained inflexibly true. It has steadily upheld the 
 the proudest pretensions of the Brahman ; and it restrictions 
 has never relaxed the sternest restrictions of Caste. JJtSSi 
 We cannot wonder at the severe judgment pro- 
 nounced on Hinduism by nearly every Western 
 author. According to Macaulay, "all is hideous 
 and grotesque and ignoble;" and the calmer De 
 Tocqueville maintains that "Hinduism is perhaps 
 the only system of belief that is worse than having 
 no religion at all."^ 
 
 When a modem Hindu is asked what are the 
 
 sacred books of his religion, he generally answers: 
 
 " The Yedas, the Sastras {i.e. ph ilosophical systems), 
 
 and the Puranas." Some authorities add the Tantras. 
 
 The modern form of Hinduism is exhibited 
 
 ^ Miscellaneous Wriiiiiys (Macmillan, 18G1), Vol. I., p. 77. 
 
34 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 The 
 Parftnas 
 
 chiefly in the eighteen Puranas, and an equal 
 number of TJpa-puranas (minor puranas).^ 
 
 When we compare the religion embodied in the 
 Puranas with that of Yedic times, we are startled 
 at the magnitude of the change. The Pantheon 
 is largely new ; old deities have been superseded ; 
 other deities have taken their place. There has 
 been both accretion from without and evolution 
 from within. The thirty-three gods of the Vedas 
 have been fantastically raised to three hundred and 
 thirty millions. Siva, Durga, Rama, Krishna, 
 Kali unknown in ancient days are now mighty 
 divinities ; Indra is almost entirely overlooked ; and 
 Yaruna has been degraded from his lofty throne, 
 and turned into a regent of the waters. 
 
 The worship of the Linga (phallus) has been 
 introduced. So has the great dogma of Trans- 
 migration ; which has stamped a deeper impress on 
 later Hindu mind than almost any other doctrine. 
 Caste is fully established ; though in Yedic days 
 scarcely, if at all, recognized. The dreadful prac- 
 tice of widow-burning has been brought in, and 
 this by a most daring perversion of the Yedic texts. 
 "Woman, in fact, has fallen far below the position 
 assigned her in early days. 
 
 One of the notable things in connection with the 
 
 New deities, 
 rites, and 
 customs. 
 
 ^ But the truth is that every man is accounted a good Hindu 
 who keeps the rules of caste, and pays due respect to tlie 
 Brahmans. What he believes, or disbelieves, is of little or no 
 consequence. 
 
Tlie Hindu Religion. 35 
 
 reconstruction of Hinduism is the position it skives The 
 
 ^ . Trimurlti, 
 
 to the Trimurtti, or triad of gods Brahma, Yish- t^ad of 
 nu, and Siva. Something like an anticipation of 
 this had been presented in the later Yedic times : 
 Fire, Air, and the Sun (Agni, Yayu, and Sur}^^) 
 being regarded by tho commentator^ as summing 
 up the divine energies. But in the Yedas the 
 deities often go in pairs; and little stress should 
 be laid on the idea of a Yedic triad. That idea, 
 however, came prominently forward in later days. 
 The worship both of Yishnu and Siva may have 
 existed, from ancient times, as popular rites not 
 acknowledged by the Brahmans ; but both of these 
 deities were now fully recognized. The god Brahma 
 was an invention of the Brahmans ; he was no real 
 divinity of the people, and has hardly ever been 
 actually worshipped. It is usual to designate Brahma, 
 Yishnu, and Siva as Creator, Preserver, and De- 
 stroyer respectively; but the generalization is by 
 no means well maintained in the Hindu books. 
 
 The Piiranas are in general violently sectarian ; 
 some being Yishnuite, others Sivite. It is in con- 
 nexion with Yishnu, especially, that the idea of 
 incarnation becomes prominent. The Hindu term The 
 is Avatdra, literally, descent; the deity is repre- 
 sented as descending from heaven to earth, for the 
 vindication of truth and righteousness, or to use 
 the words ascribed to Krishna : 
 
 1 Y^aka ; probably in the 5th century B.O. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 
 
 For the preservation of the good, and the destruction of the 
 
 wicked, 
 For the establishment of religion, I am born from age to age. 
 
 The The " descents " of Yishnu are usually reckoned 
 
 ** descents" 
 
 0/ Vishnu, ten. Of these by far the most celebrated are those 
 of Rama and Krishna. The great importance at- 
 tached to these two deities has been traced to the 
 influence of Buddhism. That system had exerted 
 immense power in consequence of the gentle and 
 attractive character ascribed to Buddha. The older 
 gods were dim, distant, and often stern ; some 
 near, intelligible, and loving divinity was longed 
 for. Buddha was a brother man, and yet a quasi- 
 deity ; and hearts longing for sympathy and succour 
 were strongly attracted by such a personality. 
 
 The god The character of Rama or Ramachandra is 
 
 R&ma. 
 
 possessed of some high qualities. The great 
 poem in which it is described at fullest length 
 the Ramayana of Yalmiki seems to have been an 
 alteration, made in the interests of Hinduism, of 
 early Buddhist legends ; and the Buddhist quality 
 of gentleness has not disappeared in the history.^ 
 Rama, however, is far from a perfect character. 
 His wife Sita is possessed of much womanly grace, 
 and every wifely virtue ; and the sorrowful story 
 of the warrior-god and his faithful spouse has 
 appealed to deep sympathies in the human breast. 
 
 > Weber thinks that Christian elements may have been in 
 troduced, in course of time, into the representation. 
 
The Hindu Religion, 
 
 The worship of Rama has seldom, if ever, degene- 
 rated into lasciviousness. In spite, however, of 
 the charm thrown around the life of Rama and 
 Sita by the genius of Yalmiki and Tulsidas,^ it is 
 Krishna, not Rama, that has attained the greatest 
 popularity among the " descents " of Vishnu. 
 
 Yery different morally from that of Rama is Krishna, ^^ 
 the character of Krishna, While Rama is hut a 
 partial manifestation of divinity, Krishna is a full 
 maliifestation ; yet what a manifestation ! He is 
 represented as full of naughty tricks in his youth, 
 although exercising the highest powers of deity; 
 and, when he grows up, his conduct is grossly im- 
 moral and disgusting. It is most startling to think 
 that this being is by grave writers like the authors 
 of the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana 
 made the highest of the gods, or indeed the only 
 real God. Stranger still, if possible, is the pro- ms early 
 bability that the early life of Krishna in part, at travesty of 
 least is a dreadful travesty of the early life of aS^jJ'ij,g t<, 
 Christ, as given in the apocryphal Gospels, espe- oftS'^^^^ 
 cially the Gospel of the Infancy. The falling off *"*'^' 
 in the apocryphal Gospels, when compared with 
 the canonical, is truly sad ; but the falling off even 
 from the apocryphal ones, in the Hindu books, is 
 altogether sickening.^ 
 
 ^ His Ramayan was written in Hindi Terse in the sixteen tn 
 century. 
 
 * When Jh&nsl was captured in the times of the great mutiny, 
 
88 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Doctrine of 
 hhakti 
 
 introduced. 
 
 A very striking characteristic of modern Hinduism 
 is wliat is termed hhakti, or devotion. There are 
 three great ways of attaining to salvation : karma 
 mdrga, or the way of ceremonial works ; jndna 
 mdrga, or the way of knowledge ; and hhakti mdrga, 
 or the way of devotion. 
 
 The notion of trust in the gods was familiar to 
 the mind of India from Vedic days, but the deity 
 was indistinct and unsympathetic, and there could 
 hardly be love and attachment to him. But there 
 now arose the doctrine of hhakti (devotion), which 
 resolved religion into emotion. It came into the 
 Hindu system rather abruptly ; and many learned 
 men have traced its origin to the influence of 
 Christianity. This is quite possible ; but perhaps 
 the fact is hardly proved. Contact with Chris- 
 tianity, however, probably accelerated a process 
 
 At all events the 
 
 Influence of which had previously begun. 
 
 system of hhakti has had, and still has, great 
 sway in India particularly in Bengal, among the 
 followers of Chaitanya, and the large body of people 
 in Western India who style themselves Vaishnavas 
 
 English officers were disgusted to see the walls of the queen's 
 palace covered with what they described as "grossly obscene" 
 pictures. There is little or no doubt that these were simply 
 representations of the acts of Krishna. Therefore to the 
 Hindu queen they were religious pictures. When questioned 
 about such things the Brahman s reply that deeds which would 
 be wicked in men, were quite right in Krishna ; who, being God, 
 could do whatever he pleased. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 
 
 or Bhaktas (devotees). The popular poetry of 
 Maharashtra, as exemplified in such poets as Tukd- 
 rama, is an impassioned inculcation of devotion to 
 Yithoha of Pandharpur, who is a manifestation 
 of Krishna. Into the hhakti system of Western Mixed with 
 
 Buddhist 
 
 India Buddhist elements have entered ; and the elements, 
 school of devotees is often denominated Bauddha- 
 Vaishnava. Along vrith extravagant idolatry it 
 inculcates generally at least in the Marath^ coun-1 
 try a pure morality ; and the latter it apparently/ 
 owes to Buddhism. Yet there are many sad lapsei^ 
 from purity. Almost of necessity the worship of 
 Krishna led to corruption. The hymns became 
 erotic ; and movements hopeful at their commence- 
 ment like that of Chaitanya of Bengal, in the 
 16th century soon grievously fell oP in character. 
 The attempt to make religion consist of emotion 
 without thought of hhakti without jndna had 
 disastrous issues. Coincident with the development Exaltation 
 
 of the guru 
 
 of hhakti was the exaltation of the guru, or religious 
 teacher, which soon amounted to deification ; a 
 change traceable from about the 12th century 
 
 A.D. 
 
 When pressed on the subject of Krishna's evil Expiana^ 
 deeds, many are anxious to explain them as alle- ^"Jj^'j^ 
 gorical representations of the union between the 
 divinity and true worshippers ; but some interpret 
 them in the most literal way possible. This is 
 done especially by the followers of Yallabha 
 
40 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Acharya.^ These men attained a most unenviable 
 notoriety about twenty years ago, when a case was 
 tried in the Supreme Court of Bombay, which 
 revealed the practice of the most shameful licen- 
 tiousness by the religious teachers and their female 
 followers and this as a part of worship ! The 
 disgust excited was so great and general that it 
 was believed the influence of the sect was at an 
 end ; but this hope unhappily has not been realized. 
 Reforms Beformers have arisen from time to time in 
 
 attempted. 
 
 India ; men who saw the deplorable corruption of 
 religion, and strove to restore it to what they con- 
 
 Kabir. sidcrcd purity. Next to Buddha we may men- 
 
 tion Kabir; to whom are ascribed many verses 
 still popular. Probably the doctrine of the unity 
 of God, as maintained by the Mohammad ans, had 
 impressed him. He opposed idolatry, caste, and 
 Brahmanical assumption. Yet his monotheism 
 was a kind of pantheism. His date may be the be- 
 
 Kinak. ginning of the fifteenth century. Nanak followed, 
 and founded the religion of the Sikhs. His sacred 
 book, the Granthy is mainly pantheistic : it dwells 
 earnestly on devotion especially devotion to the 
 guru. The Sikhs now seem slowly relapsing into 
 idolatry. In truth, the history of all attempts at 
 reformation in India has been most discouraging. 
 Sect after sect has successively risen to some eleva- 
 tion above the prevalent idolatry; and then 
 
 ^ Born probably in 1649. 
 
The Hindvj Religion, 41 
 
 gradually, as by some irresistible gravitation, it 
 has sunk back into the mare magnum of Hinduism. 
 If we regard experience, purification from within Failure of 
 
 p . . , . . all reforms. 
 
 is hopeless ; the struggle for it is only a repetition 
 of the toil of Sisyphus, and always with the same 
 sad issue. Deliverance must come from without 
 from the Gospel of Jesus Christ. 
 
 We mentioned the Tantras as exerting great in- influence of 
 
 . the Tantras 
 
 fluence in later days.^ In these the worship of 
 Siva, and still more, that of his wife is predominant. 
 The deity is now supposed to possess a double 
 nature, one quiescent, one active ; the latter being 
 regarded as the sakti or energy of the god, otherwise 
 called his wife. The origin of the system is not 
 fully explained : nor is the date of its rise ascer- 
 tained. The worship assumes wild, extravagant worship of 
 forms, generally obscene, sometimes bloody. It 
 is divided into two schools that of the right hand 
 and that of the left. The former runs into 
 mysticism and magic in complicated observances ; 
 and the latter into the most appalling licentiousness. 
 The worship of the Sakti, or female principle, has 
 become a most elaborate system. The beings 
 adored are " the most outrageous divinities which 
 man has ever conceived." ^ Sorcery began early 
 
 ^ R4j^N^r^yanBasu (Bose), in enumerating the sacred books 
 of Hinduism, excluded the philosophical systems, and included 
 the Tantras. He was and, we believe, is a leading man in the 
 Adi Brahma Sam^j. 
 
 2 Barth, as above, p. 202. 
 
42 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 ittML 
 
 in India ; but it is in connection with this system 
 that it attains to full development. Human sacri- 
 fices are a normal part of the worship, when fuPy 
 performed. We cannot go farther into detail. It 
 is profoundly saddening to think that such abomi- 
 nations are committed; it is still more saddening 
 to think that they are performed as a part of 
 divine worship. Conscience, however, is so far 
 alive that these detestable rites are practised only 
 in secret ; and few, if any, are willing to confesp 
 that they have been initiated as worshippers. 
 
 We have not yet said much about the ritual of 
 modern days. It is exceedingly complicated. In 
 the case of the god Siva the rites are as follows, 
 when performed by a priest in the temple : 
 
 Worship of I'he Brahmau first bathes, then enters the temple, and bows 
 BlTa. to the god. He anoints the image with clarified butter or 
 
 boiled oil ; pours pure water over it ; and then wipes it dry. 
 He grinds some white powder, mixing it with water ; dips the 
 ends of his three fore fingers in it, and draws them across 
 the image. He sits down ; meditates ; places rice and durwa 
 grass on the image, places a flower on his own head, and then 
 on the top of the image ; then another flower on the image, and 
 another, and another, accompanying each act with the recita- 
 tion of sacred spells ; places white powder, flowers, bilva leaves, 
 incense, meat-offei-iugs, rice, plantains, and a lamp before the 
 image ; repeat,3 the name of Siva, with praises, then prostrates 
 himself before the image. In the evening he returns, washes 
 his feet, prostrates himself before the door, opens the door, 
 places a lamp within, offers milk, sweetmeats, and fruits to the 
 image, prostrates himself before it, locks the door and departs. 
 
 Very similar is the worship paid to Yishnu : 
 The priest bathes, and then awakes the sleeping god by blowing 
 
The Hindu Religion, 43 
 
 shell and ringing a bell. More abundant offerings are made Worship of 
 
 than to Siva. About noon, fruits, roots, soaked peas, sweet- 
 meats, etc., are presented. Then later, boiled rice, fried herbs, 
 and spices ; but no flesh, fish, nor fowl. After dinner, betel 
 nut. The god is then left to sleep ; and the temple is shut up 
 for some hours. Towards evening curds, butter, sweetmoats, 
 fruits, are presented. At sunset a lamp is brought, and Iresh 
 oflferings made. Lights are waved before the image ; a small 
 bell is rung : water is presented for washing the mouth, face, 
 and feet, with a towel to dry them. In a few minutes the 
 offerings and the lamp are removed : and tlie g<xl is left to 
 sleep in the dark. 
 
 The prescribed worship is not always fully per- 
 formed. Still, sixteen things are essential ; of 
 which the following are the most important : 
 
 * Ist. Preparing a seat for the god ; invoking his presence; 
 bathing the image ; clothing it ; putting the string round it ; 
 offering perfumes ; flowers ; incense ; lamps ; offerings of fruits 
 and prepared eatables : betel nut ; prayers ; circumambulation. 
 An ordinary worshipper presents some of the offerings, mutters 
 a short prayer or two, when circumambulating the image ; the 
 rest being done by the priest.* 
 
 We give one additional specimen of the ritual : 
 
 " As an atonement for unwarily eating or drinking what is for- 
 oidden, eight hundred repetitions of the Gayatri prayer should 
 be preceded by three suppressions of the breath, water being 
 touched during the recital of the following text : ' The bull 
 roars ; he has four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands ; 
 and is bound by a three-fold cord ; he is the mighty, resplendent 
 being, and pervades mortal men." " 
 
 The bull is understood to be justice personified. 
 All Brahmanical ceremonies exhibit, we may say, 
 ritualism and symboHsm run mad. 
 
 * So writes Vans Kennedy, a good authority. The rite 
 however, vary with varying places. 
 
 ' Asiatic Researches, V. p. 356. 
 
 Vislmu. 
 
44 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Caste. The most prominent and characteristic institution 
 
 of Hinduism is Caste. The power of caste is as 
 irrational as it is unbounded ; and it works almost 
 unmixed evil. The touch even the shadow of a 
 low caste man pollutes. The Scriptural precept, 
 " Honour all men," appears to a true Hindu infinitely 
 absurd. He honours and worships a cow ; but he 
 shrinks with horror from the touch of a Mhar or 
 Mang. Even Brahmans, if they come from differ- 
 ent provinces, will not eat together. Thus Hinduism 
 separates man from man ; it goes on dividing and 
 still dividing ; and new fences to guard imaginary 
 purity are continually added. 
 
 lYeatment ^hc wholc treatment of women has gradually 
 
 of women. ' 
 
 become most tyrannical and unjust. In very 
 ancient days they were held in considerable 
 respect ; but, for ages past, the idea of woman 
 has been steadily sinking lower and lower, and 
 her rights have been more and more assailed. 
 The burning of widows has been prohibited by 
 enactment ; ^ but the awful rite would in many 
 places be restored were it not for the strong hand of 
 the British government. The practice of marrying 
 women in childhood is still generally all but 
 universally prevalent ; and when, owing to the 
 zeal of reformers, a case of widow-marriage occurs, 
 its rarity makes it be hailed as a signal triumph 
 Multitudes of the so-called widows were never 
 
 ^ In British territoiy since 1829. 
 
The Hindu Relioio'^i,'-^'^ 45 
 
 really wives, their husbands (so-called) having 
 died in childhood. Widows are subjected to widows, 
 treatment which they deem worse than death ; 
 and yet their number, it is calculated, amounts to 
 about twenty- one millions ! More cruel and de- 
 moralizing customs than exist in India in regard 
 to women can hardly be found among the lowest 
 barbarians. We are glad to escape from dwelling 
 on points so exceedingly painful. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Contrast with Christianity. 
 
 The immense difference between the Hindu and 
 Christian religions has doubtless already frequently 
 suggested itself to the reader. It -will not be 
 necessary, therefore, to dwell on this topic at very 
 great length. The contrast forces itself upon us 
 at every point. 
 
 When, about fifteen centuries B.C., the Aryas Thelryas 
 
 and 
 
 were victoriously occupying the Panjab, and the J?^^^^*^^^ 
 Israelites were escaping from the "iron furnace" aJou/"*"'^ 
 of Egypt, if one had been asked which of the two ^^^ "**'' 
 races would probably rise to the highest conception 
 of the divine, and contribute most largely to the 
 well-being of mankind, the answer, quite possibly, 
 might have been, the Aryas. Egypt, with its 
 brutish idolatries, had corrupted the faith of the 
 Israelites, and slavery had crushed all manliness 
 
46 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Contrast of out of them. Yet how wonderful has been their 
 
 their after 
 
 history. after history ! Among ancient religions that of 
 the Old Testament stands absolutely unique ; and 
 in the fulness of time it blossomed into Christianity. 
 How is the marvel to be explained ? Wo cannot 
 account for it except by ascribing it to a divine 
 election of the Israelites, and a providential training 
 intended to fit them to become the teachers of the 
 world. " Salvation is of the Jews." 
 
 The contrast between the teachings of the Bible 
 and those of the Hindu books is simply infinite. 
 Hindu The conception of a purely immaterial Being, 
 
 compared infinite, etomal, and unchangeable, which is that 
 Christian. q j^q Bible regarding God, is entirely foreign to 
 the Hindu books. Their doctrine is various; but, 
 in every case, erroneous. It is absolute pantheism; 
 or polytheism ; or an inconsistent blending of poly- 
 theism and pantheism ; or atheism. 
 
 Equally striking is the contrast between Chris- 
 tianity and Hinduism as to the attributes of God. 
 According to the former, He is omnipreseni; 
 omnipotent ; possessed of every excellence ^holi- 
 ness, justice, goodness, truth. According to the 
 chief Hindu philosophy, the Supreme is devoid of 
 attributes devoid of consciousness. According to 
 the popular conception, when the Supreme becomes 
 conscious, He is developed into three gods, who 
 possess respectively the qualities of truth, passion, 
 and darkness. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 47 
 
 " God is a Spirit.'* '*Go(l is lierht.*' "God is conceptiona 
 
 ^ . . of God. 
 
 love." These sublime declarations have no counter- 
 parts in Hinduism. 
 
 He is " the Father of spirits," according to the 
 Bible. According to Hinduism, the individual 
 spirit is a portion of the divine. Even the common 
 people firmly believe this. 
 
 Every thing is referred by Hinduism to God as 
 its immediate cause. A Christian is continually 
 shocked by the Hindus ascribing all sin to God as 
 its source. 
 
 The adoration of God as a Being possessed of The object 
 
 of worsliij*. 
 
 every glorious excellence is earnestly commanded 
 in the Bible. ** Thou shalt worship the Lord thy 
 God ; and Him only shalt thou serve." In India 
 the Supreme is never worshipped ; but any ono 
 of the multitudinous gods may be so ; and, in 
 fact, every thing can be worshipped except God. 
 A maxim in the mouth of every Hindu is the 
 following : " Where there is faith, there is God." 
 Believe the stone a god, and it is so. 
 
 Every sin being traced to God as its ultimate The 
 source, the sense of personal guilt is very slight 
 among Hindus. Where it exists it is generally 
 connected with ceremonial defilement or the breach 
 of some one of the innumerabl and meaningless 
 rites of the religion. How unlike in all this is 
 the Gospel ! The Bible dwells with *all possible 
 earnestness on the evil of sin not of ceremonial 
 
 Bens* 
 of siu. 
 
48 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Atonement. 
 
 but moral defilement the transgression of the 
 divine law, the eternal law of right. 
 
 How important a place in the Christian system 
 is held by Atonement the great atonement made 
 by Christ it is unnecessary to say. Nor need we 
 enlarge on the extraordinary power it exercises 
 over the human heart, at once filling it with con- 
 trition, hatred of sin, and overflowing joy. "We 
 turn to Hinduism ; alas ! we find that the earnest 
 questionings and higher views of the ancient 
 thinkers have in a great degree been ignored in 
 later times. Sacrifice in its original form has 
 passed away. Atonement is often spoken of ; 
 but it is only some paltry device or other, such as 
 eating the five products of the cow, going on pil- 
 grimage to some sacred shrine, paying money to 
 the priests, or it may be some bodily penance, that 
 is had recourse to. Such expedients leave no im- 
 pression on the heart as to the true nature, and 
 essential evil, of sin. 
 
 Salvation, in the Christian system, denotes de- 
 liverance not only from the punishment of sin, but 
 from its power, implying a renovation of the 
 moral nature. The entire man is to be rectified in 
 heart, speech, and behaviour. The perfection of 
 the individual, and through that the perfection of 
 society, are the objects aimed at; and the con- 
 summation* desired is the doing of the will of God 
 on earth, as it is done in heaven. Now of all this 
 
 Salvation. 
 
TJie Hindu Religion. 49 
 
 - surely a magnificent ideal we find in Hinduism 
 no trace whatever. 
 
 Christianity is emphatically a religion of hope ; views of 
 Hinduism may he designated a religion of despair. 
 The trials of life are many and great ; Christianity 
 bids us regard them as discipline from a Father's 
 hand, and tells us that affliction rightly borne yields 
 * the peaceable fruits of righteousness." To death 
 the Chiistian looks forward without fear ; to him it 
 is a quiet sleep ; and the resurrection draws nigh. 
 Then comes the beatific vision of God. Glorified 
 in soul and body, the companion of angels and 
 saints, strong in immortal youth, he will serve 
 without let or hindrance the God and Saviour 
 whom he loves. To the Hindu the trials of life 
 are penal, not remedial. At death his soul passes 
 into another body. Rightly, every human soul 
 animates in succession eighty-four lacs (8,400,000) 
 of bodies the body of a human being, or a beast, 
 or a bird, or a fish, or a plant, or a stone, according 
 to desert. This weary, all but endless, round of 
 births, fills the mind of a Hindu with the greatest 
 horror. At last the soul is lost in God, as a drop 
 mingles with the ocean ; individual existence and 
 consciousness then cease. The thought is pro- 
 foundly sorrowful that this is the cheerless faith of 
 countless multitudes. No wonder, though the great ^he great 
 tenet of Hinduism is this Existence is misery. mndufsm. 
 
 So much for the future of the individual. Re- 
 E 
 
50 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 The future ffardmof the future of the race, Hinduism speaks in 
 
 of the race. on r 
 
 equally cheerless terms. Its golden age lies in the 
 
 immeasurably distant past ; and the further we 
 
 recede from it, the deeper must we plunge into sin 
 
 and wretchedness. True, ages and ages hence, the 
 
 "Age of Truth" returns; but it returns only to pass 
 
 away again, and torment us with the memory of lost 
 
 purity and joy. The experience of the universe is 
 
 thus an eternal renovation of hope and disappoint- 
 
 bSlS*^^^^ ment. In the struggle between good and evil there 
 
 good and -g no final triumph for the good. We tread a fated, 
 
 eternal round from which there is no escape ; and 
 
 alike the hero fights, and the martyr dies, in vain. 
 
 It is remarkable that acute intellectual men 
 
 as many of the Hindu poets were should 
 
 never have grappled with the problem of the 
 
 Divine government of the world. 
 
 Tne future Equally notable is the unconcern of the Veda as 
 
 of the ^ '' 
 
 Arvaii race, to the Welfare and the future of even the Aryan 
 race. But how sublime is the promise given to 
 Abraham, that in him and his seed all nations of 
 the earth should be blessed ! Renan has pointed 
 with admiration to the confidence entertained at 
 all times by the Jew in a brilliant and happy 
 future for mankind. The ancient Hindu cared not 
 about the future of his neighbours ; and doubtless 
 even the expression " human race " would have 
 been unintelligible to him. Nor is there any 
 pathos in the Veda ; there is no deep sense of 
 
The Hindu Religion. 51 
 
 the sorrows of life. Max Muller has affixed the 
 epithet " transcendent " to the Hindu mind. Its 
 hent was much more towards the metaphysical, 
 the mystical, the incomprehensihle, than towards 
 the moral and the practical. Hence endless 
 subtleties, more meaningless and unprofitable 
 than ever occupied the mind of Talmudist or 
 schoolman of the middle ages. 
 
 But finally, on this part of the subiect, the The words 
 
 . . . ... o' St. Paul 
 
 development of Indian religion supplies a striking illustrated 
 comment on the words of St. Paul : iJnduism. 
 
 ' The invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood 
 from the things that are made. But when they knew God, they 
 glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful, but became 
 vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened." 
 
 Hinduism is deplorably deficient in power to Moral 
 
 ^ "^ ^ ^ power, 
 
 raise and purify the human soul, from having no 
 high example of moral excellence. Its renowned 
 sages were noted for irritability and selfishness 
 great men at cursing ; and the gods for the most 
 part were worse. Need we say how gloriously rich 
 the Gospel is in having, in the character of Christ, 
 the realized ideal of every possible excellence ? 
 
 Summa religionis est imitari quern colis : " It is EtMcai 
 the sum of religion to imitate the being worshipped."^ mnduism 
 Or, as the Hindus express it : "As is the deity, 
 such is the devotee." Worship the God revealed 
 in the Bible, and you become godlike ; the soul 
 
 * Cioero. 
 
52 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 The peopl 
 better than 
 their 
 religion. 
 
 strives, with Divine aid, to " purify itself even as 
 God is pure," But apply the principle to Hindu- 
 ism. Alas! the Pantheon is almost a pande- 
 monium. Krishna, who in these days is the chief 
 deity to at least a hundred millions of people, 
 does not possess one elevated attribute. If, in 
 these circumstances, society does not become a 
 moral pesthouse, it is only because the people con- 
 tinue better than their religion. The human heart, 
 though fallen, is not fiendish. It has still its 
 purer instincts ; and, when the legends about 
 abominable gods and goddesses are falling like 
 mildew, these are still to some extent kept alive by 
 the sweet influences of earth and sky, and by the 
 charities of family life. When the heart of woman 
 is about to be swept into the abyss, her infant's 
 smile restores her to her better self. Thus family 
 life does not go to ruin ; and, so long as that 
 anchor holds, society will not drift on the rocks 
 that stand so perilously near. Still, the state of 
 things is deplorably distressing. 
 The The doctrine of the Incarnation is of funda 
 
 doctrine of 
 
 Incarnation, mental importance in Christianity. It seems al- 
 most profanation to compare it with the Hindu 
 teaching regarding the Avataras, or Descents of 
 Vishnu. It ib difficult to extract any meaning out 
 of the three first manifestations when the god 
 became in succession a fish, a boar, and a tortoise. 
 Of the great " descents " in R^ma and Krishna, 
 
The Hindu Religion. fil^ 
 
 we have already spoken. The ninth Avatara was 
 that of Buddha, in which the deity descended for 
 the purpose of deceiving men, making them deny 
 the gods, and leading them to destruction. So 
 blasphemous an idea may seem hardly possible 
 even for the bewildered mind of India ; hut this is 
 doubtless the Brahmanical explanation of the rise 
 and progress of Buddhism ; it was fatal error, but 
 inculcated by a divine being! Even the sick- 
 ening tales of Krishna and his amours are less 
 shocking than this. When we turn from such 
 representations of divinity to "the Word made 
 flesh," we seem to have escaped from the pestilential 
 air of a chamel house to the sweet pure breath of 
 heaven. 
 
 V. 
 
 Hinduism in contact with Christianity. 
 
 We have used the word reformer in this Tract. Attempted 
 
 reforms. 
 
 We formerly noted that, in India, there have arisen 
 from time to time, men who saw and sorrowed 
 over the erroneous doctrines and degrading rites 
 of the popular system. 
 
 In quite recent times they have had successors. 
 Some account of their work may form a fitting 
 conclusion to our discussion. 
 
 With the large influx into India of Christian 
 ideas it was to be expected that some impression 
 
54 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 would be made on Hinduism. We do not refer 
 
 to conversion the full acceptance of the Christian 
 
 Advance of faith. Christianity has advanced and is advancing 
 
 Christianity . . n ^i ^^ -i 
 
 in India. m India more rapidly than is generally supposed ; 
 but far beyond the circle of those who '^ come out 
 and are separate," its mighty power is telling on 
 Hinduism. The great fundamental truths of the 
 Gospel, when once uttered and understood, can 
 hardly be forgotten. Disliked and denied they may 
 be ; but forgotten ? No. Thus, they gradually 
 win their way ; and multitudes who have no thought 
 of becoming Christians are ready to admit that 
 they are beautiful and true, for belief and practice 
 are often widely separated in Hindu minds. 
 
 The Brfthma But it was to bc expcctcd that the new ideas 
 
 Bamij. ^ , , ^ 
 
 pouring into India and among these we include 
 not only distinctively Christian ideas, but Western 
 thought generally would manifest their presence 
 and activity in concrete forms in attempted re- 
 constructions of religion. The most remarkable 
 example of such a reconstruction is exhibited in 
 the Brahmo Somaj (more correctly Brahma Sam^j) 
 which may be rendered the " Church of God." 
 
 It is traceable to the efforts of a truly dis- 
 tinguished man, Rammohun Roy. He was a 
 person of studious habits, intelligent, acute; and 
 deeply in earnest on the subject of religion. He 
 studied not only Hinduism in its various forms, 
 but Buddhism, Mohammadanism, and Christianity. 
 
 Rammohun 
 Koy. 
 
Tlce Hindu Religion. 55 
 
 Ho was naturally an eclectic gathering truth Effect of 
 from all quarters where he thought he could find ^^^ ^^^- 
 it. A specially deep impression was made on his 
 mind by Christianity ; and in 1820 he published a 
 book with the remarkable title, " The precepts of 
 Jesus the guide to peace and happiness." Yery 
 frequently he gave expression to the sentiment that 
 the teachings of Christ were the truest and deepest 
 that he knew. Still, he did not believe in Christ's 
 divinity. 
 
 In January, 1830, a place of worship was opened 
 by Rammohun Roy and his friends. It was 
 intended for the worship of one God, without 
 idolatrous rites of any kind. This was* un- 
 doubtedly a very important event ; and great was 
 the interest aroused in connection with it. Ram- 
 mohun Roy, however, visited Britain in 1831, and 
 died at Bristol in 1833 ; and the cause for which 
 he had so earnestly laboured in India languished 
 for a time. But in the year 1841, Debendernath oebender- 
 
 nath Tagore. 
 
 Tagore, a man of character and wealth, joined the 
 Brahmo Somaj, and gave a kind of constitution to 
 it. It was fully organized by 1844. No definite 
 declaration, however, had been made as to the 
 authority of the Vedas ; but, after a lengthened 
 period of inquiry and discussion, a majority of 
 the Somaj rejected the doctrine of their in- 
 fallibility by 1850. * The rock of intuition " now 
 began to be spoken of ; man's reason was his 
 
56 
 
 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 Keehub 
 Ch under 
 Sen. 
 
 sufficient guide. Still, great respect was cherislied 
 for the ancient belief and customs of the land- 
 But in 1858 a new champion appeared on the 
 scene, in the well-known Keshub Chunder Sen. 
 Ardent, impetuous, ambitious full of ideas 
 derived from Christian sources ^ he could not 
 brook the slow movements of the Somaj in the 
 path' of reform. Important changes, both religious 
 and social, were pressed by him ; and the more 
 conservative Debendernath somewhat reluctantly 
 consented to their introduction. Matters were, 
 however, brought to a crisis by the marriage of 
 two persons of different castes in 1864. In 
 February, 1865, the progressive party formally 
 severed their connection with the original Somaj ; 
 and in August, 1869, they opened a new place of 
 worship of their own. Since this time the original 
 or Adi Somaj has been little heard of ; and its 
 movement if it has moved at all has been re- 
 trogressive. The new Somaj the Brahmo Somaj 
 of India, as it called itself, under the guidance of 
 Mr. Sen became very active. A missionary institute 
 was set up, and preachers were sent over a great 
 part of India. Much was accomplished on behalf 
 of women ; and in 1872 a Marriage Act for 
 members of the Somaj was passed by the Indian 
 
 Formation 
 of a new 
 Sam&j. 
 
 * We learned from his own lips that among the books which 
 most deeply impressed him were the Bible and the writings of 
 Dr. Chalmers. 
 
Tlie Hindu Religion. 57 
 
 legislature, which legalized union between people 
 of different castes, and fixed on fourteen as the 
 lowest age for the marriage of females. These 
 were important reforms. 
 
 Mr. Sen's influence was naturally and necessarily 
 great ; hut, in opposing the venerable leader of the 
 original Somaj, he had set an example which others 
 were quite willing to copy. 
 
 Several of his followers began to demand more Discontent 
 
 gfrowing. 
 
 radical reforms than he was willing to grant. 
 The autocracy exercised by Mr. Sen was strongly 
 objected to ; and a constitution of the Somaj 
 was demanded. Mr. Sen openly maintained that 
 heaven from time to time raises up men en- 
 dowed with special powers, and commissioned 
 to introduce new forms or "dispensations" of 
 religion ; and his conduct fully proved that he 
 regarded himself as far above his followers. 
 Complaints became louder ; and although the 
 eloquence and genius of Keshub were able to 
 keep the rebellious elements from exploding, it 
 was evident, as early as 1873, that a crisis was 
 approaching. This came in 1878, when Mr. Sen's 
 daughter was married to the Maharaja of Kuch 
 Behar. The bride was not fourteen, and the 
 bridegroom was sixteen. Now, Mr. Son had been 
 earnest and successful in getting the Brahmo 
 Maxriage Act passed, which ruled that the 
 lowest marriageable age for a woman was 
 
5ft The Hindu Eeitgion. 
 
 fourteen, and for a man, eighteen. Here was 
 gross inconsistency. What could explain it? 
 " Amhition," exclaimed great numbers ; " the 
 wish to exalt himself and his daughter by 
 alliance with a prince." But Mr. Sen declared 
 that he had consented to the marriage in con- 
 sequence of an express intimation that such was 
 the will of heaven. Mr. Sen denied miracles, but 
 believed in inspiration ; and of his own inspiration 
 he seems to have entertained no doubt We thus 
 obtain a glimpse into the peculiar working of his 
 . mind. Every full conviction, every strong wish, 
 of his own he ascribed to divine suggestion. This 
 put him in a position of extreme peril. It was 
 clear that an enthusiastic, imaginative, self-reliant 
 nature like his might thus be borne on to any 
 extent of fanaticism. 
 Revolt. A great revolt from Mr. Sen's authority now 
 
 sam&j. took place; and theSadharan Samaj was organized 
 in May, 1878. An appeal had been made to the 
 members generally ; and no fewer than twenty- one 
 provincial Samajes, with more than 400 members, 
 male and female, joined the new society This 
 number amounted to about two-thirds of the whole 
 body. Keshub and his friends denounced the rebels 
 in very bitter language ; and yet, in one point of 
 view, their secession was a relief. Men of abilities 
 equal, and education superior, to his own had 
 hitherto acted as a drag on his movements ; he 
 
The Hindu Religion. 69 
 
 was now delivered from their interference, and 
 could deal with the admiring and submissive rem- 
 nant as he pleased. Ideas that had been working 
 in his mind now attained rapid development. 
 Within two years the flag of the ** New Dispensa- "g^^^.^, 
 tion" was raised; and of that dispensation Mr. Sen 
 was the undoubted head. Yery daring was the 
 language Mr. Sen used in a public lecture regarding 
 this new creation. He claimed equality for it 
 with the Jewish and Christian dispensations, and 
 for himself "singular** authority and a Divino 
 commission. 
 
 In the Creed of the New Dispensation the name its creed, 
 of Christ does not occur. The articles were as 
 follows : 
 
 a. One God, one Scripture, one Church, h. Eternal progress 
 of the SouL c. Communion of Prophets and Saints, d. 
 Fatherhood and Motherhood of God. e. Brotherhood of Man, 
 and Sisterhood of Woman. /. Harmony of knowledge and holi- 
 ness, love and work, yoga and asceticism in their highest de- 
 velopment, g. Loyalty to Sovereign. 
 
 The omission of Christ's name is the more re- ^JH^.J" ' 
 markable because Mr. Sen spoke much of Eim in "*'''- 
 his public lectures. He had said in May, 1879, 
 " None but Jesus, none but Jesus, none but Jesus 
 ever deserved this precious diadem, India; and 
 Jesus shall have it." But he clearly indicated that 
 the Christ he sought was an Indian Christ ; ono 
 who was " a Hindu in faith," and who would help 
 
60 The Hindu Religion. 
 
 the Hindus to "realize their national idea of a 
 yogi'* (ascetic). 
 
 Let it be noted that, from the beginning of his 
 career, Mr. Sen had spoken earnestly of the father- 
 hood of God and brotherhood of man though 
 these great conceptions are not of Hindu origin. 
 It is difficult to see why, in later days, he insisted 
 "Mother- so much on the "motherhood of God." Perhaps 
 
 hood of ... 
 
 God." it was a repetition he probably would have called 
 
 it an exaltation of the old Hindu idea, prevalent 
 especially among the worshippers of Siva, that 
 there is a female counterpart a Sakti of every 
 divinity. Or, possibly, it may have been to con- 
 ciliate the worshippers of Durg^ and Kdli, those 
 great goddesses of Bengal. 
 
 Public A public proclamation was soon issued, pur- 
 
 proclamation , 
 
 froii^o^ porting to be from God Himself, as India's Mother. 
 The whole thing was very startling ; many, even 
 of Keshub's friends, declared it blasphemous. Next, 
 in the '*Flag Ceremony," the flag or banner of 
 the New Dispensation received a homage scarcely 
 distinguishable from worship. Then as if in 
 strict imitation of the ancient adoration of Agni, 
 or Fire a pile of wood was lighted, clarified butter 
 poured on it, and prayers addressed to it, ending 
 thus " O brilliant Fire ! in thee we behold our 
 resplendent Lord." This was, at least, symbolism 
 run wild ; and every one, except those who were 
 prepared to follow their leader to all lengths, saw 
 
 from Qod. 
 
The Hindu Religion. 61 
 
 that in a land Kke India, wedded to idolatry, it 
 was fearfully perilous. 
 
 In March, 1881, Mr. Sen and his friends intro- 
 duced celebrations which, to Christian minds, seemed 
 a distressing caricature of the Christian sacraments. 
 Other institutions followed ; an Apostolic Durbar, "Apostolic 
 
 ' ^ ' Durbar." 
 
 (Court of Apostles), for instance, was estalilished. 
 There was no end to Mr. Sen's inventiveness. 
 
 In a public lecture delivered in January, 1883, 
 on "Asia's message to Europe," he elaborately 
 expounded the idea that all the great religions are 
 of Asiatic origin, and that all of them are true; 
 and that the one thing required to constitute the 
 faith of the future the religion of humanity is 
 the blending of all these varied Oriental systems 
 into one. 
 
 It was not easy to reconcile Mr. Sen's public incon. 
 
 ^ ^ * ^ eistencies 
 
 utterances with his private ones though far be it ^J^I^J.^ 
 from us to tax him with insincerity. Thus, in an ^Svite^*^ 
 interview extending over two hours, which the ^^*^*^<^ 
 writer and two missionary friends had with him a 
 week or so before the lecture now referred to, he 
 said he accepted as true and vital all the leading 
 doctrines of the Christian faith, with the exception 
 of the resurrection of Christ. But another funda- 
 mental difference remained he avowedly dissented 
 from the orthodox creed in rejecting the miraculous 
 clement in Scripture. At an interview I had with 
 him some time before, he earnestly disclaimed all 
 
62 
 
 TJtc II I ml II Religion. 
 
 Mr. Sen's 
 policy of 
 reserve. 
 
 intention to put Christ on a level with Buddha or 
 Mohammad. " I am educating my friends," he 
 said, " to understand and approve of Christianity ; 
 I have not yet said my last word about Christ." 
 It is a solemn question Had he said it when his 
 career was ended ? If so, it was far from a satis- 
 factory word. His policy of reserve and adaptation 
 had probably kept him from uttering all that was 
 in his heart ; but it was a sorely mistaken policy. 
 Had he temporized less, he would have accom- 
 plished more. 
 
 Since the death of Mr. Sen there has been a 
 violent dispute between his family and the 
 "Apostolic Durbar" on one side, and one of 
 his ablest followers, on the other ; and the New 
 Dispensation will probably split in two, if it does 
 not perish altogether. 
 
 In the meantime, the S^dhS-ran Sam4j, which 
 broke off from Keshub's party in 1878, has been 
 going on with no small vigour. Vagaries, either in 
 doctrine or rites, have been carefully shunned ; its 
 partisans profess a pure Theistic creed, and labour 
 diligently in the cause of social reform. Their 
 position is nearly that of Unitarian Christianity ; 
 and we fear they are not at present approxi- 
 mating to the full belief of the Church Catholic. 
 
 Very similar in character to the Brahmo Somaj 
 is the Prarthana Somaj in Western India. As 
 far back as 1850, or a little earlier, there was 
 
 The 
 
 Sadharan 
 
 Sainaj. 
 
 .Movements 
 ill Western 
 I ndia 
 
The Rindu Religion. 63 
 
 formed a society called the Prarthana SaLh^ Tenets of the 
 
 I'rSrthana 
 
 (Prayer Meeting). Its loading teuets were as ^*^^^- 
 follows : 
 
 1. I believe in one God. 2. I renounce idol-worship. 3. I 
 will do my beat to lead a moral life. 4. If I commit any sin 
 through the weakness of my moral nature, I will repent of it, /- 
 
 and ask the pardon of God. 
 
 The Society, after some time, began to languish ; 
 but in 1867 it was revived under the name of 
 Pr^rthan^ Somaj. Its chief branches are in Bombay, 
 Poena, Ahmedabad, and Surat. 
 
 An interesting movement called the Arya Sara&j 
 was commenced a few years ago by a Pandit, 
 DavEinand Sarasvati. He received the Yedas as -^ 
 
 . . SamtJ, 
 
 fully inspired, but maintained that they taught 
 monotheism, Agni, Indra, and all the rest being 
 merely different names of God. It was a desperate 
 effort to save the reputation of the ancient books ; 
 but, as all Sanskrit scholars saw at a glance, the 
 whole idea was a delusion. The Pandit is now 
 dead; and the Arya Sam^j may not long survive 
 him. 
 
 At the time we write we hear of an attempt to 
 defend idolatry and caste made by men of con- 
 siderable education. 
 
 The so-called " Theosophists '* have, for several 
 years, been active in India. Of existing religions, 
 Buddhism is their natural ally. They are atheists. Th)3ophist 
 A combination which they formed with the Arya 
 Sam^j speedily came to an end. 
 
64 The Hindu Religion, 
 
 Lastly, the followers of Mr. Bradlaugh are dili- 
 gent in supplying their books to Indian students. 
 
 Poor India ! No wonder if her mind is be- 
 wildered as she listens to such a Babel of voices. 
 The state of things in India now strikingly re- 
 sembles that which existed in the Roman Empire 
 at the rise of Christianity ; when east and west 
 were brought into the closest contact, and a great 
 conflict of systems of thought took place in con- 
 sequence. 
 
 But even as one hostile form of Gnostic belief 
 rose after another, and rose only to fall, and as 
 the greatest and best-discipKned foe of early Chris- 
 tianity the later Platonism gave way before the 
 steady, irresistible march of Gospel truth, so we 
 have every reason to hope ^it will be yet again. 
 The Christian feels his heart swell in his breast 
 as he thinks what, in all human probability, India 
 will be a century, or even half a century, hence. 
 Oh what a new life to that fairest of Eastern lands, 
 when she casts herself in sorrow and supplication 
 at the feet of the Living God, and then rises to 
 proclaim to a listening world 
 
 Her deep repentance and her new-found joy ! 
 
 May God hasten the advent of that happy day ! 
 
BUDDHISM: 
 
 A COMPARISON AND A CONTRAST 
 
 BETWEEN 
 
 BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY 
 
 HENRY ROBERT REYNOLDS, D.D. 
 
^vQummt (xi th^ Trax}t< 
 
 Buddhism and Christianity are comparea and contrasted 
 in respect to their external resemblances, and fundamental 
 and essential divergencies and antitheses, viz. : their local 
 origin ; the histories of their founders ; their relation to the 
 past ; the place given in both to the death of the founders ; 
 the basis of the two systems, and their historical development 
 as organised societies ; the resemblances are shown to be 
 illusory in the extreme ; the differences vital and all-important. 
 
 Christ revealed the Father took human sorrows and death 
 on Himself, that He might take them away ; laid down His 
 life, that He might take it again ; died, the just for the unjust ; 
 He saves men from their sins. He fulfilled the law and the 
 prophets. The highest Christian virtue is not practised for 
 the extinction of desire, but because pardon through faith in 
 Christ's blood has been received. Christian holiness is the 
 purification of the most essential characteristics of human 
 nature. The end set before the Christian is the liope of 
 beholding Christ's glory, and being with Him and like Him 
 for ever. The peace of the Christian is not the obliteration 
 but the satisfaction of desire, and the result of reconciliation 
 with God through Christ. The Christian desires that Christ 
 may be magnified in his body whether by life or death. 
 
 The history of Buddhism is sketched, and the resemblances 
 to the history of Christianity are shown to be in the laws 
 that regulate all human society. 
 
 Buddhism knows no being as the First Cause of all things, 
 as the basis of moral obligation, or Ruler of the universe. 
 
 The doctrine of Buddhism concerning the ground of the 
 universe is agnostic, if not positively atheistic. 
 
 Law, according to Buddhism, is impersonal. It has no 
 conception of pardon, redemption, or sacrifice, and is an 
 exceeding bitter cry for what Christianity has to off"er, viz. : an 
 antidote for sin, reconciliation with God, hope in death, and 
 union with God through Christ. Reason for hoping that when 
 Christ is made known to it, Buddhism will call Him Lord of all. 
 
BUDDHISM 
 
 I^^^^^UDDHISM in its origin was a philosophical Buddhism 
 iN ^^41 method rather than a religious faith. ^p^^^ 
 H k!hL J M^iiy experiments have been made by rreuiiOTTs" 
 
 mighty thinkers to solve the mystery of 
 human life. This was one of them. The principles 
 of Gautama the Buddha, an Indian sago, were not 
 absolutely new, nor were his methods unknown, 
 when he essayed his memorable task. His im- 
 mense personality, assisted by current tendencies at 
 work in Hind{l society, enabled him to originate 
 a society, which has in its main features, during 
 more than two thousand years, dominated large 
 portions of the continent of Asia. 
 
 The ideas and institutions which date from the The wide 
 
 influence of 
 
 initiatory of Gautama exercise a potent spell m Buddhism. 
 their most antique form over Ceylon, British and 
 Native Burmah, Siam, Anam, and (in the form of 
 Jainism) over parts of North Western India. With 
 large modification Buddhism has prevailed over 
 eighteen provinces of China, where it is held in 
 combination with Confucianism and Taoism. 
 Buddhism has exerted much influence in Japan, in Japan. 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 where it has suffered the embrace of the aboriginal 
 nature- worship. It has been corrupted in some 
 outlying tribes by devil-worship, and the rites of 
 
 In iibet Siva. In Tibet it has developed into a complicated 
 hierarchy, and has culminated in a patriarchal and 
 pontifical regime. Here Buddhism is the State re- 
 ligion, and has created an organization and diffused 
 ideas which have powerfully affected Mongolia, 
 Mantchuria, and other states tributary to China. 
 
 In NepaL In Nepal at one time a most impressive develop- 
 ment of the Buddhistic faith prevailed, and one 
 which was theoretically based on Monotheistic 
 ideas. Though Buddhism took its origin in the 
 Aryan, its greatest triumphs have been won over 
 the Turanian races, and it has been compared to 
 a vast parasitical growth, which has fed on the 
 life and covered the institutions of various types of 
 
 Its present civilization. Its propaganda is not at an end. At 
 
 increase m ir r o 
 
 Tartary. ^j^g present hour it is said to be increasing in 
 Tartary, it sends its missionaries to Australia and 
 California, has made a vigorous attempt to co- 
 operate with Western Pessimism, and professes to 
 formulate a true philosophy of history. 
 
 Buddha- "^^ Buddha may be discriminated from the his- 
 torical and practical issues of his thought, as 
 Christ is discriminated from Christendom. 
 
 If by " Buddhism " be meant the ideas and 
 discipline of the earliest followers of Gautama, 
 irrespective of their subsequent development, our 
 
 dom. 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 tlieine is a literary and exegetic one, and turns 
 upon tlie relative value of Pali, Sanscrit, Tibetan, 
 and Chinese books. On the other hand, if a wnoie 
 
 duster of 
 
 "Buddhism" be regarded as synonymous with g^gut?,^. 
 what may be called " Buddha-dom," it must be f^S"uddha 
 held to embrace the geographical and historic * 
 features of a whole cluster of religious institutions, 
 which have mastered, for more than a thousand 
 years, a fourth part of the human race. Seeing 
 that the Northern Buddhists outnumber the older 
 and more orthodox followers fifteen times over, we 
 cannot exclude their peculiarities from our estimate 
 of what Buddhism is, and its relation to both 
 Christ and Christendom. 
 
 The comparison between Christianity and Buddh- 
 ism embraces a comparison in both senses. 
 
 The resemblances between Buddha-dom and Christ- The resem- 
 endora are imposing but superficial, they spring from between 
 the common material with which both systems have ^Z^. ^"*l 
 
 ' Cnnstendoir. 
 
 had to deal, and from the similar conditions under s"P^fiui- 
 which they have laboured even for opposite ends. 
 
 The divergencies and opposition, and utter dis- 
 similarity between Buddhism and Christianity 
 belong to their inmost essence and aim. 
 
 The purport of the present Tract is to illustrate The diver- 
 gencies and 
 this twofold representation by enumerating: the dissimiiantj 
 
 ^ ' essential. 
 
 details of this argument. In doing so, the reader 
 will be reminded of the principal facts with re- 
 ference to Buddha and his religion. 
 
Buddhima. 
 
 We propose to enumerate 
 
 I. The impressive external resemblances between 
 Buddhadom and Christendom^ calling attention in 
 these very respects to the contrasts which accompany 
 them. 
 
 II. The fundamental divergencies and antitheses 
 between Buddhism and Christianity, 
 
 The geo- 
 graphical 
 origin of 
 the two 
 religions. 
 
 The lands 
 of the 
 Bible. 
 
 Cliristian 
 ideas and. 
 principles 
 arose by 
 God's grace 
 in human 
 hearts and 
 Uvea. 
 
 1. The Holy Lands. These two religions re- 
 semble one another in having taken their origin in 
 a limited geographical region, identified with the 
 actions and career of their Founders, which after 
 the lapse of time ceased to be the centres of the 
 faith, but acquired a factitious importance and in- 
 spired a sentimental and superstitious reverence. 
 
 Sinai and Palestine still contain .the sites where 
 the highest manifestations of the living God have 
 been made to men. The lands of the Bible have 
 attracted pilgrims from the ends of the earth, who 
 have there sought to deepen their faith, increase 
 their knowledge, and satisfy their yearniDg after a 
 closer intimacy with the facts of our redemption. 
 
 However spiritual the form of our Christianity 
 may be, we cannot ignore the fact that its noblest 
 ideas and principles arose by God's grace in human 
 minds and lives, and that its most stupendous facts 
 were enacted on this planet, by men and women 
 
Buddhism, 
 
 who trod the soil of this solid earth. Christianity 
 is not based on a mere speculation, a transcendental 
 dream thought out in the spirit-world, and inde- 
 pendent of place and time and circumstance. It Christianity 
 
 based on 
 
 rests on a notable series of historic facts, and is ^istoric 
 
 ' facts, hence 
 
 associated with certain events which occurred at of^he**''^^* 
 discoverable dates in the drama of human life, pfaS*' 
 and therefore scientific criticism as well as pious 
 pilgrimage still gathers with zest and unabated 
 interest around Sinai and Bethlehem, Calvary, 
 and Olivet. 
 
 Now Buddhism took its chief departure in the Buddhism 
 bosom of a Hindii Sasre, whose ideas led him to in the 
 
 ^ ^ bosom of 
 
 certain very memorable acts of renunciation, to ga^^j^^J^ae 
 sore conflict, and life- long teaching. His birth are^sst^" 
 and death, his parentage and consecration, with certain^tea. 
 numerous events in his career, are associated with 
 certain ascertainable sites. These have sustained 
 through even a longer period than the holy places 
 of Palestine have done, the reverence and affection 
 of devout Buddhists. Between the outlying moun- piacea of 
 
 p 1 XT' 1 1 1 /-> Gautama'i 
 
 tains 01 the Himalayan range and the (ianges, Jij^J^a^d 
 between long. E. 75^ and 85, watered by numerous 
 rivers, and diversified with numerous centres of 
 Hindu life ; between Sravasti {Sahet Mahet) in 
 N.W., Raja-Griha (Raj-gir), and Gay a and Pata- 
 liputra {Patna) in E. and S.E., will be found 
 Kapilavastu, the birthplace of Gautama, and 
 Kusinagara, the place where he died, and also 
 
 death. 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 numerous other consecrated spots where the cremated 
 ashes of his hody rest. Here also are various 
 scenes dear to the Buddhist legend, and for many 
 ages visited by pilgrims from China and Mongolia, 
 from Kashmir and Khotan, from Ceylon and 
 Burmah. They were sacred places when Buddhism 
 was still a dominant faith in N.W. India, and they 
 were treated with even deeper reverence when the 
 faith had perished on its earliest geographic site. 
 Some of the most interesting Buddhistic literature 
 which is still extant describes the eagerness and 
 enthusiasm displayed by the pious devotees who, 
 in the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries of our 
 era, encountered incredible obstacles in their resolve 
 to visit these sacred shrines, to obtain books, relics 
 and images of the faith which was dear to them. 
 The This superficial resemblance to the outward career 
 
 guperficial * 
 
 resem- of a reliffion profoundly dissimilar in its essence, 
 
 blances anse or./ ' 
 
 humai^^ arises from the purely human interest that ever- 
 attSfng to more attaches to the place where great things 
 great things have bocn said and done. The parallel is not 
 
 have been n -rk i n 
 
 said or confined to the external features of Buddhism and 
 
 done. 
 
 Christianity. It runs through the history of other 
 faiths which have travelled from their geographical 
 origin to distant lands, and which yet have attracted 
 undying affection to the cradle of their infancy. 
 
 2. The superficial resemblances between the 
 Founders of Buddhism and Christianity. 
 
 The latest researches make it doubtful whether 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 Gautama, the son of Suddhodana, was the heir of Hereditary 
 a roi/al estate or dominion, as Jesus was, but the oautama. 
 legend undoubtedly confers on his father and on 
 the Sakyas this distinction, coupling it with august 
 accessories, boundless wealth, and far-extending 
 influence. Reverence for him, and an idea of his Supposed 
 spotless purity of heart and life, assumed in the natural 
 latest legend an introduction into the world by a 
 supernatural process, wliicli, from the first, singled 
 out this great sage and recluse for the highest 
 possible vocation. If he should become a king he Hia destiny 
 
 and mission. 
 
 was at once prophesied of as about to become the 
 ruler over all lands and worlds ; and if he should 
 appear as a sage, he would be the long-expected 
 Buddha, "the man perfectly enlightened," who 
 would achieve the highest victories over the evils 
 of humanity, and lead the human race towards 
 the realization of its highest goal. 
 
 There is no reason to question the na?ne of the 
 father of Gautama, the name of his wife the 
 saintly Maya, who died seven days after the birth 
 of her child or of the city (Kapila-mstu) , where 
 this extraordinary child first saw the light, in the 
 sixth century b.c. The legends of China, Cfylon, Legends 
 and Nepal tell us that as soon as he was born he ^ ^irth. 
 declared that this was his last birth, and that he 
 was the greatest of all beings. Such supposed 
 language indicates the reverence felt for his unique 
 career in after years; so also does the pathetic 
 
10 Buddhism, 
 
 incident, that after this precocious babe bad placed 
 his feet upon the head of one of the greatest sages, 
 this wise man declared that Gautama would prove 
 to be the Buddha, but he wept that he should not 
 himself live to see the wondrous effect of his 
 teaching and life. 
 
 Names The uames given in later times to him are very 
 
 ghen to 1 r*_T 
 
 torn in numerous. Sakya-muni,- " the Sakya 
 
 later times. 
 
 
 Bhagava, " the blessed one ; " Tathagata, " the 
 excellent one ; " Loka-nartha, ** the Lord of the 
 world ; " Dharma-raja, " the king of the law," 
 or "of righteousness." These are poetic expres- 
 sions denoting the range and depth of his subsequent 
 j.Tie natural influence. The natural desire of the father of 
 
 bent of 
 
 Gautama. Gautama that his son should be prepared for the 
 office and dignities of a prince was strangely 
 thwarted by the bent of the youthful prince 
 towards philosophy and ascetic habit. He was 
 married to the daughter of a king, and surrounded 
 by all the blandishments of an Eastern court, but 
 they all failed to disturb his meditation on the 
 evils and transitory nature of human life. 
 
 The visions The legends narrate the efforts made by his 
 
 he saw in 
 
 spite of his father to conceal from him the facts of human 
 
 fathers pre- 
 
 keeM^om** sorrow ; but that, in spite of all precaution, he 
 
 ?aSs^of saw a vision of old age, with its wrinkled skin and 
 
 BooT. tottering gait ; another time, a victim of loathsome 
 
 disease^ of repulsive and forsaken aspect, and on a 
 
 third occasion a dead body awaiting cremation. 
 

 Buddhi^, (^3^ .v\^5^^ 11 
 
 After each vision he returned to his palace broken- 
 hearted and despairing. It is said that on a fourth 
 expedition, surrounded by all the pomp of the court, 
 he saw the form of a rigid ascetic, who seemed to 
 him to promise the only method of escape from the 
 evils of life by extinction of ambition and con- 
 cupiscence. The legends describe his marvellous ms physical 
 
 r . . . . . ^^^ mental 
 
 skill in all athletic sports, and his superiority to superiority. 
 all competitors in mental and physical powers ; but 
 nothing availed to prevent what has been called his 
 " Great Renunciation,^' when, with a solitary attend- nis great 
 ant, he broke away from his home, wife, and only *'^" 
 child, looked with loathing on the faded beauty of 
 his singing women, as they lay in sleep around the 
 courts of his harem, exchanged his dress with that 
 of a mendicant, sent his attendant back with a 
 message to his home, and commenced his memor- 
 able career of self -mortification, intent upon dis- 
 covering the truth of human life. The intense 
 picturesqueness of the main facts has been overlaid 
 with a thousand ornamental additions to the story, 
 which were calculated to augment the force of the 
 "renunciation," and throw the spirit of it back 
 into previous lives that he is supposed to have 
 lived, in each of which he performed similar acts of 
 abnegation and devotion to the highest interests of 
 the living beings with whom he came into contact.-^ 
 
 * Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, pp. 98-359. Dr. R. 
 Davids, JataJca Stories, Sacred Books of the East. 
 
12 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 contrast to 
 the life of 
 our TiOrd. 
 
 Doubtless there is some analogy between these 
 stories, and the record of the introduction into the 
 world of the Son of God, the song of angels, the 
 prophecy of Simeon, and the solitary incident of the 
 youth of Jesus as preserved in the canonical Gospels. 
 But the essential distinction between them lies in 
 this, that our Lord followed the lot of ordinary 
 men, ate with publicans and sinners, notwithstand- 
 ing his prophetic mission, pursued the quiet trade 
 of his father Joseph, proclaimed war against sin, 
 rather than against suffering, and far from accepting 
 the transitory nature of earthly pleasure as a curse, 
 poured new light on life and death. The funda- | 
 mental principle of Buddha treated existence as a 
 curse which must be evaded ; the fundamental 
 principle of Christ's "great renunciation'' of honours 
 and glory unutterable, involved the sublime fact 
 that life was the synonym of blessedness, and that 
 that blessedness might be eternal. He did not 
 turn away from the agonies of human life. He 
 treated them as abnormal, not inevitable. He 
 took them upon Himself. He healed disease. 
 He cleansed the leper. He raised the dead. He 
 confidently affirmed, " Whoso liveth and believeth 
 in Me shall never die." 
 
 A superficial resemblance to the career of our 
 Divine Lord was an early temptation of Gautama 
 to relinquish the sublime purpose on which he had 
 entered. Mara, the spirit of evil, and an imper- 
 
 The funda- 
 mental 
 principles 
 of Buddha 
 and Christ 
 essentially 
 divergent. 
 
 The temp- 
 tation of 
 Oa-atama. 
 
Buddhism, 13 
 
 sonation of the idea of deatli, assailed him with 
 thoughts which were to turn him aside from his 
 
 'O' 
 
 beneficent career. Legend has amplified these in Legendary 
 
 ^ amplifica^ 
 
 the later chronicles with the astounding efflorescence ^i"\<>* 
 
 o the story. 
 
 of Oriental imagination. He was approached by 
 seductive hallucinations, and when wanton beauty 
 failed, Mara put forth the thunders of his wrath, 
 and hurled a hundred thousand burning moun- 
 tains (!) at him, but they fell in garlands of flowers 
 at his feet. He overcame all the threats, and msyictory 
 seductions, and illusions of the spirit of evil, and 
 continued his self-sacrifice. 
 
 This great event in Buddha's life, in which he Accompany- 
 
 '^ ^ ^ ing physical 
 
 won the victory over all evil suggestion, was portents. 
 accompanied, according to the legend, with physical 
 convulsions of nature. The sun was turned into 
 darkness, the stars fell from heaven, ''headless 
 spirits filled the air." 
 
 This conflict, in which the moral creatnoss of His conflict 
 
 *-" connected 
 
 Gautama appeared triumphant, w-as connected with jjquirii as 
 an effort on his part to gather from the known caui^^and 
 Brahman teachers who preceded him, all such ofTSan" 
 light as they could give him as to the cause and 
 termination of human sorrow. Their methods 
 and their reasonings dissatisfied him. He also 
 made trial of the most complete ascetic rule, and 
 practised abstention from food and extreme 
 mortification of the flesh. He is said to have 
 spent six years in these exercises, to have secured 
 
14 
 
 Bvddhisrri. 
 
 thereby the greatest reputation as a lonely hermit, 
 and to have drawn around him admirers and 
 imitators. Wiser than the Stylites of Christian 
 asceticism, Gautama found that he came no 
 nearer to the solution of his great problem, and 
 resolved to alter his course, to take food, to 
 renounce his bodily mortification. 
 
 In doing this he alienated his earliest disciples, 
 who fled from him to Benares, leaving him, stung 
 by their lack of appreciation, to encounter with 
 surprising courage new difficulties. It was after 
 his friends left him, that he retired to the shade of 
 a Bo-tree, at Gaya, known ever since as the most 
 sacred spot in Buddhadom. There he passed 
 through the crisis of his ministry, coming by stern 
 exercise of thought to the idea, that not by out- 
 ward penances, but by inward culture ; not by 
 rites and ceremonies, but by love and gentleness 
 to others; not by spitefully punishing the flesh, 
 but by the cessation of all desire, by the blowing 
 out of the fires of lust and anger and illusion, he 
 would reach a state of mind which would be per- 
 fect peace. 
 
 This series of struggles and conflicts of the man 
 Gautama bears a shadowy but not a real resemblance 
 to the temptation ana the victory of the Lord 
 Christ. In the case of Jesus, absolute loyalty to 
 the Holy Father's will, when He was tempted by 
 the flesh aud the devil to secure that very will by 
 
 His failure 
 to solve the 
 great 
 problem, 
 and the 
 abandon- 
 ment of his 
 bodily mor- 
 tification. 
 
 Abandoned 
 by his 
 disciples he 
 betakes 
 himself 
 to the Bd- 
 tree. 
 
 There 
 learns the 
 thought that 
 perfect 
 peace is 
 attained by 
 inward 
 culture 
 
 Shadowy re- 
 semblances 
 to the 
 temptation 
 and victory 
 of Christ. 
 
BuddMsfm. 15 
 
 self-gratification, was triumphant over every seduc- 
 tion. The Bo-tree of Buddhism corresponds in The 
 
 Buddhist 
 
 vasrue way with the Cross, " the cursed tree on B6-tree and 
 
 ^ ^ ^ \ the Cross 
 
 which the Saviour died, but it suggests throughout g^j^^SS^^o. 
 profoundly different ideas. The " sacred tree " of J^Jerent 
 Buddhism is a symbol of the highest point of ex- ^ ^^" 
 altation which Oriental intelligence and virtue ever 
 reached. The " cursed tree " of Christianity, where 
 Jesus the Just died for the unjust, is a symbol of 
 the most terrible condemnation of human corrup- 
 tion ; but the most amazing manifestation of the 
 love, the righteousness, the justice, the wisdom 
 and power of God. 
 
 There is no need to throw a single shadow Gautama'u 
 over the moral excellence of Gautama. He went and 
 
 methods. 
 
 about preaching and teaching the deliverance that 
 he believed himself to have found from all the 
 evils incident to human life. His methods were 
 those of moral suasion. He adopted no arm of 
 power to enforce submission to his method or 
 secret. The parabolic style of instruction gave 
 vivacity to his discourse. He called upon men to 
 pursue the middle path between the pleasures of 
 sense, and the mortifications of the ascetic schools. 
 
 " Sorrow " was with him the direct consequence ma view 
 of the sense of individuality, and consciousness of and how 
 
 . ' . to procurt 
 
 desire thwarted or ungratified. Cessation of sorrow i^s^^ 
 was only to be secured by freedom from all these 
 causes of sorrow, all the cravings which nrolouc. 
 
16 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 The Hindu 
 tlieory of 
 the ego 
 accepted 
 and utilised 
 by him. 
 
 the illusion of one's separate interests or individual 
 being. He approximated to the Hindu theory, 
 which makes consciousness of the Ego an illusion, 
 and all the facts of human life and mundane 
 existence as waves passing over a houndless ocean 
 of heing. Accepting this as the deepest truth, 
 Gautama utilized it, as the gospel of deliverance 
 from all the miseries of existence, and endeavoured 
 to bring his followers to his own placid view of the 
 boundless evils of life by the practice of a virtue 
 which aimed at the obliteration of desire. Desire 
 was the radical source of every calamity from birth 
 to death, and after death. 
 
 From reasons utterly diverse from these, our 
 Lord demanded inward purity, and holy conduct, 
 simplicity of motive, and detachment from the 
 world. His disciples were to take up the Cross 
 and follow Him, to come to Him, and to rest in 
 Him, to take sides with Him against sin, to believe 
 in Him, as one able to save and to confer eternal 
 life, as One destined to judge all conduct and 
 motive, and all the inward springs of life. He 
 promised to do that for men by His own perfection 
 of being and sacrifice which they could not do for 
 themselves. He saved men from their sins. The 
 highest virtue in the theory of Gautama was 
 pursued and practised with the view of ex- 
 tinguishing all desire whatsoever, and of losing 
 all consciousness of Ego. He taught men to lose 
 
 Desire, 
 according to 
 him, the 
 source of 
 every 
 calamity. 
 
 The 
 
 demands of 
 Christ 
 essentially 
 iifferent. 
 
 His 
 
 promises. 
 
 His 
 aalvatioii 
 
Buddhism. V 
 
 self, not in the bosom of the eternal Being, but in 
 
 the ocean of wow-existence. The highest virtue in ^^tue^^^'^^* 
 
 the way revealed by our Lord Jesus Christ, follows GautamI *" 
 
 n 1 ' -J ^ and accor- 
 
 as a consequence oi our haviug received a new and ding to 
 nobler Ego, and because our sins have been contrasted. 
 pardoned through faith in His atoning blood. The 
 highest kind of Christian life involves a quenchless 
 yearning after God Himself, a supreme love to the 
 Father, and to Christ as the revelation of the ] 
 Father. The Buddha's holiness was the extinction Buddhist 
 
 and 
 
 of the most essential characteristics of human ^o^^egg* 
 nature ; the Christ's holiness was the purification [ <^^^^t^- 
 and intensification of all those characteristics. The ; 
 end set before the pious follower of Buddha was The end oi 
 to renounce the highest possibilities of man, and ^j^d1;he* 
 descend to the passionless calm of some purely chri.SiaS!^ 
 vegetative existence, which contemplated nothing, 
 desired nothing, enjoyed nothing, feared nothing, 
 expected nothing, suffered nothing; but the end 
 set before the humblest follower of Jesus, was to 
 think deeply, to desire the greatest uplifting, to 
 master outward sorrow with a joy unspeakable, 
 to triumph over illusion by reality, to suffer and 
 die with the Christ, in blessed hope of beholding 
 His glory, of being with Him and like Him for ever. 
 
 3. The relation of both religions to the P\st. 
 
 The Christ cannot be properly understood if ot^chSt^^to 
 no account be taken of the faith and hope of Israel, ^^^ ' 
 or of a pre-existent literature of unspeakable value, 
 
 
 
18 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 Christ's 
 relation 
 to the 
 scriptures 
 of the Old 
 Testament. 
 
 Buddha's 
 relation to 
 an older 
 faith. 
 
 Oriental 
 speculation 
 about "'the 
 sorrow of 
 the world." 
 
 Contending 
 powers and 
 forces. 
 
 which enshrined both. Christ's claim was founded 
 upon the Old Testament Scriptures. He fulfilled 
 the law and the prophets. 
 
 Buddha cannot be understood if it be not re- 
 membered that his entire career was coloured by 
 the far-reaching influences of an older faith that 
 lie adopted, after he had freed them from some 
 of the exclusive and national forms which tbey 
 had assumed. As a philosopher he built upon 
 the speculation of the older schools of thought, 
 and as a great teacher he aimed to deliver man- 
 kind from the evil which earlier Hindu sages had 
 recognized as appertaining to mundane life. 
 
 Long before the days of Gautama, " the sorrow 
 of the world " and of man had pressed on the 
 Oriental mind with terrific force. Speculation, 
 following upon the simpler conceptions of the 
 Yedic age, had led to a discrimination between 
 the Supreme Atman, the breathing energy or sub- 
 ject of all thought, identified as it was with 
 Brahma, the all-pervading force, the essence of 
 all things, on the one hand, and on the other 
 the plurality of existence and impermanence which 
 was " not Atman," which had issued from his sense 
 of loneliness and unrest. Men saw on all sides of 
 them formless powers, chaotic forces contending 
 with each other and with them. Death put on 
 new and fearful aspects. As an enemy he did not 
 spend his power in the one blow he struck at any 
 
Buddhism. I'J 
 
 living thing. Unless men had propitiated these The need 
 powers of destruction, they would be ceaselessly pitSng 
 pursued in other worlds by the tyrant death, who <>; destmo- 
 would continuously smite down the new life which 
 they would at each death assume. From the first 
 there was commingled with the fear of metem- 
 psychosis, the hope and possibility of deliverance 
 from it, but the fear itself produced a boundless, 
 haunting dismay, verging on unutterable despair, 
 which urged on both philosopher and priest to 
 propound their remedies, to indicate the sacrifice, 
 the ritual, the abstinence, the ascetic method by 
 which this fearful entail of suffering might be cut 
 off. To an Oriental it was supreme good if only The 
 he could be sure that he would sink at death once g(iT"^S^ 
 and for ever into the ocean of Being, and not be 
 constrained by overwhelming fate to itinerate again 
 and again the melancholy cycle of birth, disappoint- 
 ment, and death. He would have been content if 
 only it had been appointed for him " once to die." 
 It was supposed that the only wav of deliver- The 
 
 * ^ _ . supposed 
 
 ance from the domain of death was unity of soul J^J ^^ 
 
 ' deliverance 
 
 with the true mode of being, with Atman (Brahma). doTai^of 
 The soul must not dwell in the region of plurality, ^^^^' 
 but must, in shuffling off the body, allow con- 
 sciousness to be extinguished, and so put on the 
 nature of Brahma himself. *' The mode of action " 
 {Karma) pursued here on earth was supposed to 
 determine the course which the soul would pursue 
 
20 Buddhism. 
 
 from one state of being to another. Yet this form 
 of moral retribution was not so much ^n open 
 secret, as a profound mystery spoken by men of 
 mark to each other. It was complicated by the 
 distaste which the entire philosophy cast on action 
 Undisturbed of any kind, good or evil. The infinite Brahma 
 S'e* wghest ^^^ above all characteristics, and the highest felicity 
 feUcity. yj. ^^^ ^g^g imaged in the depth of undisturbed 
 sleep, when he loses all desire and all vision, and is 
 beyond the reach of pleasure or pain. Sometimes 
 these ancient teachers emphasized the obliteration 
 of all desire, and at other times the possession of 
 the knowledge that there is no finite self at all. 
 Desire corresponds with ignorance of this highest 
 reality, a knowledge of it corresponds with the 
 extinction of desire. 
 
 So far Brahminical systems of thought had gone 
 
 in the sixth century before Christ, and before 
 
 Gautama Gautama began his meditations. This remarkable 
 
 found the 
 
 problem teachor found the problem ready to his hand, 
 
 ready to his x .* 7 
 
 SedTt^ and pursued it further. He did not create the 
 
 th?Bmh-^ central ideas which he and his followers repeated 
 
 ^stemithat with wcarisomo iteration. He gave a new and 
 
 before. weird olovatiou to man, by removing out of his 
 
 path and from the range of his contemplations 
 the deities innumerable who were believed by 
 his contemporaries to contribute to emancipation 
 The gods themselves were stamped for him with 
 the character of impermanenoe and ignorance and 
 
Buddhism, 21 
 
 passion, and man was left alone to fight this 
 tremendous battle with sorrow and death, by an at- 
 tainment of a knowledge not yet secured by them. 
 
 At tbis point of our review, one of the superficial 
 but startling resemblances in the evolution of Buddh- 
 ism and Christian faith makes its appearance. 
 
 Buddha certainly took up the burning question Buddha's 
 of the existing schools of thought, and gave them departure 
 as we shall see a new departure. He waved his 
 hand over the mythologies and gods of the popular 
 faith, and they disappeared into the formless chaos. 
 He met the desires of men after the condition of 
 freedom from the curse of existence, by reducing 
 existence itself to non-existence, and by dispensing 
 with all aid from the popular mythology. The He reduced 
 differences between men, which made so startling ^^^^^^^ 
 a barrier between man and woman, between race "l^m^n^e. 
 and race, caste and caste, he theoretically disposed 
 of, by reducing them all to insignificance. 
 
 Our Lord Jesus Christ initiated a new departure our Lord's 
 
 new 
 
 on ground alreadv hallowed by Revelations of the departure 
 
 o ^ J was on 
 
 Infinite One, but He did not effect this change by Slowed by 
 drawing an impenetrable veil over Jehovah's face, JlvSaSons. 
 but by revealing the Father, by declaring that He 
 in whom all live and have their being is Impartial 
 Holiness and Eternal Love. He declared that He He revealed 
 
 the Father 
 
 and the Father were one. He called upon men ^gd^is 
 to believe in the Father as their Father. He SS 
 assured men that the Lord of heaven and earth 
 
22 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 God reveals 
 Eif secrets 
 to babes. 
 
 Self-siir- 
 render to 
 God's will 
 gives a man 
 to himself. 
 
 Chriit gave 
 a new 
 meaning to 
 souls. 
 
 Buddha 
 turned 
 aaen's eyes 
 away from 
 the sorrows 
 of life ; 
 
 Christ took 
 them away 
 by bearing 
 them. 
 
 rhe deaths 
 of Buddha 
 and Christ. 
 
 revealed the deepest secrets even to babes This 
 was a truth that Buddha with his emphasis on 
 the virtues of knowledge utterly missed. Moral 
 surrender to a perfectly holy and loving will gave 
 a man to himself. Not by under estimating the 
 reality of self, but by conferring upon it an infinite 
 value and significance, did Jesus free those who 
 believed in Him from the greatest burden ; not the 
 burden of existence, but the burden of sin. Jesus 
 Christ abolished distinctions, not by emphasizing 
 the unreality of souls, but by investing all souls 
 with a new meaning, which in itself was more to 
 be desired than all the temporary and vanishing 
 shadows of earthly greatness. Buddha turned 
 men's eyes away from the sorrows of life. He 
 would have men think them out of existence by 
 a species of intellectual training. Christ took all 
 our sorrows and sickness and death upon Himself, 
 that He might take them away; and He pro- 
 nounced His benediction on the poverty, the 
 mourning, the hunger, the sorrow, the death, which 
 are the handmaids to the soul, in its passage inta 
 the perfect life. 
 
 4. A further superficial resemblance between 
 the Buddha and the Christ, is the prominence given 
 in either system to the Death of the Founders. 
 Throughout Buddhadom the death (commonly^ 
 
 ^ Dr. Rliys Davids. Doctrine of Nirvana, Buddhitnif pp. 
 110-123 ; aud Hibbeit Lectures, Lecture ui. 
 
Buddhism. 23 
 
 though perhaps wrongly regarded as the Nirvana) of The death 
 Gautama is taken as the starting-point of the new ^1^?^^^^, 
 faith. He had been the living Head of his disciples jg^ * 
 to whom all difficulties were referred, by whom the 
 faithful were exhorted and directed in the smallest 
 matters affecting their daily conduct or their mutual 
 government, their dress, food, gesture, and minutest 
 habit. His departure by death would naturally leave 
 an awful blank. His death when it came was as The 
 
 Bublumtv oi 
 
 sublime as that of Socrates, and through the *^ ^^^ 
 
 various legends and amplifications of the narrative 
 
 we can discern some of its real features. At a 
 
 great age, having spent some fifty years in constant 
 
 preaching and teaching, his mental faculties un- 
 
 dimmed, he reached a grove outside Kusinag&ray 
 
 and rested for the last time. . 
 
 At the river, feeling that he was dying, he 
 received food from his disciples, and promised them 
 great reward in a future life for this act of piety. 
 He spoke of his burial, and rules to be followed by 
 his order. Ananda wept as he saw the end drawing 
 near, and Gautama said, 
 
 ' ! Ananda, do not let yourself be troubled, do not weep. His last 
 Have I not told you that we must part from all we hold most ^** 
 dear and pleasant ? No being however born or put together can 
 nvorcome the dissolution inherent in it ; no such condition can 
 exist. For a long time, Ananda, you have been very near to 
 nie by kindness in act and word and thoughtfulness. You have 
 always done well ; persevere, and you shall be quite free from 
 the thirst of life, this chain of ignorance." Afterwards he said, 
 ' You may perhaps be given to think 'the word is ended now 
 
24 
 
 Bvddhism. 
 
 our Teacher is gone,' but you must nut think so. After I am 
 dead let the Law and the rules of the Oilier be a Teacher to 
 you." "JVIendicauts, I now impress it upon you, the parta 
 and powers of man must be dissolved ; work out your own 
 salvation with diligence." 
 
 His mental 
 state as he 
 
 away. 
 
 These were the last words spoken by Gautama 
 Buddha. Studiously and stedfastly refusing to 
 answer the question as to any personal continuity of 
 his own being after death, and in a mental state of 
 utter self-negation rather than of reconcilement 
 with any power, or fate, or Being above him or 
 beyond him, he passed away. He lived and died 
 a Hindii, saturated with Hindii philosophy and 
 ethic, yet giving to both a more practical form 
 No thought than they had already received. The company of 
 resurrection his disciples uover dreamed even of his resurrection 
 in any form, material or etherial. So entirely had 
 he realized his own ideal of knowledge, and the 
 quenching of the thirst for life, that he believed 
 that he was henceforth exempt from the curse of 
 any further itineration of the cycle of birth and 
 death. There were no elements of character (Karma) 
 to be gathered once more into the form of man or 
 deva or riat (angel). He had absolutely vanished. 
 His body was burned on the funeral pile, and his 
 ashes were distributed (according to the legend) 
 among his celebrated followers of high rank. 
 Topes, or mausolea were erected over them. The 
 / mendicant order he founded took fresh lease of 
 life, and dating from his august departure, it took 
 
 ever 
 occurred 
 to his 
 disciples, 
 
Buddhism, 25 
 
 the form which has to some extent been observed 
 to the present day. 
 
 His death was a notable event in the history of e g^^*Jt, 
 Buddhism, as the hour when a complete and final 5?sloSn 
 dissolution of the personality of Buddha took place. Jersonaiit^' 
 Buddha in death received final manumission from 
 the servitude and cycle of change, the repetition of 
 birth and death. Such repetition is the primal 
 curse of all existent beings, but was evaded in his 
 case by the cessation of every desire, and his 
 perfect knowledge of the causes of suffering, and 
 the way to escape from them. He is not, in any I 
 sense in which the idea of existence can be pre- ' 
 dicated by western mind. This is his crown of 
 supreme glory. The moment when his knowledge 
 obtained this lofty fruition of its interminable strife, 
 was that from which Buddhadom originates. The 
 method was revealed, the example given, the 
 triumph secured. His objective death was the His 
 
 . , ,. . - objective 
 
 startmg-pomt of a subjective immortality in the <ieath th* 
 hearts of his followers. The absolute completeness ELti,' 
 of his death was, therefore, a reason for the highest inte*^"*^ 
 satisfaction of his followers; and the aspect it foUowws^' 
 assumes in the legends of many nations invests it 
 with consummate interest. 
 
 The legends of China and Tibet expand and 
 adorn the story of the death and cremation of 
 Buddha, and help to show how entirely superficial 
 is the resemblance between the deaths of Buddha 
 
26 
 
 Pvddhiam, 
 
 The death 
 of the Son 
 of God the 
 ro-com- 
 
 and of Christ, in their effects upon their respective 
 followers. The death of the Son of God was an 
 event which, hy its stupendous importance, had an 
 effect upon the whole universe, not by the cessation 
 of His life and the close of His personality, but by 
 the recommencement of that life in a position of 
 supreme influence and actual power over heaven 
 and earth. He proceeded to fill and rule all things. 
 He not only vanquished death for Himself by ] 
 voluntarily submitting to it, with accompaniments ! 
 of inconceivable terror, though there was no in- 
 herent necessity for it, but He took away, by 
 bearing it, the sting of death, which is sin, for all 
 who appreciate and acquiesce in His redeeming 
 love. His death did not proceed from the im- 
 permanence of the corporeity He bore, but was 
 for the sins of the race whose nature He had 
 voluntarily assumed. The perpetuity of His 
 spiritual power and the continuity of His life was 
 
 of His life 
 in a position 
 of supreme 
 influence 
 and power. 
 
 His death 
 
 voluntary 
 
 and 
 
 BacrifidaL 
 
 The 
 pei-petuity 
 
 power and 
 the contin- 
 uity of His 
 life mani- 
 fested by 
 His 
 resurrection. 
 
 made manifest to men by the fact of His resurrec- I 
 tion, and a new revelation was thus given to man ^ 
 of the nature of the spiritual body and of the 
 eternal life. 
 
 Buddha persisted unto death in his belief that 
 the final dissolution of his body closed for ever the 
 career of individuality for himself, and opened up 
 the way in which his followers might reach a 
 similar consummation. Christ laid down His life 
 that He might take it again, and convinced man- 
 
Btuldhism. 27 
 
 kind that death was not the end, but rather the chnst's 
 
 ^ death the 
 
 beginning of an endless life, not only for Himself ^^^g^j^fg* 
 but for all who love His appearing. So that ^^^'/i^^ems 
 though there are many superficial resemblances in a-ppean^s- 
 the bearing of the death of Christ and that of 
 Buddha upon their respective followers, these ap- 
 parent resemblances are illusory in the extreme. 
 
 5. Another resemblance between the two systems 
 is that both profess to rest upon a supreme law of life, 
 which affects the entire universe. The Dharma Jf^^B^'^^JJ^'! 
 (or Dhamma) which is "the law" of Buddha 
 occupies a place of high importance. Next to his 
 own great personality in the esteem of his followers, 
 is the " word " that he uttered for their guidance. 
 To proclaim the discovery made by the sage, " to '^^^ ''" 
 turn the wheel of the law," to insist upon " the afEect^ifo 
 four noble truths," and to press the moral injunc- worlds, 
 tions involved in them, is the chief function of 
 the disciples of Buddha. These " truths " do not 
 simply affect human and contemporary life, but all 
 life in all worlds, and in all the forms of existence, 
 human and divine, angelic and animal, past, present, 
 and future. They are not m themselves a cos- 
 mology or psychology, they involve no theory of 
 the origin or end of things, or any philosophy of 
 soul, as distinct from body, or any theological 
 deliverance ; and yet they lay the foundation for 
 speculation on all these subjects, which the fol- 
 lowers of Buddha are not slow to utilize. 
 
TSb Buddhism. 
 
 Perhaps the simplest form in which the more 
 central teaching of Gautama can be presented, is 
 preserved in the sermon preached by him at 
 Benares, after he had received the great illumina- 
 tion under the Bo- tree and was recognized as 
 Buddha. 
 
 The First Truth. 
 
 The sacred "This, oh monks, is the sacred tinith of sufifering : Birth is 
 
 suffering. suffering, o' ' asje is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is 
 suffering, t*.. -.- united with the unloved is suffering, to be sepa- 
 rated from the loved is suffering, not to obtain what one desires 
 b suffering, the fivefold clinging to the earthly [i.e., hankering 
 after corporeal form, sensations, perceptions, conformations, 
 and also after consciousness itself] is suffering." 
 
 The prevalence, the universal presence of thwarted 
 desires, the fact of pain, the fact that wherever 
 there are the conditions of self- consciousness in 
 this or other worlds, there is pain this is the 
 imper- " first truth." Impermanence by itself is the iu- 
 
 manence the ^ ' 
 
 ibiTsou?^ exhaustible source of suffering, and it is the indis- 
 3f suflenng. pg^gabie Condition of all that is. No thinker ever 
 came to such an irrevocable judgment on the 
 misery of existence in all worlds. The youth with 
 his visions of bliss, the gorgeous insect fluttering 
 in the sunbeam, the deva drinking his chalice of 
 joy, the king on his throne, are all cherishing 
 infinite delusion, if they do not see the near ap- 
 proach of suffering. Behind the sorrowful present 
 lies a measureless sorrowful past, and an equally 
 immeasurable future full of sorrows for him who 
 does not put an end to sorrow. 
 
Bvddhism. 29 
 
 The following most pathetic passage is quoted 
 by Oldenberg from Samynttaka Nikaya : 
 
 "The pilgrimage of beings has its beginning in eternity. No 
 opening can be discovered from which proceeding creatures 
 mazed in ignorance, fettered by a thirst for being, can stray and 
 wander. What think ye, my disciples, whether is more the 
 water that is in the four great oceans, or the tears which have 
 flowed from you while ye strayed and wandered on this long 
 pilgrimage, and sorrowed and wept because that was your 
 portion which ye abhorred, and that which ye loved was not 
 your portion ! " 
 
 The so-called gods are all bound by the chain of 
 desire, and so are brought under the power of Mara, 
 
 "Man gathers flowers, his heart is set on pleasure, Death 
 comes upon him like the floods of water on a village and sweeps 
 him away." 
 
 This perception of the poignant sorrow of the J^J,^?^ ' 
 universe pervades Buddhist literature from end to J-e^pc^JSng 
 end ; not, however, in the sense of being reconciled of^he"'''^ 
 or resigned to such fate, nor exactly in the spiiit 
 wherewith great Christian moralists have bewailed 
 the misery of man, but rather in the tone of lofty 
 pity for those who have not made the discovery. 
 
 The Second Sacred or Noble Truth is that The origin 
 
 of suftenng. 
 
 of the origin of suffering^ and this Buddha has 
 declared to be 
 
 " the thirst (for being) which leads from birth to birth, together 
 with lust and desire, which find gratification here and there, 
 the thirst for pleasure and the thirst for power." 
 
 The Third Sacred Truth is that of 
 
 ihe extinction of suffering ; the extin 
 jiplete annihilation of desire, letting i 
 rating oneself from it, giving it no room. 
 
 "the extinction of mffering ; the extinction of this thirst by The 
 complete annihilation of desire, letting it go, expelling it, sepa- ^f suffering 
 
 
30 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 The 
 
 connection 
 between the 
 two truths. 
 
 Conscious- 
 ness and 
 corporeal 
 form con- 
 ditions of 
 each other's 
 activity. 
 
 The six 
 fields. 
 
 Contact. 
 Sensation. 
 
 Thirst 
 
 The connection between these two " truths " is 
 difficult to seize, but is thus explained. Buddha 
 himself named two links as preceding consciousness 
 itself, but they are not easy to understand. Taking, 
 however, bare consciousness of any individual as a 
 starting-point he regarded corporeal form and name 
 as an inevitable consequence of it, and he also laid 
 it down that consciousness and corporeal form 
 were reciprocal to each other, mutual conditions 
 of one another's activity. They lean upon one 
 another, as two bundles of sticks mutually support 
 each other. The death of one corporeal being sets 
 the consciousness element free for the formation of 
 another. The next links are as follows : from the 
 consciousness and corporeal form come the six 
 fields (i.e., the five senses and the understanding), 
 with their corresponding objects. From the six 
 fields comes "contact/^ and from contact comes 
 " sensationy' [and in a strange way the old sage 
 endeavoured to account for what we term "per- 
 ception" and "conception;" but let this pass] 
 "from sensation arises thirst." It is this thirst and 
 longing for sensation that leads to rebirth, the most 
 fruitful cause of suffering, for from " thirst " comes 
 " clinging." As flame clings to fuel, which can never 
 be extinguished until the fuel is consumed, so the 
 flame of our consciousness presses on from life to life, 
 by transmigration, from earth to hell, from hells to 
 heavens. The slightest clinging prevents deliver- 
 
Buddhism, 31 
 
 ance, and only by utter cessation of clinging is the 
 soul delivered from sinful and suffering existence. 
 
 The question arises, Whence comes consciousness ? The source 
 
 of con- 
 It proceeds from Karma (Kamma Pali), the moral Bciousness. 
 
 retribution of the entire action of a man's past 
 
 state. His ignorance in a previous birth of the 
 
 consequences of his thirst and clinging, produces 
 
 the conditions under which consciousness takes 
 
 new name and (fresh) corporeal form in this present 
 
 state of his beiner. This Karma forces, or forms, The re-con- 
 
 ^ ' ' stitution of 
 
 or reconstitutes being in the five regions of trans- Klrraa^m 
 migration. It does not follow that men reappear re|io^n7of 
 
 .1 1 .1 1 ! 1 transforma- 
 
 as men, they may become animals, gobnns, devas, tion. 
 
 gods. The glories of the heaven-life into which 
 
 some men's karma causes a new individuality to 
 
 enter, are dazzling or satisfying. Dread and 
 
 ghastly is the agony of the hells into which the 
 
 karma of others causes other individualities to 
 
 appear. It would seem as if the thirst for rebirth 
 
 in some particular form of being had also (on 
 
 Buddhistic theory) to do with the result ; but it 
 
 may and must happen that by securing any form 
 
 of new birth, the soul is still chained and fettered 
 
 by the miserable cycle that it has to itinerate. 
 
 The extinction of the thirst which leads to the nro- The extino- 
 
 ^ tion of 
 
 pagation and perpetuation of life, the annihilation onWa^ 
 of the clinging, is the only way of obtaining SeUveSsr 
 deliverance from the misery of existence. SS^of 
 
 The Fourth Sacred Truth teaches the path ^^ "^' 
 
32 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 The path 
 to the 
 extinction 
 of suffering. 
 
 five pro- 
 hibitions. 
 
 The 
 
 significance 
 of the pro- 
 hibitions. 
 
 to the extinction of suffering, tlie method by which 
 Buddhistic teachers have expanded the fundamental 
 ideas of their founder. The path includes : 
 
 (1) Right belief (views). 
 
 (2) Right feelings (or resolves). 
 
 (3) Right actions. 
 
 (4) Right living (or mode of livelihood). 
 
 (5) Right exertion (or endeavour). 
 
 (6) Right thought (or memory). 
 
 (7) Right meditation (or self -concentration). 
 These paths, blending into one, are continually 
 
 illustrated by parable, dialogue, fable, apologue, 
 and by the numberless stories of Buddha, not only 
 while passing through the final stage of his exist- 
 ence, but in hundreds of previous existences, during 
 which his Karma was dwindling, and the necessity 
 of a further rebirth gradually becoming anni- 
 hilated. 
 
 This code is moreover re-shaped for practical 
 use in the form of five prohibitions : (1) to kill 
 no living thing ; (2) to lay no hand on the pro- 
 perty of another ; (3) not to touch another's wife ; 
 (4) not to speak what is untrue ; (5) not to drink 
 intoxicants. Tbese prohibitions, four of which 
 closely correspond with the law of the second table 
 of the decalogue, are interpreted to mean far more 
 than the bare restraint from some definite action. 
 The first leads to most careful avoidance of any 
 known sacrifice of life, and is probably based upon 
 
Buddhism. '*ili 
 
 tlie increment of suffering involved in the origina- 
 tion of a new life, not on the sanctity of life itself. 
 As far as human life is concerned, it is made to 
 cover much that was expressed in our Lord's inter- 
 pretation of the sixth commandment. The second 
 injunction corresponds with the seventh command- 
 ment, and as far as monks are concerned prohibits 
 all sexual intercourse whatever. The stronsrest The spirit of 
 
 forgiveness, 
 
 . emphasis is laid upon the spirit of forgiveness and ^^'jiasised 
 abstinence from enmity and calumnious conversa- 
 tion, on extinction of impure thought and desire, 
 '-nd on meekness in receiving cruel wrong. 
 
 It must be carefully noted that the duties of 
 the moral code are confined entirely to those of 
 the second table ; and that there are no hints of the no hints 
 principle of love to others, save as the expression principle 
 of the desire to surmount and extinguish all desire, ^^'^- 
 including desire for the welfare of others. There 
 is no room in- this method of deliverance for the 
 little child or the guilty sinner ; nor is there the no hint oi 
 faintest hint of help from any hisrher source than ^^y ^^s^^^ 
 
 ^ ' *-" source. 
 
 self to enable the strongest spirit to attain even the 
 mysterious rest which is set forth as the highest 
 hope of mankind. 
 
 The moral precepts which are embodied in The moral 
 
 precepts 
 
 Buddhism simply correspond with those which ^^^^^^^ 
 are found in the earliest teaching of Hinduism, JfoSha 
 and of the Egyptian, Chinese, and Parsi moralists, 
 and must not claim to be the special patrimony 
 D 
 
34 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 They are 
 anterior 
 to special 
 revelation 
 in the 
 Scriptures, 
 accompanied 
 with prin- 
 ciples and 
 motives and 
 connected 
 with 
 powers 
 which lift 
 men into 
 harmony 
 with them. 
 
 The moral 
 
 culture of 
 Buddhism 
 the vory 
 antipodes 
 of the 
 spiritual 
 culture of 
 Christlauity. 
 
 Misery, not 
 sin, the evil 
 to be 
 explained 
 by Karma. 
 
 of Buddha. They arc older and deeper than any 
 civilization, and anterior to all special revelation, 
 written or unwritten. They are enshrined in the 
 decalogue, and in the teaching of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ ; hut in hoth these revelations they are 
 accompanied with principles and motives, and 
 associated with powers which lift man into 
 harmony with them. 
 
 It is not by any means clear how the thirst of 
 the soul can be annihilated by these paths of moral 
 obedience, or by any recognition of the universality 
 of suffering. 
 
 The contrast between the Gospel of Christ's 
 salvation and the law of Buddha's deliverance is 
 so great that words cannot measure it. The moral 
 culture which schools the mind into utter passivity 
 and indifference to all things and persons is the 
 very antipodes of the spiritual culture which loves 
 and blesses all the works of God, which embraces 
 all souls, and is reconciled to the Supreme Will. 
 
 Misery, rather than sin, is the evil supposed to 
 be explained by the theory of Karma. Moral 
 suicide, not of the bodily life, but of the very 
 possibility of reconstruction, and consequent deliver- 
 ance from the misery of existence is the great 
 achievement of the Buddhist rigime. 
 
 It is obvious that the terrible evil of trans- 
 migration, which was accepted by the Oriental 
 mind as beyond the range of scepticism or question, 
 
Bvddhiam, 35 
 
 was a very real and haunting terror. Althougli Traus- 
 
 ' o <-j migration 
 
 the idea of conscious continuity of being after Jg^o"'^*^^^ 
 death, or any remembrance of a previous existence, 
 was ignored, if not categorically denied by Buddha, 
 and although the Brahminical conception of 
 ultimate absorption and loss of personality in the 
 Supreme Self, in Brahma, ceased to influence his 
 mind or affect his disciples, yet he could not divest 
 himself or them of the fact of transmigration. So ^g^on^*-f 
 he sought to reconcile the two notions, the old aS^St^ii*^^ 
 
 ancestral creed with his idea of deliverance; and Sfid^of 
 he did so, by supposing that every form of evil 
 in this and other worlds, in heaven and hell, is 
 the outcome or karma of the life lived previously by 
 some unenlightened being who had not pursued the 
 paths of deliverance. There were four of these paths 
 or stages of the path which were enumerated. 
 
 (1) Conversion, or enterinar on the stream in Beginning 
 
 ^ ' ' ^ of freedom 
 
 which a man becomes free from the delusion of JgiJ^g^J^ 
 self, from doubt as to Buddha himself, from con- ' ^" 
 fidence in mere rite and ceremony. Even this 
 first stage is better than universal empire, better 
 than the prolongation of conscious life in heaven. 
 
 (2) The path of those who will only return to the The path oi 
 
 \ / -^ -^ " those who 
 
 world once more is secured by those who have re- ^^^S/ald 
 
 duced to a minimum lust, hatred, and delusion. ^^S^mum, 
 
 Even if there be this minimum of clinging to the only return 
 
 sources of all misery, one new life here will once mom 
 await them. 
 
86 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 The path of 
 those in 
 whom all 
 self seeking 
 and wrong 
 feeling are 
 ex- 
 tiuguisiied. 
 
 The path 
 of the 
 veritable 
 saint. 
 
 Nirvana or 
 the absolute 
 peace aud 
 rest of the 
 
 A.KEAT. 
 
 (3) The path of those who will never return to this 
 world is one in which all desire for self or wrong 
 feeling for others is extinguished, and at death 
 their karma may produce some being in some of 
 the upper worlds. 
 
 (4) The final path of the veritable saint, or Arhat, 
 is that which has lost even the faintest clinging 
 to existence, or feeblest desire for it, in this or 
 other worlds, and absolute freedom from all pride, 
 self-righteousness, and ignorance. 
 
 This condition of mind and state of will into 
 which a man is brought by these saintly processes 
 is, according to Oldenberg, Rhys Davids, and others, 
 Nirvana. In defining the term, they maintain 
 that it is not the condition into which God or man 
 is brought after dissolution ; it is not the synonym 
 for " heaven ; " it is not the equivalent for anni- 
 hilation; but it is the term which denotes the 
 absolute peace and rest of the Arhat, before the 
 mystery of the grave is faced. Numerous passages 
 are quoted from the Suttas, in which Nirvana is 
 promised to the devotee who has conquered sin by 
 holiness, who has become utterly free from desire, 
 and so it is set forth as the extinction of the sinful 
 grasping condition of mind and heart which would 
 otherwise he the cause of another individual existence. 
 It is a blowing out of the fires of lust, anger, ignor- 
 ance, and selfishness. It is i\iQ perfect peace. When 
 an Arhat has reached this exalted state before 
 
Budd/dam. 37 
 
 death, he still retains the Skandhas as they are The Arhat 
 
 ^ who has 
 
 called, the bodily functions and powers, the issue of ^eaS^befoiy 
 the sins of his previous existences in other indivi- reTa^s^X 
 dualities. "When death supervenes, these skandhas funcfiow 
 being transitory pass away, and there is no more powew. 
 construction of an individuality in this or any 
 other world. The "Karma" of untold lives is 
 dissolved. 
 
 It is probable that the idea expressed by the what the 
 term Skandha (the bodily functions and attributes dha, (boduj 
 
 functions 
 
 and consequent powers) included that in which P^ powers) 
 
 T. r / includes. 
 
 these inhered, the " form " at least which has held 
 them together, and which remains even after they 
 are scattered in the funeral pyre. 
 
 The later books gave the name of Boddhi- The Boddu- 
 
 sattwa. 
 
 sattwa, to those Arhats who had only one more 
 
 life to live in this world. The heaven to which The heaven 
 
 of Maya 
 
 Maya, the mother of Buddha, had gone at death, ^^^ 
 was one to which it was believed by supernatural ^^^*- 
 trance Buddha had ascended, and where he held 
 communion with her. 
 
 Such a conception seems to allow that there was a continuity 
 
 . . ., , ot existence 
 
 continuity of existence and consciousness possible to and con- 
 
 ' Bciousness 
 
 Buddhist saints, believed in even within the orthodox ^^f^^^lf tJ* 
 communion, and among austere sects of the ancient ^^* 
 faith. The Rev. Spence Hardy and Mgr. Bigandet 
 strongly maintain the utter nihilism of the Nirvana 
 of Buddha himself. Burnouf and others confirm 
 the same view, though they suggest that Gautama 
 
38 
 
 Buddhism, 
 
 The spread 
 of the 
 formula of 
 annihila- 
 tion. 
 
 Dr. Rhys 
 Davids' ex- 
 planation. 
 
 is the last mighty spirit that has reached this 
 summum bonum. It seems incredible to us that a 
 formula of utter annihilation could ever have made 
 the extraordinary progress that it did among 
 peoples who at least believed in an absorption into 
 the supreme self and eternal essence, and a trans- 
 migration which did not repudiate the idea of soul. 
 Dr. Rhys Davids seems to think that the passion of 
 universal benevolence involved in the closing up 
 of one only of the hitherto endless sources of 
 misery was sufficient motive for entering on the 
 path to Nirvana, even though the Buddhist disciple 
 should hereafter be unconscious of the advantage he 
 had conferred upon the universe by his non-existence. 
 
 The safest method of understanding the problem, 
 is to separate the question of Nirvana from that 
 of the continuity of the soul. Buddha was a 
 supreme dogmatist on the nature of true peace, 
 and an extreme Agnostic as to the future life. He 
 would suffer no disciple to deviate a hair- breadth 
 from the path to Nirvana, but he repudiated all 
 logical inferences drawn from the essential nature 
 of Nirvana. No wonder that the idea of Nirvana 
 did in after days develop into the conception of 
 Paradise, whether this latter was due to Christian 
 influences or not. 
 
 There is a superficial resemblance between the 
 sacred peace of the Buddhist saint and that of the 
 sanctified follower of the Lord Jesus Christ, who 
 
 Buddha's 
 dogmatism 
 and agnos- 
 ti 3ism. 
 
 The peace 
 of the 
 Buddhist 
 and the 
 peace of the 
 Christian 
 
Buddhism. 39 
 
 has lost his own will in the will of God. But the The 
 
 ' Christian 
 
 Christian believer is never so conscious of and 
 
 united to 
 Christ as a 
 member to 
 a body. 
 
 aware of his own existence as when he loses it in 
 Christ's. Faith at its best is union with Christ, 
 but it is the union of a member with a body. 
 The " I '* and " thou " are not abolished relations. 
 Perfect love casts out fear, but the distinction 
 between the object and subject of a supreme 
 affection will endure for ever. " Eternal life," by Etemai 
 the very form and inner meaning of the idea, is logical cod. 
 
 . ^ tradictory 
 
 the logical contradictory of Nirvana. of Nirvana 
 
 Buddhist peace is the obliteration of desire ; 
 Christian peace the refinement and satisfaction 
 of desire. The Buddhist saint conquers all 
 his longings and regrets ; the Christian ex- 
 claims, " My earnest expectation and desire 
 are that Christ may be magnified in my 
 body whether by life or death." The peace The source 
 of the Christian flows from, and is the result of the 
 of, reconciliation and acceptance with God through 
 faith in Jesus Christ. 
 
 6. There is a striking external resemblance 
 between the Society (Church) founded by our Lord, 
 and the Society (Sangha) originated by Gautama 
 Buddha. These resemblances are most of all 
 conspicuous in the complicated hierarchy of the 
 Papal Church, and a multitude of religious orders 
 pledged to a more or less rigid loyalty to its 
 principles and precepts. 
 
 Christian. 
 
40 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 Points of 
 Bimilarity 
 between the 
 Bociety of 
 Buddha 
 aaid the 
 Church. 
 
 The resem- 
 blancefl 
 conceal the 
 radical 
 divergence 
 of principle 
 between the 
 two. 
 
 The history of the ^'Society" or "Order," or 
 " Assembly " of Buddha, offers a bewildering 
 similarity to some of the aspects of Christendom ; 
 so that writers customarily speak of the " Church," 
 the " Councils," the " Canons," " the Sacred Books," 
 the " Priesthood," the " Monasteries," the " Monks 
 and Nuns," the " Pilgrims " the " Patriarchs " and 
 "Pontiffs," the " Missioners." the "Heretical sects," 
 the " Cathedrals," of Buddhadom. Rosaries are 
 used by the monks and nuns to assist them to 
 recite their meditations and praises. Incense is 
 offered to sacred images of the greatest Buddha, as 
 well as to some of the anticipated Buddhas of the 
 future. A kind of divinity is honoured, consisting 
 of " the three precious ones" the Buddha, the 
 Dharma, and the Sangha, i.e., I. The Buddha. 
 II. His law or word. III. The society which 
 embodies his principles and spirit. 
 
 These and many other details of external re- 
 semblance to Christian institutions conceal the 
 radical divergence between their respective prin- 
 ciples. The resemblances are not in the funda- 
 mental elements of thought or feeling, but in the 
 laws which regulate all human society, and are 
 evolved more or less wherever ideas form the 
 nucleus of association on a great scale. Chris- 
 tianity in her essence cannot be credited with the 
 whole history of the institutions which have been 
 developed by her adherents. The enormous variety 
 
Buddhism. 41 
 
 of these institutions finds some parallels in the 
 different development which the Buddhistic 
 " Church '' has suffered in the various oriental 
 countries through which these ideas have spread. 
 Buddhism, moreover, like Christianity, has taken ideas 
 
 foreign to 
 
 hold in its passasre from land to land of ideas that their origin 
 
 ' ^ assunilatcd 
 
 are foreign to its origin, but which have received ^J^^^^ 
 such vast expansion and exercised so great a hold 
 upon the Oriental mind, that they cannot be ignored 
 in any estimate of this extraordinary form of 
 religious organization. 
 
 A brief sketch of this history and of this society 
 must here be attempted. 
 
 On the occurrence of Buddha's death his disciples, Rules of the 
 
 ^ Buddhist 
 
 scattered over many parts of India, according to 5^^^*5Jj^^ , 
 tradition, assembled to the number of 500 at lll^^^^'' 
 Rajagriha, and proceeded to regulate, in harmony 
 with what they believed to be their master's word, 
 the principles of faith and order to be hereafter 
 observed by the society, and to make an authentic 
 text of his sayings. They professed only to J^^* <>' ^ 
 recite what they had heard from the lips of 
 the exalted one, and they called on all new 
 adherents to " take refuge " in Buddha, in his 
 doctrine, and in his order. At first they were all 
 mendicant monks who were centres of spiritual 
 power in their own neighbourhood, but who per 
 petually moved from place to place (except during 
 the rainy season). They had not the cohesion 
 
42 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 of early Christian churches, which from the 
 Apostolic age attached themselves to particular 
 localities, and thus became the centres of missionary 
 expansion, and the larger units of a new brother- 
 hood. The mendicant disciples of Buddha were 
 continually changing their place of abode, and the 
 small gatherings of them were never the same. 
 Consequently they differed among each other as to 
 the precise rules they were called upon to adopt. 
 One synod of disciples differed from another synod, 
 and the greatest confusion prevailed. Patriarchal 
 authority, to take the place of Gautama's, did not 
 emerge in India, though special deference was 
 probably paid to those who were known to have 
 been the associates and personal friends of the 
 great sage. But the number of those who sought 
 to enter the paths leading to Nirvana multiplied 
 daily, and the initiation into the society closely 
 corresponded with the rules by which a Brahmin 
 devoted himself to an ascetic life. 
 
 Candidates were to protest themselves free from 
 leprosy, goitre, consumption, and epilepsy. What 
 a contrast is this to the fellowship which accepted 
 and healed the leper, and cast out the devil ! How 
 bitter the confession that there was no deliverance 
 possible for some, and those the most needy of man- 
 kind ! They had, moreover, to show that they were 
 twenty years of age, were possessed of alms-bowl 
 and garments, and were willing to submit to the 
 
 Migratory 
 character 
 of the 
 mendicant 
 disciples of 
 Buddha. 
 
 Differing 
 rules adop- 
 ted by 
 various 
 synods. 
 
 Rapid 
 increase of 
 numbers. 
 
 Qualifica- 
 tions of 
 candidates. 
 
Buddhism, 43 
 
 rules. These were (1) that they should feed only Rules to be 
 
 ^ ' ^ ' / Bubmitted 
 
 on morsels secured by begging; (2) that their ^ 
 clothes should be constructed of rags which they 
 collected ; (3) that their bed should be under the 
 trees of the forest; (4) that medicine should be 
 the urine of cattle ; (5) that all sexual intercourse 
 should be absolutely suspended ,*(^X ^^^^ ^^^ theft, 
 even to a blade of grass, should be repudiated; 
 (7) that no life should be taken, not even that of 
 a worm or an ant. 
 
 These austere rules were binding upon the ^.^"^ 
 ordained monk so long as he chose. But a monk {^e^rw 
 might return to the world, if conscious of any long- 
 ing even for father, wife, or friend, and there would 
 then be an end of his hope of deliverance ; but so 
 long as he was called a Bhikkhu, he accepted 
 poverty as absolutely as the disciples of St. Francis 
 did in after days. The monk did not look in vain 
 from the benevolent for food, clothing, or medicine 
 for the sick. The "order" of Buddha did not, 
 like the mediaBval monks of the West, cultivate 
 the ground, nor did they accumulate property. 
 
 Negligence in outer appearance and personal ^"^**^^ 
 defilement were condemned. The rags sewn Sfe^S.*** 
 together for garments were to be washed and 
 dyed; and Buddha did not refuse his mendi- 
 cants the comfort of wearing robes when freely 
 given them, or receiving food if offered them 
 in the houses of the laity. The austerity 
 
44 
 
 Buddhism, 
 
 Monasteries. 
 
 must consequently in many cases have been 
 softened. 
 
 Viharas or monasteries were erected by well- 
 wishers, where many conveniences were provided 
 for the " order/' especially in the rainy season. 
 Many of the sacred books are occupied with the 
 rules for the ascetic life pressed into the most in- 
 significant detail, and fortified by some narrative 
 or apologue, or solemn advice on the subject 
 supposed to have been uttered by the "exalted 
 one," or by one or other of his most venerable 
 associates.^ 
 
 The "worship" of the Buddhist monks was 
 profoundly different from that which prevails in 
 every other ancient faith. The entire process is 
 one of self- concentration. In the depth of each 
 consciousness the conflict and the victory must take 
 place. Buddha had passed into Nirvana, and at 
 all events into absolute separation from his disciples. 
 No sense of his spiritual presence was allowed to 
 haunt their minds. On fast days mutual confession 
 was enjoined upon the " order," under most solemn 
 circumstances. These confessions occurred once 
 a fortnight, and degradation of rank followed any 
 
 Worship. 
 
 tration. 
 
 Fortnightly 
 confeasions. 
 
 ^ A vast storehouse of information from the Sanscrit author- 
 ities as to the Vinaya, or discipline, may be found in Bumouf, 
 Introduction d Vllistoive du Buddkisme Indien, pp. 233-437 ; in 
 Spence Hardy's Eastei'n Monachism ; and in Dr. R. Davids' 
 translations from the KuUavayya, Patimokha, and Mahavagya, 
 Sata-ed Books of the East, vols. xiii. and xviL 
 
Buddhism, 45 
 
 admission of having violated the standing rules. 
 Once a year all the members, summoned to some Yearly 
 
 ^ scrutiny of 
 
 particular vihara (or monastery), were accustomed character, 
 severally to ask their reverend brethren whether any 
 of them had seen, heard, or suspected on the part of 
 each anything inconsistent with their profession. 
 
 In very early days they taught each other es- prescribed 
 
 visits to 
 
 pecially to visit and venerate the four holy places : iioiy piacea 
 
 {a) where Gautama was born, {b) where he received 
 
 the highest illumination, {c) where he set in motion 
 
 " the wheel of the law," and {d) where he entered 
 
 into Nirvana; and so a door was opened for the 
 
 worship of other relics, and the deterioration of the 
 
 faith. 
 
 An order of nuns was formed, and commanded ^^^^ ' 
 
 ' nuns 
 
 to follow closely the rules which were imposed on s*i*^*ed 
 monks. The striking peculiarity discriminating it Jj^"^J 
 from Christian Monasticism, is the utterly inferior ^o^^ 
 rank and kind of holiness supposed to be secured 
 by woman, as compared with man. The most rigid 
 separation of the monks and nuns from each other 
 was enjoined. The number of nuns was never 
 great. As H. Oldenberg observes, " The thoughts 
 and forms of life of Buddhism had been thought 
 out and moulded solely by men and for men." 
 
 The existence of these orders of monks and nuns J^^"^^ 
 in vast numbers implied that there was an outside HXk^and' 
 world which recognized the virtue of such religious 
 persons was ready to furnish them with the food 
 
46 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 Institution 
 of cere- 
 monial 
 indulgences 
 at the 
 Council at 
 Vaisali. 
 
 Differences 
 of opinion. 
 
 and raiment for which they silently asked, and in 
 various ways to contribute to their comfort. Upon 
 this laity also were urged the moral rules of the order, 
 and for many generations the adherents must have 
 been very numerous. How far they blended this 
 new faith with their old Hinduism is not clear. 
 A hundred years after the first council of five 
 hundred disciples, a second was held at Vaisali, 
 where certain ceremonial indulgences were insti- 
 tuted, and where great difference of opinion began 
 to prevail as to the number and nature of the 
 sacred books, and the degree of austerity necessary 
 to secure the highest end of their calling. 
 
 About the time of Alexander's invasion of 
 Asia, the political changes then going on in the 
 peninsula led to the elevation of one race to the 
 highest political eminence. A man who appears 
 to be known in Greek history as Sandracottus 
 (Chandragupta), seized the hegemony of the Indian 
 royalties, and founded a dynasty at Magadha, 
 almost geographically coincident with the district 
 now known as Oude. The third succesor of Chan- 
 dragupta, Piyadasi by name, under the honorific 
 title of Asoka became a devout Buddhist, and per- 
 formed prodigies of zeal for the diffusion, protec- 
 tion, and defence of the faith. He is at once the 
 Constantine, the Theodosius, the Charlemagne of 
 Buddhadom, and his name is honoured from 
 Mongolia to Ceylon. The adventitious aid thus 
 
 Asoka' s 
 conversion 
 to 
 
 Buddhism 
 and his 
 propagation 
 and defence 
 of it. 
 
Buddhism. 47 
 
 afforded by the secular power to a spiritual order The aid of 
 
 -' the secular 
 
 was " tlie first step on its downward path, and to Jr^^Jt^^^to 
 its expulsion from India/' Asoka provided dagohas from fii^!* 
 for the relics of Buddha, monasteries and material 
 help of all kinds, proclaimed edicts, and engraved 
 them on pillars which are still to be found in 
 Delhi, Allahabad, near Peshawr, and at Babra. 
 These mjnuments have been explored by a race The 
 
 ^ ' teaching of 
 
 of scholars, showing that the Buddhism of Asoka's J^^ Ryddh- 
 time in the main urged the simple morality of the f^f^ 
 earliest discourses of Buddha, enjoined obedience 
 to parents, kindness to children, mercy to animals, 
 reverence to Brahmins and to the order, sup- 
 pression of anger and lust, and the exercise of 
 tolerance and charity. A noble sentence occurs 
 in Edict vi., on the Delhi pillar : 
 
 **I pray with every variety of prayer for those who differ 
 from me in creed, that they following my proper example may 
 with me attain unto eternal salvation," 
 
 Asoka called the Council of Patna, where 1000 The , 
 
 ' Council oi 
 
 principal members of the order were assembled. ^**^ 
 These determined the canon of the sacred books. 
 One of the most eventful consequences of this The 
 
 ^ ^ ^ despatch of 
 
 council was the despatch of missionaries to distant missionanei 
 
 r to distant 
 
 regions, to proclaim the method of " deliverance,** io^' 
 secured by Buddha from the miseries of the 
 universe. The names of the most renowned of 
 these missionaries are preserved. We find they 
 went among other outlying districts to Ceylon, 
 
48 
 
 BuddhisTn. 
 
 King 
 
 Asoka's son 
 sent to 
 Oeylon. 
 
 An order 
 of nuns 
 instituted 
 there. 
 
 The original 
 Bible of 
 Buddha- 
 dom. 
 
 Thither King Asoka's own son Mahinda was sent 
 between 250 and 230 b.c, and there he trans- 
 lated the canon into the vernacular of the island. 
 The king of Ceylon was willing to receive the 
 mission, and erected dagobas over relics of 
 Buddha, and monasteries for the order. The 
 sister of Mahinda accompanied him, and there 
 instituted with like enthusiasm an order of nuns. 
 A portion of the Bo-tree which she planted is 
 still growing, the oldest historic tree in the world. 
 It was in Ceylon that for the first time about 
 88 B.C. the three pifakas (baskets, or collection 
 of treatises) were reduced to a written form. They 
 had been preserved in the memories of successive 
 generations, just as for centuries the Mishna and 
 Gemaras were held in the memories of the Rabbis, 
 and as to the present day, the Vedas, and the 
 Canon of Hebrew Scripture, and the rabbinical 
 comments on the oral and written word, could be 
 verbally recovered from those whose sole function 
 it is ceaselessly to recite them. 
 
 The re - translation into the old sacred 
 language of Mahinda's Sinhalese version of 
 the three groups of treatises constitutes the 
 IVi-pitaka, or " three baskets " the original 
 Bible of Buddhadom. They are accessible 
 in part to European readers in the translations 
 by Gogerly, Max Miiller, E. Burnouf, Rhva 
 Davids, and others. 
 
Buddhism. 49 
 
 The part taken by Ceylouese Buddhists 
 corresponds with the work done for Christian 
 literature by the scholars of Alexandria and 
 CsBsarea. The faith has preserved its pristine 
 form in Ceylon and Burmah more obviously 
 than it did iu India itself. The most imposing 
 event in the history of the faith is that which, Sjlj^l^ 
 about the time of the Christian era, transmitted ^^^"^^ 
 it to China. The particular form of it which 
 took that great departure, differs in some essential 
 features from that which became classic and 
 sacred in Ceylon, and which is represented in the 
 Pali literature. 
 
 A grave difference of judgment which prevailed DifferenoM 
 at the Patna Council, on the extent of the Canon 2*^^ * 
 
 ' Sacred 
 
 of Sacred Books and on the rules of the Order, ^^^^' 
 led to the formation of many discordant sects. Su'" 
 These may be roughly regarded in the main as 
 two, and characterized (a) as the followers of the 
 *' Little Vehicle," Hinayana ; and {b) the ad- 
 herents of Mahayana, or the "Great Vehicle." 
 This distinction took its nomenclature from 
 another great council of Buddhists, held about the 
 time of the Christian era, under the direction of j^j^g ^f d- 
 Kanishka, the then ruler of Kashmir. One line K?enSie 
 of demarcation between the two schools was that schoois-the 
 
 followers of 
 
 whereas the Hinayana or the books alone known y^^JJ^'h" 
 to the southern Buddhists were written in Pali, JJ^J^jf 
 the books of the " Great Vehicle " were more veMctor* 
 
50 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 Oontroveray 
 as to the 
 relative 
 antiquity of 
 the two 
 Vehicles. 
 
 Chinese, 
 Tibetan, and 
 Nepaulese 
 Buddhism 
 originated 
 in the 
 " Great 
 Vehicle." 
 
 The contest 
 between 
 Confucian- 
 ism and 
 Buddhism. 
 
 numerous, and were written in Sanscrit.^ A con- 
 troversy, resembling that between advocates of the 
 longer and shorter recensions of the letters of Igna- 
 tius, has prevailed as to the relative antiquity of 
 the two Vehicles. The general opinion of scholars 
 is that the Pali documents undoubtedly contain 
 the most venerable and primitive traditions and 
 sayings of Buddha, but the great expansive energies 
 of Buddhism which have enabled it to hold in its 
 embrace the vast populations of China, and the ex- 
 traordinary subsequent accretions to the faith in 
 Tibet and Nepal, have taken their oiigin in the 
 Great Vehicle and the Sanscrit literature. The 
 great contest between Confucianism and Buddhism 
 turned on the fact that the latter reinforced the 
 moral precepts common to them both, with motives 
 drawn from a future life, the rewards of virtue, 
 the punishment of transgression. The Con- 
 f ucianist declared these to be illusory and ignoble ; 
 the Buddhists maintained them to be rational and 
 worthy. But if Buddha himself were supposed 
 
 ^ The two most celebrated Sanscrit Books are (1) the Lalita 
 Vistara, which has been cried up as the most precious memorial 
 of the early Buddhism by some writers, e.g., M. St. Hilaire and 
 Mr, Lilly. Dr. Davids argues (Hibbei-t Lectures, pp. 197, ff.) 
 that the first certain proof of its existence is the Tibetan trans- 
 lation of it in the sixth century a.d. There may be Chinese 
 translations much eaiUer, this is not proved ; (2) the Prdjna 
 Paramita, the great metaphysical treatise, analyzed by Burnouf 
 pp. 438, S., exhibiU the later deyelopment of the Buddhist 
 doctrine. 
 
Buddhism. 61 
 
 to have passed into utter non-continuity of 
 being, and Nirvana meant for them the state of 
 mind from which no karma could henceforth en- 
 train the elements of consciousness into corporeal 
 form ; the future life is an impossibility, and its 
 power to influence the moral judgments infini- 
 tesimal.^ 
 
 The Mahayana treatises (whether Yinaya, Sutra, The new 
 
 and great 
 
 or Abidharma), however highly they estimate deveiopmeni 
 Buddha, introduce a new and enormous develop- ^tST* 
 ment of thought by describing the character, home, 
 enjoyment, and power of the great Boddhi-sattwas 
 beings, that is, who reached the condition of 
 Arhat on earth, and having died, await a final 
 birth into this world. There is the germ of this 
 mythological expansion in the Pali books; and 
 in some southern temples, worship or honour is 
 given to Maitreya, the Buddha of the future; 
 but as early as 400 a.d. Fabian, the great Chinese 
 pilgrim to the holy land of Buddhadom, finds the 
 homage to Manjusri and Avalokitesicara all but 
 universal. Great discussion prevailed in the north- niscussiont 
 
 * about the 
 
 western provinces of India, as to the nature of soul ^o^i- 
 itself. The purest and strongest idealism began to The preva^ 
 
 * ^ ^ lence of 
 
 prevail, "All things that exist result from the ideaUsm. 
 
 ^ The history of Chinese Buddhism may be read in Beal's 
 Chinese Buddhism, and Dr. Edkins' work on the same subject ; 
 also in Beal's Introd/uction to the Travels of Fahian and Hiouen 
 Thtang and Vie de Hiouen Thsang, translated into French by 
 M. Stanislas Jiilien. 
 
^2 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 Fabled 
 worlds. 
 
 The -world 
 presided 
 over by 
 Amitabha. 
 
 heart," they said. "All things material are empty." 
 " All things are just what the mind reports them." 
 Such formulaB must have made havoc of the doc- 
 trine of the negation of soul, and opened the way 
 to boundless speculation. Worid upon worid was 
 fabled where these mighty Boddhi-sattwas ruled, 
 as " Supreme wisdom," " Yisual power," " Perfect 
 holiness," and the like. 
 
 The most impressive and far-reaching effect was 
 produced among the northern Buddhists by the 
 supposed Amitabha. Amitabha was said to pre- 
 side in a world far away to the west, where all the 
 conditions are different from those in this world. 
 No transmigration there introduces its endless 
 dance. The precious metals and gems abound. 
 Thousands of Buddhas dwell there in royal peace. 
 Amitabha (*' boundless age ") has been living there 
 for a practical eternity. Two great Boddhi-sattwas 
 aid him in saving multitudes of living beings, who 
 are born on their death into the paradise of his 
 presence. 
 
 This is only one of many similar imaginations, 
 which fill up the arctic void left by the agnostic 
 utterances of Gautama, and the arid speculations 
 of the Sanscrit metaphysics. The very terms in 
 which the Sutras express these tropical conceptions 
 show that their inventions were allegorizing and 
 romancing to an extreme degree ; but the form of 
 Buddhism which China has accepted, and which 
 
 His saving 
 work. 
 
 ^Mlegorizlng 
 
 and 
 
 1 umancing 
 
 ekaracter of 
 
 these 
 
 inventions. 
 
Buddhism. 5tJ 
 
 prevails to the present day is saturated with these cwnese 
 
 . , . . . . Buddhism 
 
 ideas. This is most sisrnincant, and proves that saturated 
 
 " ^ with these 
 
 the nihilism and intellectual self-sufficiency of the i'^*^- 
 southern Buddhism has succumbed before the con- of the fact, 
 ception of personal continuity and of something 
 akin to Divine grace. 
 
 One of the most affecting indications of the 
 progress of the ideas of the Great Vehicle in 
 China, is the fact that when in the seventh century 
 A.D., Hiouen Thsang, the greatest of the Chinese The dying 
 
 1 1 1 11' desire of 
 
 pilgrims, was drawing near his end, his most the greatest 
 
 of the 
 Chinea 
 pilgrims. 
 
 exalted hope was that in consequence of the extent cMnese 
 of his sacrifices, and the excellence of his work, he 
 might be bom into the palace and home where 
 Maitreya, the Buddha of the future, dwells in light 
 and glory and serene contemplations. The thick 
 darkness of Nirv&na shimmers with the phantasms 
 of imaginary paradises. 
 
 There is little dispute that Manjusri is addressed The worsMj 
 
 of 
 
 in prayer as the enlightener of the world. He ManiusrL 
 may or may not be identifiable with a great mendi- 
 cant, who introduced Buddhism into Nepal. This 
 missionary is looked upon as especially connected 
 with the origination of the school of thought which 
 issued in the " Great Yehicle." Perfect wisdom is 
 undoubtedly attributed to him, and he is worshipped 
 as God ; while Avalokiteswara, " the Lord who 
 looks down from on high," is the spirit of the 
 Buddhas present in the community. Fourteen 
 
54 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 hundred years ago, he was addressed in prayer by 
 Fahian with as much fervour as Indra or Siva is 
 approached now by a devout Hindu. 
 
 Another Boddhi-sattwa of immense popularity, 
 
 adored through many provinces of China, etc., 
 
 ajie worship Mongolia and Tibet is Kwan-t/in, "The infinite 
 
 Kwux-yin. 
 
 Thecounter- 
 parts of the 
 mortal 
 Buddhas in 
 a super- 
 sensual 
 world. 
 
 mercy." He is represented as a female figure 
 holding in her arms a child, and certainly suggesting 
 the idea that some semi- Christian influences may 
 have moulded this form of modern Buddhism. 
 However foreign this idea may be to the calm 
 passionless agnosticism of earlier days, the vast 
 majority of those who honour the name of Buddha 
 have created a pantheon rich in personal character- 
 istics, in objects of practical worship, and of fanatic 
 idolatry. They have thus met the demands of the 
 outraged human heart, by forming vague and dis- 
 torted images of One who fills all things, all worlds, 
 and all time with His presence. 
 
 A further late development of the Great Yehicle 
 has exerted a vast influence on the popular mind. 
 It amounts to this, that every mortal Buddha, 
 down to the last, viz., Gautama, and the next, 
 supposed to be Maitreya, has his counterpart or 
 type of a Boddhi-sattwa in a super-sensual world. 
 Thus Avalokiteswara is the great source or type of 
 Gautama, and he again is the emanation of what 
 was called a Dhyani Buddha, in a still wider 
 and loftier and purer region. Thus the Dhyani 
 
Bnddfiiam. 66 
 
 Buddha of Avalokiteswara, is Amitabha, "the 
 boundless age," or the "immeasurable light;" and 
 there is the threefold unity of Amitabha, Avalo- 
 kiteswara and Gautama, to satisfy the longing of 
 the worshipper for something more trustworthy 
 than the annihilated man. Moreover, faith in 
 Amitabha is the grand instrument by which man 
 may rise into the blessedness which he gives. 
 
 A portion of the Tibetan community, about the 
 tenth century, a.d., resolved all the Dhy^ni- 
 Buddhas of the infinite past and of innumerable 
 worlds into a unitv, and spoke of the Supreme Thesupreir* 
 
 ^ ^ Buddha 
 
 Buddha, the Adi-Buddha, who corresponds with ^i^^^^ 
 the ultimate Divine Essence of the Gnostic schools, >^i*y- 
 and from whom all emanations of life, human, 
 angelic, prenatal, archetypal, and divine, have 
 sprung. 
 
 In dealing therefore with Buddhadom as a 
 concrete whole, it must be granted that among 
 some of its disciples the conception of the supreme 
 source of all being is recognised and worshipped. 
 
 Buddhism has suffered another development of 
 extraordinary power in the country of Tibet. 
 Here the ideas of Buddha were from the first The great 
 
 Boddhi- 
 
 associated with the thought of the great Boddhi- ^^^^^^^ 
 sattwa, Avalokiteswara, who was present by his ^^"*- 
 spirit in the community of the faithful In Tibet 
 he was believed to reside especially in the most 
 distinguished of them, and to take up his abode in 
 
56 Buddhism, 
 
 the chief pontiff or patriarch of their church, 
 The Pope of whom thcv Called Dalai-Lama. In him, the 
 
 Biuldliadom. 
 
 veritable Pope of Buddhadom, the Adi-Buddha is 
 supposed to be incarnated. Long and stormy has 
 been the conflict among rival claimants to this 
 high position. His history is a striking parody 
 upon that of the Pontifical See of Christendom. 
 In the occupant of this blasphemous rank, that of 
 God upon earth, is vested perpetually the supreme 
 temporal power. The worship, the ceremonial, 
 the ecclesiastical orders strangely correspond with 
 those of the Roman Church. 
 The literary The rescarchcs of Csoma-de-Koros, of the two 
 tmwures o ggj^iaginweits, of Koppen, Mr. Rockhill and others, 
 show that we have much to learn from the still 
 unexplored literary treasures of Tibet. These 
 consist of thousands of translations and com- 
 mentaries upon the Sanscrit books, which deal 
 with the life of Buddha, with the founding and 
 nature of his order, and with the metaphysics of 
 cufitoms the schools. Many strange customs have been 
 in Tibet. invented in Tibet, which have travelled thence 
 into Mongolia,^ by which the religious duties of 
 the faithful may be expedited. The sacred bio- 
 graphies, rules of conduct and prayers, are inscribed 
 on rolls and placed in cylinders, which are capable 
 of being turned by the hand of the willing wor- 
 shipper. He is told that by assisting these praying 
 
 ^ Gilmour, Among tite Mongolt, 
 
Buddhism. 57 
 
 cylinders to revolve, he acquires the merit of 
 having perused the literature, or offered the 
 prayers thus inscribed. More than this, the 
 machinery is not infrequently set in motion by 
 windmills, which thus greatly cheapen the merit 
 of all who share in their erection ! 
 
 It is impossible to trace the utter decadence and JJ^^']^^ 
 disappearance of Buddhist faith in the land of its "^^^<^*- 
 origin. But about the seventh century, the Brah- 
 minical order and the civil power utterly crushed 
 or expelled the Buddhist system and profession 
 from India. For a while the two forms of faith 
 must have existed side by side, as the ruins 
 around Benares and Delhi, and the caves of 
 Ellora prove. Even the mythology of Brahmins 
 regarded Buddha as one of the Avatars of 
 Vishnu, though Buddhists themselves are spoken 
 of with malice and contempt. 
 
 The Jains of Western India represent probably The move- 
 
 . * mentrepre- 
 
 an analoerous movement to that which was m- sentedby 
 
 *-' the Jains ol 
 
 augurated by Gautama, and their sect was pro- ^f^^"^ 
 bably swollen during the persecutions of the tenth ?? tha?^ 
 and eleventh centuries by refugees from the old byofiSna 
 body. When the Chinese pilgrim visited India in 
 the seventh century, he saw in many places but 
 the remnant of what was once a flourishing 
 community, and three hundred years later it had 
 utterly vanished. It may be we trace the echoes 
 of its influence in the Bhagavad Gita, in the 
 
58 Buddhism. 
 
 worship of Jaganath,^ and in the speculations of 
 some of the schools of Hindu philosophy. 
 
 Buddhism has assumed other shapes in Japan 
 
 and Siam, in the Tartar kingdoms, and in the 
 
 Buddhadom modom life of Burmah and Ceylon. We can 
 
 a Simula^ 
 
 crumof without difficulty discern in this brief outline of 
 
 Chnstendom "^ ^ 
 
 Buddhadom, a most impressive simulacrum of 
 
 The birth- Christendom. We see the place of its origin dese- 
 
 Buddhism crated and trampled upon by strangers, we discern 
 
 its most antique and veritable form in active and 
 
 energetic exercise in the great island of Ceylon. 
 
 There its nihilism and its atheism are the orthodox 
 
 faith. There Buddha is venerated as the saint, 
 
 than whom among Gods or men there hath not 
 
 In Ceylon it riseu a greater ; but even in Ceylon we see that its 
 
 exists in its , . 
 
 mostancient disciplcs havc been able to blend it with magic and 
 aboriginal deva-worship of the island. In India, 
 among the Jains, it has blossomed into a portentous 
 mythology; throughout China it bas blended with 
 the man-homage of the middle kingdom, and the 
 religious nature inherent in man has allowed the 
 mists of Nirvana to wreathe themselves into the 
 apocalyptic splendours of the paradise of Amitabha. 
 
 Pontifical In Tibet it has developed a pontifical system, with 
 
 doTelopment 
 
 in Tibet. a group of cardiuals, and a splendour of mystery and 
 ritual rivalling the most imposing functions of the 
 Vatican. In Japan, coupled with a larger element 
 
 ^ William Erskine, Remains of Buddhists in India, Literary 
 Transactions of Bombay Society, Vol. Ill, 
 
BuddhisTTi, 69 
 
 of the old nature worship, it has inspired religious its influence 
 practices, revival services at which thousands of 
 ecstatic devotees cry out for the mercy of Amitabha. 
 Buddhism on a stupendous scale has occupied the 
 thoughts, stimulated the speculations, and to some 
 extent satisfied the craving of mankind. 
 
 Where its first principles have been most widely g^^^^ 
 departed from, as in Tibet, there some very close Sj^^'^he 
 resemblance to the Roman Catholic doctrine, order, !Jide?y^"^* 
 and ritual, arrests attention. The real resemblances from^its 
 
 first 
 
 to ecclesiastical, not primitive Christianity, are principles, 
 deviations from its ideal and from its orthodoxy. 
 The fancied and superficial resemblances do, on 
 closer inquiry, reveal essential differences. 
 
 A few words finally on the antithesis andfunda- contrast 
 mental differences between Buddhism and Christianity. J^istian- 
 The most essential divergence between the two The nature 
 systems is seen {a) in the nature and object of worship. o?worp. 
 The earliest informants to which we can appeal, 
 the portions of the Tri-pitaka in the Pali canon, 
 including the (Sutras) discourses of Gautama, while 
 they heap in Oriental hyperbole the phrases of 
 extravagant eulogy upon the person of Gautama, 
 and extol his wisdom as though it were boundless, 
 never do attribute to him creative powers, or the 
 Divine glory and claims. Mr. S. Hardy quotes 
 from a high Sinhalese authority : 
 
 ** The eye cannot see anything, nor the ear hear anything more 
 excellent, more worthy of regard than Buddha. The Riahia 
 
60 
 
 Buddhism, 
 
 may tell the number of metres in the sky, hide the earth with 
 the tip of the finger, may shake the forest of Himala by a 
 cotton thread ; but there is no being who can swim to ths 
 opposite side of the ocean of excellence possessed by Buddha." ^ 
 
 The Bacred 
 books vir- 
 tually deify 
 Buddha. 
 
 ^0 Creator, 
 Moral 
 Governor, 
 nor Supreme 
 Lawgiver in 
 the Suttras 
 of Buddha. 
 
 The recoil 
 from the 
 nihilism at 
 the back of 
 all things. 
 
 The Sacred Books and the people do vii'tually 
 deify him, and yet there is an enormous difference 
 between their treatment of him, their greatest, and 
 what we mean by religious worship. The Yaso- 
 mitra (quoted by Bumouf) declares that : 
 
 " If God, or spirit, or matter were the original cause of the 
 universe, then the universe would have been created at once, 
 for the cause could not exist without producing its effect ; but 
 that inasmuch as all things follow a perpetual cycle, animals 
 from the wombs of mothers, trees from little seeds, a vast cycle 
 of events and not a will or a cause have produced the universe.'' 
 
 In none of the Sutras of Buddha is there any 
 trace of any world-creating substance, any Being in 
 whom all things live. The universe is an awful fact, 
 whose tyranny is to be subdued by the intellectual 
 apprehension of its impermanence and illusion. 
 Moral duties are inculcated without any reference 
 to the Giver of any law or to any Creator, Deliverer, 
 or Lord of the human spirit. There is much 
 honour done to him who has unriddled the mystery 
 of suffering, but none to Him whose laws con- 
 stitute the basis of the moral universe. 
 
 The heart of man has recoiled from the utter 
 nihilism at the back of all things, and has in 
 northern Buddhism (as we have seen) imagined a 
 
 ^ Marmal of Buddhism^ pp. 359-363 ; quoting the MS. ol 
 the SadharmarcUiuikaie. 
 
Buddhism. 
 
 circle of lofty beings, who are able to help and The 
 
 . . , .. p , imagined 
 
 soothe the desolate spirit, when it turns from the comforters 
 
 ^ ^ _ and helpers 
 
 illusions of sensa Amitabha and Maitreya (called buddhism" 
 Omito and Mile), and other vast powers, are ap- 
 proached in reverence and prayer ; but throughout 
 China, Buddha himself, the greatest of them all, is I 
 not appealed to for present help in time of trouble, ^ 
 any more than is Confucius or Laotse. 
 
 (b) The Buddhist doctrine of the ground of the The Buddh- 
 
 . . p . . , - ' . . ist doctrine 
 
 univefse is utterly agnostic, it not positively atheistic, of the 
 The tendency to suffering is universal, and immoral *^ q^I^^^ 
 actions augment it. The most iron fate links action 
 with action, and affiliates every possible conaition or 
 circumstance all alike wretched to some perver- 
 sion of vnll in the present or previous lives; but this 
 chain of causation is not to the Buddhist an act of 
 a supreme will, or modus operandi of any moral 
 being. Prayer cannot alter its incidence, and no 
 power outside of man can aid the devotee. ** Work 
 out (/our own salvation" by self- obliteration and 
 obedience, is the last word of Buddha. 
 
 "With this root principle Christianity is absolutely christ asthe 
 
 , , j^ J J- eternal Son 
 
 discrepant, and can come into no terms oi agree- is the 
 
 ^ ^ . . revealer of 
 
 ment or compromise. The Christ is the Eevealer ^^^ father. 
 of the Father in heaven, because He is the only- 
 begotten and eternal Son incarnate, and He main- 
 tains against all the lies and corruption of the human 
 heart, and all the peril of the human soul, His 
 supreme goodness, justice, power, and lova The 
 
62 
 
 Bvddhism. 
 
 The Buddh- 
 ist theory of 
 theunirerse. 
 
 idea tliat God is love, that God is spirit, that God 
 is LIGHT, that the knowledge of God is eternal life, 
 is the logical contradictory of Buddhism. 
 
 The Buddhist theory of the universe is that it 
 forms one vast lazar-house, through which the 
 flame of all-devouring desire and boundless illusion 
 is ever rushing. Continuity of suffering does not 
 quench the flame. Death does not deliver life 
 from its incessant, consuming fire. The only 
 salvation is such a habit of mind as becomes 
 insensible to the flame, and is the obliteration 
 of all desire. The Christian theory of suffering 
 is that it is caused and intensified by sin; that 
 the universe is the Father's house, that in the 
 restoration of filial relations with Him there is 
 fulness of joy, and that suffering vanishes in the 
 consciousness of perfect peace. The Buddhist 
 admires, and all but adores, the memory of the 
 Gautama the Buddha, because he is supposed to 
 have revealed the way out of the cycle of birth and 
 death. The Christian adores the Son of God, who 
 by reason of His incarnation and death upon the 
 cross to put away sin by the sacrifice of Himself, 
 has been highly exalted and received " the name 
 that is above every name." In His own hand 
 He holds the keys of death and hades, and delivers 
 man from death by the gift and fulness of the 
 eternal life beyond the grave. 
 
 (c) Buddhism recognizes sin against the moral 
 
 The Chris- 
 tian theory 
 of the uni- 
 verse ad the 
 Father's 
 house. 
 
 Why the 
 
 Buddhist 
 
 admires 
 
 Gautama. 
 
 Why the 
 Christian 
 adores the 
 Son of God. 
 
Buddhism, G3 
 
 law ; but the law is impersonal, and the wages of sin ajcord- 
 sin are imposed by eternal fate. It has no conception Buddhism 
 of pardon, or redemption, or sacrifice. Christianity 
 recognizes an awful possibility of sin and punish- 
 ment, and a widely present sorrow ; but it brings 
 to human corruption a sufficient antidote, replaces The 
 
 Ml- 1 p 1 -I Christian 
 
 evil desires by consuming thirst for that which is the antidote to 
 holiest and the best ; it reveals a joy of reconcilia- 
 tion with God, that transmutes the sorrow into 
 blessedness, and gilds the bed of death with light. 
 It makes union with the Infinite God, through 
 the incarnation and sacrifice of the God- man, the 
 hope of the world. Buddhism has no gospel for the l^^^^ 
 ignorant or the babe, holds out no hope of deliver- ^^^^ '**' 
 ance except to the wise and prudent, to the learned the babe. 
 and strong. It has conjured up a world of fancied 
 terrors, from which it would save all forms of life, 
 when they shall have once reached the pinnacle of 
 metaphysical subtlety. Jesus said, "Come unto jesuscaiis 
 Me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I dened and 
 
 ' -^ . . children to 
 
 will give you rest.*' *' Suffer the little children to Himself. 
 come unto Me, for of such is the kingdom of God." 
 
 {d) Yerily Buddhism, throughout its vast extent J^cJeding 
 of pessimistic cosmology and ethical fatality, with its suddhil^.**' 
 ghastly Nirvana, and the hopelessness of its summum 
 bonunif seems to us to be an exceeding bitter cry 
 for that which Chtnstianity has to offer. It pro- 
 claims the misery of man, but has stumbled in its 
 explanation of that misery. It proclaims the evil 
 
64 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
 The mute 
 prophecy of 
 Buddhism. 
 
 of sin, and thougli it leaves no place for forgive- 
 ness and has no notion of a Redeemer, it vagueij' 
 asks for pardon, justification, and eternal life. 
 Its willingness to accept a noble ideal of manhood 
 when made known to it, is a mute prophecy 
 that when th true Man is revealed to it, it will 
 call Him "Lord of all." Yerily our Lord would 
 have said of Gautama, " Thou art not far from the 
 kingdom of God ; " and he would have exclaimed 
 " Lord, to whom shall we go but unto Thee ? " 
 
 Buddhism grasped the idea of humanity as a 
 whole, and this proclaims a nearer approach to 
 Christianity than any heathen religion. It has 
 embraced Aryan and Tartar, Chinaman and 
 Turkoman, in its arms ; but Christianity has mas- 
 tered every kind of man. In Him who is One 
 with the Father, the Aryan and Semite, the Bar- 
 barian and Scythian, the Saxon and Celt, the 
 philosopher and child, have found their deepest 
 unity. Surely it is not too much to hope that the 
 Christian Church may even yet convince the Buddh- 
 ist millions, that not blind destiny but Infinite 
 Love enwraps this universe, that the fear of endless 
 transmigration from eternity to eternity is an un- 
 sustained delusion, that there is One" in whom are 
 hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge." 
 
 The idea of 
 humanity 
 as a whole 
 grasped by 
 Buddhism. 
 
 Buddhism 
 has 
 
 embraced 
 some races, 
 but 
 
 Christianity 
 has mas- 
 tered men 
 of every 
 race. 
 
 Hope 
 
 concerning 
 
 the 
 
 Buddhist 
 
 millions. 
 
CHRISTIANITY 
 
 AND 
 
 ANCIENT PAGANISM 
 
 J. MURRAY MITCHELL, M.A,, LL.D. 
 
^rgum^int of tb^ Tract* 
 
 The comparative study of religions has, in our day, become 
 exceedingly popular; but erroneous ideas are often ex- 
 pressed as to the position which Christianity holds among 
 the various systems of belief. 
 
 The subject is of very wide extent. The first thing 
 necessary for its proper discussion is a large induction of 
 fully ascertained facts. 
 
 Happily, great progress has recently been made in the 
 investigation of various ancient religions. 
 
 The Tract deals with ancient religions that were once 
 widely influential, but are now extinct. In the body of the 
 Tract the systems that prevailed among civilized nations 
 are discussed ; and, in the note at the end, a brief state- 
 ment is given of the beliefs and rites of the chief uncivi- 
 lized races of ancient Europe. 
 
 The unique position held among ancient forms of belief 
 by the Jewish religion is pointed out; as well as the re- 
 lation of that faith to Christianity. 
 
 It is shown that the latter came in "the fulness of the 
 time." 
 
 Reference is also made to the connection between true 
 religion and civilization. 
 
CHRISTIANITY 
 
 AND 
 
 ANCIENT PAGANISM. 
 
 T iJ> rf| i r B 
 
 jucH attention is paid in our days to the The com. 
 
 comparative study of Religions. But study of 
 
 although now prosecuted with greater <>* e^ 
 zeal than heretofore, it is by no means 
 a new subject of inquiry. 
 
 The Hebrew prophets frequently drew a con- The 
 
 trast between the God of Israel and the idols of prophets 
 
 contrasted 
 
 the nations; and their cry of exultation was, oJ^jJaei 
 
 " Their rock is not as our rock ; even our enemies fdoyof the 
 
 themselves being judges." naions. 
 
 In like manner the apologists of the early The early 
 
 , Christian 
 
 Christian centuries made comparisons between the apojo^ista 
 
 t contrasted 
 
 teaching of Christ and that of Greek and Roman Ind rites^" 
 
 books ; and they elaborately placed the pure rites oospli 
 
 enjoined by the Gospel side by side with the Heathen- 
 polluted observances of Heathenism. 
 
 Even so, soon after Mohammadanism arose, the 
 
4 Christianity and Ancient Paganison. 
 
 The Koran Koran was examined and refuted by Oliiisiiaiia 
 
 examined . a i twt -ri 
 
 and refuted livuier m Asia. ^^^01 was Europe content to com- 
 
 by Asiatic " * 
 
 ciiristians. i^^t Islam ouly with tlie sword; the book that 
 professed to be a new revelation from heaven was 
 by-and-by translated into Latin and carefully 
 criticized. 
 
 The desire In like maDuor, when Europe became aware of 
 
 of the . I, . . 1 1 
 
 opponents of the cxistenco of wntmffs which were regarded as 
 
 Christianity , ^ 
 
 to become sacred by the nations of the farther East, an 
 
 acquainted ' ' 
 
 ^aCTed^books earnest desire was felt to become acquainted with 
 of the East ^-j^^^ couteuts. The feeling appears to have been 
 strongest on the part of the opponents of Chris- 
 tianity ; and the reason of this is not far to seek. 
 Unbelievers expected that the books of the Oriental 
 nations would prove great repositories of wisdom ; 
 for it was a tradition that the philosophers of 
 Greece had drawn much from Eastern sources. 
 The hope It was the hope of Voltaire and the French 
 
 cherished ^ ^ 
 
 wouid^^^ Encyclopedists that the sacred books of Persia, 
 S^surpass, Ii^dia, and China, would be found equal, if not 
 t^e Jewis superior, in religious teaching, to the Jewish and 
 Scriptures. Christian Scriptures. Hence, when Roberto de' 
 NobiK, the nephew of Cardinal Bellarmine, pro- 
 duced the work which he sought to palm off on 
 the Brahmans of Madura as a genuine Veda 
 that had been overlooked, Voltaire was com- 
 pletely taken in, and caused the wonderful book 
 to be twice republished in Europe.^ Here is an 
 * By Al Eindi and others. * At Tverdun and Paris. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 5 
 
 Oriental work, said tlie sage of Femey, very like 
 the Bible, and at least as good. It is a singular 
 story, though seldom remembered now. 
 
 But ere long a genuine Oriental work was con- 
 veyed to Europe. Anquetil du Perron returned ^^.^^ 
 from his travels in India, bearing as spolia opima zoroaster** 
 the writings usually ascribed to the famous Zoro- *^^"^^^*^- 
 aster. All learned Europe waited in mute ex- 
 pectation for the translation which he at once set 
 about preparing. When, in 1771, the oracle, which 
 had been silent for ages, at length became vocal, JJpofn^ent 
 the disappointment was infinite ; and the general thenT*^ 
 sentiment found expression in the sarcasm of 
 Jones afterwards the learned Sir WilKam 
 " Either Zoroaster never wrote these books, or he 
 was not possessed of common sense." The cen- 
 sure was far too sweeping; but, no doubt, the 
 Zoroastrian books were amazingly different from 
 what either Christians or unbelievers had expected 
 they would prove to be. 
 
 In recent years, various causes have combined The recent 
 
 furtherance 
 
 to further the comparative study of Relierions. f t\e com. 
 
 ^ ./ o parative 
 
 For more than forty years, in fact, ever since reS^oni 
 Grotefend grappled with the cuneiform, and 
 ChampoUion with the hieroglyphic, inscriptions, 
 steady progress has been made in their interpret- 
 ation ; and a flood of Hght has been poured on 
 the history of at least seven ancient nations. 
 Oriental scholars have, in the meantime, been 
 
Christianity and Ancient Faganism. 
 
 The 
 
 subject 
 
 becoming 
 
 popular. 
 
 The 
 
 Christian 
 need not 
 take alarm. 
 
 laboriously investigating the sacred writings of 
 China, India, and Persia ; and the results of their 
 inquiries have been largely communicated to 
 the public in translations.^ The subject may be 
 said to be becoming popular ; for it is presented 
 in every kind of publication, from the stately 
 review down to the halfpenny newspaper. All 
 this is well, when the study of comparative 
 theology is presented in a truth-loving and candid 
 spirit. The intelligent Christian will by no means 
 take alarm at the result of discovery in this field 
 of investigation, any more than in the field of 
 science. Every new fact he will heartily welcome, 
 though it behoves him as it behoves all to scru- 
 tinize well the conclusions which may be drawn 
 from facts, whether real or imaginary. One great 
 fault of the age is rash deduction, too hasty 
 generalization. Lord Eldon*s favourite maxim 
 would stand us in good stead in other provinces 
 as well as that of Law Sat cito si sat bene,^ 
 
 But we must not forget to say that the study of 
 Keligions is deeply interesting for another reason. 
 " A man's religion," said Thomas Carlyle, " is the 
 most important thing about him." So we may 
 also say of a community. Therefore, every lover 
 of his kind must watch the movements of the 
 
 Too hasty 
 generaliza^ 
 tion a fault 
 of the age. 
 
 The im- 
 portance of 
 religion. 
 
 ' In the Sacred Books of the Eatty Trubner's Oriental Series, 
 and many separate publications, 
 
 ^ " Soon enough, if well eoongh." 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 7 
 
 religious principle in man with keen interest and 
 profound sympathy. How have our brethren in Moral ^and 
 various lands and ages dealt with the duties of life, P[obie"^^ 
 the trials of life, the perplexing problems of life ? SThe^*"^ 
 What have been their thoughts of God, and of siu, Jistf" "*" 
 of a world to come ? Questions like these are of 
 engrossing interest to every philanthropist. Nor 
 will he be repelled from the iuquiry if he find that 
 it is in connexion with religion more than any 
 other subject that we have to deal with the 
 morbid anatomy of human nature, and that the 
 saddest aberrations of the mind have been when 
 engaged in the prosecution of the highest of all 
 questions. 
 
 It is only fair that we should mention at the 
 outset what is the point of view from which we 
 examine the field of inquiry. "We believe the JJ^stian 
 Christian Revelation to be unique ; cui nihil viget ^^qj^^^ 
 simile aut secundum} But that belief by no means 
 involves the consequence that the holder of it 
 should be unfair to other systems of religion. 
 Nay, the very strength of his conviction cf the 
 supreme glory of the Gospel, and the assurance The 
 that all competition between it and other systems ^J^^and 
 is out of the question, ought to contribute to calm- I^ms*^*^ 
 ness and impartiality in his judgment of other if fthe? 
 creeds. In truth, he must be a very narrow- 
 
 * "To whom there exists nothing similar or second.'* So 
 Horace, speaking of Jupiter as supremei. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Fragments 
 of primeval 
 revelation 
 may have 
 been borne 
 down the 
 stream of 
 
 Beason and 
 
 gifts of 
 heaven. 
 
 minded Christian who looks on Pagan systems as 
 merely masses of unrelieved falsehood. Why 
 should they he so ? The Christian believes, and 
 many who do not call themselves Christians believe 
 with him, that there was given to man a primeval 
 Revelation ; is it probable that no fragments of it 
 have been borne down the stream of tixe ? Again, 
 there is such a thing as the light of nature. 
 Reason and conscience are in man most precious 
 gifts of heaven. They often speak, alas ! only in 
 whispers ; but to the listening ear those whispers 
 are audible. The Christian then should expect to 
 find, and he should rejoice to find, that heathen 
 systems are not, of necessity, all " dark as Erebus." 
 
 It is instructive to note how differently, at dif- 
 ferent times, the point now before us has been 
 regarded. We could not expect that the Hebrew 
 prophets, in vindicating the claims of Jehovah 
 against Baal or Chemosh, would carefully search 
 for redeeming points in the idolatries around them ; 
 fidelity to God and humankind demanded that they 
 should dwell on their baseness and corruption, and 
 denounce them with righteous, vehement indig- 
 nation. Parleying temporizing philosophizing 
 would have been as ridiculous as ruinous. Your 
 man of science can prove that there is heat in ice ; 
 but we do not, on that account, enter an ice-house 
 to warm ourselves. 
 
 But it is remarkable how soon a calm and philo- 
 
 The 
 
 relation of 
 the Hebrew 
 prophets 
 to the 
 idolatries 
 around 
 tiiem. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 9 
 
 sophic estimate of Heatlieiiisiii was actually formed. The 
 
 * formation 
 
 Tbe statements on tHs subject by the first and J^^^<^JJ;j. 
 
 greatest of all missionaries to the heathen are ^^^^^ ^^ 
 
 broad, wise, and comprehensive. Even those who s**^^"*- 
 question the inspiration of St. Paul must admire 
 his calmness and impartiality in dealing with a 
 subject on which surely, if on any, his feelings 
 
 might have been expected to carry him away. The ?^^^Jf*4^e" 
 
 teaching of the Apostle as to Heathenism may be ^^f about 
 
 summed up under five heads. He declares that Heathenism 
 
 Ist. The invisible things of God, even His eternal 
 power and Godhead, are clearly seen, being 
 understood from the things that are made. 
 
 2nd. The Gentiles, when they knew God, glori- 
 fied Him not as God, neither were thankful. 
 They did not like to retain God in their 
 knowledge. 
 
 3rd They therefore became vain in their ima- 
 ginations (reasonings), and their foolish 
 heart {i.e. understanding) was darkened. 
 Professing themselves to be wise they be- 
 came fools. 
 
 4th. They then changed the glory of the incor- 
 ruptible God into an image made like to 
 corruptible man, and to birds, and quadru- 
 peds, and reptiles, worshipping and serving 
 the creature rather than the Creator. 
 
10 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 5th. All moral corruption followed. They were 
 given over to a reprobate mind, to do those 
 things that are not fitting.^ 
 
 The 
 
 Apostle's 
 
 statement 
 
 a just 
 
 historical 
 
 account. 
 
 Exceptional 
 eases 
 
 recogrnised 
 by ^JTn , 
 
 St. Paul's 
 spirit shared 
 by many 
 Christian 
 writers. 
 
 We believe the Apostle's statement to be a just 
 historical account of the origin and progress of 
 Pagan idolatry a key which, better than any 
 other we know, unlocks the secret of Heathenism, 
 and best explains its strange and manifold contra- 
 dictions. At the same time, while true as a whole, 
 true of the mass, we do not suppose that St. Paul 
 intended it to apply to every individual Pagan. 
 He asserts, indeed, that there are " Gentiles who 
 have no [written] law, but show the work of the 
 law written on their hearts." Let us hope that 
 those who " seek after God, if haply they might 
 feel after Him and find Him," have throughout 
 the ages been no inconsiderablo number. And let 
 us rest assured that the eye of the all-compassionate 
 God rested graciously on all such. Only let us 
 remember that these exceptional men, if they found 
 God, did so, not because of their sad environment, 
 but in spite of it. 
 
 When we come later down we find not a few 
 Christian writers dealing with Paganism in the 
 spirit of St. Paul. The earlier Fathers acknow- 
 
 * Compare the striking language of Cicero with that of the 
 Apostle. Multi de diis prava sentiunt ; id enim vitioso more 
 effiei solet. Tusc. i. 13. (Many have wrong notions of the 
 gods ; for that usually springs from vicious morals.) 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, I J 
 
 lodged that there were pure elements in Heathenism ; The pure 
 and these they attributed to the truth diffused Heathenism 
 
 ^ ^ attributed 
 
 among men by Christ, the Word.^ It was, how- ^^ 
 ever, the philosophy rather than the religion of ciSi ^' 
 Greece in which the fathers found "a trace of ** ** 
 wisdom and an impulse from God." ^ Yet certain 
 of the Fathers, especially the vehement Tertullian, 
 gave no quarter, either to the one or the other. 
 
 In modem days, there long existed a disposition 
 to paint non- Christian systems in the darkest 
 colours. Thus, Mohammad was regarded as having The modem 
 
 , , " disposition 
 
 been, from the outset, a deep designing impostor, ^ ^J'^J^^ 
 animated by mere selfishness and ambition, and *^h7^^"" 
 dexterously trimming his sails as the wind chanced ^o^. 
 to blow from a Pagan, a Jewish, or a Christian 
 quarter. We have since learned that the problem 
 of his mixed character and lamentable fall is not 
 to be solved so easily.^ 
 
 This mode of dealing with Gentile religions This lasted 
 
 ,11 i> ^ 11 A*^^^ Milton't 
 
 continued at least as far down as the days of iav*. 
 Milton. When we remember the lavish use which 
 the great poet makes of Greek and Romtin mytho- 
 logy, we are hardly prepared for the summary con- 
 demnation of Pagan faith which he pronounces both 
 in his earlier and later writings. Thus, speaking 
 of the god Osiris as terrified at the birth of Christ, 
 he summarily dismisses him to his proper place: 
 
 ^ The Aifyof <nrepiAariK6s. 
 * So Cltment of Alexandria (Clark's Edition), vol. l p. 40. 
 
l2 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Nor is Osiris seen 
 
 In Meraphian grove or green, 
 rrampling the unshowered grass with lowings loud ; 
 
 Nor can he be at rest 
 
 Within bis sacred chest, 
 Nought but profoundest hell can 1be his shroud. 
 
 Pagan EvGii SO, he tracGs the origin of Pagan systems 
 
 systeoas 
 
 ^aced by to the influence of the fallen angels, and briefly 
 Stiuence of stigmatizes them aU as 
 
 fallen 
 
 angels. Gay religions full of pomp and gold, 
 
 And devils to adore for deities. 
 
 A great Gradually, however, and especially of late years, 
 
 reaction has . " 
 
 taken place a gioat reactiou has taken place. The pendulum, 
 S>p*odte which swung too far in one direction, now threatens 
 extreme. ^^ rcach the opposite extreme. It is high time to 
 call for a reaction from the reaction. 
 
 The principle that " there is some soul of good- 
 ness in things evil," is applied to cases which 
 assuredly were not in Shakespeare's eye when he 
 put the words into the mouth of King Henry. 
 Eviiu We are now told that evil is "good in the 
 
 not good ^ ... . 
 
 ^^ making." Evil, indeed, is often compelled, in the 
 overruling providence of God, to bring about results 
 very different from what the evil-doer sought to 
 reach; but sui-ely evil is, in itself, intrinsically, eter- 
 nally hateful. Now, this tendency to find some good 
 in all things leads many far astray in the study of 
 Heathen systems. What is black as midnight is 
 often declared to be only a somewhat deeper shade 
 of grey. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 13 
 
 We frequently hear of a gradual development of christiaiiity 
 
 p .... is repardea 
 
 spiritual truth parallel to the progress of civilization. ^^^J^^ ^^ ^ 
 All, or at least most, of the great Religions of the f^^^ 
 world are held to have contributed their share to ^** 
 the advancement of true religion. Thus, Christ- 
 ianity is only the last in the series the last as yet, 
 though possibly destined to give place, ere long, to a 
 system still more exalted and refined. 
 
 The hypothesis of Evolution has taken such ^^J^jy^hat 
 possession of the mind of multitudes, that they ^^^^^^ 
 push it as if it were an established truth into caiT^^d*^ 
 regions in which the principle, whether true or false, SSthout^ ^' 
 
 pause. 
 
 can bear no legitimate sway. It is frequently 
 maintained that all human things advance by calm, 
 orderly steps, with slight, if any, evidence of a pause, 
 none of retrogression. But history denies this. It 
 is of course true that, taken in its wide extent, 
 humanity moves on, as Wordsworth says. Humanity 
 
 advances in 
 
 With an ascent and progress in the mam. 
 
 the "ihIti , 
 
 But if many races have risen, some have remained 
 stationary, and others have sunk. True, in art 
 and science there has been a great advance on the 
 whole. But we must not forget that many of the 
 highest attainments of the human mind were made Many of 
 long ages ago. Thus Egypt and the East ^ handed attaSm^t* 
 over their sculpture, architecture, and other arts to ago. 
 Greece; and there they rapidly attained an ex- 
 
 ^ Egypt. Phoenicia, Lydia, Asqrria. 
 
14 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 The 
 
 intellect, 
 imagination, 
 and taste of 
 the Greeks. 
 
 cellence which has not been equalled in the lapse 
 of two thousand years. Again, the poetry of 
 Homer, the oratory of Demosthenes, the specu- 
 lative power of Aristotle and Plato ; are not these 
 still unequalled, or at all events unsurpassed ? In 
 intellect, imagination, taste, the Greeks, we venture 
 to say, have excelled all other races. They were in- 
 ventive too; but their originality was controlled 
 by an exquisite sense of fitness, proportion, har- 
 mony. 
 
 The continuous progress of art and science, then, 
 is purely imaginary. Ejiowledge has increased; 
 intellect has not. It was of yore that genius plumed 
 her pinions for her highest flight ; and succeeding 
 generations have gazed enviously upward, as they 
 have seen her 
 
 The 
 
 continuous 
 
 progress of 
 
 art and 
 
 science 
 
 ptirely 
 
 imaginary* 
 
 The Greeks 
 not likely 
 to be 
 
 in the 
 higher 
 intellectual 
 endow- 
 ments. 
 
 Sailing with eupreme dominion, 
 Through the azure deep of air. 
 
 In other words. Almighty God was pleased to im- 
 part to the ancient Greeks more of iuventive and 
 reasoning power, and a more acute perception 
 of the beautiful, than to any other race. Nor does 
 it appear probable that any future generation will 
 surpass, or even equal them in the higher intel- 
 lectual endowments. 
 
 These considerations certainly do not predispose 
 us to expect that we shall ever be able to trace a 
 regular, continuous development of religion among 
 the nations. "We need not be surprised if we find, 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 15 
 
 in many cases, not improvement, but deterioration. 
 And there is not the slightest ground for the as- 
 sertion that Christianity is only the latest addition 
 to an edifice that has been slowly rising throughout 
 the ages, and to which most, or at least many, 
 nations have contributed. On the contrary, it can ^^^g^^^ 
 be demonstrated that, when we distinguish between cilrisSinity 
 reHgion and mere intellectual culture,^ 
 
 1st. There is no truth in any other religion which 
 does not shine forth with brighter light in 
 Christianity ; 
 
 2nd. Christianity has borrowed no truth from 
 any Pagan creed ; and 
 
 3rd. Every system except Christianity mingles 
 much error along with the truth that it 
 maintains.^ 
 
 We ought, perhaps, to state here that we regard 
 
 * It will be seen as we proceed that we do not overlook the Intellectual 
 
 importance, or question the value, of intellectual culture. It essentM*" 
 
 is an essential element in modem civilization. element of 
 
 Nor let it be forgotten that the Socratic ethics especially aa civilizatioa 
 
 elaborated in the later Stoic schools powerfully affected the Socratic 
 
 Roman jurists, and through them the legislation of modern Et^"- 
 Europe. 
 
 ' Whether any portion of the Jewish ritual was drawn from DerivatioB 
 Egypt is a different question. The symbolism that is seen in rituaT^*^ 
 the cherub has parallels among various nations ^Egyptiaus, 
 Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians, etc. That it was borrowed ia 
 not provcil. The so-called Egyptian ark, which was a boat, ba4 
 a very ditfereut use from the Jewish ark. 
 
16 
 
 Gkristianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 Judaism 
 and Chris- 
 tianity 
 regarded 
 as one 
 religion. 
 
 The Tract 
 deals with 
 extinct 
 forms of 
 Ancient 
 Paganism. 
 
 Judaism and Christianity the former as contained 
 in the Old Testament, the latter in the New as 
 one religion, one in the sense in which the rosehud 
 and the expanded rose, the " bright consummate 
 flower," are only one. Or we may say, they are 
 related to each other, as dawn is to sunrise. 
 
 Our Tract deals with " Christianity and Ancient 
 Paganism.'* By Ancient Paganism we here mean 
 those forms of Paganism which existed in ancient 
 days, but are now extinct. There are other systems 
 which existed in antiquity and have survived to 
 the present time. The most noted of these are 
 Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Con- 
 fucianism. We do not treat of these. ^ 
 
 It were well, if it were only possible, to discuss 
 the ancient religions in a strictly chronological 
 order. We could then better ascertain how much 
 or how little the later systems had been indebted 
 to the earlier. We shall keep this in mind ; but it 
 is difficult, in some cases, to state the historio 
 sequence. 
 
 Extinct 
 
 Pagan 
 
 religions. 
 
 II. 
 
 The great religions of Pagan antiquity that are 
 now extinct were the following : the Egyptian ; the 
 Babylonian and Assyrian ; the Phoenician ; the 
 Lydian and Phrygian ; the Hittite ; the Greek, and 
 
 *Each of these systems forms the subject of a separate 
 Tract in the Present Day Series (Nos. 25, 33, 46, ISl 
 
GhHstianity ana Ancient Paganism, J 7 
 
 the Roman. The religions of the Syrians, Moabites, 
 and other races in and around Palestine may be 
 considered along with that of the Phoenicians. 
 Those of the chief uncivilized races of ancient 
 Europe Celtic, Teutonic, and Sclavonian must The 
 
 A ^ religion 
 
 be treated, if at all, very briefly, seeing that our ^'gj"'-^" 
 knowledge of them is still very scanty. 
 
 1. The Egyptian System. 
 
 We begin with the Egyptian system. Civilization 
 seems to have commenced in the region of Meso- '^he earliest 
 
 *-' monumenta 
 
 potamia ; but the earliest monuments of it that ch-iiiiiation 
 have come down to us are connected with the valley withThe*^ 
 
 of the Nile. Se Kile. 
 
 The religion of Egypt presents very perplexing 
 problems. One of these is its extraordinary incon- \^^^^^^ 
 sistency. In some writings we meet with ideas of oi-Vgy^. 
 deity which are excessively refined refined till 
 they have become impalpable and colourless; in 
 others, we find polytheism in as debased aform as 
 tliat in which it appears among the lowest savages. 
 More remarkable still, we find these two things not 
 (mly existing at the same time, but expressed in 
 the same writings. Hence, vehement debate among vehement 
 Egyptologists. Most of them hold that the refined among 
 
 Egyptolo- 
 
 conceptions came first, and that the latter form was ei'*^' 
 a corruption gradually introduced. It is at least* 
 certain, as one of the strongest supporters ^ of the 
 ^ M. MA8{)eru 
 
 
18 
 
 CkHstianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Monothe- 
 istic ideas 
 probably 
 the first in 
 Eg-ypl. 
 
 Two 
 
 distinct 
 
 races 
 
 l>robably 
 
 originally 
 
 iiiliabited 
 
 Kf,'ypt. 
 
 opposite theory admits, that monotheistic iaeas 
 made their way very early into Egypt. It appears 
 to us that the balance of the evidence is in favour 
 of their having been there first. 
 
 But it is not improbable that the population of 
 Egypt consisted of two races originally distinct, 
 one mentally lower, probably African, and another 
 much higher, probably Asiatic Shemites. In that 
 case the religion was composite and inconsistent 
 from the beginning. 
 
 The refined system has by most been called mono- 
 theism; by others, henotheism. Others still caU 
 it pantheism. The dispute need not surprise us ; 
 for the conceptions expressed in Egyptian monu- 
 ments are vague, confused, conflicting ; nor does 
 it appear probable that any deeper study will ever 
 prove them to be mutually consistent. 
 
 Sun-worship unquestionably appears early. This, 
 and the reverence of metaphysical deities, are 
 mingled together even on the oldest monuments. 
 
 Above all systems that ever were, the Egyp- 
 tian abounded in symbolism. Every idea, every 
 shadow of an idea, had to be represented made 
 visible. The faith had^hen to pay the penalty of 
 this mental weakness. The sign, ere long, concealed 
 the thing signified it became its substitute. 
 
 Many writers contend that the higher classes 
 or ai all events, tne priests were acquainted with 
 a truly spiritual system, which they carefully con- 
 
 The 
 
 conceptions 
 
 in Egyptian 
 
 monuiuents 
 
 vague, 
 
 confused, 
 
 conflicting. 
 
 Early 
 
 appearance 
 of Sun- 
 worship. 
 
 Abundance 
 of symbol- 
 
 A concealed 
 spiritHal 
 eysiem 
 ascribed to 
 the priests. 
 
Vhriatianity and Ancient Paganism. 19 
 
 cealed from the common people. This is possible. 
 Populus riilt dccipi et decipiatur'^ is a hideous maxim 
 which, doubtless, has had sway in various lands. 
 But thej-e is no evidence of the intentional conceal- 
 ment of highei truths on the part of the Eg\^tian 
 priests. It was no function of theirs to educate JJ^ncti^ q^ 
 the people ; and probably the masses could not rise Egyptian 
 above the lowest form of brute- worship. Nor did educate tha 
 
 people. 
 
 the priests and the higher classes themselves really 
 rise abo^'e it ; they only succeeded, in a way difficult The pnesta 
 for us to conceive, in mingling higher and lower \l^^ ^^ 
 conceptions, and so identifying the divinity with conceptions 
 the brute. The religion changed ; it changed more the"(ivinity 
 than is at first apparent, for the Eg}'ptians were very bmte. 
 conservative of ancient forms; but the degrading 
 brute- worship endured as long as any part of the 
 religion. The same animals, however, were not 
 adored over the whole of the countr}' ; some which 
 were worshipped at one place were pursued and 
 killed at another ; and hence violent disputes often 
 ending in bloodshed. But we need not pursue the 
 subiect farther. We merely add that even the greeks and 
 
 ^ ' , Romans 
 
 Greeks and the Eomans were shocked by the Egyp^an^ 
 Egyptian worship. Plularch gravely reprobates its ^"^p- 
 " degrading rites ; " and the poet Juvenal levels 
 against it his sharpest shafts of ridicule.^ 
 
 ' The people wish to be deceived, and let them be so. 
 
 * Who haa uot heard, where Egyi-)t'a realuia are uamed, 
 What tnonster gods her frantio sons have framed f etc* 
 
20 
 
 Christianity a ad Ancient Paganism. 
 
 The 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 religion 
 
 giew more 
 
 and more 
 
 mystical 
 
 and 
 
 In the course of its long existence the religion 
 oecame more and more mystical, and more and 
 more magical. Thus, in the " Book of the Dead," 
 the most remarkable document which has come down 
 from the ancient days of Egypt, comparatively 
 little is said of duties, but much of spells and in- 
 cantations. 
 
 There are, no doubt, as was to be expected, 
 many good moral precepts scattered here and 
 there, in books and on monuments. But "the 
 morality remained stationary at the elementary 
 stage ; and its moral maxims never rise to the 
 rank of principles."^ "The morality must have 
 been totally independent of the religion."^ No 
 divorce could have been more unhappy ; and we 
 need not wonder that the naked ethical maxim 
 often remained impotent, while " a thousand 
 superstitions took the place of the attempt to lead 
 an honest life." ^ 
 
 The priests, in the original constitution of 
 Egypt, had comparatively little power. That 
 power, however, steadily increased, until every- 
 thing in life was ruled by them. In Upper Egypt 
 they, by-and-by, usurped full regal authority; 
 and they retained it long. 
 
 Good moral 
 precepts 
 here and 
 there in 
 books and 
 monuments. 
 
 The 
 
 morality 
 stationary 
 at the 
 elementary 
 stage, and' 
 independent 
 of religion. 
 
 More use 
 of priestly 
 power. 
 
 So Prof. Tiele. 
 2 Poole, in Encycl. Britan. The same writer says that we 
 have, in the "Book of the Dead," "a glimpse of truth seen 
 through thick mists peopled with phautoma of basest super- 
 rtition." 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 21 
 
 orty of 
 women 
 
 Women in Egypt were allowed mucli liberty ; Lib 
 
 , . , . won. 
 
 but evidently it often ran into licence. This was often ran 
 
 ' into license. 
 
 especially the case during the pilgrimage to 
 Bubastis, which Herodotus tells us was by far the 
 most popular and magnificent of Egyptian festivals. 
 Evil ran riot during this great celebration.^ Truly, 
 religion and morality were separable and separate 
 in ancient Egypt. Monogamy was the rule, but 
 concubinage was frequent. Brother and sister 
 often intermarried. 
 
 And now, is there any element of truth which Egypt 
 
 ' contributed 
 
 Egypt contributed towards the establishment of ""tf^JS"' 
 the final form of religion? We have seen that SbiiSimtnt 
 this is frequently maintained ; but the belief seems form of 
 to have no foundation. If, as Diodorus held, the 
 Greeks derived their rehgion from Egypt, they 
 entirely changed it; they humanized the gods, 
 instead of keeping them brutal. The idea ,that 
 Moses, who was skilled in all the wisdom of the ?u^ ^^.* 
 
 ' that Moses 
 
 Egyptians, drew any of his lofty conceptions of orMsTdfty 
 Jehovah from Egyptian sources, was often loudly ITjtlovSti 
 asserted in former days ; but it seems now generally Egyptian 
 
 sources 
 
 abandoned even by critics of the negative school, abandoned 
 
 '' o * even by 
 
 like KueneD. Wellhausen, too, distinctly affirms ^^^^ 
 that "Moses gave no new idea of God to his 
 people. The question whence he derived it could 
 not possibly be worse answered than by a reference 
 
 * Tiele, Egyptian Religum, p. 192. 
 
22 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Wellhausen 
 maintains 
 that 
 
 Jehovah has 
 nothing 
 in common 
 with the 
 deities of 
 Egypt. 
 
 The 
 
 worship of 
 Osiris and 
 Ra formed 
 the basis 
 of the 
 Egyptian 
 religion. 
 
 to his relations with the priestly caste and theii 
 wisdom." He maintains .that Jehovah has 
 nothing in common with the deities of Egypt. Of 
 course, we do not forget that the multitude who 
 had long been familiar with the brute worship 
 around them, began to adore the golden calf ; but 
 we know that the degrading rite was suppressed 
 with a sternness of indignation which must have 
 profoundly impressed the whole of that generation 
 and many succeeding ones. 
 
 The religion, as has been said, sustained great 
 changes.^ In the oldest monuments Osiris and E-a 
 are mentioned ; their worship formed the basis of 
 the religion. Each is a divine being revealing 
 himself in the sun.^ They are often confounded 
 with each other. Afterwards, eight deities were 
 classed in the first order ; twelve in the second ; and 
 four in the third. The highest of the first order 
 was Amn or Amun (usually said to mean concealed). 
 He has properly the form of man ; he sits with 
 crown and sceptre on a throne, and holds in his 
 hand a kind of cross, which is the s3mabol of life. 
 
 * De Roug^ and not a few others trace the high Bpiritual 
 conceptions of God to primeval Revelation ; and they point to 
 evidences of a gradual corruption of these. Tiele admits that 
 the most ancient system was the simplest and purest. And yet 
 he calls the corruption of this *' a retrogression to the earlier 
 stand-point." He thus holds that purity first grew out of 
 impurity, and then impurity out of purity. The explanation 
 ia forced. De Rough's is far more simple and conaistenl. 
 
 ' Tiels, pw k. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 23 
 
 He was often united with Ea, and became Amun- 
 Ra the hidden one who is revealed in the sun. 
 Most of the deities had animals' heads, which were 
 probably symbols of qualities. 
 
 By the time of Herodotus Osiris had become ^ *^5_ 
 
 ^ chief deity 
 
 the chief deity. Isis was his mother, sister, and jlme^of 
 wife. Her worship steadily increased. The myth ^^^''^'^<'*^- 
 of Osiris was the mother-myth in Esrypt. He was The myth 
 
 , , . . of Osiris 
 
 said to have been killed and buried, his body the mother- 
 
 ^ myth m 
 
 ha^dng been cut in pieces, which were scattered, ^^^p*- 
 
 He revived, and became the judge of the dead. 
 
 The future life greatly occupied the mind of the ^Jif gJ^eSy 
 
 Egyptians. As time went on, the myth of Osiris JJ;p^^^ 
 
 became more terrible ; and the views entertained mfnd/^ 
 
 of a future existence more and more gloomy. In 
 
 the " Book of the Dead " the adventures of the P _^ , 
 
 departed 
 
 departed soul came to be described with appalling fp^oj^ o?* 
 minuteness of detail. It is important to note that 
 there was no idea of God as forgiving sin. The 
 wicked soul was devoured by serpents, cast into 
 flames, or otherwise destroyed. The good man 
 himself had to encounter sore trials in the other 
 world. Snares lay in his path ; monsters assailed 
 hioa. His safety lay in grasping the sacred spear, 
 and repeating magical words from the sacred 
 books. Thus, at last he reached the happy fields. 
 . in which he could labour as on earth, but reap 
 harvests far more abundant than he had done 
 before. 
 
24 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 The 
 
 principle 
 of moral 
 retribution 
 accepted. 
 
 In estimating the character of the Egyptian 
 system, the doctrine of a future life must, by no 
 means, be left out of aocount. The principle of 
 moral retribution was accepted ; and if Greece 
 really borrowed it from Egypt, she did not re- 
 tain so firm a hold of it. But we would gladly 
 know how the belief affected men during life, 
 and in the prospect of death. The Egyptian 
 deities were strictly, sternly just. What then, as 
 he faced the regions of Amenti the other world 
 were the thoughts of a man who had, on the 
 whole, sought to live virtuously, but who, like 
 all of us, had "bitter thoughts of conscience 
 bom?" We remember the triumphant language 
 of the prophet Micah " Who is a God like unto 
 Thee, that pardoneth iniquity?" and even, in the 
 earliest days of Israel, the mercy of Jehovah was 
 declared in equally emphatic terms with His 
 righteousness.^ Now, of mercifulness, in the 
 sense of forgiving sin, there is no trace whatever 
 in the Egyptian conception of the divine. Surely 
 a most marked deficiency. 
 
 The strong impression which the future world 
 made on the Egyptian mind is very noteworthy. 
 Whence could it spring ? The usual explanation 
 is that it was "nothing but a mystic representa- 
 tion, arising out of sun-worship." " The sun sank 
 
 No trace 
 of merci- 
 fulness in 
 the sense 
 of forgiving 
 sin in the 
 Egyptian 
 conception 
 of the 
 Divine. 
 
 The usual 
 explanation 
 of the 
 impression 
 of the 
 future 
 world on the 
 E^ptian 
 
 See Exodus sxxiv. 6, 7.] 
 
 Tiele, p. 70. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 25 
 
 in the west and disappeared ; he died. Yet he 
 was not destroyed; he moved across the dark 
 under-world, and soon, with undiminished bright- 
 ness, " flamed in the forehead of the morning 
 sky." ^ So every good man would triumph over 
 death. Such is the explanation ; but it seems to Jxpianation 
 halt. For though day succeeds night, night again *'*^"^" 
 succeeds day ; and if the solar phenomenon had 
 been the foundation of the belief, we should have 
 expected a balanced dualism, victory and defeat 
 alternating in a perpetually renewed struggle be- 
 tween light and darkness, life and death, good* and 
 evil. We believe that in Amun, the "hidden one," An early 
 
 conception 
 
 we can still trace an early conception of the g{,*I?^f^g 
 supreme divinity, brought, probably, by the A,nu"-the 
 Shemites from the plains of Shinar. The sun was 
 naturally turned to as a representative of Amun ; 
 and they were often blended into one Amun Ra, 
 the hidden and revealed in one. The other deities 
 
 Belief in 
 
 seem to have been personified attributes. With a future 
 
 existence 
 
 regard to belief in a future existence it seems n^g^^ssariiy 
 necessarily to accompany a belief in deity. J^company 
 
 We cannot say that the character of the deity!^ "* 
 Egyptians stood high, either intellectually or The 
 morally. No writing of theirs survives which be- of the 
 
 Egyptians. 
 
 tokens genius or even deep thought. They had 
 
 massive, not graceful, architecture. Art soon 
 
 became stationary. In later ages there was an 
 
 1 Milton, in Lycidas. 
 
26 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 incongruous blending of Egyptian and Grecian 
 Elements in architocture. Plodding, patient, industrious, they 
 
 Kgyptian 
 
 character, doubtloss wsre. But they were also tyrannical ; 
 given to wine ; and careless in morals. Some 
 add, and not without reason, " lying, thieving, 
 treacherous, cringing, and intensely prejudiced 
 against strangers.'*^ 
 The In Egypt we may behold a despot ruling a 
 
 *"o ,e^ nation of slaves. The sovereign reigned as repre- 
 senting divinity. Limitation of his power was 
 simply inconceivable.^ In no nation, ancient or 
 modern not in ancient Assyria or modern Turkey 
 was " the right divine of kings " ^ so deeply im- 
 planted in the mind of the subjects. 
 
 2. Babylonian and Assyrian Systems. 
 
 ^e religion ^^j^ come now to spcak of the reHgion of Babylon 
 and Assyria, and Assyria. 
 
 The Tigro-Euphrates valley, with its streams and 
 
 rich alluvial plains, was a very early seat of civiHza- 
 
 tion. Monuments exist which may carry us as far 
 
 Inti iiity ^^^^ ^ three thousand years before the Christian 
 
 monuments, ^ra, or probably farther. The first inhabitants 
 
 ^ So R. S. Poole, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. 
 
 * Tiele points out how unlike Egypt was to Israel in tliia 
 respect. The existence of the prophetic order secured to Israel 
 almost a constitutional govei-nment, or its equivalent. 
 
 ^ The right divine of kings to govern wrong." 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 27 
 
 appear, from the evidence of language, to have been The first 
 
 m 1 1 rT 1 1 inhabitants 
 
 Turanian, rather than Shemitic their language Turanian. 
 being of the Ural-Altaic class. The name Akka- 
 dian (mountaineer) is now usually given to them. 
 Another important tribe, evidently Shemitic, then a shemitic 
 pressed into those fertile regions probably from fjos?*^ *"**' 
 the Syro- Arabian desert. The two races appear ^'^^^^^- 
 to have mingled in Southern Chaldsea, and a high 
 degree of civilization was early attained. 
 
 Their reliorion bore abundant traces of their Traces of 
 
 *-* double 
 
 double origin. The Akkadian faith like Turanian Jjjp^ugior 
 systems generally was Animistic or Shamanistic, 
 that is to say, fundamentally, spirit- worship. Every 
 obJQct in nature, whether animate or inanimate, 
 was supposed to be ruled by a spirit. Malignant 
 spirits were especially numerous; many of them 
 ghosts, that is, the spirits of the dead. The 
 spirits, however, were all subject to the control of 
 a priest, or wizard. By the power of spells and 
 incantations, the wizard could compel them to do 
 his bidding. The Akkadian liturgies that have '{^^ 
 been preserved are almost all exorcisms mere ^iT'^"^' 
 magical formula). ''''''^'^' 
 
 The Shemitic race, that came in later and largely The 
 blended with the Akkadians, had a religion of a race had 
 
 ^ a religion 
 
 higher type. M. Renan has asserted that all j g,^^^^*'' 
 Shemites had a monotheistic instinct ; but the 
 assertion cannot be accepted unless the term mono- 
 theism be divested of its ordinary meaning. Most 
 
 
28 GhHstianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Mest of the of the Sliemitic races have heen conspicuously 
 races idolatrous, as well as polytheistic ; and if it be 
 
 idolatrous 
 
 an4 poly- said that one deity was almost always regarded 
 
 as superior to the rest, the same assertion may he 
 
 made regarding other than Shemitic peoples.^ 
 
 The sun- The suu-god held a high place among the 
 
 who^^''"^^'^^^ Shemites who occupied Chaldaea ; and the moon- 
 
 cSdffia. god, one almost equally high. In countries like 
 
 Arabia and Chaldaea, the magnificence of the starry 
 
 heavens, and the moon " walking in her brightness," 
 
 compel attention by their mystery, their beauty, 
 
 and their beneficence.^ We cannot be surprised if, 
 
 with the mass, admiration passed into adoration. 
 
 Astronomy was studied, and it became astrology 
 
 one might say, inevitably so. 
 
 The Babylonian faith continued to show clear 
 
 Bab Ion traces of its twofold origin. Life in Babylon must 
 
 have been " almost intolerable ; " ^ superstition 
 
 conjured up a thousand terrors ; unseen malignant 
 
 beings were everywhere, and everj^where plotting 
 
 The early mischief. Hcuce, masric early became developed 
 
 development ' , o j r 
 
 of magic -j^^Q g^ regular science. Divination, augury, fortune- 
 telling, necromancy, and kindred base beliefs flour- 
 ished in foul luxuriance. 
 
 * Thus, Herr Jellinghaus, a missionary who spent years 
 among the Kols in India, says they may almost be classed as 
 monotheists. They believe in innumerable spirits, but in the 
 sun-spirit as supreme. 
 
 ' Very notable in this connexion are the words in Job xxxL 
 26-28. 
 
 So Prof. Sayce. 
 
court of 
 Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. 
 
 Ch^tianity and Ancient Paganism. 29 
 
 "Stand uow," exclaims the prophet Isaiah, addressing Baby- 
 lon, *' with thine enchantments and with the multitude of thy 
 sorceries, wherein thou hast laboured from thy youth." ^ 
 
 The prophet also calls on the " astrologers, the 
 star-gazers, and the monthly prognosticators/' to The place 
 
 .of inter- 
 foretell, if they can, and avert, the destruction preters of 
 
 ' ' dreams, etc, 
 
 which was fast overtaking the haughty city. It ** *^ 
 would appear that in the court of Nehuchadnezzar, 
 the highest place was given to expounders of 
 dreams, soothsayers, and astrologers; and that 
 only after them came the civil administrators of 
 the empire. 
 
 The doctrine of one God shines out clear and The 
 
 doctrine of 
 
 unmistakable in various important documents. In 9^e God 
 
 ^ m vanouB 
 
 Smith's Chaldean Account of Genesis this is very SmSte. 
 fully shown. 
 
 "At the head of the Babylonian theology stands Anu a 
 deity who is sometimes identified with the heavens sometimes 
 considered as the Ruler and God of heaven." 
 
 In one important part of the tablet recording J 
 
 the 
 tablet 
 
 God.' 
 
 creation, only one God is mentioned, and simply as creatiJn^the 
 "the God.*' The fragments of the tablet "might ooli^ 
 belong to the purest system of religion.*' These ^s^ Se 
 are important statements. It would be very inter- 
 esting if we could determine the date of the re- 
 markable document on which Mr. Smith thus 
 comments. Professor Sayce thinks that the poem 
 on creation (Chaldeati Genesis) is not probably older 
 than the days of Assur-bani-pal, the grandson of 
 * Luuah xlvii 12. 
 
30 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 The date 
 uf the 
 poem on 
 Creation, 
 
 Sennacherib which would bring it down to the 
 7th century b.c. ; but he also holds that similar 
 views prevailed at a much earlier date among the 
 Akkadians. The professor speaks of the time 
 when monotheistic ideas " arose." The question, 
 however, is whether they had not existed from the 
 beginning, at least among the Shemitic portion of 
 the people. We believe that God had " never left 
 Himself without witness," and that there was, in 
 addition to this, a monotheistic tradition. There, 
 doubtless, was a vacillation, an oscillation, between 
 monotheism and polytheism ; but the former belief, 
 though frequently overlaid, was never wholly ex- 
 tinguished. Such is the inference which we feel 
 ourselves compelled to draw from all the available 
 evidence. 
 
 The worship of Anu was gradually superseded. 
 His daughter was Istar (Ashtaroth or Astarte), con- 
 nected with whom there was a far more sensual 
 worship than that of Anu. This in time supplanted 
 the older and purer system.^ All this is easily 
 understood ; but if we hold that the worship of one 
 God arose out of gross polytheism, and then sank 
 back into it, we are landed in inextricable diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 Ood's 
 
 witness to 
 
 riimself 
 
 and 
 
 monotheistic 
 
 tradition. 
 
 Mono- 
 theistio 
 belief 
 never ex- 
 dngnished. 
 
 The 
 
 difficulty 
 of supposing 
 that the 
 worship of 
 one God 
 arose out 
 of poly- 
 theism and 
 then sank 
 back into 
 it 
 
 ^ " The worship of Istar became one of the darkest features of 
 Babylonian theology. As this worship increased in favour, it 
 gradually superseded that of Anu, until in time his temple 
 the house of heaven came to be regarded as the temple v' 
 Vemis." 0. Smith, 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. o\ 
 
 \VTien the great monotheistic idea is surrendered, The muiti- 
 
 plicHtioii of 
 
 deities easily multiply. "We need not give a Ijst deities 
 of Babylonian gods. Merodach seems to have been g^ e^^er 
 a national divinity, the protector of Babylon ; and JheS^^ 
 with him was probably identified Bel, whose name 
 is generally supposed to be a variant form of Baal, 
 i.e., master, owner. 
 
 Certain parts of Babylonian worship were exces- Jj^J^!^ 
 eively impure. There was a law in Babylon that worehip. 
 every woman, once in her life, should prostitute 
 herself to any stranger that asked her in the temple 
 of the chief goddess. Even Herodotus deuounces 
 the practice as " in the highest degree abominable." 
 It seems to have been from Babylon that the hor- 
 rible pollution passed over into Greece and Sicily, 
 and various other places. 
 
 The Assyrian nation was greatly influenced by The 
 the Babylonian, which evidently was the older of ot the 
 the two.^ The people have been well called " the ^^^o^- 
 Romans of Asia."* They were a nation of fero- 
 cious warriors, in whose nature cruelty seems to 
 have been ingrained. They blinded, impaled, tor- 
 tured, or flayed alive, their prisoners ; while the 
 Eg)T)tians, we may note, were by no means so 
 merciless. Their character was reflected in their 
 religion. Human sacrifices were frequent. 
 
 Magic, sorcery, and divination were hardly less Jjjf*,^ 
 prevalent in Assyria than in Babylon. The pro- '^^^ 
 ' Aa stated in Oened* z. 11. ' By Q. Hawlioaon. 
 
32 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 phet Nahum, in his magnificent description of the 
 siege and capture of Nineveh, the capital, styles it 
 "the mistress of witchcrafts/* 
 
 The chief 
 divinity 
 of the 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 Their 
 worship. 
 
 Hamsm 
 sacrifices. 
 
 3. Phcenician System. 
 
 "We next speak of the Phoenicians, whc were early 
 distinguished as an enterprizing commercial people. 
 Wo are still douhtful as to their origin and their 
 relation to the other Canaanite races. Their chief 
 divinity was Baal also called Moloch, who seems to 
 have been the sun-god. The sun could be viewed as 
 a beneficent being, or as a relentless tyrant flaming 
 with wrath ; and generally, or at all events fre- 
 quently, he was regarded in the latter aspect. 
 Only blood human blood could appease the anger 
 of the deity when it was deeply roused. Hence 
 the priests scourged and gashed themselves ; and 
 liis votaiies strove to propitiate him by sacrificing 
 their best and dearest. Milton's celebrated de- 
 scription is not drawn in colours over-dark : 
 
 Moloch, horrid king, bedewed with blood 
 
 Of infant sacrifice and parents' tears, 
 
 Though, for the noise of drums and cymbals loud. 
 
 The children's cries unheard that passed through fire 
 
 To his grim idol. 
 
 The firstborn especially were thus sacrificed, and 
 on occasions of great public calamity multitudes of 
 youths of the noblest families were burnt alive. 
 Thus at Carthage, which was colonized from Tyre, 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 33 
 
 wlien Agathocles had inflicted a severe defeat on 
 the citizens, at least two hundred children of the 
 nohlest hirth were sacrificed ; ^ and when, in turn, 
 the Carthaginians had gained a victory, their most 
 beautiful captives were in Hke manner offered up. 
 Our readers ynB. remember the frequent mention Jlstament 
 of this dreadful rite in the Old Testament. Among re'r*- 
 Shemitic races, the Hebrews alone were taught to 
 hold it in abhorrence. 
 
 This terrible hardness of character was accom- 
 panied might we not say caused ? ^ ^by another JiyfoitL* 
 leading characteristic of Phoenician worship its rhoeniciM 
 shameful lasciviousness. It equalled in this respect, 
 if it did not surpass, the Babylonian system. We 
 cannot dwell on the disgusting subject. The old 
 Akkadian religion had been marked by cruelty ; 
 but impurity, as an essential part of worship, was 
 foreign to it. This deplorable distinction clung es- 
 pecially to Shemitic races Israel alone excepted, israei aione 
 
 f^ ' ^ among 
 
 The characteristics of the three religicfns we have raceTfree 
 
 from 
 
 in woisnip. 
 
 mentioned Babylonian, Assyrian, and Phoenician jm^rf 
 belonged in a greater or less degree to the cognate 
 
 * The language of Diodorus u not quite clear ; but, as Grote 
 observeb, the number of children offered up was certainly 200, 
 and probably 500, History of Greece, vni., p. 604, 
 
 "Lust hard by hate." So Milton. Or, as Robert Burn* 
 has it 
 
 I waive the quantum of the sin, 
 
 The hazard of concealing ; 
 But oh ! it hardens all within, 
 
 And petrifies the feeling. 
 
 shi 
 
34 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 The moral 
 degradation 
 of the 
 seven 
 nations of 
 Canaan. 
 
 The purity 
 
 of Israel- 
 
 itish relig:ion 
 
 inexplicable 
 
 on 
 
 naturalistic 
 
 principles. 
 
 races such as Ammonites, Moabites, etc. The 
 " seven nations of Canaan " are mentioned in the 
 Pentateuch as all alike sunk in the depths of moral 
 corruption ; so that the land was ready to " spue 
 them out." This renders the severely pure morahty 
 of the religion of Israel truly remarkable, and, on 
 naturalistic principles, inexplicable. We have no 
 right to suppose that, in original temperament or 
 character, the Hebrews differed radically from 
 their brethren. By what conceivable process, then, 
 of natural evolution could their religion arise P 
 
 The chief 
 
 systems 
 in the 
 interior 
 of Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 A.88yrian 
 .deas widely 
 diSuaed. 
 
 4. Ltdian and Phrygian Ststbha. 
 
 We come now to speak of the chief systems 
 that prevailed in the interior of Asia Minor,i 
 particularly in Lydia and Phrygia. In describing 
 these, we require to state carefully the dates to 
 which we refer ; for, in those regions, the dis- 
 placement of races and religions was very frequent. 
 Turanians, Shemites, Aryans, all clashed together 
 within the peninsula. The Turanians came first. 
 But from the I2th to the 7th century b.c, the 
 predominant power in Asia Minor was Assyria; 
 aud Assyrian (or Babylonian) ideas on religion 
 were, in consequence, widely diffused, extending 
 even to the ^gean Sea. The Persian dominion 
 followed; and Zoroastrian rites to a considerable 
 
 ' Strabo, who knew the region well, speaks es|>ecially -^f 
 Oappadooia as haviug adopted Persian rites to a large extent 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 35 
 
 extent superseded, or rather, bleuded with the zoroaatrian 
 
 . . . rites 
 
 Assyrian, aud also with the still more ancient superseded 
 
 ^ ' or blended 
 
 Turanian worship, which had never been wholly XJ^^y^ian 
 extinguished. It probably was from their Tu- ^fh^tu^ 
 ranian descent that the religious of Lydia auc' Turamaa. 
 Phrygia were especially marked as passionate and Turanian 
 orgiastic. Excitement was wrought up to frenzy pjJ^'^^^J"* 
 by the beating of drums, the clashing of cymbals, '^** 
 and the wildest dances. The worshippers, the priests 
 especially, ran howling, cutting themselves with 
 knives. All this was terribly apt to end in un- 
 bridled debauchery. Such was the worship of the 
 Great Mother and the god Sabazios. VVlien these 
 rites, along with the closely allied worship of 
 Dionysus (Bacchus), had been introduced into 
 Rome about the year 176 b.c, the Senate was 
 compelled to suppress them by the strong arm of 
 law as being utterly intolerabla 
 
 6. HiTTiTE System. 
 
 Recently most important discoveries have 
 been made regarding the Hittites a race, or 
 union of races, that rose into power in the 16th 
 century b.c, and for centuries contended valiantly 
 with the Egyptians on the one side and the 
 Assyrians on the other. It miarht have been Hittite fajih 
 
 ^ " not purer 
 
 hoped that their faith would prove, on investiga- ^^^^ 
 tion, to be of a higher type than the systems 
 
t3tf Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 which have already passed under review. It is 
 not so, however. 
 
 " The religion of the HilLites seems to have been appropriated 
 from the worst features of Babylonian, Phenician, and, latterly, 
 Egyptian idolatry." ^ 
 
 We must pause m this sorrowful review. As 
 a well-informed writer puts it, 
 
 The "The whole philo80i)hy of the religion of Asia Minor is 
 
 philosophy summed up in three words. We find them engraven on a tomb 
 
 reli^on found at Kotiaion, in Phrygia : ' This is what I say to my 
 
 of Asia friends : Give yourselves up to pleasure and enjoyment : live. For 
 
 summed up. you must die. Therefore drink, enjoy, dance.'* ' 
 
 6. Grecian System. 
 
 teiie tiiai -^^^ ^^^ ^"^ P^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Hellas, 
 ^Khe^ and to a people with whom we modems have 
 far closer intellectual sympathy, whose thoughts, 
 even when we may not sjTnpathize with them, 
 we can at least understand. The religion of 
 
 Greeks. 
 
 The Greece must have been in a lar^e degree derived 
 
 religion of <- <_> 
 
 derived from "^^^^"^ ^'SYV^ ^"^ ^^^^^ more, the East; but the 
 tti^EasT*^ shaping spirit of the highly endowed Greeks en- 
 tirely changed its original character. It made the 
 Character"'' deitios thofoughly human gigantic men and 
 QrSk women. They had human passions, virtues, vices. 
 
 They ate and drank, quarrelled and fought, very 
 much as the lively Greeks were accustomed to do 
 among themselves ; and these divinities were some- 
 
 ' So Canon Tristram. 
 * Berne des dewe Mondes, Oct. 1873, p. 936. 
 
Cho^istianity and Ancient Paganism. 37 
 
 times so merry at a friend's expense, it might 
 be that " inextinguishable laughter " shook the 
 skies. Such, at least, is the system that appears 
 in the Homeric poems. How far it may have The system 
 
 ^ "> ascribed to 
 
 been the production of one, or perhaps two minds, i^JeliS 
 we cannot, with assurance, say ; the Greek writers and^iieJori 
 generally ascribed its rise to the joint influence of 
 Homer and Hesiod ; bat one would think it could 
 only by degrees have assumed its peculiar type. 
 The great popularity of Homer imprinted it deeply 
 on the mind of the people. Changes, however, 
 came on; foreign rites pressed in. Before the 
 Persian war a great alteration was visible in many 
 respects. The earlier Greeks had been a stirring. The 
 
 ^ character 
 
 joyous, careless race, not much occupied with o^^J.^ 
 religion ; but gradually there came to bo magni- ^^^^^^i*^- 
 ficent temples, priests, solemn ceremonies, mysteries, jise of 
 Wild orgiastic religions also appeared, or, if not ^-. 
 new, they were carried to much greater excess than religions. 
 before, the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus) for 
 example, of the Thracian goddess Cotytto, and the 
 Syrian god Adonis (Tammuz, as in Ezek. viii. 14). 
 
 In the theology of Homer, as a careful student ^ ^1^^"^* 
 of the Iliad and Odyssey has admitted, " elements {Jeo^ogy 
 of a profound corruption abound." Later systems ' oer. 
 were still worse. But philosophy arose. Grave, 
 thoughtful men were shocked at the popular con- 
 ceptions of deity, and began to denounce them. 
 > Mr. aiadstone. 
 
38 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Faganisno. 
 
 The idea 
 of the 
 divine 
 purged in 
 the hands 
 of the 
 sacfts. 
 
 The de- 
 basement 
 of the 
 religion of 
 the common 
 people. 
 
 Its confce- 
 quences. 
 
 The 
 
 retrospect 
 profoundly 
 priinful. 
 
 In the hands of a succession of sages the abstract 
 idea of the divine was more and more purged of 
 base alloy ; but, in proportion as it became refined, 
 the notion grew dimmer ; until, in the case of 
 Ajistotle, deity was a power, or a principle, rather 
 than a person. Even Plato never inquired about 
 the personality of God ; he seems rather to think 
 of a diffused soul of the world. ^ But philosophic 
 speculation was not for the common people. Their 
 religion became lower and lower. Offences against 
 God and human nature ere long flourished in rank 
 luxuriance. As both cause and effect of all this, 
 a light scoffing infideKty extended among all the 
 educated. Then patriotism and public spirit died. 
 AH that was magnanimous in Greek character 
 faded away; the *' hungry Greekling " (Grceculus 
 esuriens) was ready to say, or do, anything for a 
 bit of bread. Art itself became debased. Even 
 the population began to die out ; in various places, 
 in order to prevent fertile regions from being 
 changed into deserts, Roman colonists were 
 brought in; and "shocldng immorality was the 
 cancer that ate into the life of Greece." '^ 
 
 The retrospect we have been engaged in is pro- 
 foundly painful. " Immortal Greece dear land of 
 glorious lays,'* exclaims Keble, speaking of the 
 classic poetry with all a poet's passion. Yet notwith- 
 standing her subtle intellect, and vivid imagination 
 
 ^ So Zeller. > So Thirlwall. 
 
Christianity and Anient Faganiam. 39 
 
 and perfect taste, she sank into an abyss thus The abyss 
 
 of shame 
 
 fathomless of shame and ruin. Why ? Even an^ ruin- 
 Byron saw the reason : 
 
 ** Enough, no foreign foe could queU 
 Thy soul, till from itself it fell. 
 And self-abasement paved the way 
 To villain bonds and despot sway." 
 
 It is through the beautiful we reach the good, 
 said Schiller. Say rather, through the good the 
 beautiful. At all events, when the love of the 
 good has passed away, the perception of the 
 beautiful peiishos soon after. This is one of the "^^ lesson 
 lessons which is inscribed on the history of Hellas, ^^^y ' 
 as if "graven with an iron pen and lead," and 
 80 inscribed "in the rock for ever." 
 
 7. Roman System. 
 We come now to Rome. The Romans were The 
 
 ... character 
 
 originally in many things different from the ^^^^ 
 Greeks. Less speculative ; more practical ; simpler, 
 truer, graver ; more law-abiding ; with a better 
 family life; and possessed of a deeper religious 
 instinct. The early religion of Rome had con- The 
 
 ^ *-' resemblance 
 
 siderable resemblance to that of Greece, both ^V^^^ ^"'}^ 
 
 ' religion oi 
 
 having sprung out of one Aryan faith ; but, for SaT'o/" 
 some time, the two systems tended to diverge, ^""^^ 
 each being influenced by its own environment. It 
 is interesting to note that the Roman religion had 
 
40 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Points of special points of correspondence with the old 
 
 correspon- 
 
 dence with Persian, as unfolded in the Zend-avesta.^ Much 
 
 the old ' 
 
 Persian, moro importance was attached to rites than 
 to beliefs or emotions the worship tending to a 
 punctilious extemalism ; prayer became a kind of 
 magical formula ; much stress was laid on cere- 
 monial purity ; the mythology was meagre. A 
 new departure took place towards the end of the 
 regal period. Images were now introduced ; and 
 temples, increasing in splendour, began to appear. 
 
 iS^rnes^**" The religion became more and more political, and 
 
 LliTmore was rcgulatcd by the State. But cold formalism 
 could not satisfy the popular mind and heart. 
 
 Greek and First, Grock and then Asiatic gods and goddesses 
 
 Asiatic gods ' o o 
 
 press in, pressod iu. Infidelity succeeded, at least among 
 
 the higher classes. The poet Ennius, a Calabrian 
 
 Greek, was among the first to propagate it. During 
 
 the two centuries that preceded the birth of Christ, 
 
 The spread unbelief Spread like a pestilence, and immorality 
 
 ^^ ^^ kept pace with it. Each was both cause and effect 
 
 anmoiahty. ^ -t 
 
 of the other. In vain did the elder Cato strive to 
 keep out the infection ; in vain did he inveigh 
 against the Greeks as the " parents of every vice;" 
 corruption rushed on, as Augustine says, " like a 
 headlong torrent." Family life greatly changed ; 
 divorce became fashionable ; and women in many 
 cases, women of the highest rank became shame- 
 
 ^ So the Zend and Latin languages have epecial points iu 
 common. 
 
Chriaticmity and Ancient Paganism, 41 
 
 less in their degradation. Even noted historical 
 personages, with whose names we do not readily 
 associate the idea of vice, were men of abandoned 
 life. Thus Dr. Arnold speaks with severe repro- ^r- ^Arnold 
 
 ^ ^ on Juhua 
 
 bation of " the utter moral degradation " of Julius ^'*'^^- 
 GaBsar. A deep darkness, almost amounting to 
 despair, seemed settling down on the minds of 
 men. Suicide prevailed, in consequence, to an un- 
 paralleled extent. 
 
 But the nemesis of infidelity is superstition. The ^he 
 
 ' ^ tiemeats of 
 
 old Italic religion had been comparatively pure. ^"^<^"*y 
 Thus in the very name of the chief god, Jupiter 
 Optimus MaximuSf we find the ideas of supreme 
 goodness and supreme power.^ But when these 
 had perished, something was felt to be needful in 
 their place; and* dark, gloomy faiths hideous The 
 brutal mysteries ^from Egypt, Asia Minor, and superstition 
 Babylon flowed in to fill the intolerable void. In 
 Greece itself, as religion declmed, magic and sor- 
 cery, its miserable substitutes, had greatly flourished. 
 So in Rome. Conjurors, soothsayers, astrologers, 
 and fortune-tellers filled every street, and insinuated 
 themselves into every household. " Professed ^^""^ 
 atheists trembled in secret at the mysterious power **^*'^^*^ 
 of magical incantations ; " many invoked the 
 shades of the dead, or strove to penetrate into the 
 
 ' So Cicero : Te, Capitoliue, quern propter beneficia popi^lufl 
 Romanus optimum, propter vim maximum, nominavit. Pro 
 domo $ua, e, 57. 
 
42 
 
 Clii'xstianity and Ancient FayauisTn 
 
 Matthew 
 Arnold's 
 sketch of 
 the mental 
 condition of 
 the higher 
 clasfies in 
 Home. 
 
 secrets of futurity by examining the entrails of a 
 murdered child.^ 
 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold, with a few strokes, has 
 given us a vivid sketch of the mental condition of 
 the higher classes in Rome : 
 
 On that hard Pagan world disgust And secret loathing fell, 
 
 And weariness and sated lust Made human life a hell. 
 
 In bis cool hall, with haggard eyes, The noble Roman lay, 
 
 He drove abroad in furious guise Along the Appian Way ; 
 
 He made a feast, drank fierce and fast, And crowned hia hair 
 
 with flowers 
 No easier and no quicker passed The impracticable hours. 
 
 M. Renan's testimony is the same. He states 
 that, under the empire, Rome became a very hell 
 {un vrai enfer). 
 
 Renan'8 
 testimony. 
 
 Greek and 
 Roman 
 
 philosophy. 
 
 Stoidsm. 
 
 The 
 
 conception 
 of man as 
 man not 
 foreign to 
 it. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be thought that in the preceding 
 estimate we have overlooked the value of Greek 
 and Roman philosophy. On that head, then, we 
 still add a few words. 
 
 Morally, the best philosophical system was 
 Stoicism. We have spoken above of the value of 
 this philosophy in the development of jurisprudence. 
 The later Stoicism certainly enunciated various im- 
 portant principles in ethics. Thus the cosmopolitan 
 idea the conception of man as man was not 
 foreign to it. It admitted that slaves were not 
 mere things, but possessed of rights. Stoicism did 
 not readily lose itself in speculation ; it clung 
 firmly to the idea of duty, and was intensely prao- 
 ' Merivale's History of Rome, voL n. p. 514. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 43 
 
 tical. Seneca expresses sentiments which have so The 
 
 .. , 1111 Christian 
 
 much of a Christian nnsr that many have held that "^g of 
 
 *-' *^ Seneca's 
 
 he must have derived them from intercourse with sentiments. 
 St. Paul ; though that is scarcely probable. 
 
 We must cherish for such men as Epictetus and Epictetua 
 
 ^ and Marcus 
 
 Marcus Aurelius that kind of wondering regard -^-ureiius. 
 with which we think of Buddha. Seneca, however, 
 was a mere rhetorician ; his fine periods were flatly 
 contradicted by his life. 
 
 But Stoicism cherished an immeasurable pride ; TJ^f. ppde 
 
 ^ ' of Stoicism. 
 
 and it wrapped itself in an icy, self- worshipping 
 selfishness. Its theology was pantheistic,^ really, 
 if not confessedly. It held that all things were 
 ruled by the iron necessity of fate. On the whole, 
 the most favourable estimate that can possibly be 
 formed of this haughty philosophy is that of Reuss : 
 
 " The fine ideas of Roman Stoicism were buds which only the Reusa's 
 sun of the Gospel could develop into beauty and perfectiim ; |^timate of 
 but which, if left alone, would never have produced rich fruits." 
 
 We have thus failed to trace in the groat Pagan 
 systems of antiquity any grand conceptions which 
 Christianity did or could incorporate with itself. 
 At the same time, there were in most, or all, of sciour^" 
 them what have been called " unconscious pro- of better 
 
 ' things in 
 
 phecies"^ of better things. Prophecies, or even I'aganism. 
 anticipations, in any strict sense of the word, these 
 assuredly were not ; but they were questionings, 
 
 ^ So Zeller. * By Arohlnshop Trench especially. 
 
u 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 A consciouB 
 emptiness 
 of the 
 heart 
 
 The 
 
 coining of 
 Christ. 
 
 The age 
 . .ong pre- 
 paration 
 for it. 
 
 Com- 
 mingling 
 of creeds 
 consequent 
 on the 
 conquests 
 of Alex- 
 ander and 
 extension 
 of Roman 
 dominion. 
 
 yearnings, aspirations a feeling that the heart was 
 empty, and the desire, sometimes the hope, that it 
 might yet he filled. And HE who sees the end 
 from the beginning, was all the while preparing to 
 answer those questions, satisfy those cravings, and 
 fulfil, yea exceed, the highest anticipations ever 
 formed by 
 
 The prophetic soul 
 Of the wide world, dreaming on things to come. 
 
 Christ came, says St. Paul, " in the fulness of the 
 time." For His coming, it is easy to see that a 
 manifold preparation had been made, extending 
 throughout the ages. With a view to this grand 
 consummation, the kingdoms of the world had risen 
 and fallen. All things had been "shaken,"^ in 
 order that the false and the fleeting might be 
 shaken off, and that the true and the eternal might 
 have room to grow and unfold their holy beauty. 
 
 It was indeed " the fulness of the time," in the 
 largest sense of these significant words ; but we 
 must here limit our view to religion, and one 
 aspect of the "fulness." 
 
 We have seen the deplorable condition into 
 which each of the great religions of Paganism had 
 fallen. The conquests of Alexander the Great, 
 and the extension of Roman dominion, had led 
 largely to a commingling of creeds. Traces of 
 Oriental systems could be found even in Britain. 
 
 * Haggai ii 6, 7. 
 
ChristiavAty and Ancient Pagantmi. 45 
 
 But the union of eastern and western thought no happy 
 
 results 
 
 had produced no happy results. Eg^-pt, Babylon, f^rom^the 
 
 Assyiia, Phenicia, Lydia, Phrygia, Greece, Rome ^dVe,tern 
 
 these and other nations had toiled, as we may ^^^^^^- 
 express it, to scale the heavens and there find 
 God ; but every attempt had ended in vanity and 
 vexation of spirit. We can hardly feel surprise 
 
 that the difficulty of ascertaining truth and the J^^uity of 
 
 endless conflict of opinion led many thoughtful ?ruth'S'^ 
 
 men to discard the consideration of religion alto- SSd 
 
 the con- 
 
 gether. Why should they pursue a shadow that sideration 
 ever eluded their grasp ? What Justin Martyr 
 says of the philosophers of his time the com- 
 mencement of the second century applies with 
 equal force to the century preceding : 
 
 Justin 
 
 " Moat of the philosophers never consider the question whether o^*^"* 
 
 there be one God or many ; whether there be a Divine Pro- philosophers 
 . , . , of his tune. 
 
 videnoe or not 
 
 Thus, growing scepticism among the educated, and 
 grosser and grosser superstition among the conunon 
 people, were the melancholy characteristics of the 
 age which ushered in the Christian era. 
 
 But God had not forsaken the world. He had, JJ'ff^i^akeB 
 as St. Paul expresses it, " suffered all nations to ^ ^ * 
 walk in their own ways," ^ though, at the same 
 time, He had " never left Himself without witness.'/ 
 The history of the race bears, in several respects, a 
 resemblance to that of an individual. Man is very 
 A Acta xiT. 1& 
 
46 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 proud ; he will not seek the help of God until he 
 
 feels himself helpless. To the question of the 
 
 patriarch, " Canst thou by searching find out 
 
 The failures Qod ?," he would boldlv have answered, Yes, until 
 
 in the ^ "^ ' ' 
 
 finHu**** ^^ ^^^ repeatedly failed in the proud attempt. 
 God. More than three thousand years had passed since, 
 
 The need of great Droblem ; 
 
 a divine 
 revelation 
 demonstra- 
 ted. 
 
 The 
 
 advent 
 of the Light 
 of the 
 world. 
 
 in Chaldea and Egypt, he had first essayed the 
 and the demonstration of the 
 necessity of a divine revelation had been over- 
 whelmingly ample. At least some of the higher 
 minds had seen it ; and Plato sighed for a (heios 
 logos. Or, if man did not fully see it, yet the 
 yearning heart of heaven could wait no longer. 
 And, therefore, as the apostle plainly puts it, 
 
 ** After that, in the wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew 
 not God, it pleased God by the foolishness [i.e., what man called 
 foolishness] of the preaching to save them that believe."* 
 
 In the moral world, as in the physical, the 
 dawn precedes the sunrise. The Sun of Right- 
 eousness came not unheralded. The first streaks 
 of day had appeai'cd long ago, and the reddening 
 of the eastern sky announced the speedy advent 
 of the " Light of the world." 
 
 * Archdeacon Farrar has repeatedly used the phrase., "ethnic 
 inspiration." We think the expression unhappy, and fear it 
 will be misunderstood and misapplied. But the Archdeacon 
 has lately said that Heathenism was '* a vast failure," and " the 
 light of any other religion compared with that of Christianity, 
 but as ft bUu* to the lun," 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 47 
 
 8. The Faith of Israel. 
 
 For two thousand years, and possibly more, 
 one race had stood apart from all others, " dwell- 
 ing alone, and not reckoned among the nations." 
 It is in the dirlne training of this people and The true 
 
 '- ^ ^ evolution 
 
 not where many vainly seek it that we are to Jj E^^fo^nd 
 look for the true evolution, or development, of IrafiTng of 
 
 I Israel. 
 
 religion. 
 
 There are men who question the accuracy of our 
 conceptions regarding Abraham. But even the Moses ^- 
 destructive criticism, in the last resort, postulates J^bmhin. 
 an Abraham, or some equivalent starting-point ; 
 otherwise, Moses bec6mes an inexplicable phe- 
 nomenon. The grandeur of the position occupied The 
 
 ^ " ^ ^ ^ grandeur of 
 
 by the latter is, of course, undeniable. Kuenen ^^^^^'^ 
 has said: 
 
 * * Even from the time of Mows, Yahveh (Jehovah) comes forward Kuenen on 
 
 with moral commandments. This is the starting point of ^^ p- ^ 
 T . , ,. . , , , , , , inandinenta. 
 
 Israel a ncn religious development ; the germ of those glorious 
 
 truths which were to ripen in the course of centuries." 
 
 It is not too great a stress which is thus laid on 
 the ethical character of the Mosaic faith. The 
 Ten Commandment-8 arose in serene imperishable 
 majesty at least fifteen centuries before Christ. ^^ t^* '^ 
 
 *" ' the history 
 
 There is no parallel fact in the history of Pagan ^^^'^ 
 
 systemi. "Be ye holy, for I am holy" was i\ie frilseS 
 
 sublime oracle of Israel's God, and of Israel's God ^Isid^S. 
 alone. 
 
48 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 Yahveh 
 not a mere 
 tribal God. 
 
 Recognized 
 as a power 
 above all 
 powers, 
 pure yet 
 com- 
 passionate. 
 
 His people 
 freed from 
 superstitious 
 terrors by 
 His power 
 and 
 presence. 
 
 Many critics assert that Yahveh was at first 
 newed as only a tribal god, who protected Israel, 
 while rival deities protected other nations. That 
 belief is based on the pure assumption that the 
 history of Abraham, as given in Genesis, is of 
 comparatively late origin ; for the Lord is there 
 spoken of as " Almighty," as " Judge of all the 
 earth," and so on. But waiving the case of 
 Abraham, and supposing we could admit that the 
 people in Egypt, enslaved and in every way de- 
 moralized, rose no higher than to conceive of 
 Yahveh as only their god ; yet He was, at all 
 events, recognized as a power above all powers 
 a personality a Creator ruling nature, never 
 identified with it awfully pure, yet infinitely 
 compassionate forgiving iniquity, and trans- 
 gression, and sin, yet punishing the impenitently 
 wicked a Being that abhorred all the cruel and 
 abominable rites in which the Pagan gods were 
 believed to delight whose power and presence 
 freed His people from all the superstitious terrors 
 and the miserable magic which formed so large a 
 part of the worship of surrounding nations. Even 
 if the so-called higher criticism could prove that 
 some of the conceptions now referred to were 
 possibly inserted in the Pentateuch at a com- 
 paratively recent date, yet no one can deny that, 
 at all events, by the eighth century before Christ, 
 there are declarations regarding Jehovah and His 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 49 
 
 p in 
 'hth 
 
 worship wluch, in truth and sublimity, have never subume 
 
 * declariition 
 
 Since been surpassed. Take that passage, tor ex- 5"^n^^*jm^g 
 ample, in the prophet Micah which has extorted ^IJ^^^ 
 the admiration of Professor Huxley : Sntu?y 
 
 before 
 " Wherewith shall I come before the Lord, and bow myself before Christ. 
 the high God ? Shall I come with burnt ofiferings, with calvea 
 of a year old ? Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of 
 rams, or with ten thousands of rivers of oil ? Shall I give my 
 first-born for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the 
 sin of my soul ? He hath showed thee, man, what is good j 
 and what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and 
 to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy Gkxi ? " 
 
 Not less remarkable than these lofty utterances His t^^tred 
 
 ' of evil in 
 
 is the declaration that Jehovah hated evil in His J^p^ 
 own people even more than in less favoured 
 nations : 
 
 "Tou only have I known of all the families of the earth; 
 therefore will I punish you for your iniquities." 
 
 The gods of the nations were thorough partizans; 
 they sided with their worshippers through right and 
 wrong. Jehovah loved His people much, but right- ^K'^T| 
 eousness still more. Admirable is the passionate "^ 
 denunciation of the hypocrisy which would divorce 
 two things that ought ever to be linked in indis- 
 soluble wedlock religion and morality : 
 
 " Shall I count them pure with the wicked balances and the bag 
 of deceitful weights, and the scant measure that is abominable ? " 
 
 The vehemence and measureless scorn with which Denunaa- 
 
 tdon of 
 
 polytheism and idolatry are denounced are also poijtheism 
 most striking. In all other nations the deities '**'''*'^- 
 
50 Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 multiplied ; and image- worship rooted itself more 
 and more deeply as time went on. 
 The hope- "W"e must pauso in our enumeration of the cha- 
 
 fulness of 
 
 ^^^^^ racteristics of the Hebrew Scriptures. Yet one 
 other must still be noted their hopefulness. 
 When the great monarchies which walled Israel 
 in especially Egypt and Assyria- were trampling 
 down the liberties of nations and spreading around 
 them their abominable idolatries, and when, to all 
 appearance, the cause both of God and of man was 
 
 rhe Hebrew lost, the uoblo seors of Israel never despaired, never 
 
 seers never ^ 
 
 fnTe^'gard^ ouco despoudod, iu regard to the future of Israel 
 
 fStire of or of the world. AU things they knew were in 
 
 th^worid. the hands of One who was Almighty, AU-wise, 
 
 and All-gracious. " Be still, and know that I am 
 
 God," that is, be calmly confident, and trust in 
 
 Me: such was the command. One unchanging 
 
 purpose a purpose of mercy ran throughout the 
 
 ages. Let them in patience possess their souls: 
 
 for in " the day of the Lord" "the latter day" 
 
 every crooked thing was to be made straight; 
 
 the Lord alone should be exalted ; all iniquity was 
 
 to stop her mouth ; the meek should inherit the 
 
 earth, and delight themselves in the abundance of 
 
 rhe no peace. More and more the hopes of the nation 
 
 nition made wcro made to centre on an individual" the Coming 
 
 One " " the Messiah " " the Prince of peace ; " 
 
 and in Him aU the families of the earth were to 
 
 he blessed; He would be a light to lighten the 
 
 to centre 
 in an in- 
 dividual. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 61 
 
 Gentiles, as well as the glory of the people of 
 Israel. 
 
 And while prophet after prophet was raised up, 
 all moved hy one Spirit, but each unfolding the 
 message of instruction, admonition, or encourage- 
 ment, or applying it to the special circumstances 
 of his time, and while the whole ceremonial wor- Th* 
 
 p providential 
 
 ship was one vast prophecy of good thmgs to come, training of 
 and recognised by thoughtful men as such ^ the f^ciiJL 
 providence of God was marvellously training the 
 nation for its lofty function. Events that appeared 
 simply evil were overruled to work out good. The 
 captivity in Egypt the sojourn in the wilderness 
 the division of the nation into two halves the The 
 captivity in Babylon the persecutions under Syrian events 
 kings and the conquest of Judaea by the Romans Jjg^^^o*!^ 
 it is not difficult to see how each of these events ^l^t^!^ 
 was fitted to raise the mind of the people to truer ceptioM^of 
 conceptions of God, and teach them deeper lessons 
 of righteousness, of sin, and of salvation. 
 
 Meanwhile, the wide diffusion of the Greek Ian- The 
 
 ' diffusion of 
 
 guage, the translation into it of the Old Testament, JangS^faa 
 and the contact of Greek and Jewish thought pTep'Sation. 
 especially in such centres as Alexandria were 
 very important preparations for the proclamation 
 and reception of the Gospel over the civilized 
 world. 
 
 ^ See Kurtz on the Bacrifidal worship of the Old TestaiiMot 
 for proof ol thub 
 
52 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 Virgfl'8 
 expectation. 
 
 Augiistine. 
 
 8i John. 
 
 The 
 
 teaching 
 of Christ. 
 
 IIL 
 
 Thus, then, at the pre- appointed time in "the 
 fulness of the time " dawned " the Light of Life " 
 on men. And now as Virgil sang, in expectation 
 of some glorious change that was hastening on 
 
 ** Magnus ab integro 8a)clorum Dascitur ordo ; " ^ 
 
 or in the words of Augustine : 
 
 ** Christ appeared to the men of a worn-out dying world, that 
 when every thing around was sinking into decay, they might, 
 through Him, receive a new and youthful life ;" 
 
 or in the far sublimer language of St. John : 
 
 ** The WokI was made flesh, and dwelt among us ; and we 
 beheld His glory the glory as of the only begotten of the 
 Father ; full of grace and truth : and as many as received Him, 
 to them gave He power to become the children of God." 
 
 He taught. He taught those truths to which 
 though often feebly and fitfully the human reason 
 and conscience have borne witness throughout the 
 ages. He gave the metal without alloy : His 
 words were pure, as " silver purified seven times." 
 Then, the majestic verities enunciated by the 
 prophets of Israel He explained, applied, and also 
 developed and enlarged. He taught by words ; 
 He taught by deeds. His entire life was one con- 
 tinuous revelation of God and truth. 
 
 He wrought 
 With human hands the creed of creecU, 
 In loveliness of perfect deeds 
 More strong than all poetic thought. 
 
 * Now oommenceth anew the mighty roll of the agea. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 6^ 
 
 He died. The good Shepherd gave His life for 
 the sheep. That death, that Cross, that love The death 
 
 . . . .- . of Christ 
 
 victorious over agony, is the divmest manifestation 
 of the Divinity. It is the full expression of the 
 mind and heart of God ; so that, when once it has 
 taken place, HE who longs adequately to reveal 
 Himself to His creatures, and whom to know is 
 life eternal, can enter into ineffable repose and say, 
 "It is enough: My creatures can know Me now." 
 
 And Christ rose again rose to the immediate The 
 presence of God. There He is exalted a Prince oraIriSt 
 and a Saviour, " to give repentance and forgiveness 
 of sins to Israel," and to all. 
 
 Such very briefly were the truths which His The 
 
 T 1 1 1 i 1 i 11 commission 
 
 disciples were commanded to proclaim to all nations, of nie 
 
 *^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ disciples 
 
 " beginning at Jerusalem." But it is one thing to 
 know the truth, and another thing to obey it. We 
 are all familiar with the sorrowful confession of 
 the poet Ovid: 
 
 Video meliora proboque, 
 Detcriora BequorJ 
 
 Moral truths were not unfrequently inculcated by 5^(,,ty ^f 
 heathen sages. But these sages felt and deplored *^ ^'^^^^ 
 the exceeding difficulty of inducing others to follow 
 their precepts. They regarded the mass of men as Their view 
 hopelessly sunk in ignorance and vice, and only a "^'"'*1 ."' 
 small number as so happily constituted that they 
 would ever seek to rise to the serene heights of 
 
 * I see the right, and T approve it too. 
 Condemn the wrong, and yet the wrong pursue. 
 
64 
 
 Chmdianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 The effect 
 of the pro- 
 clamation 
 of the 
 Gk>8pel. 
 
 A stupend- 
 ous and 
 unparalleled 
 spiritual 
 revolution. 
 
 The dis- 
 appearance 
 of the 
 forms of 
 Pagan 
 faith. 
 
 The gods 
 of Egypt 
 
 wisdom and virtue. But lo ! a marvel. For whcD 
 once the silver trump of the "glad tidings*' 
 sounded abroad, the lowest depths of society were 
 stirred ; and the grandest conceptions which the 
 human mind can form regarding God, and the 
 soul, and holiness, and sin, and reconciliation, and 
 love, and heaven, and heU, now filled the minds, 
 and moved the hearts, and shaped the lives of mul- 
 titudes, who, until now, had been dead to every- 
 thing but grovelling ideas and debasing lusts. A stu- 
 pendous spiritual revolution; in suddenness and com- 
 pleteness whoUy without a parallel. An entire trans- 
 formation in the individual believer, and through 
 individuals a gradual transformation of society.^ 
 
 It was a conflict of centuries before the great 
 systems which we have been considering gave 
 way before the victorious march of Christianity. 
 But successively and completely all of them did 
 give way. All those vast forms of Pagan faith 
 have melted away like snow in the sunbeam. Or 
 rather say, the great thirst which the Gentile 
 nations sought to quench by diinking of muddy 
 and polluted streams, could now be slaked at the 
 river, "clear as crystal, proceeding out of the 
 throne of God and the Lamb." 
 
 The brutish gods of Egypt have perished. We 
 have visited the Serapeum that vast subterranean 
 
 * Nos ergo ioli innoceiUeSy We alone are innocent, was 
 Teitullian's bold, but unanswered, challenge. ApU. 45 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 55 
 
 receptacle of dead gods and found it filled with 
 immense granite sarcophagi, each containing the 
 embalmed form of an ox-god, Apis.^ Was the 
 resurrection expected ? No resurrection for them ^o 
 is possible. Baal no longer exalts himself as the Jorlh^n. 
 rival of Jehovah. Chemosh, " the abomination of 
 the Moabites," and bloody Moloch, are alike for- 
 gotten. In Babylon, Bel has " bowed down ** and 
 Nebo has ** stooped," never to rise again ; and 
 Dagon of the Philistines has fallen once more, 
 and now not even the stump of him is left. 
 
 Even so have passed away the deities of Greece ije deities 
 
 , o' Greece. 
 
 and Rome. The Parthenon still crowns the Acro- 
 polis of Athens ; but Pallas Athene, the guardian 
 goddess, has fled ; her very name is scarcely re- 
 membered there. On snowy Olympus "black- 
 clouding Zeus " no longer holds his throne ; and 
 the god of the silver bow, Phoebus Apollo, is dis- 
 carded alike at Delos and at Delphi. A Christian 
 church stands en the spot where once arose the 
 majestic temple of Jupiter, the guardian of the 
 Capitol. Meantime the Roman empire has been The break 
 
 . . ... up of the 
 
 broken in pieces ; but the religion of Christ, sur- Roman 
 viving that convulsion, has converted and tamed 
 the wild barbarians who overwhelmed the ancient 
 world, and has given birth to a form of civilization what the 
 
 11 p ^ t 111*11 ^^ifion of 
 
 With the contmuance of which are inseparably linked chnat haa 
 the dearest hopes of humanity. 
 
 ^ There seem to be sixty-four of these saroophag' 
 
56 
 
 Ghristianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 The secret 
 of this 
 power. 
 
 The onmi- 
 
 potence of 
 Christ. 
 
 rhe truth 
 taught by 
 Christ 
 viewed by 
 Ilim as 
 alt 
 
 And whence this unexampled power P That 
 problem exercises and perplexes the minds of many 
 at; this day. It was the fuller, deeper truth He 
 taught, say some. It was His character match- 
 less in purity and love, say others. Yes ; but there 
 was more, much more ; and we have no reason to 
 believe, if as Mr. Matthew Arnold says, the Syrian 
 stars look down upon a grave from which He nevci- 
 rose, that Christianity could have long survived His 
 crucifixion.^ Not the so-called omnipotence of 
 truth, but the omnipotence of Him who is the 
 Truth, has won the victory. As said the Apostle : 
 
 * ' Being by the right hand of God exalted, and having received 
 of the Father the promise of the Holy Ghost, HE hath shed forth 
 this which ye now hear and see." 
 
 Christ Himself spoke of the truth He taught as 
 at once light and salt. Yiew it for a moment 
 under the latter aspect Mere worldly gifts and 
 
 ^ It would be easy to adduce from many writers far removed 
 from orthodox Christianity, strong language regarding the un- 
 equalled elevation and purity of Christ's character. Our limits 
 restrict us t:; jne or two quotations. Spiuoza says : " The eternal 
 wisdom has manifested itself in all things, but chiefly in the 
 human mind, and most of all in Jesus Christ." (^Eterna 
 ^pientia sese in omnibus rebus, maxim6 in humana meiite, 
 omnium maxim6 in Christo Jesu manifestavit. Epist. xxi.) 
 Goethe said, *' I bow before Jesus Christ as a revelation of 
 supreme morality." Still stronger is the testimony of John 
 Stuart Mill. Mr. John Morley indeed finds fault with Mr. Mill 
 for his admiration, and uses depreciatory language, but without 
 any attempt to support the charges made. Is this consistent 
 with Mr. Morley's ideas of delicacy and justice ? 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 57 
 
 graces tend lamentably to become corrupt, and to 
 nerish in tbeir corruption. Without religion, with- The 
 out the religion of Christ, the human race could of chnsi 
 
 *-' ^ ^ ^ essential 
 
 never raise, and never maintain, the noble fabric ^g^^tio^ ^^ 
 
 of a true manhood and an enduring civilization. JJj^J^^*" 
 
 Certainly there was much in the culture of ancient 
 
 Greece that was intellectual and refined ; much 
 
 that was stately and seemed strong in that of 
 
 ancient Rome ; but the preserving element, the 
 
 salt, was wanting ; and either form of civilization 
 
 ere long became morally corrupt, and sank in ruins. 
 
 But now ^whatever elements of truth or beauty Christianity 
 
 accepts and 
 
 whatever pure forms of life appear in any land ^^f^^^nt, 
 or age, Christianity despises them not, nay, she ^d^uty. 
 thankfully accepts them. She blends them with her 
 own diviner life, so warding off corruption, and 
 rendering these otherwise perishable treasures, ** an 
 everlasting possession." Forms of social life which 
 ancient sages sometimes dreamt of, but despaired 
 of realizing in a world like this, have been suc- 
 cessfully wrought out and maintained by the 
 Gospel; for its legitimate offspring ever is that JbieiS^^ 
 godliness which is "profitable unto all things, ^^^' 
 having promise of the life that now is, as well as 
 of that which is to come." 
 
 We read, a short time affo, in a paper written ^r. Fred. 
 
 "^ r r Harrison's 
 
 by a well-known leader among the Comtists Mr. JJ,^^ 
 Frederic Harrison that "Christianity does not Christianity. 
 
58 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 even claim to be co-extensive with human life." 
 
 Either Mr. Harrison or we must have entirely mis- 
 
 christianity ^^^^ the Now Testament. To our apprehension it 
 
 human iif claims to touch human life at every point to 
 
 at every ... 
 
 point. mould and magisterially direct every thing in in- 
 
 dividual, domestic, and public life. For it lays 
 down principles which penetrate man all through, 
 building up the individual anew from the very 
 foundation of his being, and, through the individual, 
 as we have said, reforming and regulating society. 
 Accepted, it regenerates the man ; and, so far as 
 accepted, it regenerates the world. It reconciles 
 man with man by reconciling man with God. 
 
 The In the preceding pages we have sought to state 
 
 of^u^o^ and illustrate facts avoiding, as far as possible, 
 civilization, j^gpe Speculation. Yet one question unavoidably 
 suggests itself, after this long review of fallen 
 civilizations and extinct systems of belief. What 
 of our own civilization ? is it secure ? We answer, 
 coiSn on ^^^* ^ ^^^ Christianity is secure. " Civilization 
 dviiizatioiL -^ Q^ ^^y^ g^-^ YictoT Cousin, "means Christ- 
 ianity." If we draw inferences from the past, 
 we must hold that were materialism, agnosticism, 
 or even mere deism to prevail to any considerable 
 The con- cxtout, tho couseouences would be most serious. 
 
 sequences 
 
 of the Morality would sradually give way. Then the 
 
 prevalence ' *-' >/ o j 
 
 foraf 0?*^* wem^si* of which we spoke above ^ would soon step 
 onbeUef. ^^ j^ ^^j^^ would au infidelity, calling itself 
 
 ^ See page 41. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 69 
 
 scientific or pMlosopliic, rear its proud head and 
 try to suppress all faith ; bastard forms of belief, 
 and low, superstitious practices would force them- 
 selves in, and infect, ere long, the savants them- 
 selves. Les incredules les plus credulcs} said PascaL 
 Even already we witness, to our astonishment, the Esoteric 
 
 ^ / . Buddhism 
 
 spread, to some extent, in Europe and America, of in Europe 
 theosophy, " esoteric Buddhism," and various kindred ^^^^rica. 
 foUies precisely as, of old,^lotinus and Porphyry 
 had a legitimate successor in lamblichus, and 
 soaring philosophy was debased into magic and 
 theurgy. 
 
 These things are, no doubt, humbling. Yet we 
 do not bate a jot of heart or hope. Christianity 
 cannot perish. Even now, while we mourn over 
 the falling away of some, one plainly sees that, ^reaS^ 
 taking the human race as a whole, Christianity is d^^pening. 
 steadily extending and deepening. Trial may be 
 in store, the forces of belief and unbeKef may be 
 ranging themselves for a final struggle; but, ere 
 long, to Him, who now rules in the midst of His 
 enemies, " every knee shall bow, and every tongue J*? uitimat*' 
 confess." Does there seem a tone of pride while 
 rebuking pride in these words of ours ? If so, 
 we desire to put the feeling from us remembering 
 the words of the blessed Master : " I, if I be lifted 
 up from the earth, will draw all men unto Myself."* 
 
 * Unbelievers are the most credulous of alL 
 
60 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 The 
 
 attraction 
 of the 
 
 He was first lifted up on the cross, before He was 
 lifted up to His throne in heaven ; and it is now 
 only by the manifestation of His cross and its deep 
 meanings that hard hearts are melted and drawn 
 to Him with irresistible attraction ; and doubtless 
 the bright consummation of a regenerated and 
 rejoicing world would be sooner reached, if only we. 
 His followers, had more of the Master's spirit 
 ever seeking in meekness and love like His 
 
 Christ and 
 iris people. 
 
 The 
 
 function of 
 the Church 
 to shine. 
 
 With winning words to conquer willing hearts 
 And make persuasion do the work of fear. 
 
 He who said of Himself, " I am the Light of the 
 world," said also of His people, " Ye are the light 
 of the world." He is the Sun. His Church is the 
 Moon ; which, in His absence, is commanded to 
 shine, full -orbed and cloudless, on the world. 
 
 Oh, Church of the Living God ! " arise, shine, 
 for thy light is come ; and the glory of the Lord 
 is risen upon thee." 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 On 'rtkif Rfxioions of Uncivilized Anciknt Nations. 
 We have already intimated that little notice need be taken o! 
 these. Nearly everything we know about them is fitted t* 
 excite disgust and horror. 
 
 1. Druidism was the faith of the Celtic (including the Cyunic) Notices of 
 races. We have notices of it in seven or eight classical writers jn'^ciassiciil 
 particularly Caesar, Tacitus, and Pliny. A few hints may be writers, etc 
 gathered from old Gaelic and Welsh poems such as th<)t^e of 
 Ossian and Taliessin ; but their historical value is questionable. 
 
 The Druids, the religious leaders of the people, were of three Three 
 classes. The lowest consisted of the bards ; the second of those Druids, 
 who watched natural phenomena; the highest were more 
 properly priests. An arch-druid presided over all ; who ap- 
 parently wielded unbounded power. 
 
 There were also three classes of Druidesses. The highest Three 
 formed a kind of Vestal virgins ; who lived in sisterhoods and Druidesses. 
 never married. These predicted coming events, cured diseases, 
 raised storms or calmed them, and transformed themselves into 
 whatever shape they pleased. In fact, the lingering superstitions 
 about witches in Western Europe are traceable back to Druidio 
 times. 
 
 With regard to the deities the Roman poet Lucan speaks thus i 
 
 Here Hesua' horrid altar stands, 
 
 Here dire Teutates human blood demands ; 
 
 Here Taranis by wretches is obeyed, 
 
 And vies in slaughter with the Scythian maid.* 
 
 The oak tree, the acorn, and especially the mistletoe a small Suciwd tree, 
 plant that grows on the oak were especially sacred. Worship 
 was performed in dark groves.^ Human sacrifices v.ere frequent, ^^^g^ 
 Otcsar informs us that they made enormous figures of wicker 
 work, and filled them with humau beings, whom they burnt to 
 death. 
 
 ^ Rowe's Lucan, Book i. 
 
 ^ Lucan, Pharsalia, Bookiii., gives a striking descripiioB #^ 
 ft gloomy grove near Marseilles. 
 
62 
 
 Christianity and Ancient Paganism. 
 
 Even the priestesses performed such dreadful services. Strabo 
 speaks thus of these among the Cirabri : ** The women who 
 follow the Cimbri to war are accompanied by grey-haired 
 prophetesses. They go with drawn swords through the camp^ 
 strike down the prisoners they meet, and drag them to a brazen 
 caldron. There is an erection above this, on which the priestess 
 cuts the throat of the victim, and watches how the blood flows 
 into the vessel. Others tear open the bodies of the captives and 
 judge from the quivering entrails as to future events." 
 
 Excommunication by the Druids was a tremendous infliction. 
 It must have involved death or unconditional submission to the 
 priests," 
 
 Excom- 
 municatior 
 and its 
 penalty. 
 
 Ancient 
 
 German 
 
 religion 
 
 morally 
 
 no higher 
 
 than the 
 
 Celte. 
 
 Nature- 
 worship its 
 foundation. 
 
 No account 
 of the 
 Slavonian 
 faith in an 
 old form. 
 
 2. The Religion op the Ancient Germans. Caesar and 
 Tacitus supply us with interesting information regarding this 
 system ; and the Edda of Scandinavia tells ug much regarding 
 its character at a later date. It was morally no higher than that 
 of the Celts. 
 
 Nature-worship was its main foundation. Sun, Moon, Fire, 
 Earth, were greatly worshipped. Woden (in the Edda, Odin) 
 was the chief deity ; he was the god of war. Thunor (Thor) 
 was the god of thunder. He wielded, and made much use of 
 a tremendous hammer. Lok, or Loki, was an evil being, at 
 war with the gods ; but at present a tortured prisoner. Walhalla 
 was heaven. It was a place where the blessed warriors every 
 day hacked each other to pieces, then got cured, and wound up 
 the day by drinking mead an intoxicating beverage out ol 
 the skulls of slaughtered enemies. 
 
 Human sacrifices especially of captives were frequent. A 
 King of Sweden is said to have sacrificed nine of his sons in 
 succession, in order to prolong his own life. A kind of wild- 
 beast ferocity marked the people : the celebrated death-song 
 of Ragnar Lodbrok "breathes slaughter" throughout. All 
 hopefulness seems banished from this faith. Balder, the 
 brightest of the gods, is slain ; and we are approaching the 
 dreadful time 
 
 When Lok shall burst his sevenfold chain, 
 And night resume her ancient reign. 
 
 3. The Reuqign of the Ancient Slavonians. We have 
 no satisfactory account of this faith in a very old form. The 
 last stronghold of it was the island of Rugen, in the Baltic. 
 
Christianity and Ancient Paganism, 
 
 63 
 
 The account 
 of Saxo 
 Granamati- 
 
 CUB. 
 
 This was destroyed in 1168 by Waldemar, King of Denmark. 
 Saxo Grammaticus, a contemporary of Waldemar's, gives a long 
 account of the chief idol there worshipped. He describes it as 
 a gigantic figure, with four heads and four necks two breasts 
 and two backs. Cattle were sacrificed to it. In sweeping the 
 temple, the priest did not dare to breathe ; and for every 
 necessary inspiration he had to quit the temple. At the reUgious 
 festivals intemperance was deemed a merit. The idol had a 
 horse, of whose tail or mane to pull a single hair was sacrilege. 
 It bore the god whenever he fought against his enemies, and 
 was often found in the morning covered with sweat and mud 
 in consequence. A standard consecrated to the god entitled 
 those who bore it to pillage even the temples, and to commit 
 any kind of outrage. Such is the testimony of Saxo 
 Grammaticus. 
 
 The religion of the SlavonianB was evidently very childish ; 
 but it was not so ferodoiu as that of the Celts or the Germans. 
 
 Slavonias 
 
 religion 
 
 ehildish. 
 
a selection from 
 
 Fleming H. Revell Company's 
 
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 the intense earnestness of an apostle of the Ideal. No one who 
 reads them can well fail to have his vision of life enlarged, and 
 his impulse towards righteousness stirred." TA^ Watchman. 
 
 The Larger Christ. With Introduction by Rev. Josiah 
 Strong, D.D. i2mo, cloth, gilt top 75 
 
 Contents : The Discovery of Christ The Need of our 
 Times ; Innocence Suffering for Guilt ; The Growing Christ 
 The Dying Self ; The Resurrection of Life. 
 
 " This is not a large volume, but it is one that is vital in 
 every page of it. It is full of deep and true thought, is per- 
 
 vaded by a profound and intense spiritual realism, and charac- 
 
 ' by "a ' ' 
 sion." The Advance. 
 
 terized by marked simplicity, directness and vigor of expres- 
 
 The Call of the Cross. Four College Sermons. Intro- 
 duction by President George A. Gates. lamo, cloth, gilt 
 
 top 75 
 
 "It is really super flous to assure our readers that they are 
 fine and strong ; weighty words, worthy of all careful con- 
 sideration. Every one who reads Dr. Herron's words finds 
 them the new wine in the old bottles." T'/i^ Outlook. 
 
 The Message of Jesus to Men of Wealth. A tract 
 for the times. With Introduction by Rev. Josiah Strong, 
 
 D.D. i6mo. Popular Vellum Series 20 
 
 Cheaper edition, loc. ; per dozen net, i .00 
 
 " It is electric, and needs not the impassionate utterance of 
 the speaker to give it emphasis. It flashes with a fire that is 
 internal, and contains even more than it imparts. We do not 
 need to add emphasis to Mr. Herron's word ; it is enough to 
 express hearty approval as timely, courageous. Christian." 
 Rev, Lyman Abbott, D.D., in The Christian Union. 
 
m 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 JUL 17 1934 
 
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