The Moral Education of School Children CHARLES KEEN TAYLOR The Moral Education of School Children By CHARLES KEEN TAYLOR, M.A. Assistant in Psychology, University of Pennsylvania ; Chairman of the Moral and Social Education Committee of the Home and School League of Philadelphia Preface by ARTHUR HOLMES, PH.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania Printed for C. H. & H. 3B. Mermaid Lane and Navahoe Street, St. Martin's, Phila., Pa. ',' " !/'.'' : : j ' > >'* > j >.> j LCil Copyright in the United States, Canada and Great Britaii By C. K. & H. B. TAYLOR TO Br. Martin 4. Jirumiraugft Superintendent of Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED PREFACE THE interest in physiological education has been one of long development and worthy history. The wave of emphasis upon the body of the human being, in contradis- tinction from his soul, has been a growing one since the seventeenth century and, as yet, has not reached its crest. Coupled with this growing emphasis has come the attention to the individual, and these two tendencies in education developing part passu have been the principal ones acting in nearly all the great educational movements of modern times. The concrete illustration of the transformation of the little red school house on the hill into the modern pedagogical organization, with its dozen or more allied institutions, serves to focus and visualize these abstract principles. The thought that the mind could be best reached through the body has been carried from the realm of intellectual training into the moral realm. This idea is more novel and hence less developed in practice, but it promises as much in the moral sphere as it has already accomplished in the intellectual world. Already we have accepted the working principle that " a bad body makes a bad boy," and conversely, "a good body makes a good boy." This little book is one expression of this general movement. It is an attempt to work out this new and great problem, and, as such, it occu- pies a unique place in the development of moral training. The author has already had experience in the things which he tells about on his pages. The book, therefore, is not born out of a priori conceptions, but is wrought of living experience with real boys. A. HOLMES. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE 5 By ARTHUR HOLMES, PH.D. PART I What is Meant by Moral Education. Why the Schools Should Consider it 9 PART II A Moral Education Schedule, for Use in Schools, Designed for Children of from Six to Fifteen Years of Age, Inclusive . 37 PART III The School and the Working Child 61 APPENDIX Games, Plays and Reading for Children of Different Ages . . 72 THE MORAL EDUCATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN PART I A -THOUGH, at this time, there seems to be a general feeling that the schools should interest themselves more directly in the moral training and instruction of children, there seems to be no settled opinion as to WHY the schools particularly should consider such prob- lems, or WHAT special moral questions they should notice, or HOW they may take up such matters most effectively. For this reason, before we can study intelligently any plan for a regular school program for moral instruction and training, we may do well to consider the various reasons why the schools should have such a program at all, and of what main topics this program should consist. This done, we will be better able to approach the very difficult problem of the " ways and means." In the first place, we must realize that there has been a great change in the mutual relations of the school, the church and the home, especially as far as the training of children is concerned. For instance, but lately it was thought to be the sole duty of the school to give its pupils a working knowledge of the "three R's," and little else. Outside of this, the school was supposed to have little concern regarding the welfare of the child, particularly the physical and moral welfare. True it is, the school often made much of manners and discipline, doubtless with good results, but it would have been considered worse than an impertinence had the schools, and particularly the public schools, made it a point to look out for the physical well- being of their charges, or had they even suggested aiding more directly in the real moral develop- ment of each child. The church once played a considerable part in the moral development of the child; not directly, to be sure, but indirectly through the hold it had upon the parents. But with the losing of its hold, in some measure, with the parents, the church has realized that its influence upon the child is not what it once was, and not at all what it should be. Therefore the Sunday school was developed to meet this need, and though it has done some measure of good work, still it has failed to meet the needs of the times, largely, perhaps, because it is rather inclined to imprac- ticality, and to confine its teaching to platitudes, with insufficient attention to the present, caused 10 by an unaltering attention to the past. There is a time in the life of a child when history makes a strong appeal, but this time comes in what may be called the early "high school" age, and boys of high school age are not flocking to the Sunday schools at least not in conspicuous numbers. The Sunday schools, to put it briefly, hardly touch the surface of the needs of modern boys and girls. I do not deny the devotedness of the 500,000 of volunteer teachers, but by how many of them are children taught the basic principles of right living taught with a working knowledge of a child's viewpoint, characteristics and needs ? Where are they given the fundamental principles of a practical morality, and not of a pale, bloodless, theoretical morality, which is almost valueless when the average child's temptations are con- sidered ? It is true that the teaching of a practical morality in a Sunday school would be a difficult matter, the teachers would be at a loss in endeavoring to decide what to present and how to present it. The introduction of such a course, too, would be accompanied with the usual opposition which almost invariably appears when something radical is introduced into any procedure connected at all with the church. Anyway, it is a general feeling among many church leaders that the essentials of real moral training had better be left to the parents. 11 The parents, however, seem to have other matters on hand these days. This is as true of the poor as of the prosperous and wealthy. With the former, the high cost of living and the keen competition of the day make it difficult for many parents to pay but the scantest attention to the bringing up of their children, and we must remem- ber that there are very many families in which both parents are workers, the children being left to shift for themselves during the day. In the evening, the parents are too weary to occupy themselves with anything but the merest physical needs of their children. With the well-to-do, desire is not lacking, but here again the father does not see a great deal of his children, and the mothers, for a variety of reasons, are not spending as much time with their children as in times past. And yet, you will find that parents of almost all classes feel that something is wrong somewhere. And that there is something wrong there is little doubt Juvenile vice is on the increase accord- ing to the best authorities. The records of the juvenile courts and reformatories give matter to ponder over. The reports of various vice com- missions give portentous summaries. The general uncleanliness of our politics and business methods is a fact which causes nation wide concern. Then, too, throughout the country, there seems to be a growing contempt for law and for order a feel- 12 ing manifested in many ways. The responsibility for all these things is now being laid at the doors of the home, and, as has been said, the home feels that something is wrong somewhere. And so we find innumerable women's clubs discussing the question of moral instruction and training in the home, and capable teachers and students are lec- turing through the columns of the newspapers and the modern-spirited magazines. But out of the chaos, as yet, no policy has been formed ; no generally recognized plan, the following of which will enable the home to check the tide with any real effect. For these reasons, then, the church reluctantly admitting its failure, and the home overwhelmed in the complexity and power of modern tempta- tions, we find the parents turning in despair to the schools, hoping that these may find a way out of the difficulty. This indicates a great change in the popular conception of the duty of a school an abandonment of the idea that the school's single aim is to give a working knowledge of the " three R's " and nothing else. In fact, little by little, the schools have begun to interest themselves in matters which were once believed to be the concern of the home only. The school has come to realize that the mental welfare of a child depends largely upon its physical condition, and so a movement has started which, beginning with 13 simple calisthenics, has developed into an increas- ingly effective system of medical inspection of all pupils, in many schools ; the providing for school nurses and doctors ; the teaching of hygiene and home sanitation ; the installing of school baths ; the providing, in a number of places, of school lunches and dinners for nominal sums; the taking up of domestic science and allied subjects, and even a visiting of homes and an establishing of social centers where parents and teachers may meet and discuss matters in which they are mutually interested. Few better than the school-teachers realize, at this time, how vitally some method, some gen- eral method, for moral instruction and training, is needed. The teacher is a more trained observer of children than is the average parent. Besides, teachers are becoming " progressive." They are studying the psychology of the child. They are looking into all the conditions that affect, either for good or for bad, the development of the child. These trained observers of children have come to realize, as has been stated, the immediate need for some method of moral instruction and training, and they find that parents, and students of the subject are beginning to declare that it is the duty of the schools to come to the rescue and develop and put into use such effective systems as may be devised. 14 For all these reasons, the schools themselves feel that they have a great responsibility in the matter, and so there has developed an immense interest among educators concerning the moral instruction and training of children, and a great dis- cussion concerning practical methods. Teachers' institutes, educational societies, civic clubs and women's clubs are taking up the matter with a directness and intentness which promises great things for the future. We have considered, briefly, why the schools should concern themselves more directly in the moral education of the child, and now we can study the first really difficult problem, the "WHAT." Of what should this moral instruction and training consist, and what are the subjects, "moral" sub- jects, which the schools must consider ? We must remember that there is no general agreement as to how this question is to be answered. Some give a very narrow interpretation to the expression "moral training," while others give a very broad one. But we can say, perhaps, that there are three kinds of relationships which exist in this our civilization. Men and women are related as citizens, as persons engaged " com- mercially/' so to speak, and, finally, there is the more intimate, more sacred relationship of the family, as husband and wife, brother and sister. Therefore it seems that there is a kind of politi- 15 cal morality which should govern the actions of people as inhabitants of cities, states and nations. Then there is a kind of commercial morality which should govern the actions of people when they deal with one another in all the multitudinous relationships of the business and industrial worlds. Finally, there is that kind of morality a private morality which should govern the actions and thoughts of each man, woman and child in the more intimate and sacred relationships of life. So we have these three forms of "morality" to con- sider: Political Morality, Commercial Morality and Private Morality. It is becoming a conviction that the school must concern itself with all three. "Why is it necessary," one may ask, "to make a special point of Political Morality?" One has only to look about one and listen awhile to be answered. First of all, though this is supposed to be a government for the people and by the people, and to some extent is actually so. Still, it is only too common for a town, a city or a state to find that it has a government by political cliques, for the benefit, primarily, of those cliques, often with the accompanying benefit of political contractors or of powerful corporations. This statement is so far from being novel that we have come to accept such conditions almost as a matter of course. But how long, do you think, would such conditions last were there a strong popular feeling against 16 such practices? There is no generally strong popular feeling against them at present. Most of those who consider these affairs at all content themselves with the expression of a more or less mild disapproval ; but very many do not consider these matters at all. It is almost certain that if there were a strong popular feeling against civic corruption a real, sincere, active feeling, having its foundation in the fundamental conceptions of a majority of the people, civic corruption would vanish like darkness before the sun! But then, you know, there is no such popular feeling. But such a feeling is necessary if dreams of true republican freedom are to be realized. The home is doing little to develop such a feeling in the hearts of the children. The churches claim that this is aside from their chosen field, therefore it is the school which must develop a popular feeling where such a feeling can be developed easiest, and that is in the minds of children, the future citizens of this republic. Their teachers must give them * knowledge of the fundamental ideas of govern- ment ; they must give them a sincere respect for the laws that the people make for themselves. Disrespect for law and order and of the rights of others seems rife in this country. Mobs seem only waiting for opportunity for violence and destruction mobs principally of boys and young men. Lynchings are so common as to cause little 17 notice. Civic brigandage is looked upon almost as a joke. These are dangerous manifestations and not new ones in the history of the world. Already, too, voices are being heard which proclaim hatred of the law because it is law ; voices that belong to no particular "ist" or "ism," but which frequently hide under good names in order to excuse their words. Such voices preach the brotherhood of man one day and countenance the dynamite bomb the next. They are the voices of those who desire and would take by force from those who have. They are the voices of the unsuccessful, who suspect the honesty of success. They are the voices of the sincere, and miserable, and ignorant, who do not know what to do to free themselves from the cruel course of things. A matter of unspeakable import is being placed in your hands, you teachers of children, for it is for you to counteract the modern wave of disrespect for law and order two vital requirements for the peace and general advancement of the country. It is for you to see to it that the children gain the fundamental ideas and ideals necessary for political morality. It is for you to give the knowledge necessary to combat the kind of ignorance which has brought the downfall of many a nation in the past. Possibly the future of the republic is in your hands. See to it that you are equal to the trust ! 18 "Why is it necessary," one may ask, "to make a special point of 'commercial' morals?" Surely the thundering of the press has not been without avail ! Surely every observer knows of the modern crusades against the false measure, against the manufacturing and selling of impure foods, against poisonous quack medicines, against child labor, against too long hours for women workers, and against commercial and manufacturing mon- opolies. Surely there is a need for more morality in our commercial and business relations, and where are such ideas and ideals, as are necessary, to be developed and inculcated, if not in the schools ? For here again we have no strong popular feeling on the subject. The boy in the home hears little to the detriment of the unscrupulous business man or corporation as long as the man or corporation is successful. If a strong popular feeling against all such commercial, industrial and business im- morality did exist, these evils would disappear in the twinkling of an eye. Again is a vital matter put into your hands, teachers ; see to it that you are equal to the trust ! "Why is it necessary," one may ask, " for the schools to make a special point of Private Moral- ity ? " Surely, surely, this is the field of the home, if the home has any field whatever. But here again the home seems to fail, and it is to the schools that we must look, for a time, at least, if our 19 children are to be given active ideals that will cause them to lead clean, moral lives. And it is not such a difficult matter, after all, for children are not basically bad or immoral. They are un- moral, and, therefore, need to be shown the way. The home does not show the way nor open the eyes to the dangers of the road. On the contrary, the home usually blindfolds each trusting child and sends it out upon a path well beset with bogs and pitfalls. It is for you, teachers, to stretch forth your hands and cause the children to see, so that they may follow the path without falling and enter, unsullied, into the joys beyond. Wonderful and inspiring is the trust that is being put into your hands; see to it that it has not been mis- placed ! Aye, here is a matter far more important than a multitude of English grammars and a wilderness of geographies! We have considered, briefly, why the schools should concern themselves with the moral training and instruction of children, and we have discussed, a little, the question as to what should come under the head of the general subject "moral." Before the seed is planted, the ground must be prepared, and, likewise, before we can take up methods for our moral instruction and training, we must see to it that the children are well prepared for such training, and that there are no remediable con- ditions that would counteract our efforts in aid of 20 the moral development of the children. In other words, we must remember that the physical, the mental and the moral are most intimately related, and that if one is affected, the other two feel it. A constant physical irritation, such as is caused by adenoids, eye strain or some other equally common defect, would not only affect the child's mental ability, but also his character. It is no un- common thing for a stupid, incorrigible boy to become normally studious and well behaved after the removal of enlarged adenoids, or the pro- viding of glasses, or the filling and straightening of teeth. And so, too, when one is mentally upset, the body shows it in many ways, as does the character. As for the effect of the moral upon the mental and physical, it hardly needs mention- ing. But the interrelation of the mental, moral and physical parts of one's being are not always considered, and particularly when the training of children is the question. Before we begin our moral instruction and training, then, we must see to it that there is nothing in the schools acting against the physical well-being of the child, and nothing against the mental well-being. Let us consider these two questions in turn : What a school should do for the Physical and what a school should do for the Mental part of a child's development. 21 The three principal points first considered in school sanitation are ventilation, lighting and cleanliness. In most schools, whether public or private, we generally find a fair state of cleanliness, although doubtless a great majority of public schools possess inadequate, unclean or more or less unsanitary toilet facilities. One would think that in this day and age that proper ventilation of school rooms should be a problem no longer, but the fact is that it is a very considerable problem, not only in public schools, where there is some inspection, but probably more so in many private schools, where, unfortunately, there is no public inspection whatever. The very worst rooms for school rooms, the most illy ventilated, as well as the worst lighted, have been found in private schools, and not small, impecunious private schools either. In a few very modern schools, one finds splendid ventilating systems which cause an entire change of air in every room every few minutes. But these schools are few and far between. The usual school depends for warmth upon steam radiators, which generally heat and reheat the stale air of the rooms, which receive what little ventilation they do have through small apertures at the windows, causing the unpleasant "draughts" which are blamed for so many ills. In the spring and autumn, of course, the question of ventilation is not such a serious one, but, generally speaking, 22 to go into the average school room, from the out- side, on a cold winter's day, almost stifles one, on ac- count of the staleness and unpleasantness of the air. Before you endeavor to begin the moral development of school children, see to it that they have clean, fresh air in the school room. Foul air means cloudy brains and much irritability and ill nature no good ground for the seeds of any kind of morality. There is little excuse for bad lighting these days, and yet bad lighting, or poor lighting, is the rule rather than the exception. It is true that in the last few years there has been a great breaking away from old ideas as to school architecture. In cities as separated as Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis and Kansas City, we find the new school buildings possessed of great banks of windows, so that almost an entire side of each class room would consist of windows. Dr. Martin G. Brumbaugh, Superintendent of Schools for Philadelphia, has said that the ideal school should have just wall enough to support the upper floors and the roof and that the rest of the space should be windows. This idea seems to be carried out in all the new Philadelphia schools. And yet schools are only too common which seem to have windows let in only to break the monotony of the walls and this criticism applies to private as well as public schools. As has been said, the worst lighted rooms seen by 23 the writer were in private schools of high stand- ing. One room particularly is remembered, a room containing thirty pupils, in an old, rather famous private school. This room had one win- dow at the back of the class, and perhaps eight feet from the rearmost desk, and had another window in the top of a door which was diagonally to the front and right of the class. A little more light came in through the semi-glass partitions built between this room and two other class- rooms, which latter were not particularly well lighted. This particular room was so dark that electric lights were required most of the time, and these lights, four in number, were so placed as to shine directly into the eyes of a majority of the pupils. There was much illness in that room, as I remember it, much eye strain and headache, which is not to be wondered at. This example, however, must not be looked upon as an excep- tion, for the lighting in perhaps a majority of schools is still either inadequate or badly placed. So before you start in to care for the moral development of the school child, see to it that all that is possible is done to give the child a proper amount of light from the proper direction, for insufficient light and improper direction cause much eye strain and eye defects, which, in turn, are sometimes sufficient to undermine a child's whole moral nature. 24 WINDOWS SEEMINGLY PLACED TO BREAK THE MONOTONY OF THE WALLS NO. I IS NOT A SCHOOL, BUT A FACTORY NO. 2 IS NOT A STABLE, BUT A CITY SCHOOL A GOOD EXAMPLE OF HIGH SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY, MO. Another great question is that of seating. The writer has taught in a number of schools, and has visited schools as far apart as Massachusetts and Missouri, and in only one was there a systematic attempt to regulate the seats and desks to the size of the children. In this school the adjustment was made twice during the school year. In a number of schools there are desks and seats capa- ble of such adjustment which are never by any chance adjusted, but a majority of schools, public and private, have seats which cannot be adjusted at all; so we have children of all sizes seated at desks of the same height, a fruitful cause of a great amount of spinal curvature and round shoulders. Although the public schools seem to be regu- lar offenders in this matter of seating, and the only school known to the writer having regularly adjusted seats being a private school, yet here again the private schools have been the worst offenders. In one large day school, at this writ- ing, double desks and benches are in use which were installed a generation or two ago. The class room, possessing these heirlooms, seats about thirty boys. These seats and desks are all one size, uncomfortable and poorly designed for their purpose. Another private school, a large board- ing institution of the expensive variety, has its furniture designed, it seems, to develop spinal curvature in the shortest length of time. This 25 school has no desks, but the right arms of the class chairs are broadened out so that they can be used as makeshift desks. When being used as such, the children, of course, have to sit with the shoulders turned more or less to one side and bent over at the same time. Such arrangements may be proper for college men who have attained most of their growth, but the providing of such furniture, for the sake of economy or conveni- ence, for growing children, seems almost, if not quite, criminal. Therefore, before a school begins to take up moral instruction at all seriously, it should do all it can to provide hygienic seats for the pupils, for much physical distress, and conse- quent mental and moral difficulties, can be occa- sioned by the spinal curvatures and cramped chests that result from unhygienic seating. The medical inspection of pupils in schools has passed beyond the experimental stage and has proved to be of the very greatest value. There are several very common physical defects which affect seriously the mental development and moral condition of a child, the most common being adenoids, enlarged tonsils, defective vision and maladjusted or defective teeth. There are other physical defects, to be sure, but these are very common and serious in their results. Enlarged adenoids, and eye strain particularly, are fruitful causes of misbehavior, ill-temper, incorrigibility 26 or even immorality. It is an excellent thing, therefore, to have each school child examined by a school physician at least once, and, if possible, twice in a year, so that such defects may be dis- covered in good time. This means, too, that it should be seen to that the cases found receive proper treatment free treatment if the parents deserve it. Such a system is beginning, for instance, in Philadelphia, where the children receive the best of medical care, without charge, if necessary, and children needing glasses are pro- vided with them gratis. Such a medical system as has been outlined has not become at all general as yet. In fact, in many places there has not even been a beginning. When you are planning courses of moral instruc- tion, therefore, you should do all you can to have every child in the best possible physical condition, and this means frequent medical inspection, medi- cal treatment and perhaps the service of a school nurse. Another very serious question is that of school lunches. In the poorer quarters of cities many children come to school in the morning illy or insufficiently fed. Unfortunately, it is not uncom- mon to find children in such schools whose break- fast has included little beyond a few pieces of bread and a cup of coffee. Malnutrition and underfeeding is anything but uncommon. Very 27 frequently, too, both parents are workers, which means that when the children from such homes return to them for their midday meal, all that they get is what they can prepare themselves or what they can find cold. Yet in many such cases the parents would be glad to give the children two or three pennies with which to buy some kind of lunch. Many parents do give small sums for this purpose, most of which goes over the counter at the corner candy store or into the unsanitary pockets of the street vender of sweets, pretzels, pickles and similar dainties. This is no new con- dition of affairs. In some foreign countries the providing of cheap school lunches has become a regular procedure. In this country many experi- ments along the same lines have been tried. Per- haps the best is that which has been carried on in Philadelphia, at first by the Home and School League of that city. This system provides penny lunches at half past ten in the morning, when the pupils can purchase a variety of nourishing articles for a penny apiece articles at once sanitary and nourishing, as, for instance, a glass of milk, a cup of cocoa, a chocolate bar, a bread and jam sand- wich or a few graham crackers. At twelve a three cent "dinner" can be purchased, which might consist of a cup of thick stew, a cup of cocoa or a glass of milk and stewed fruit with wheat or rye bread. Instead of the stew, there might be baked 28 beans, or chowder, or split pea soup, or one of a number of nourishing dishes. By means of a series of exhaustive tests and experiments, it has been proved that the children partaking of these dinners gained more physically and improved in lesson and conduct marks more than did the children in the same school who did not have the dinners. It was found that the very reasonable amount charged for these "lunches" and " dinners " paid for the food used, though not for the service and equipment an expense found, however, to be very worth while. There is no doubt whatever but that underfed or ill-fed chil- dren are frequently, as a consequence, temporarily subnormal mentally, and even morally. This being so, the school should see to it, if possible, that all children suffering from malnutrition receive proper care. The feeding in the home, by the way, can be benefited directly by means of organizing mothers' meetings, at frequent inter- vals, in which the teachers can become acquainted with the mothers, foster a spirit of co-operation and make much of the subject of feeding and cooking, by means of cooking classes, competi- tions and similar activities. That such meetings are easy to develop, and that they are very helpful, has been found to be the case, particularly in Philadelphia, where the school "social center" idea is very highly developed. 29 Still another serious question is that of the defective child, whether the defect be temporary or permanent. A mentally defective child in a class of normal children brings not only an excessive amount of strain on the teacher, but has a bad effect both upon the defective child and the class of which it is a member. It is getting to be a common opinion among modern educators that each school system should possess a " psychological clinic," to which should be sent all abnormal children ; that is, the back- ward children, the seemingly mentally defective, the truant, the incorrigible, the so-called "bad" children, and all those who in any way seem to be having an unusual difficulty with the usual school work. It would be the work of such a clinic to separate, as far as possible, the curable or remedi- able children from those permanently defective. It should be able to suggest the means for helping the curable, and should look into the cause for each abnormal condition as far as possible. Fur- thermore, each system should have an institution, perhaps supported by the state, to which the in- curably mentally defective would be sent. By law, all grades of defectives, from the high grade imbecile to the lowest idiot, should be segregated for life.* In such institutions, the lives of such *Read "Monstrous Breakdown of the Criminal Law," by Carl Snyder, Collier's Weekly for December 2, 1911, page 36. 30 children and adults can be made not only happy, but useful. Their being at large is not only a public menace, as a great number of our daily murders, arsons and other crimes are caused by imbeciles, but also we must consider that the per- centage of imbeciles is rapidly increasing, and at an appalling rate, so that the asylums and special institutions for their care and charge must be con- tinually expanded and enlarged and increased in number, and the public expense makes a serious sum total. Children found to be permanent mental defectives should be isolated, then, for life. It is a terrible mistake to do as is so often done in our cities, and that is to provide special schools or classes in which are segregated the curable and incurable mental defectives, the temporarily back- ward or retarded and the moral degenerates. The effect of the presence of the latter upon their weak-minded associates is certainly very evil. Some moral degenerates seem to possess an other- wise normal mentality, and sometimes manage to keep place in the regular grades. The writer, who has made a special study of such cases, knows that the damage done by one such child in a class is almost incalculable. If there were special schools, as no doubt there should be, then it should be seen to that the so-called " moral " cases are kept separate from the merely "weak-minded" or retarded ones, and it should be emphasized that 31 those diagnosed as imbeciles, or worse, should be sent to institutions for the remainder of their lives. Every school system, then, should possess such a clinic as has been mentioned, perhaps modeled upon the Psychological Clinic of the University of Pennsylvania, as organized by Dr. Lightner Witmer of that institution. This school clinic should be able to distinguish the curable from the incurable, and to suggest remedial measures for those declared curable. Under no circum- stances should a mentally defective child be retained in a class of normal children, for, as has been said, the evil effect upon the child and upon the class would greatly counteract any attempt to develop any real moral instruction and training in that class. Having considered the principal conditions which might counteract, to more or less an extent, the effects of giving any system of moral instruc- tion and training, we can go a step farther and outline, briefly, what basic principles must under- lie any practical and effective system for the moral development of school children. First of all, such a system must consider the psychological development of the child. Our common school systems start a child's education with abstractions and work up to concrete exer- cises, manual training and the like, in the higher grades, thus reversing the natural process, which 32 begins with the concrete and develops into an appreciation of the abstract. It is the ignoring of this fact that makes our educational systems seriously ineffective, and, not only so, but the preponderance of book work over hand work in the lower grades doubtless takes the keen edge from a child's mentality, or at least fails to give the child the mental exercise best fitted for its stage of development. The unnatural mental strain involved, too, must react upon the character of the child, and may, in part, account for the peculiar kind of "nervousness" which is supposed to be typically American. Furthermore, this excessive amount of book work given to young children is not necessary. It is said, for instance, that a nor- mal child of twelve, in one year, can master all the mathematics generally given to children up to the twelfth year. Our public school systems are curiously inflexible in one direction. The "slow" child has plenty of opportunity for repeating and reviewing, but the bright child has great difficulty in advancing more rapidly than the so-called " average " child. Despite this fact, however, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Founda- tion, found that children who entered school later than the average, completed their eight grades in less time than the average.* In Denmark, it was * "Laggards in Our Schools," by Leonard P. Ayres, published by Charities Publication Committee, pages 166, 167. 33 found that the country children, going to school but three days a week, at fifteen or sixteen passed equally well the same examinations for which the city children had been preparing for nine or ten years, with the usual five days a week. From this we may perhaps conclude that the amount of book work generally given school children under thirteen is not only not particularly valu- able, but possibly even deleterious. It is quite possible, therefore, that a system which acts against the best mental development of the child is likely to act against the best moral development as well. When William James was asked what he would do to increase the ethical efficiency of school training, if he had a free hand, he said : " I should increase, enormously, the amount of manual or "motor" training relatively to the book work, and not let the latter prepon- derate until the age of fifteen or sixteen." We should endeavor to make our common school systems more "psychologic," recognizing the fact that younger children are not mentally fitted for working with many abstract ideas ; that we should endeavor to reach the "abstract" by means of a systematic development of the " con- crete"; that handwork for young children is more natural and hence better than mental work, and that possibly as much real education can be given by means of proper games and plays, when young 34 children are concerned, as by any other means. If all this applies to the regular school work, it should also apply to any system for moral instruc- tion and training that we might consider. In the outline for moral instruction and train- ing that follows, the psychology of the child has been considered carefully. Child psychology cannot be studied within the limits of this work, but it might be said that the most effective parts of the system have been found to be those which appeal to the strongest natural characteristics of the boys and the girls. The system, as applied to boys, is based largely upon the early spirit of com- petition, the later spirit of co-operation and the interest in physical expression as shown in various forms of physical culture and athletics. With girls, an important part of the plan must needs depend largely upon the " mother " instinct, with its connected interest in the "home" idea, and the related interest in personal appearance. Besides the necessary psychological basis for our outline, there are other considerations. Any system for real moral instruction must be funda- mentally religious, in the broadest meaning of that term. Although such a spirit must, of necessity, underlie any useful system, one which is appli- cable for public school use, must avoid being specifically religious; that is, it cannot lean toward any particular religious system. This thought has 35 been kept in mind in the development of the out- line presented in this book. Another consideration has been the abilities, inclinations and limitations of the average teacher. The usual teacher is already fairly well burdened, so our system must not throw a great deal of orig- inal work upon the individual teacher. The mod- ern teacher, however, receives a more and more scientific training, which enables her to under- stand the characteristics of her pupils better and more sympathetically. So our outline endeavors to furnish a complete outline, which will make it unnecessary for the individual teacher to do much original work, and yet the details are left to the teacher, for each teacher can express herself best after her own manner, and each teacher knows best the special qualities of the children in her class. Briefly, then, we can say that the " system/' as given in Part II, is built upon a "psychological" foundation. It endeavors to develop ideas and ideals which will help a child in its moral develop- ment, considering the three phases of the subject of "morality" political morals, commercial morals and individual or private morals. It endeavors to possess a fundamental religious spirit without suggesting any particular " religion," and it considers, as far as possible, conditions in the schools and the characteristics and opportunities of the individual teacher. 36 PART II THE subjects mentioned in the. following outline are to be brought out in various ways as may seem most expedient ; that is, some may be subjects for little talks by the teacher, or by an outside speaker, or for open class discus- sions, or for compositions, or by some other ade- quate means. It will be merely a matter of opinion as to how different subjects can be developed best. In some cases the writer will make suggestions resulting from his experience. The outline is divided into "age sections," so to speak; but these cannot be binding, for the reason that the intelligence and capabilities of children vary greatly, not only in different sections of the same country, but in different sections of the same city. This also, then, is a matter which can best be left to the discretion of the individual principal and teacher. It might be added that this schedule is not supposed to be an exhaustive one, but rather one which will be suggestive, and, while giving a cer- tain working foundation, gives also an opportunity for an addition of suitable corresponding topics, such as individual teachers may think applicable. 37 FOR CHILDREN SIX AND SEVEN YEARS OLD THE SCHOOL Why there are schools and why children are sent to them. The school is a place where a boy or girl may learn how to be good, how to be strong, how to think, what to think, and to learn many interesting and useful things. The idea should be made plain that it is a distinct privilege to be able to go to school, and that children who have schools to go to are more fortunate than those who have no schools. Little stories may be told illustrating unpleasant results of ignorance. PUNCTUALITY Punctuality in the class should be insisted upon from the first, so that it may be made a "habit of mind." Enlarge upon the results that would ensue if no one were regularly on time, if trains did not try to come in on time, if business men and workmen did like- wise, if fire engines did not come promptly, and similar examples. OBEDIENCE Obedience should also become a habit of mind, for obedience means self-control that is, a reasonable amount of obedience. No normal child is strictly and forever obedient. Be careful to see that your requirements are in keeping with the 33 mental development of your pupils, and then stick to them. Tell stories to illustrate what would hap- pen if there were no obedience what would happen in an army, in a department store, in a factory, on a steamer, in a school. RESPECT What respect means. Why one should respect one's parents. Tell all we owe to our parents care sacrifice of parents. Why one should respect a teacher. What necessary benefits a teacher gives a child. How respect can be shown. Considera- tion. Manners. Give ideas as to manners. Insist upon class room manners. For instance, as each child comes into the room in the morning, he might stop, on the way to his place, and say " good morning " to the teacher. Tell about the meaning of raising the hat. Tell why boys should give up their seats in conveyances and elsewhere, to their elders or to women. Tell why interrupting is impolite, etc. CLEANLINESS Show photographs, if possible, of a very dirty boy and girl, and the same children when washed. Insist upon the children's coming to the class room clean. There should be some system for notifying parents concerning persistent cases. Lit- tle talks may be given on the subject. 39 TRUTH Why truth is necessary. Tell stories illustrat- ing what would happen if people never told the truth how no one would trust anyone for any- thing. Tell the story about the boy who cried " Wolf " too of ten. MINE AND THINE Why one should not disturb the property of some one else. What would happen if people could do so. How it would never be safe for a man to carry a pocket book without carrying a weapon at the same time. How all windows would have to be iron- barred. How schools could not lend books, and similar ideas. THE PRESIDENT A picture of the President of the United States should hang in the class room, and the chil- dren should be given a simple idea as to how a president is chosen, and why his office should be respected. PICTURES Fine pictures are a great help. Pictures can be had illustrating some of the lessons mentioned, and other similar lessons. GAMES The children should have games that would develop accuracy, carefulness, persistency and competition. 40 FOR CHILDREN EIGHT YEARS OLD Expansion of the previous ideas. Stories illus- trating them may now be read, and even told by the children themselves. For instance, a child might be encouraged to tell of some incident which illustrated the value of truth, of respect, of obedience, of cleanliness, or the like. Put emphasis upon Respect, upon Cleanliness and upon Manners. HONESTY This is a development of TRUTH. The children can be shown how Honesty is neces- sary for the carrying on of all business and of all industry. The results of dishonesty should be brought out. CARE OF THINGS Care of own property and care of property of others. What property represents and why it should be cared for. The care of property of others can be correlated with the lessons on Truth and Honesty. ANIMALS Rights of living things. Kindness to animals. Animal stories of various kinds, which teach a lesson. Stories like Black Beauty. Pictures of animals illustrating these ideas. 41 HAND WORK Hand work which will develop accuracy and patience and at the same time give pleasure. Bas- ketry, for example, or making miniature cities, using blocks, toys and clay, for instance. GAMES As for six and seven year children. FOR CHILDREN NINE YEARS OLD SIMPLE VIRTUES As illustrated by some ideal historical char- acters. Leonidas, for courage and loyalty. Job for patience. Columbus for persistency and heroism. Franklin for self-help. Peter the Great for pa- triotism. Other examples will suggest themselves. DILIGENCE Stories illustrating the value of diligence, how the diligent workman advances, and how the lazy or irregular workman remains a workman all his days. Anything really worth accomplishing is always the result of diligence. SELF-HELP This can be brought out in the accomplishing of school work. It should be made plain that one who depends upon others for everything will never be able to do anything worth while himself or herself. It is better to try to do our own work, 42 even if we fail now and then, than always succeed with the help of some one else. The character must be exercised, to make it strong, just as a muscle must be exercised, and a character becomes strong by using its own strength. There should be no home work for young children ; it is better for them to do what preparation they have in the class room, for then the teacher can encourage them to fight their own battles, knowing that the children are not depending upon parents for the correctness of their work. MODESTY Show how it is that people who claim too much get least credit; that it is better to claim little and receive more than to ask too much and receive little. One should be modest as to one's knowledge, for no one, and especially a child, knows very much anyway. A modest person will not interrupt, will not boast and will not have self-conceit. MANNERS One's character is often shown by one's man- ners. Impoliteness means ignorance, self-esteem and lack of consideration for others. Describe the actions required, under common circumstances, of well-mannered persons. This is a repetition and emphasizing of the lesson on Respect given the six and seven year old children. 43 GRATITUDE Children are apt to take every benefit as a just due. They should be shown why they should be grateful to their parents for the care they have had, to the teacher for her efforts to make them efficient men and women, to the city and country for providing opportunities and protection of many kinds. Gratitude can be shown by respect, by consideration, by obedience, etc. FRIENDS AND COMPANIONS Tell how like is supposed to attract like, and that similarly one can often be judged by the kind of friends and companions one has. We are influenced by those with whom we associate. You cannot play with fire without being burnt some- times, you cannot play with pitch without getting stained, neither can you go with bad friends or companions without being made more or less like them. Also, by having clean, strong friends, you will be influenced to become strong and clean yourself. The kind of friends boys and girls make often fixes the kind they will have when they grow up. Tell stories of men who have been made by their friends, and of others whose downfall came through their friends. Have the children write or discuss the qualities a friend and a companion should have. Tell of some historic friendship, such as that of David and Jonathan. 44 CLEANLINESS Bodily and mental cleanliness. Children might discuss or write compositions concerning what one might think of a dirty boy or girl, and why one should be bodily clean. The mind might be described as a complicated clock-work, and a dirty mind will work as badly as a dirty clock-work. If a clock gets too dirty, it will stop, and so, too, a mind which allows itself to think unclean thoughts may eventually become so filthy as to stop, too, as far as any useful purpose is concerned. VALUE OF BODILY PERFECTION This is one of the most important parts of this schedule, as far as boys are concerned espe- cially. The boys should have a talk or two, pref- erably from some one outside of the school staff, who would interest them in the general subject of physical culture. They can be made to desire strong and large muscles, so that they may become good runners, good base ball players, good jump- ers, and so on. Then they can be offered a prize, to be given in the school each year, for the boy who improves the most, physically. This plan, by the way, can include in it all the boys nine years old and over. A few essential physical measure- ments should be taken, with the boys stripped to the waist, such as height, shoulder-girth, chest expansion, and the contraction of each arm should 45 be measured. This should be done in the fall and again in the spring, in order to find who has improved the most. An effective measure is to have an enlarged photograph of the winner, in tights, posed so as to show his "muscle," hung somewhere as one would hang an athletic trophy. Beside it might be hung another picture of the boy in the school considered as having the best physique. All the boys in the school over nine years old should compete for both places. A great stimulus is the displaying of enlarged photographs of boys of perfect physique of various ages. The boys, too, can be formed into a kind of " athletic league." One started in some Philadelphia schools has adopted a " league " button, a slightly different button being worn by boys judged to be physically " O. K." This league should hear talks, now and then, on subjects related to physical culture. They should be told of things that will aid them to improve, and make their chances better for win- ning the prize. They can be told how a boy who smokes will not stop growing, but he will not, in all probability, grow QUITE AS MUCH as the boy who does not smoke. Again, the boy who takes walks and enters into outdoor sports in the afternoons and on Saturdays will be likely to improve more than the fellow who hangs about corners or the house. Again, it can be shown that the boy who gets ten and a half or eleven 46 A SPLENDID THIRTEEN YEAR OLD MODEL EXHIBITED TO THE BOYS OF THE WOOD SCHOOL TO AID THEM IN DEVELOPING PHYSICAL IDEALS THIRTEEN YEAR OLD BOY OF A SCHOOL ADENOIDS, ENLARGED TONSILS, BAD TEETH IN A POOR DISTRICT. "CIGARETTE- FLAT CHEST, UNDERDEVELOPED MUS- FIEND" PHYSIQUE CLES. NOT AN UNCOMMON TYPE hours of sleep is likely to improve more than the fellow who stays up late and gets fewer hours of sleep. Through this means, you see, many bad habits can be attacked with good hope of success. One can give a strong impulse against everything unhealthy, from coffee drinking to bad habits of various kinds. This system has shown itself to be very effective with boys of all classes and almost all ages. GOVERNMENT What would happen if there were no govern- ment. Let the children discuss the result. Prove the necessity for government, and endeavor to give the children a respect for the laws a government makes, emphasizing the fact that the government stands for the people, and that it is the people who really make the laws ; and, therefore, the people should respect them and those elected to enforce them. SEWING The girls should begin some practical sewing, it being a point to have them make something useful. MANUAL TRAINING The boys should begin practical manual train- ing at this time. They should not be given useless or senseless things to make, but real, practical, useful things, giving them a large choice in the matter. There is too much made of following 47 a specific succession of wood working exercises. Such a system often kills what might otherwise be a real interest. Let the boys make what they want, in reason sleds, kites, boxes and the like. NATURE STUDY There can be a beginning of nature study, starting with botany. Each child might have a plant box, and grow plants and study them. They should have little note books, in which common leaves could be pasted. They could be taught to recognize all the common trees. FOR CHILDREN TEN AND ELEVEN YEARS OLD Repetition and expansion of the previous sub- jects. Reading and compositions might be made a great help. Open discussions are frequently of value. THE CITY How cities developed. A brief history of cities like Rome, London and New York might be given. How cities are governed. A city offi- cial might well be invited to talk about this subject. Compositions or discussions on city subjects, com- prehensible to children of this age. The class city, or better, the school city, idea should be well developed. THE STATE A brief history telling how the states were originally formed. 48 THE NATION The children should be given an idea as to the different forms of national government, taking as examples, perhaps, Russia, Great Britain and the United States. They should be encouraged to argue on the respective merits of each form. They should be led to develop themselves the basic rea- sons for having a government. They should obtain some opinions concerning what a government owes a people and what a people owes a govern- ment. IDEAL CHARACTERS The children might be told stories, be read stories, or they might read stories themselves con- cerning some ideal characters, as Joan of Arc, Washington and Lincoln, and they should be encouraged to decide for themselves why these characters were great. MANNERS Continued insistence upon good manners, with occasional explanations of the reason for them. TIME Value of time. This is a development of a former lesson on Punctuality. Discussions can be had on the value of being on time, and why time should not be wasted. 49 KNOWLEDGE Value of a "working knowledge" of matters connected with everyday life. A knowledge of arithmetic is necessary to be successful in almost any business and in many trades. A knowledge of English is necessary for anyone going into busi- ness, or who wishes eventually to become a fore- man, and not merely a low paid laborer. One must know how to write good English and to write a good hand. The children could argue concern- ing the different things one must know in order to do well in different occupations. PHYSICAL IDEALS A continuation of the moral training through the interest in physical development especially for boys. HOUSEWIFERY This idea is to act as a means for giving the girls moral training as the physical culture idea is for the boys. The best method is the one now used in connection with the moral training work in the Thomas Wood School, of Philadelphia, for instance. The idea is to obtain, if possible, a house, near the school, which is representative of the kind of house from which a majority of the chil- dren of a particular school come. If a house can not be obtained, perhaps a few rooms can. As a last resort, possibly a room or two can be provided 50 THREE PENNY DINNER AGNEW SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. HOUSE CHOSEN FOR HOUSEKEEPING (CENTER) IN CONNECTION WITH THE MORAL EDUCATION WORK OF THE THOMAS WOOD SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. in the school itself. This house is to be furnished as the people of the neighborhood could furnish a house, if they know how. Simplicity and taste are the keynotes. The girls of the school ten years old and older learn to look after the house, clean it, and so on. In it they are taught how to plan a simple, healthful menu, which is in keeping with what their future means are likely to be. They are taught, by actual experience, how to purchase the provisions for these meals a necessary point, as the poor are cheated abominably, and further- more, do not know how to buy economically. Then they are taught how to prepare the meals. The plan is to have a caretaker in each little house who has small children. If such cannot be had, then an effort is made to have infants brought in from outside, on occasion, so that these girls may learn something concerning the care of infants and of young children. This is particularly necessary for girls who are soon to go into factories, shops, etc., for they generally marry at about nineteen or twenty years of age, and know almost nothing either concerning housekeeping or the care of children. Using this "home" idea as a lever, the girls can receive lessons and talks which will finally give them an appreciation of what is meant by the sanctity of the home, and the sanctity of mother- hood. By actual trial this plan has been found most successful. 51 FOR CHILDREN TWELVE AND THIRTEEN YEARS OLD LAW AND ORDER A continuation of previous lessons on this subject. The children can have debates and write compositions, perhaps competitive, on why there have to be laws, and what must be done in cities in order to have safety and opportunity. It is well to have some representative of the police come and lecture to the children on how the children and police can co-operate. The average child looks upon a policeman as a hereditary adversary. The child must be given a different opinion, which will cause him to look upon the officer as a necessary part of our civilization. POLITICAL MORALITY The children should be led to see that a man who uses a political position wrongfully is a traitor to his trust and to the people who made him their representative in his position. They should have short historical sketches to show how corrupt government precedes a downfall. Some children might look up and report upon the downfall of Greece and others upon the downfall of Rome. COMMERCIAL MORALITY The children should be led into discussions concerning unclean business methods, bringing up 52 the false measure, adulteration of foods, the value of competition and other similar subjects sug- gestions for which may be had from almost any daily paper. It might be an idea to consider appro- priate questions of this character as described by the press. CLEAN CHARACTER The clean character is the happier and the more efficient than the unclean. The dishonest business man, the dishonest workman and the dishonest public servant, ultimately suffer for their dishonesty. All really great men are men of clean character. It might be said that a boy or girl having an unclean mind almost always shows infe- rior work in lessons, and is likely to fail altogether finally. Mental uncleanliness is a sign of weak- ness. NATURAL HISTORY Beginning of lessons wherein sex is concerned. Botany and the study of animals. IDEAL CHARACTERS Development, by means of talks, stories and discussions of ideals of strong, clean men and women. BODY AND MIND Lessons to show that an unhealthy body can cause the mind to be unhealthy, and that an unhealthy mind can cause moral unhealthiness. 53 Also, as has been intimated before, an unclean mind can have a bad effect upon the soul and the body. A boy who is unclean minded is generally no athlete. One who thinks of gloomy and un- pleasant things will become gloomy and unpleas- ant, and possibly unhealthy. THE HOME A continuation of the "housewifery" men- tioned before, an attempt being made to develop good taste in dress as well as neatness. Practical sewing with exhibitions. PHYSICAL IDEALS A continuation of the physical culture interest. The boys should be taught how different things affect their approaching a physical ideal, such things as bed time, diet, exercise, games and sports. They should have plain talks upon the value of, and necessity for, clean habits, preferably by some outside speaker. Co-operative sports should be developed as boys approach adolescence. INDIVIDUALITY Everything in reason should be done to encourage the development of individualities. This may be done by means of different methods. One might be the so-called " dramatic reading" or story acting, in which each child acts in pantomime what 54 is being read, or in which a child, by impromptu pantomime, gives his idea of a certain character or incident. For instance, the writer has seen two boys, without preparation, choose their subject, and give a silent representation of Washington planning an attack on New York. Another rep- resented a person waiting on a corner for some one who had made an appointment, but was late. The impatience expressed, the disgust, the giving up of hope and the final relief at the sight of the one expected was excellently done. The actors in these two examples were about thirteen years old. This work, the writer understands, is a regular part of the school schedule in Kansas City, Mo. Other means can be used. Originality of ideas or of expressions should be made much of. LIVES The study of the lives of a few great men, pointing out the excellent qualities and discussing the bad ones, with their result. FOR CHILDREN FOURTEEN YEARS OLD RESPECT A continuation of an early lesson. Now the children themselves can discuss and decide why special respect should be shown to parents, teach- ers, elected authorities and to age. 55 SELF-CONTROL The rights of others and school discipline can be taken up under this head. At this age, school conduct can be discussed with the children and self-government successfully introduced. MANNERS Repeating and emphasizing a former lesson. APPEARANCE How appearance reflects character. No sin in having worn clothes the sin is in having them dirty or ragged. Necessity for cleanliness. With girls, a special effort should be made, by means of talks, example and by photographs, to show that simplicity of attire and decoration is more beautiful than gaudy ornamentation. TRUST This is a development of the Truth and Hon- esty ideas. All kinds of trusts should be discussed as public trust in public officers, trust that parents should expect of children and the like. DIGNITY A dignified person is much more respected and looked up to than an undignified one. A per- son who uses profane or obscene language when annoyed or tried not only lacks all dignity, but displays ignorance of an adequate vocabulary. A 56 person can be angry and dignified at the same time, but this requires self-control and self-respect. WORDS Discuss why one should be careful in a choice of words. Careless choice generally betokens a careless character. MONEY USE AND ABUSE Money represents labor. As it represents so serious a thing, it should be used intelligently and with care. Used wastefully as in extravagance, or wrongfully as in gambling, shows ignorance of what money really stands for. There are many questions relating to the use of money which chil- dren of this age can work out themselves. HISTORY Rise and fall of nations. Have different chil- dren look up different nations India, Persia, Greece, Rome and show how moral decadence of the people preceded the fall of the nation. Bring out the point that morality can be made a matter of patriotism. LIVES Make a careful study of the lives, say, of Wash- ington, Lincoln, Franklin and possibly Socrates. BODY AND MIND Emphasis and repetition. See former lesson. 57 SEX Beginnings of lessons concerning sexual hy- giene, preferably given by some one not directly connected with the school. The boys and girls in coeducational schools taken separately. It should be made a special point to give almost a religious aspect to the whole subject. GOVERNMENT Study of our form of government. If possi- ble, have government officials speak to the assem- bled children of this age and over concerning their special departments. The children should have open discussions in which they could take up what attitude they should have toward lawbreakers and the representatives of the law. THE CITY What makes a city. What a city should con- tain for education, for administration, for labor and the like. How a city should be planned. Have competitions, either by means of drawings or by working with miniature buildings and streets, in city planning. RIGHTS OF OTHERS Bring out that there are not only property rights, but action rights. Discuss what kinds of actions we have a right to interfere with or sup- press, and what kinds of property require public supervision. 58 PHYSICAL IDEALS Continued work along physical lines, as out- lined. THE HOME Continued study of "housewifery" and allied subjects. READING The boys might read "Tom Brown at Rugby," Kipling's "Cap tains Courageous," " The Odyssey," " Scottish Chiefs." FOR CHILDREN FIFTEEN YEARS OLD CONDUCT Discussions of things which affect conduct as conscience, ideals, obligations, virtues, necessities. There should be efforts to make clear the meaning of each one of the above terms, and the more the children themselves develop these meanings the better. SOCIETY Relations between individuals and society what one owes one's government, one's employer, one's employee, one's friends, one's companions, one's relatives. SEX Continued study of sexual hygiene appropri- ate for the age. The rewards of clean living and the penalties for immorality. Marriage should be 59 shown to be a sacred relation, a matter of most serious import, not only to the individuals con- cerned, but to the nation and the race. Again, morality can be shown to have a patriotic signifi- cance. THE MOTHER Continuation and expansion of the study of the Home as previously outlined. A topic now can be " Mother and Child/' GOVERNMENT This is a good age for the effective study of history. Dwell upon the development of govern- ment. PHYSICAL IDEAL Continuation of past lessons. The boys should have clear lectures on the value of chastity and the results following its lack. LAW Reading of Plato's "Crito" and "Phaedo," as in a booklet published in 1903 by the Century Company, Jowett's translation. 60 PART III WORKING CHILDREN CALAMITOUS in its results has been the feeling that a school's responsibility ends entirely, and that a town's or city's respon- sibility nearly ends, when a child leaves school to work for a living. We cannot go into a descrip- tion of the conditions under which, perhaps, a majority of city children are working, conditions affecting the girls even more than the boys. There can be little doubt, first of all, that the average fac- tory girl and the average store girl is underpaid. This is not only true in the populous Eastern cities, where matters are complicated by the presence of vast numbers of immigrants, who must find work at any price, but the same condition obtains in the more purely American cities through the middle West. A very typical example might be Kansas City, Mo., where a most careful study of con- ditions has been made. The report of the Vice Commission in Chicago is undoubtedly of great value, but then Chicago is hardly a typical Amer- ican city. A report allowing, perhaps, a more general application is that of the Board of Public Welfare of Kansas City, Mo., for the year April, 61 1910, to April, 1911. The section studying the Social Evil in Kansas City is valuable in that it not only considers local conditions, but their relation to general conditions. The following paragraph is quoted from page 130 : " It has been conclu- sively proved that $7.00 per week is the lowest to afford decent subsistence for a woman. Some authorities place this at $9.00. It has also been conclusively proved, and necessarily follows, that industries paying not more than $4.00, $5.00 or even $6.00 per week to competent women em- ployees are really parasitic and a grave menace to the American home." [The italics are the writer's.] On the same page we read that a majority of the girls found in Kansas City houses of ill-fame, received less than $6.00 before they gave way to a combination of economic pressure and desire for pleasure, and fell, as thousands of their sisters fall each year. At fourteen years of age, girls are permitted to leave school and to work for their liv- ing. In Kansas City it was found that 55 per cent, of the girls mentioned were guilty of their first open immorality before or during the seventeenth year. Cause and effect seem very clear, do they not ? A few more quotations from another excellent Kansas City publication will make our point still stronger. This is a booklet entitled " The Kansas City Child; a Handbook of the Child Welfare Exhibit." This was published in the fall of 1911. 62 This booklet has a chapter on " Industrial Condi- tions," which is well worth reading. In this chapter is recorded a study of the wages of girl workers. On page 43 we read the following : " Of 573 girls employed in two stores in Kansas City, 32 per cent, received $5.00 a week or less ; 51 per cent, received $6.00 a week or less. Care- ful inquiries and estimates demonstrate that the least weekly wage which will support a girl as her necessities dictate, and according to the standard of dress, ets., demanded by her employers, is $9.00 per week. This sum or more is received by only 11 per cent, of the 573 girls instanced. In order to live on less, a working girl must be supported, in part, by her family, or so live as to injure her health, impair her efficiency, and, at the same time, weaken her resistance to the temptations waiting to ensnare her." A great number of working girls cannot live at home. With their low wages they find it necessary to live in cheap boarding houses. We read again, on page 44 : "The direct connection between this condition and prostitution is shown in the fact that of 300 white prostitutes interviewed, 145 began their shameful life while living in boarding or lodging houses. The great fact which cannot be shunned is that working girls must receive enough com- pensation for their work to enable them to live healthfully and decently." 63 It must not be thought for a moment that these conditions are at all peculiar to Kansas City. In fact it is very probable that affairs in that city deserve less criticism than in a majority of the large cities of the country, for the reason that the population there is more purely American than is generally the case, and because there is no over- crowding, such as is caused by great influxes of immigrants. The valuable series of articles by Jane Addams, beginning in the November, 1911, number of McClure's Magazine, show how gen- eral and how serious these conditions are. Summing up the working girl problem, we can say that, first of all, working girls are usually underpaid. This being so, many must live in cheap lodging houses and spend every cent they receive on the most vitally necessary expenses. These girls work almost to exhaustion through the day, and when night comes they have few legitimate means for enjoying relaxation or pleas- ure. Play is just as necessary for the working girl and boy as for their younger sister and brother. It is natural for them to desire a little "fun/' as they express it. And there is little by way of "fun" open to them but the sometimes suggestive moving picture "show" and the frequently danger- ous dance hall. Underpaid young men, who cannot afford homes of their own, and underpaid girls, desiring a natural relief from their daily 64 grind, meet in these places with frequent disaster to both. And not only so, but the picture halls and dance halls are only too often the hunting grounds of cadets on search for victims necessary to make up the yearly sacrifice to immorality. Underpay and lack of legitimate amusement are among the basic causes for a vast deal of misery, vice and crime ; causes which, at this day, are fortunately beginning to be realized. The question may arise, What has all this to do with the moral development of school children, and where do the schools come in ? This is not a difficult question to answer. First of all, if the schools made a special point of developing moral stamina, from the time a child entered school till the time of leaving it, working girls and boys would be enabled to make a better fight of it, and, knowing a few fundamental principles, could resist their temptations and use their means with more efficiency. But this would not be enough. Optimism hopes that the day approaches when each worker will be able to receive a living wage. That they do not all receive such wage now is not necessarily the fault of individual employers, but of great economic conditions which are not to be remedied in a moment. In the meantime, there are things which may be done to ease the pressure upon the working girls and boys, and here the schools can do much. Philadelphia is leading the 65 way in this matter. In this city, in 1910 and 1911, ten public schools, chosen for their location, were opened regularly in the evenings as social centers. This is considered only a beginning. The object is to provide pleasure and benefit for working children, classes in different matters for those who desire them, meetings for mothers, which con- sider such subjects as cooking and the care of children, and even meetings for men, who may discuss what interests them. The work of one such school center might well be considered in detail. The one described is in the Thomas Wood School, the work being carried on under the direc- tion of the principal. The "classes" are as follows : 1. Miniature home, equipment, set of house furnishing. All branches of housework, 24 chil- dren. 2. Kindergarten, 80 children, 2 workers. 3. English, 14 Polish men and women, 1 worker (Principal). 4. Sewing, 1 worker, 30 girls, aprons. 5. Sewing, 1 worker, 30 girls, aprons. 6. Sewing, 25 girls, aprons. 7. Sewing, 1 worker, 15 women (15 to 18 years old), shirtwaists and skirts. 8. Sewing, 1 worker, 25 girls, aprons. 9. Games, 1 worker, 40 children. 10. Five classes for boys in Manual Training, Reed, Raffia and Hammock making. 11. Cooking demonstrations. 12. Drill in Music, from 8.45 to 9.30 P. M. Weekly drill for mothers, subject : "Care of Infants," under the auspices of " Baby Alliance," in charge of 25 66 mothers. Monthly entertainment. Daily lunch- eons, 10.30, one cent; 12.00 M., three cents. 350 children. Number of sessions, 20. Cost of operation, $222.50. REMARKS. The Principal wishes to have three sessions each week, next year one night for boys, one for girls and one for entertainment. A letter written to the President of the Home and School League of Philadelphia, an organiza- tion largely responsible for the development of this excellent work, by a district superintendent of schools, is well worth reading in this connection : May 15, 1911. To the President of the Home and School League : I beg to report that the sentiment in favor of the larger use of the ^ school buildings of Philadelphia continues to increase. Constant encouragement by the Superintendent of Schools has brought about greater interest on the part of school officials, the Board of Education and the public generally. As evidence, I call attention to the fact that in the new or remodeled buildings the Superintendent of Buildings now makes provision for large halls which may be used not only for play rooms, but also for assembly halls, where the public may gather for recreation or for strictly educational purposes ; the Board of Education approving the slight additional expense which is involved. Members of the Board are giving more and more of their time to the public meetings which are held in the school buildings. Principals and other officials show their interest by throwing open their buildings and yards for frequent public meetings. In my district alone (the Ninth) there have been held since the opening of schools in September eighty-five public meetings, with a reported aggregate attendance of over 11,000. Very truly, MILTON C. COOPER, Chairman. 67 Here we have, perhaps, a partial solution of our great problem. If the public schools through- out the country, and especially in the crowded city districts, were turned over, in the evenings, to the working girls and boys, and the working young women and young men if, in these build- ings they could receive plenty of healthy enter- tainment and helpful teaching for those who desire it, many lives would be made brighter and a vast number would be saved from the common downfall resulting from economic pressure and its consequent preventing of indulgence in a natural and necessary desire for pleasure and relaxation. The Annual Report of The Home and School League of Philadelphia, for 1910-1911 gives an idea how this may be done. BOOKS It is extremely difficult to suggest books appro- priate for any particular age, for the reason that children greatly differ in maturity, at the same age, and what one child might enjoy another might not comprehend, and another might consider merely a bore. The following list pretends only to be suggestive, indicating a type of book that might be appreciated by children of the ages mentioned. The writer has not had a great acquaintance with books suitable for very young children, but has studied carefully the tastes of older children. 68 This list may be criticized because some of the books are not written by "standard" writers, and because adventure stories seem to predominate at certain ages. It must be remembered, however, that when the adventure spirit develops in children, it must be directed and not suppressed. Suppres- sion may lead to outbreaks later in life, while the reading of proper adventure stories, coupled with much out-of-door life, will provide a healthful outlet for this natural impulse. As to standard authors, unfortunately most standard authors have had something to do besides writing for children, a duty, however, which less famous writers seem to have performed admirably. This list is supposed to be anything but exhaustive : Eight and Nine Years Lord Fauntleroy Burnett Sara Crewe Burnett Andersen's Fairy Tales. Grimm's Fairy Tales. Ten Years King of the Golden River Ruskin Little Men Alcott The Prince and the Pauper Twain Eleven Years First Jungle Book Kipling Wonder Book Hawthorne Eight Cousins Alcott Dory Mates Munro Tom Sawyer Twain Rip Van Winkle Irving 69 Twelve Years Flamingo Feather Munro Wild Animals I Have Known . Seton A Christmas Carol Dickens Rime of the Ancient Mariner Coleridge Robinson Crusoe Defoe Men of Iron Pyle Thirteen Years In Freedom's Cause Henty Two Little Savages Seton Last of the Mohicans Cooper Vision of Sir Launfal Lowell American Boys' Handy Book Beard Ivanhoe Scott Fourteen Years Bullfinch's Age of Chivalry. Tom Brown's School Days Hughes Captains Courageous Kipling Two Years Before the Mast Dana Gareth and Lynette Tennyson Talisman Scott Fifteen Years Kidnapped Stevenson Crito and Phaedo Plato, Jowett's Translation Odyssey Homer, Butcher ff Lang's Translation A good history of Greece. Scottish Chiefs Porter Plutarch's Lives. Lorna Doone Blackmore Tale of Two Cities Dickens 70 Sixteen Years David Copperfield Dickens Les Miserables Hugo The Crisis Churchill The Gladiators Melville The Cloister and the Hearth Reade The Bible. Froissart's Chronicles. Henry Esmond Thackeray Jane Eyre Bronte 71 APPENDIX GAMES AND PLAYS WE cannot go into the psychologic reasons which guided the writer in arranging the following list of games and plays. For those who are interested in the scientific side of the matter, it is suggested that they read the fol- lowing works: "Education by Plays and Games," G. E. Johnson, Ginn & Co. 44 Psychological, Pedagogical and Religious Aspects of Group Games," Luther Gulick, M. D., Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. VI. "Amusements of Worcester School Children," T. R. Cosgrove, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. VI. "Adolescence," Stanley Hall, Vol. I, p. 216. It may be said, however, that children in their play seem to show three stages of development. The first stage lasts till about the seventh or eighth birthday. It is characterized by being highly indi- vidualistic. The child is very self-centered, and does not require the presence of others for his play. The second stage lasts till about the twelfth or thirteenth birthday, and is characterized by a need for the presence of others. There is little co-operation with others, but others are necessary 72 for the competitive spirit that develops in this stage. The children still act as individuals, but feel the necessity for the aid of others, as in simple games like "tag" and other chasing games. The third stage lasts well into adolescence and is char- acterized not only by a high development of the competitive idea, but also by the important appear- ance of co-operation shown in the formation of " gangs," societies, and the interest in co-operative sports. In the first stage, play may consist of action of the large groups of muscles and in the acquiring of accurate muscular movements. In the second, competition with others in muscular sports and games and a development of the constructive instinct are important considerations. In the third stage, highly specialized muscular movements and games requiring co-operation, submergence of self, accuracy and concentration are typical. These ideas have been kept in mind in designing the fol- lowing table : A LIST OF GAMES AND PLAYS FOR CHILDREN OF SCHOOL AGE FIRST STAGE Six and Seven Years Skipping, jumping, running and simple throwing games. Simple individual dance movements to music. Learning names of things by playing with Noah's arks, toy farms, stores, kitchens, etc. 73 SECOND STAGE Eight Years Ring toss, tenpins, battledore and shuttlecock; beginnings of chasing games, like "tag." Continuing of skipping, running and throwing games. Nine Years Continuing of strenuous physical games, jumping, chasing and the like. Pretending games Indian, " grown-ups," cow- boys, farmers and so on. Swinging, wrestling and simple gymnastics. Making things, as pasteboard houses, houses of blocks, etc. Ten Years Chasing, hunting and hiding games. Prisoner's base, hare and hounds, fox and geese, etc. Constructive toys toy railroads, making toy houses, kites, etc. Beginning of prac- tical manual training. Doll age for girls and ball games begun for boys. Eleven Years Development of throwing games, attempts at base ball. Running games and hopping games continued. Bows and arrows. Twelve Years Base ball approaches co-operative stage; interest in simple field sports. Great doll age. Wild west, Indians, advent- ures, etc. THIRD STAGE Thirteen Years Real beginning of co-operative plays for boys. Girls rarely care for this type of play. Great interest in house playing for girls. Basket ball for both. Base ball and beginning of foot ball for boys. Checkers and similar games. 74 Fourteen Years Base ball, foot ball, more specialized field sports, gymnastics, boxing, counting games like dominoes, etc. Chess. Experi- ments, in simple chemistry for instance. Photography. Various table games. Dancing. The following are games which are likely to develop certain qualities : 1. Requiring muscular actions of some complexity. Cutting out paper soldiers or dolls. Battledore and shuttlecock. Tiddlywinks. Pillowdex. Ring toss. Croquet. Marbles. Bows and arrows, and other shooting games. 2. Similar games, requiring practice in counting. Dominoes. Tenpins and bowling. Fish pond and similar games requiring great dexterity. Dice games, such as parchesi. 3. Toys encouraging "constructive" work. Colorgraphy colored paper to be cut into shapes follow- ing set designs, such as houses, automobiles, etc. Harbutt's Plasticine a form of clay that can be used in modeling. Blocks, preferably made of cement, for making diminutive houses, forts, bridges, etc. Picture puzzles. Mechano pieces of sheet metal of various shapes, small metal wheels, levers, etc., with which many mechanical playthings can be made. An excellent toy. Manual training, tool box and work bench. 75 4. Games training attention, memory and reason. Checkers. Complicated card games. Chess. Bibliography of books concerning reading for children : Selected Books for Boys, by C. B. Kern, Y. M. C. A. Press, New York, 1907. A List of Good Stories to Tell to Children Under Twelve Years of Age, with a brief account of the story hour conducted by the Children's Department. Carnegie Library, of Pitts- burgh, Pa., 1906. 5 cents. Stories and Story-Telling, in Moral and Religious Education, by Edward P. St. John, A.M. The Pilgrim Press, Boston, Mass., February, 1910. Other books by the same author : BILLY; His SUMMER AWAKENING. Published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. Price, $1.50. "By the end of this book, Billy has become a hero worth following through more stories than one, for this is the first vol- ume of the * Billy ' series. His exciting experiences on land and sea, and the lessons he learns, makes this an admirable book for boys." The Watchman, Boston, Mass. "The spoiled son of a wealthy father develops into a 'sissy.' The father sees the error of his ways and provides for a season of roughing it on sea and in the mountains. The way the lad becomes a favorite instead of just the opposite with a crowd of wholesome, jolly fellows makes good reading for boys from ten to sixteen." American Motherhood, Cooperstown, N. Y. 76 "There is good fun in the book and much of valuable information about woodcraft. It is a healthful and inspiring story for all boys. Fathers and mothers of mollycoddles will find it of value to read the book." 77?*? Union, Springfield, Mass. "# # * 1^ stor y deals w i t h Billy's awakening and remaking under the influence of his many interesting experiences. It is a pretty sad * Billy ' who makes our acquaintance at the beginning of the tale, and we sympathize with the boys who made it unpleasant for him. But it is a very different 4 Billy ' with whom the reader reluctantly parts company at the close/' Herald, Duluth, Minn. REAL LETTERS TO REAL BOYS. Published by Fleming Revell Co., New York City. Price, 50 cents. This comprises a series of letters written to a number of boys on many subjects, from hobbies and physical training to character making. PHYSICAL TRAINING FOR BOYS. Published by the author, W. Mermaid Lane, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. Price, 50 cents, postpaid. This book is largely a manual of simple exer- cises requiring no apparatus. Illustrated by means of many photographs. These exercises include movements for all the important groups of mus- cles, and the photographs show which muscles are receiving the work. The book also contains remarks concerning smoking and other common bad habits, and a number of useful hints concern- ing the boy at school. The book may be very useful for teachers, for parents and for boys. 77 IM 1 1 INIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW 18 1915 AUG 5 1916 <-..-K 24 1920 JUL 271928 .* OCT 10 1928