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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 MEDICAL CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS 
 
 OF ALL NATIONS 
 
MEASURES, WEIGHTS, & MONEYS 
 
 OF ALL NATIONS 
 
 AND AN ANALYSIS OF THE CHRISTIAN, HEBREW, 
 AND MAHOMETAN CALENDARS 
 
 W. S. B.^WOOLHOUSE, F.R.A.S., F.S.S. 
 
 (Ebiiixm, wtfaUj) gUtoeb anb 
 
 LONDON 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 1890 
 
W 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE measures, weights, and moneys established throughout 
 the world are so diversified in their comparative values and 
 systematic relations that a correct classification of them is a 
 task of greater magnitude than would commonly be sup- 
 posed. In the present work no labour has been spared to 
 ' ascertain, in every case, the best attainable information, and 
 the various details have been arranged with especial regard 
 to facility of reference. With this object the materials 
 appertaining to each locality are uniformly tabulated in the 
 same order, and opposite to each separate quantity or value 
 the English equivalent is distinctly exhibited, so as to 
 obviate as much as possible the necessity of any calculation. 
 
 The comprehensive principles which influence the fluctua- 
 tions of exchange are also briefly stated, and correct rules 
 are given for computing the sterling value of coins and bullion. 
 
 The tables for the conversion of the standard linear and 
 square measures of one country into those of another were 
 before published in another form, and had recently become 
 out of print. They are here enlarged and more conveniently 
 arranged, and their utility will be fully appreciated by those 
 who may have occasion to consult the architectural anrl 
 other works of the Continent. 
 
 142826 
 
VI PEEFACE. 
 
 The second, part of the volume relates to the measure- 
 ment of time, and comprises a detailed investigation of the 
 Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars, with formulae, 
 tables, and practical rules for performing the various calcu- 
 lations. We have been more specially induced to go at 
 length into these subjects, as they are imperfectly treated in 
 chronological works generally. 
 
 PEEFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. 
 
 IN revising this work for the seventh edition opportunity has 
 been taken to make as many suitable emendations and 
 additions as were possible. By means of the valuable 
 Reports of the Board of Trade under the Weights and 
 Measures Act, 1878, the author has been enabled to give, in 
 an Appendix, the most reliable account of the Weights and 
 Measures of China and Japan, which were formerly involved 
 in much obscurity. Full and authentic information is given 
 on the subject of Wire and Plate Gauges, and more especially 
 in relation to the new Imperial Standard Wire Gauge which, 
 in 1883, was legalised by an Order in Council. The chief 
 particulars are also given of the new Weights and Measures 
 Act, 1889 ; and the Appendix furthermore supplies a variety of 
 miscellaneous and interesting information on other matters. 
 The utmost facility for detailed reference is also secured 
 by the addition of a full and complete Index of the entire 
 contents of the volume. 
 
 LONDON, 12th August, 1890. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS. 
 
 STANDARDS. 
 
 MEASURES AND "WEIGHTS 1 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE 26 
 
 COINS 28 
 
 STANDARD WEIGHTS OF BRITISH COINS . . . .35 
 
 PROJECTED DECIMAL SYSTEM OF COINAGE .... 36 
 
 COMPUTATION OF COINS AND BULLION. 
 
 ASSAYS .......... 39 
 
 RULES FOR GrOLD AND SlLVER COINS 40 
 
 TABLE OF G-OLD AND SILVER COINS 44 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXCHANGE ... 45 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS. 
 
 G-REAT BRITAIN ......... 50 
 
 OTHER PLACES, ACCORDING TO AN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT 57 
 
 GENERAL TABLES 119 
 
 I. CONVERSION OF STANDARD LINEAR MEASURES . .120 
 
 II. ,, ,, SQUARE 130 
 
 III ITINERARY OR ROAD MEASURES 140 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 THE GREGORIAN CALENDAR 
 
 DIFFERENCE OF STYLE 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE DAY OF THE WEEK 
 
 CYCLE OF THE SUN 
 
 GOLDEN NUMBER 
 
 EPACT .... 
 
 NUMBER OF DIRECTION 
 
 EASTER-DAY 
 
 INDICTION .... 
 
 DIONYSIAN PERIOD 
 
 JULIAN PERIOD . 
 
 MOON'S AGE 
 
 MOVABLE FEASTS 
 
 145 
 
 148 
 149 
 155 
 ib. 
 157 
 160 
 164 
 167 
 169 
 ib. 
 170 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 LAW TEEMS 172 
 
 LAW SITTINGS " \ 176 
 
 UNIVERSITY TEEMS * * 177 
 
 ELEMENTS OF G-EEGOEIAN CALENDAE (1800 TO 2100) ! '. 178 
 
 HEBREW CALENDAR 187 
 
 TABLE OF MONTHS AND CALCULATION OF DATES . . .189 
 TABLES FOE DETEEMINING THE LENGTH OF A JEWISH YEAE 
 
 AND THE DAY OF THE WEEK ON WHICH IT COMMENCES . 193 
 
 PEINCIPAL DAYS OF THE JEWISH CALENDAE . . . 194 
 TABLE OF HEBEEW YEAES UP TO THE YEAE 2072 OF THE 
 
 CHEISTIAN EEA ...... 195 
 
 MAHOMETAN CALENDAR 198 
 
 TABLES AND RULES FOE DETEEMINING THE DAY OF THE WEEK 
 AND THE DATE ON WHICH ANY YEAE OF THE HEGIEA 
 
 COMMENCES 199 
 
 TABLE OF MAHOMETAN YEAES UP TO THE YEAE 2047 OF THE 
 
 CHEISTIAN EEA ...... 203 
 
 TABLE OF THE PEINCIPAL EPOCHS 206 
 
 CAMBEIDGE UNIVEESITY TEEMS, after 1883 207 
 
 EASTEE-DAY, FOUND FEOM THE G-OLDEN NUMBEE AND THE DO- 
 MINICAL LETTEE ONLY 208 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 IMPEEIAL WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES IN FOECE AT PLACES MEN- 
 TIONED . . . . . . . . . .211 
 
 METEIC SYSTEM LEGALLY ADOPTED IN G-EEMANY . . . . ib. 
 
 CHINA. WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES LEGALLY IN USE . . .212 
 JAPAN. WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES LEGALLY IN USE . . .213 
 IMPEEIAL STAND AED YAED, COPY OF . . . . . .214 
 
 INDIAN SEEE, VALUE OF ib. 
 
 ILLEGAL DENOMINATIONS OF WEIGHT . . . . . . ib. 
 
 WIEE AND SHEET GAUGES . . . . . . . .215 
 
 IMPEEIAL STANDAED WIEE GAUGE, TABLES I., II., III., IV. . 217 
 
 STUBS' IEON WIEE GAUGE, TABLE V. 221 
 
 GAUGE FOE STEEL WIEE AND PINION WIEE, TABLE VI. . . 222 
 
 GAUGE FOE SHEET AND HOOP IEON, TABLE VII 223 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES ACT, 1889 ...... 224 
 
 AMOUNTS OF EEEOE ALLOWED IN WEIGHTS, ETC. . . . .226 
 
 WEAE OBSEEVED IN WEIGHTS OF SOVEEEIGNS .... 228 
 
 ASCEETAINED SlANDAEDS FOE ADJUSTING BANKEES' WEIGHTS . ib. 
 
 INDEX 229 
 
MEASUBES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS 
 
 ALL NATIONS, 
 
 STAND AEDS. 
 
 MEASUBES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 MEASURES are of three kinds, viz. measures of LENGTH, 
 called Linear or Loug measure ; measures of SURFACE, called 
 Square or Superficial measure ; and measures of CAPACITY, 
 called Solid or Cubic measure. 
 
 WEIGHT may be defined to be the quantity of ponderous 
 matter contained in a solid or fluid substance, taking into 
 account its bulk and the density or specific gravity of its 
 parts, and is determined by the same being balanced in an 
 accurate scale against some known or acknowledged weights 
 placed in the opposite scale. 
 
 STANDARDS are carefully-constructed measures or weights 
 of acknowledged authority, by which others are tested or 
 adjusted. 
 
 Measures and "Weights are of indispensable utility, and 
 are continually employed both in commercial and scientific 
 pursuits. For the latter of these, minute accuracy is parti- 
 cularly essential. There is, however, more difficulty than 
 would at first be supposed, in establishing and preserving 
 correct, uniform, and invariable standards of weights and 
 measures, and a vast amount of scientific research, ingenuity, 
 and iabour has been expended upon its accomplishment. 
 
'2 STANDARDS. 
 
 The origin of measures of length is to be found In parts 
 of the human body. Their values, roughly estimated, as well 
 as their names, establish this beyond a doubt. The foot, 
 the digit, the palm, the span, the cubit, the nail, the arm, <fec., 
 are in all languages derived from the same source ; and, in 
 the popular view of measurement, they do not considerably 
 differ in length. It is also unquestionable that in former 
 times, when authenticated measures were not so easily to be 
 obtained, the hands, arms, and feet were much more fre- 
 quently used than they are at present, when every workman, 
 however humble, is in possession of a measure. 
 
 Taking a well-proportioned man, the fathom is reckoned 
 to equal his height or stature ; the girth, or the pace, \ of 
 his stature ; the cubit, or measurement from the elbow to the 
 ends of the extended fingers, \ ; the foot, ; the span, - ; 
 and the breadth of the palm, -~j. 
 
 The statute 17 Edward II. (A.D. 1324) provides that 
 three barley-corns, round and dry, make an inch, 12 inches 
 a foot, &c. But it is so difficult to know how much of the 
 sharp end of a barley-corn must be cut or worn away before 
 it becomes what was called " round/' that this mode of 
 measuring by the lengths of barley-corns is very indefinite. 
 
 The complete table of the sixteenth century is as follows : 
 The Ireadtli of 4 barley-corns make a digit, or finger-breadth ; 
 4 digits make a palm (measured across the middle joints oi 
 the fingers) ; 4 palms are a foot ; 1| foot is a cubit ; 10 palms 
 or 2 feet are a step (gressus) ; 2 steps, or 5 feet, are a pace 
 (passus) ; 10 feet are a perch ; 125 paces are an Italic sta- 
 dium ; 8 stadia, or 1000 paces, are an Italic mile; 4 Italic 
 miles are a German mile ; and 5 Italic miles are a Swiss mile. 
 Prom this table it would appear that the foot was consider- 
 ably less even than the ancient Eoman foot of 11*6 English 
 inches ; the average human foot certainly has not that 
 length. 
 
 In the year 1742, the Eoyal Society had a standard yard 
 constructed, from a minute comparison of the standard ella 
 
STANDARDS. 3 
 
 or yards of the reigns of Henry VII. and Elizabeth, kept at 
 the Exchequer. 
 
 In the year 1758, a select Committee of the House of 
 Commons was appointed to inquire into the state of English 
 weights and measures, and were assisted in their researches 
 by several eminent mechanists, among whom may be men- 
 tioned Mr. Bird, a celebrated optician, and Mr. Harris, the 
 Assay Master of the Mint. This Committee prepared with 
 great accuracy two standards, viz. the yard and the pound 
 troy, which were afterwards carefully preserved and justly 
 considered of the highest authority. The standard yard was 
 copied from that of the Royal Society, and having been ex- 
 amined by the Committee was reported to be equal to the 
 standard yard and marked as such. 
 
 Since that period no alteration has been made in these 
 standards, though much attention has been paid to the sub- 
 ject, both in and out of Parliament, especially since tho 
 adoption of the metrical system of Prance. 
 
 In 1816, in consequence of an address from the House of 
 Commons to the Prince Regent, his Royal Highness ap- 
 pointed a Commission, composed of Sir J. Banks, Sir Gr. 
 Clerk, Davies Gilbert, "Wollastoii, Young, and Kater, to 
 consider the subject of English weights and measures ; to 
 determine the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in 
 the latitude of London ; and to settle the proportion between 
 the long measures of England and France. 
 
 In the first Report, made in June, 1819, no alteration is 
 proposed to be made in the English standards of long mea- 
 sure and of weight, those established by the Committee of 
 1758 having been found quite accurate. 
 
 The second Report, made in 1820, contains the final de- 
 termination of the Commissioners on the standard of long 
 measure, the length of the second's pendulum, and of that of 
 the metre. The following arc the concluding words of this 
 decision : 
 
 '' We prefer the Parliamentary standard executed by Mr. 
 B 2 
 
4 STAKDABDS, 
 
 Bird, in 1760, both as being laid down in the most accurate 
 manner, and as the best agreeing with the most extensive 
 comparisons, which have been hitherto executed by various 
 observers, and circulated throughout Europe ; and in parti- 
 cular with the scale employed by the late Sir G-eorge Shuck- 
 burgh. 
 
 " We have, therefore, now to propose that this standard be 
 considered as the foundation of all legal weights and mea- 
 sures ; and that it be declared that the length of the pendu- 
 lum vibrating seconds in a vacuum, on the level of the sea, 
 in London, is 39-1393 inches, and that of the Trench metre, 
 39*37079 inches, the English standards being employed at 
 62 of Fahrenheit." 
 
 The third Report of the Eoyal Commission, made in 1821, 
 contains a confirmation of the other two Reports, with res- 
 pect to measures of length : and as to weights, the Parlia- 
 mentary troy pound of 1758 is recommended to remain un- 
 altered, and the pound avoirdupois to continue at 7000 troy 
 grains. It is also announced, by new experiments, that a 
 cubic inch of distilled water at 62 is 252*722 grains of the 
 standard pound of 1758, when weighed in a vacuum. 
 
 The House of Commons again appointed a Committee in 
 1821, to which these Eeports were submitted: this Com- 
 mittee agreed with the Commissioners, and a bill was intro- 
 duced in 1823. A petition from the Chamber of Commerce 
 at Glasgow to the House of Lords occasioned an investiga- 
 tion, when Dr. Kelly, as one of the witnesses before the 
 Committee, called attention to certain difficulties and imper- 
 fections in the pendulum experiments, and expressed an opi- 
 nion, supported by few others at the time, though now gene- 
 rally received, that " nature seems to refuse invariable stand- 
 ards ; for, as science advances, difficulties are found to mul- 
 tiply, or at least they become more perceptible, and some 
 appear insuperable." The House of Lords adjourned the 
 question over till 1824 ; when the act 5 Geo. IY. c. 74, was 
 passed. This act came into operation on January 1, 1826, 
 
STANDAKDS. 5 
 
 and made no change in the lineal and superficial measures, 
 nor did it alter either the troy or avoirdupois weights pre- 
 viously established ; but the measures of capacity underwent 
 considerable change. The old Ale, "Wine, and Dry measures 
 were formerly the three authorized measures of capacity. 
 The old Wine gallon contained 231 cubic inches ; the Corn 
 gallon, 268*8 ; and the old Ale gallon, 282. These measures 
 were altered to the Imperial Gallon, containing 277'274< 
 cubic inches. 
 
 The act also states that the pendulum vibrating seconds 
 of mean time in the latitude of London in a vacuum at the 
 level of the sea is 39 f 1393 inches of the standard; and that 
 the cubic inch of distilled water, weighed in air by brass 
 weights, at 62 of Fahrenheit, the barometer being at 30 
 inches, is equal to 252'458 grains, according to the brass 
 weight or troy pound of 1758, declared to remain the ori- 
 ginal and genuine standard measure of weight. 
 
 Under this system, a gallon of water weighing 70,000 
 grains, or 10 Ibs., it follows that 
 
 " A pint of pure water 
 Weighs a pound and a quarter ;" 
 
 where, of course, reference is made to imperial measures and 
 the avoirdupois pound. 
 
 The Houses of Parliament were burnt in 1834, and it is 
 remarkable that 5 and 6 Wm. IV. c. 63, which passed after 
 the fire, takes no notice of the destruction of the standards, 
 but refers to them as still in existence. 
 
 It was, however, fortunate that in the year 1832 the 
 council of the E-oyal Astronomical Society caused a scale of 
 one yard to be constructed for themselves, and obtained per- 
 mission of the Speaker of the House of Commons to adjust 
 and compare it with Bird's Imperial Standard of 1760. 
 This was accomplished in 1834 by an extensive set of deli- 
 cate experiments, ably conducted by Mr. Baily and Lieute- 
 nant Murphy (since deceased) ; and, after the subsequent 
 loss of the Imperial Standard, it may now, perhaps, be rer 
 
b STAND AEDS. 
 
 ferred to as the only measure of length from which the 
 standard scale of Great Britain can be satisfactorily deduced. 
 The Astronomical Society's scale was also compared with 
 the Eoyal Society's scale of 1742, having two scales in it 
 marked E and Exch. ; a scale called Aubert's, the prototype 
 of one which was used in the Indian survey by Lambton ; 
 one which had been used by Sir Gr. Shuckburgh ; one belong- 
 ing to the town of Aberdeen; one belonging to Mr. T. 
 Jones ; and four new ones made after the model of the So- 
 ciety's scale one for the Danish government, one for the 
 Eussian government, one for Mr. Baily, and one retained 
 for himself by Mr. Simms the constructor. The middle yard 
 of the Astronomical Society's scale being taken as 36 inches, 
 the various scales, according to the mean of many observa- 
 tions, were found to be as follows : 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Standard Portion. 
 
 Mean Inches of 
 Ast. Soc. Scale. 
 
 Astron. Society 
 Danish 
 
 Centre yard 
 Ditto 
 
 36-000000 
 35-999758 
 
 Russian 
 
 Ditto 
 
 26-000050 
 
 Simms's 
 
 Ditto 
 
 35999903 
 
 Baily's 
 Aberdeen 
 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 
 35-999949 
 35-998615 
 
 Jones's 
 
 Ditto 
 
 35-999802 
 
 Aubert's 
 
 in. 3G in. 
 
 35-998447 
 
 Shuckburgh 
 Ditto 
 
 Oin. 36 in. 
 10 in. 40 in. 
 
 36-000185 
 35-999921 
 
 Royal Society 
 Ditto 
 
 Line " E." 
 Line " Exch." 
 
 36-001473 
 35-993684 
 
 Imperial standard of Bird's, of 1760, \ 
 afterwards destroyed in 1834 by the V 35 999624 
 
 burning of the Houses of Parliament ' 
 
 Thus the Astronomical Society's standard being '000376 
 longer than the Imperial standard, and the standard tempe- 
 rature being 62, it follows that the length of the former 
 standard, observed at 62, and diminished by "000376 of an 
 inch, will give the true standard of the law. 
 
 In the year 1838, the Government appointed a Commigk 
 
STANDARDS. 7 
 
 si on " to consider the steps to be taken for the Restoration 
 of the Standards of "Weight and Measure, which had been 
 destroyed and lost by the burning of the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment." The members of this commission were Messrs. 
 Airy, Baily, Bethune, Davies Gilbert, Herschel, Lefevre, 
 Lubbock, Peacock, and Sheepshanks ; and the following is 
 extracted from their valuable report made in 1841 : 
 
 " We are of opinion that the definition contained in the 
 act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, ss. 1 and 4, by which the standard 
 yard and pound are declared to be respectively a certain 
 brass rod and a certain brass weight therein specified, is the 
 best which it is possible to adopt. 
 
 " Since the passing of the said act, it has been ascertained 
 that several elements of reduction of the pendulum experi- 
 ments therein referred to, are doubtful or erroneous. Thus, 
 the reduction to the level of the sea was doubtful, the reduc- 
 tion for the weight of air was erroneous, the specific gravity 
 of the pendulum was erroneously stated, the faults of the 
 agate plates introduced some degree of doubt, and sensible 
 errors were introduced in the operation of comparing the 
 length of the pendulum with Shuckburgh's scale, used as the 
 representative of the legal standard. It is evident, there- 
 fore, that the course prescribed by the act would not neces- 
 sarily reproduce the length of the original yard. It appears 
 also, that the determination of the weight of a cubic inch of 
 distilled water is yet doubtful, the greatest difference among 
 the best English, French, Austrian, Swedish, and Russian 
 determinations being about T 2 1 ^ of the whole weight, 
 whereas the mere operation of weighing may be performed 
 to the accuracy of TU O^TTTT f the whole weight. 
 
 " Several measures, however, exist, which were most acciv 
 rately compared with the former standard yard (in particular 
 the Eoyal Astronomical Society's Scale, described in their 
 Memoirs, vol. ix., and the iron bars belonging to the Board of 
 Ordnance, in the custody of Colonel Colby) ; and several 
 metallic weights exist which were most accurately compared 
 
8 STANDARDS. 
 
 with the former standard pound : and by the use of these 
 the values of the original standards can be respectively re- 
 stored without sensible error. And we are fully persuaded 
 that, with reasonable precautions, it will always be possible 
 to provide for the accurate restoration of standards, by 
 means of material copies which have been carefully com- 
 pared with them, more securely than by reference to any 
 experiments referring to natural constants. 
 
 " From the evidence of persons best able to judge of the 
 comparative use of troy weight and avoirdupois weight, the 
 proportion does not exceed one set of troy weights to many 
 thousand sets of avoirdupois. The statements of medical 
 men and those of persons concerned in the trade of bullion, 
 show that even to them the troy pound is useless. The 
 avoirdupois pound, on the other hand, is universally known 
 through this kingdom ; and moreover, being now made 
 equal to 7000 grains, it is well adapted to subdivision by 
 the decimal scale, an object which we think ought never 
 to be placed out of view in considering the changes (in 
 other respects producing no inconvenience) which may be 
 made in the weights and measures of the country. We 
 feel it our duty, therefore, to recommend that the avoirdupois 
 pound be adopted instead of the troy pound as the standard 
 of weight. 'With regard to the standard of length, we do 
 not feel the necessity of proposing any change. 
 
 " That two modes of estimating weight should coexist, is 
 undoubtedly an evil ; its bad effects are greatly increased by 
 the identity of the names used in the different scales for 
 describing weights of very different values. Thus we have 
 the pound in the avoirdupois scale, and the^0?^^in the troy 
 or apothecaries' scale, the former being greater than the 
 latter in the proportion of 7000 to 57GO ; we have the ounce 
 in the avoirdupois scale, and the ounce in the troy or apothe- 
 caries' scale, the former being less than the latter in the 
 proportion of 7000 to 7680 ; we have the dram in the avoir- 
 dupois scale, and the drachm in the apothecaries 1 scale, the 
 
STANDAEDS. 9 
 
 former being less than the latter in the proportion of 7000 
 to 15,300. In examining into the actual uses of these several 
 denominations, we see at once that it is impossible to abrogate 
 the avoirdupois pound and ounce, which are used so exten- 
 sively by persons of every class, that they must be considered 
 as being emphatically the British weights. The avoirdupois 
 dram, however, does not appear to be used at all. The troy 
 pound, as we have already mentioned, appears to be wholly 
 useless : it is not used in contracts for gold and silver, or in 
 medical prescriptions ; and we are not aware of any obstacle 
 whatever to its entire abolition, except the existence of cer- 
 tain printed tables for the reduction of assays of the precious 
 metals, in which the denominations of the larger weights are 
 expressed by multiples of troy pounds. We propose, with 
 the view of removing the confusion caused by the existence 
 of this pound, and at the same time of respecting the private 
 interests which (though to a very inconsiderable extent) are 
 concerned in the change, that the Government should com- 
 pute and print, for the use of bullion merchants and assayers, 
 a new edition of these tables, in which the larger weights 
 shall be expressed by decimal multiples of the troy ounce, to 
 the entire exclusion of the troy pound. AVe are inclined to 
 think that the troy ounce itself could not be abolished at 
 present without some difficulty ; we think it right, however, 
 that the persons using it should be imperatively required to 
 describe it in such a manner that no confusion with the 
 avoirdupois ounce can possibly occur. The remaining weights 
 of the troy and apothecaries' scales may, for the present, be 
 tolerated (for certain substances only), as leading to no 
 ambiguity. Still we think it desirable, that measures should 
 now be taken which may ultimately tend to the removal of 
 the troy scale ; and remarking both the convenience of a 
 decimal scale of subdivision of the avoirdupois pound, and 
 the general willingness of bullion merchants to adopt a 
 decimal scale, and remarking also, that by descending in 
 such a scale we arrive at a small weight (7 grains), bearing 
 
 B 3 
 
10 STANDARDS. 
 
 a simple relation to the grain on which the troy weight is 
 based, we propose that the Government should use its influ- 
 ence for the introduction of such decimal scale. 
 
 " "We beg leave to invite the attention of the Government 
 to the advantage and the facility of establishing in this 
 country a decimal system of coinage. In our opinion, no 
 single change, which it is in the power of a Government to 
 effect in our monetary system, would be felt by all classes 
 as equally beneficial with this, when the temporary incon- 
 veniences attending the change had passed away. The 
 facility consists in the ease of interposing between the 
 sovereign (or pound) and the shilling, a new coin equivalent 
 to two shillings (to be called by a distinctive name) ; of con- 
 sidering the farthing (which now passes as the -g^jth part of 
 the pound) as the -nnju^h P ar ^ f that unit ; of establishing 
 a coin of value equal to T ^th part of the pound ; and of 
 circulating, besides the principal members of a decimal coin- 
 age, other coins of values bearing a simple relation to them, 
 including coins of the same value as the present shilling and 
 sixpence. "We do not feel ourselves at liberty further to 
 enter into this subject ; but we have felt it imperative on us 
 to advert to it, because no circumstance whatever would con- 
 tribute so much to the introduction of decimal scale in 
 weights and measures, in those respects in which it is really 
 useful, as the establishment of a decimal coinage." 
 
 The report contains also the following recommendations : 
 " That the standard of length be defined by the whole length 
 of a certain piece of metal or other durable substance, sup- 
 ported in a certain manner, at a certain temperature ; or, by 
 the distance between two points or lines engraved upon the 
 surface of a certain piece of metal or other durable substance, 
 supported in a certain manner, at a certain temperature: 
 but that the standard be in no way defined by reference to 
 any natural basis, such as the length of a degree of meridian 
 on the earth's surface in an assigned latitude, or the length 
 of the pendulum vibrating seconds in a specified place. 
 
STANDARDS. 11 
 
 ft That the length of the new Parliamentary standard be one 
 yard ; there appearing no sufficient reason for departing from 
 the length hitherto adopted for the standard. 
 
 " That the name milyard, or some other to be fixed by act 
 of Parliament, be recognized as describing the measure of 
 1000 yards, without the necessity of further definition. 
 
 " That the standard of weight be defined by a certain piece 
 of metal or other durable substance. 
 
 " That the standard of capacity be defined by the capacity 
 which, under certain circumstances of the barometer and 
 thermometer, contains a certain weight of distilled water, 
 but that it be in no way defined by reference to the standard 
 of length. That, nevertheless, the contents of the standard 
 of capacity, as expressed in units and fractions of the cubical 
 measure dependent on the standard of length, be stated by 
 way of recital, as the best determination made by scientific 
 men which has come to the knowledge of the Legislature, 
 and- as permitted for use when it is impracticable to refer to 
 trial by the weight of distilled water. 
 
 " That no standard of capacity be constructed ; the defini- 
 tion of the gallon as ' the capacity which contains 10 pounds' 
 weight of distilled water weighed in air at the temperature 
 of 62 Fahrenheit, the barometer being at 30 inches,' as 
 specified in the act 5 Geo. IV., being still retained. 
 
 " That where it shall be impracticable to ascertain the con- 
 tents of any vessel by the weight of distilled water which it 
 contains, or by pouring water into it from a standard measure, 
 it be permitted to ascertain the contents by gauging (the 
 gallon being assumed to be 277'274 cubic inches), or by 
 pouring seed into it from a standard measure. 
 
 " That a sufficient number of weights of multiples of grains 
 be constructed (we would recommend 10 sets of 10, 100 and 
 1000 grains) ; and that their relative errors be found by 
 comparison among themselves, and their absolute errors by 
 comparison with the copies of the old troy pound of 5760 
 grains. 
 
1SJ STANDARDS. 
 
 " That by the use of these, a platinum weight of 7000 grains 
 be constructed ; and that this be declared the Parliamentary 
 standard of weight, by the name of the pound weight ; the 
 distinctive word ' avoirdupois ' being hereafter omitted. 
 
 " That the avoirdupois dram be no longer recognized in any 
 contract. 
 
 " That the troy pound be no longer recognized ; and that the 
 word ' pound/ or any letters or symbols commonly used to 
 denote the pound, as applied to a weight, be always inter- 
 preted to mean the pound of 7000 grains (formerly called the 
 avoirdupois pound). 
 
 " That the word ' ounce ' be always interpreted to mean 
 r ^th part of the pound, except it be described as the * troy 
 ounce.' 
 
 " That the name millet, or some other to be fixed by act of 
 Parliament, be recognized as describing the thousandth part 
 of the pound, without the necessity of further definition. 
 
 " That the only legal weights above one pound, be weights 
 of multiples of 1 pound not exceeding 10 pounds ; and 
 weights of 10 pounds and its multiples, not exceeding 100 
 pounds. 
 
 " That the name centner, or some other to be fixed by act 
 of Parliament, be recognized as describing the weight of 100 
 pounds, without the necessity of further definition. 
 
 " That the Exchequer standards of weight be 1 Ib. and 
 several multiples thereof, not exceeding 10 Ibs. ; 10 Ibs. and 
 several multiples thereof, not exceeding 100 Ibs. ; 100 Ibs. ; 
 but no weight of 14 Ibs. or any multiple of 14 Ibs. except 
 70 Ibs. Also the tenth, hundredth, and thousandth part oi 
 the pound, and several multiples of them. Also 1 troy ounce, 
 10 troy ounces, 100 troy ounces, and several multiples of 
 each ; 1000 troy ounces ; but no weight of 12 troy ounces 
 or any of its multiples (except those included in the decimal 
 scale above described). Also 1 pennyweight, and several 
 multiples of it. Also 1 grain, 10 grains, 100 grains, 1000 
 grains, 10,000 grains, and several multiples of each. 
 
 - I . 
 
STANDARDS. 13 
 
 " That the Exchequer standards of weight be used in the 
 trial of weights brought for examination in the same manner 
 as at present ; and that no greater error than -^^^th part 
 of the quantity weighed be tolerated. 
 
 " We would recommend that the influence of the Govern- 
 ment be employed to introduce the use of the decimal sub- 
 divisions of the acre ; of which the first step is actually given 
 by the square land-chain, and the others are contained in the 
 numerical expression obtained in the first multiplication for 
 finding the area of a piece of ground. 
 
 " Before leaving the subject of length-measures, we beg 
 strongly to call the attention of Government to the impor- 
 tance of encouraging the use of the decimal scale, and espe- 
 cially of sanctioning its use where custom has already 
 adopted it. "We beg particularly to indicate the decimal 
 subdivision of the foot (which is even now engraved on foot 
 rules and levelling staves), as one extensively used in the 
 practice of engineers, and one which we would recommend 
 for the recognition of Government in every case." 
 
 Although the preceding recommendations of the Com- 
 mission have not been carried out they are here inserted, as 
 the subject is very important and worthy of being generally 
 understood. 
 
 It is probable that the varieties of gallons arose from the 
 varieties of pounds, since the original definition of the gallon 
 depended upon the pound, and there is a close relation not 
 only between the old gallons and the weights, but even be- 
 tween the different versions of the old gallons and the 
 weights. There was a gallon of 282 cubic inches in the 
 Exchequer as a standard ; there was one of 272 inches in 
 common use; there was one of 231 inches in common 
 use ; and there was one of 224 inches in the Guildhall. 
 Now 282 and 232 are, as near as integers can represent it, 
 in the proportion of the pound avoirdupois to the pound 
 troy ; and 272 and 224 are as nearly in the same proper. 
 tion. It is unlikely that this should have been accidental. 
 
14 STANDARDS. 
 
 The imperial weights and measures now in use are fixer 
 by the act 5 Geo, IY. c. 74, of which the following is an 
 abstract. 
 
 Abstract of an Act of Parliament, 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, passed 
 June 17, 1824, "for ascertaining and establishing Uni- 
 formity of Weights and Measures" ivhich came into opera- 
 tion on the 1st of January, 1826. 
 
 This is an act declaratory of the accuracy and legality of 
 the existing standards, both of long measure and weight ; 
 but it orders the abolition of all measures of capacity for 
 wine, ale, corn, coals, &c., and the establishment of one only 
 in their stead, which is to be called " Imperial Measure." 
 
 1. The standard yard is declared to be the distance be- 
 tween the centres of the two points on the gold studs in the 
 straight brass rod now in the custody of the Clerk of the 
 House of Commons, whereon is engraved " Standard Yard, 
 1760," the brass being at the temperature of 62 by Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer. It is to be called " the Imperial Stand- 
 ard Yard." 
 
 2. The dimensions for measuring land are unaltered : they 
 are the statute measure, of which the acre contains 4840 
 square yards. 
 
 3. The yard, if lost, defaced, or otherwise injured, may 
 be restored by comparing it with the pendulum vibrating 
 seconds of mean time, in the latitude of London, in a 
 vacuum on the level of the sea, the yard being in the pro- 
 portion of 36 inches to 39*1393 of the pendulum. 
 
 4. The standard pound is declared to be the standard 
 brass weight of one pound troy weight made in the year 
 1758, and now in the custody of the Clerk of the House 
 of Commons, and it is denominated " the Imperial Troy 
 Pound." 
 
 5. If the imperial pound be lost, defaced, or otherwise 
 
STANDARDS. 113 
 
 injured, it shall be restored by comparison with a cubic inch 
 of distilled water, weighed in air by brass weights, at the 
 temperature of 62 of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the baro- 
 meter being at 30 inches. Such cubic inch of water is equal 
 to 252*458 grains, the standard troy pound being 5760 such 
 grains ; and the avoirdupois pound 7000 such grains troy. 
 All operations of restoring or correcting standards are to be 
 made under the directions of the Lord High Treasurer, or 
 the Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, or any three 
 of them for the time being. 
 
 G. The standard measure of capacity, as well for liquids 
 as for dry goods, not measured by heaped * measure, shall be 
 the gallon, containing 10 Ibs. avoirdupois weight of dis- 
 tilled water, weighed in air at the temperature of 62 of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer, the barometer being at 30 inches ; 
 and such brass measure shall be "the Imperial Standard 
 Gallon," and is declared to be the unit and only standard 
 measure of capacity from which all other measures of capa- 
 city for all sorts of liquids, as well as for dry goods not mea- 
 sured by heaped * measure, shall be derived ; and that all 
 measures shall be taken in parts and multiples, the quart, 
 pint, peck, bushel, and quarter continuing in the same pro- 
 portion as heretofore for dry measure. 
 
 7. That the standard measure of capacity for coals, culm, 
 lime, fish, potatoes, or fruit, and all other goods and things 
 commonly sold by heaped * measure, shall be the imperial 
 bushel, containing 80 Ibs. avoirdupois of water as aforesaid ; 
 the same being made round, with a plain and even bottom, 
 and being 19J inches from outside to outside. 
 
 8. That coals and other goods sold by heaped * measure 
 shall be duly heaped up in the said bushel in the form of a 
 cone, such cone to be of the height of at least 6 inches ; and 
 the outside of the bushel to be the extremity of the base of 
 
 * Heaped measures have been abolished since 1st Jan. 1835 (4, ft, and 
 C Will. IV. c. 49 and 03). 
 
16 STANDARDS. 
 
 such cone; and that three bushels shall be a sack, and 
 twelve such sacks a chaldron. 
 
 9. That for articles not sold by heaped * measure, such as 
 corn, pulse, &c., the same shall be stricken with a round 
 stick or roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end 
 to end. 
 
 10. That this law of imperial measure is not to extend to 
 Ireland for any articles hitherto sold by weight. 
 
 11. That copies and models of the standard of length, 
 weight, and measure aforesaid, are to be made and verified 
 within three months after passing the act, under the direc- 
 tion of the Lords of the Treasury ; and that such copies or 
 models shall be deposited in the office of the Chamberlain of 
 the Exchequer at Westminster ; and that copies shall be 
 sent to the Lord Mayor of London, and the Chief Magis- 
 trate of Edinburgh and of Dublin, and to such other places 
 or persons as the Lord High Treasurer or Commissioners of 
 the Treasury may from time to time direct. 
 
 12. That His Majesty's justices of the peace, in every 
 county of the British Empire, or every town or place, being 
 a county within itself, shall, within six months after passing 
 the act, purchase a model of each of the standards aforesaid, 
 with their parts and multiples ; and that such shall be com- 
 pared and verified with the models deposited at the Exche- 
 quer, on payment of the usual fees ; and that such verified 
 copies shall be placed for custody and inspection with sucli 
 persons as the magistrates shall choose to appoint ; and that 
 the same shall be produced by the keepers thereof, upon rea- 
 sonable notice, the persons requiring such production paying 
 the customary charges for the same. 
 
 13. The expenses of procuring models for magistrates, 
 counties, &c., are to be raised by the usual modes of taxation. 
 
 14. That when reference cannot be easily had to verified 
 copies of the standard measures of capacity, it may be lawful 
 for any justice of the peace, or magistrate having jurisdiction, 
 to ascertain the content of a measure of capacity, by direct 
 
STANDARDS. 1 7 
 
 reference to the weight of pure or rain water which such 
 measure is capable of containing ; 10 Ibs. avoirdupois weight 
 of such water, at the temperature of 62 by Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, being the standard gallon ascertained by 
 the act, the same being in bulk equal to 277'274 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 15. That all contracts for sale, &c., by weight or measure, 
 shall be according to the imperial standard, when no special 
 agreement shall be made to the contrary ; and in all cases 
 where any special agreement shall be made, with reference 
 to any weight or measure established by local custom, the 
 proportion which every such local weight or measure shall 
 bear to any of the said standard weights and measures, shall 
 be expressly declared and specified, or otherwise such agree- 
 ment shall be null and void. 
 
 16. That existing measures may be used, being marked so 
 as to show the proportions which they have to the imperial 
 measures ; but that after the 1st of May, 1825, no person 
 shall be permitted to make any weights or measures, other- 
 wise than according to the provisions of the new act. 
 
 17. That for ascertaining rents, &c., payable in grain or 
 malt in England or Ireland, the amount is to be ascertained 
 according to the standard by this act established, by a jury 
 of 12 substantial freeholders. 
 
 18. That for ascertaining rents, &c., payable in grain or 
 malt in Scotland, such rents shall be determined according 
 to the new standard, by such juries as strike the fiar prices of 
 grain. 
 
 19. That tables of equalization shall be made and con- 
 structed under the Commissioners of the Treasury, showing 
 the proportions between the weights and measures heretofore 
 in use and those now established. 
 
 20. That tables shall be also constructed for the collection 
 of the customs and excise, under the direction of the said 
 Commissioners of the Treasury, 
 
 21. The present act may be enforced in England and 
 
18 STANDARDS. 
 
 Scotland by all the regulations and penalties contained in 
 the following statutes, except such parts of the said statutes 
 as may be repealed or altered by this present act, viz. 29 
 Geo. II. c. 25 ; 31 Geo. II. c. 17 ] 35 Geo. III. c. 102 ; 55 
 Geo. III. c. 43. 
 
 22. The present act may be enforced in Ireland by all the 
 regulations and penalties contained in the following statutes, 
 except such parts of the said statutes as are repealed or 
 altered by this act, viz. 4 Anne (J.) ; 11 Geo. II. ( J.) ; 25 
 Geo. II. (Z) ; 27 Geo. III. (7.) ; 28 Geo. III. (J.) 
 
 23. The repeal of numerous laws is declared in this arti- 
 cle ; some of uncertain date before the reign of Edward the 
 Third, and many since that period. These are chiefly sta- 
 tutes which fixed the weight and measure of certain kinds of 
 goods, such as wool, cheese, salt, wine, beer, fish, fruit, &c. ; 
 and also the denominations which determine their quantity, 
 as the sack, wey, load, tun, hogshead, barrel, &c. For the 
 particulars of these statutes (which are now repealed either 
 wholly or in part), recourse must be had to the originals, as 
 referred to in the margin of the present act, and which 
 amount to about 60 statutes. 
 
 24. That this act shall not extend to affect or alter the 
 rights of the Dean and High Steward of Westminster, to 
 appoint proper officers to sign and seal all weights and mea- 
 sures used in the said city and the liberties thereof. 
 
 25. That gaugeable liquors brought into the port of the 
 city of London shall be gauged as heretofore by the Lord 
 Mayor or his deputies ; but the contents shall be ascertained 
 by the standard measure directed by this act. 
 
 26. This act shall not extend to prohibit or diminish the 
 right of the Lord Mayor and Commonalty of the city of 
 London, concerning the office of gauger of any gaugeable 
 liquors imported within the city of London, or the liberties 
 thereof 
 
STANDARDS. 
 
 19 
 
 Numerical relations appertaining to the foregoing Act for 
 equalizing Measures. 
 
 "Weight of a cubic inch of distilled water, in a vacuum 
 at the temperature 62 = 252*722 grains. 
 
 Consequently, a cubic foot 62*3862 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Weight of a cubic inch of distilled water in air at 62 of 
 temperature with a mean height of the barometer = 252*458 
 grains. 
 
 Consequently, a cubic foot = 62*3206 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 And an ounce of water = 1*73298 cubic inches. 
 
 Cubic inches in the imperial gallon = 277*274. 
 
 Diameter of the cylinder, containing a gallon at one inch 
 in depth = 18*78933 inches. 
 
 Specific Gravity of Water at different temperatures, that at 62 being 
 taken as unity. 
 
 70 
 
 0*99913 
 
 61 
 
 1-00010 
 
 52 
 
 00076 
 
 43 
 
 1-00109 
 
 69 
 
 0-99925 
 
 60 
 
 1-00019 
 
 51 
 
 00082 
 
 42 
 
 1-00111 
 
 6*8 
 
 0-99936 
 
 59 
 
 1-00027 
 
 50 
 
 00087 
 
 41 
 
 1*00112 
 
 67 
 
 0-99947 
 
 58 
 
 1-00035 
 
 49 
 
 00091 
 
 40 
 
 1-00113 
 
 66 
 
 0-99958 
 
 57 
 
 1-00043 
 
 48 
 
 00095 
 
 39 
 
 1-00113 
 
 65 
 
 0-99969 
 
 56 
 
 1-00050 
 
 47 
 
 00099 
 
 38 
 
 1-00113 
 
 64 
 
 0-99980 
 
 55 
 
 1-00057 
 
 46 
 
 00102 
 
 37 
 
 1-00112 
 
 G3 
 
 0-99990 
 
 54 
 
 1-00064 
 
 45 
 
 00105 
 
 36 
 
 1-00111 
 
 62 
 
 1-00000 
 
 53 
 
 1-000/0 
 
 44 
 
 00107 
 
 35 
 
 1-00109 
 
 The difference of temperatures between 62 and 39, 
 where water attains its greatest density, will vary the bulk 
 of a gallon of water rather less than the third of a cubic 
 inch. 
 
 And assuming from the mean of numerous estimates the 
 expansion of brass 0*00001044 for each degree of Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer, the difference of temperatures from 62 
 to 39 will vary the content of a brass gallon measure just 
 one-fifth of a cubic inch. 
 
 It appears that the specific gravity of clear water from 
 the Thames exceeds that of distilled water at the mean tern- 
 
20 
 
 STANDARDS. 
 
 perature, in the proportion of T0006 to 1, making a differ- 
 ence of about one-sixth of a cubic inch on a gallon. 
 
 Rain water does not differ from distilled water, so as to 
 require any allowance for common purposes. 
 
 Comparisons of Old and New Measures. 
 
 The foregoing calculation of the diameter of a cylinder, 
 which contains 1 gallon for every inch in depth, will be 
 found useful in constructing both corn and coal bushels on 
 the new plan of imperial measure. 
 
 Thus the com bushel, with the diameter 1878933, and 8 
 inches deep, will answer to 22 18 '192 cubic inches, the impe- 
 rial bushel ; being about -g-V part more than the Winchester 
 bushel, which is 2150*42 cubic inches. 
 
 The new coal bushel, with the above diameter and depth, 
 and heaped as directed in Art. 8, the rim being about f of 
 an inch thick, and the diameter 19 \ inches from outside to 
 outside, will measure 2816*459 cubic inches, which is only 
 1-J- inch more than the present coal bushel, viz. 2814*9 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 The proportion between the old and new wine measures is 
 very nearly as 5 to 6. Thus 5 imperial gallons equal 6 wine 
 gallons and about -j^W of a gallon over. 
 
 The proportion between the old and new ale measures is 
 about as 60 to 59. 
 
 The following table will show the relative contents more 
 accurately, both in measure and in weight, the latter having 
 been computed according to the principles stated in the act. 
 
 Table showing the Contents of the different Gallons, loth in Measure and 
 Weight. 
 
 
 Cubic Inches. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. 
 
 Troy Weight. 
 
 Imperial Gallon . . 
 Corn Gallon . . . 
 Wine Gallon. . . 
 Ale Gallon . . . 
 
 277*274 
 268-8 
 231 
 282 
 
 Ib. oz. dr. 
 10 
 9 10 Jf 
 8 5 6| 
 10 2 \\\ 
 
 Ib. oz. dwt. gr. 
 12 1 16 16 
 11 9 7 12 
 10 1 9 22 
 12 4 6 8 
 
STANDAEDS. 
 
 21 
 
 These results will be found useful in comparing different 
 vessels where gauging cannot be relied on ; and although they 
 are computed according to the conditions of temperature, 
 &c., as stated in Art. 6, yet the proportions will answer with 
 sufficient correctness for all common purposes of business, 
 with any kind of fresh water ; but where great accuracy is 
 required, it may be determined at any other temperature by 
 means of the table given on page 19. Thus to find the weight 
 of the wine gallon at 56 Fahrenheit, multiply its weight at 
 62, viz. 8-3311 by 1-0005, and the result will be 8*3353, 
 the required weight. 
 
 The reduction of the different measures may be easily 
 computed by means of factors or multipliers, given in the 
 following table : 
 
 Table of Factors, for converting Old and New Measures. 
 
 
 By Decimals. 
 
 By Fractions. 
 
 Corn 
 
 Measure. 
 
 Wine 
 
 Measure. 
 
 Ale 
 Measure. 
 
 Corn 
 
 Measure. 
 
 Wine 
 
 Measure. 
 
 Ale 
 Measure. 
 
 To convert Old Mea- 
 sures into New . 
 
 96943 
 
 83311 
 
 1-01704 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 G 
 
 To con vert New Mea- 
 sures into Old . 
 
 1-03153 
 
 1-20032 
 
 98324 
 
 8 
 
 | 
 
 ig 
 
 EXAMPLE I. Reduce 63 gallons wine measure to impe- 
 rial measure. 
 
 63 X -83311 = 52-486 ; or 63 x -- = 52 imperial gallons 
 nearly. 
 
 EXAMPLE II. Reduce 8 bushels imperial measure to 
 Winchester measure. 
 
 8 x 1-03153 = 8-25224 ; or 8 X f f = 8 "Winchester 
 bushels nearly. 
 
 It should be observed, that the computations by the frac- 
 
22 STANDARDS. 
 
 lions are only approximative, but they will be found suffi- 
 ciently correct for most purposes. 
 
 In 1870 the Standards Commission, in connection with 
 the Standard Weights and Measures Department of the 
 Board of Trade, made the following important recommenda- 
 tion in their Fourth Report : 
 
 "That mural or public standards of length be securely 
 fixed for public use in all populous towns, and the expenses 
 connected with them be defrayed from the local funds. The 
 local authorities to be responsible for keeping them in good 
 order, and the local inspectors to report to them periodically 
 on their condition. These public standards not to be valid 
 for convictions of false or defective measures." 
 
 In pursuance of this recommendation, measures of 100 
 feet, and of the chain of 66 feet, with their subdivisions, 
 were laid down on the north side of Trafalgar Square, and 
 these were legalised as secondary standards of length by Her 
 Majesty's Order in Council, dated 27th June, 1876, wherein 
 it is pointed out that by the 1st section of " The Standards 
 of Weights, Measures, and Coinage Act, 1866," the custody 
 of the imperial standards of length and of weight, &c., was 
 transferred to the Board of Trade. The following condensed 
 account, appertaining to the laying down of these secondary 
 standards, has been extracted from an Appendix to the 
 Annual Report, 1875-76, of H. W. Chisholm, Warden of 
 the Standards. 
 
 The exhibition of public and mural standards of length in 
 populous places throughout the country, was considered by 
 the Commission for Restoration of the Standards to be one of 
 the best auxiliary means for attaining and maintaining uni- 
 formity in the measures of length used by the public, and 
 was recommended by the Commission in their Reports of 
 1841 and 1854. Similar recommendations were made by 
 the Standards Commission appointed in 1867; and the 
 mode in which they proposed such recommendations should 
 be carried out by the Standards Department in laying down 
 
STANDARDS. 23 
 
 public standards of the chains of 100 feet and of 66 feet, 
 and erecting public standards of the yard and its principal 
 parts. 
 
 In selecting a site for such public standards, the Com- 
 mission expressed their opinion that they should be placed 
 
 Where they are easily accessible to the public who may 
 wish to compare their measures ; 
 
 Where such comparisons may be made without being dis- 
 turbed by passers or idle gazers ; 
 
 Where sufficient protection from wilful damage may at all 
 times be secured ; 
 
 And where there is a long and level plot of ground upon 
 which the longer standard measures may be laid down, with 
 an adjacent wall for the mural standards. 
 
 It was not until the spring of 1875 that the site of the 
 north side of Trafalgar Square was obtained from the Office 
 of Works, through the intervention of the Astronomer Eoyal. 
 A working plan for the construction of these public standards 
 was laid before the Standards Commission by the Astronomer 
 Royal, which had been prepared by his son, Mr. Wilfrid 
 Airy, an able practical civil engineer, whose valuable services 
 were retained for making the working drawings, as well as 
 for superintending the work of constructing the platform and 
 laying down the standards. Mr. W. Airy also gave his 
 assistance to the officers of the Standards Department in the 
 work of comparing the standard chains when laid down, and 
 in superintending the subsequent adjustment of some of the 
 bronze blocks on which the defining lines were cut. All the 
 blocks for defining the several measures are of bronze. Those 
 inlaid in the granite are slightly conical, and are secured by 
 cement in somewhat larger conical holes in the granite. 
 The mural standard measures are also of bronze, securely 
 fastened by screws to a solid frame. This frame, and those 
 containing the descriptive tablets, are of bronze, and are 
 secured to the granite wall by screws, the heads of which 
 have since been removed to the level of the adjoining metal. 
 
STANDARDS. 
 
 The mode in which the metal blocks bearing the defining lines 
 of the standard measure of 100 feet were laid down, was by 
 first marking out the several lengths by means of 10 of the pine 
 10-feet measuring-rods of the Standards Department, having 
 subdivisions of 1 foot each marked upon them. Square holes 
 were next cut in the granite in a marked-out straight line to 
 receive the metal blocks, and were made sufficiently large to 
 admit of a slight adjustment of the blocks in the direction of 
 the length of the measure. When all was prepared, the 
 square metal blocks for the 100-feet chain were placed in the 
 several holes, and were embedded in cement, being secured 
 on each side by an iron wedge. Each length was then care- 
 fully measured with the pine measuring-rods, and every 
 requisite adjustment made, after which the surface of the 
 cement was levelled and finished off. 
 
 A similar course was pursued with the whole length of the 
 66-feet chain, and with half of the whole length, the mea- 
 surements being made with six of the 10-feet pine measuring- 
 rods, and with two of the similar 3-feet measuring-rods of the 
 Standards Department. The intermediate lengths of 10 links, 
 each 7'92 inches, were laid down by using two 10-link 
 measuring-rods of Messrs. Troughton & Simms, the intervals 
 of each half-chain being adjusted so as to be as nearly equal 
 as possible. 
 
 The definitive comparisons of the two measures of length 
 were made with the two standard 10-feet measuring-bars, 
 and the 6-feet bar constructed expressly for verifying con- 
 tinuous length measurements of this kind. 
 
 The errors of these two standard bars at 62 Fahr. have 
 been determined, as follows : 
 
 Standard 10-feet end-bar No. 1 ... -006739 in excess. 
 No. 2 . -005919 
 
 The two bnrs -012658 
 
 And 100 feet measured with them . . -063290 
 
 The standard 6-fect steel end-bar is similar in its construe- 
 
STANDARDS. 25 
 
 tion to the two 10-foct standard bars. Its standard length 
 at 62 F. has been determined to be "00691 inch in excess. 
 
 The mean results of two series of minute comparisons 
 may be taken as the determined standard length at 62 F. 
 of the several 10-feet subdivisions of the standard 100-feet 
 measure from the zero block, viz, : 
 
 Ascertained Errors of the several IQ-feet Subdivisions of the Standard 
 WQ-feet Measure from the Zero Eloc/t, measured to the middle of the 
 defining line : 
 
 010 feet - -007 inch. 
 20 - -019 
 30 - -022 
 40 - .015 
 50 - -008 
 
 060 feet + -007 inch. 
 
 70 + -Oil 
 
 80 + -021 
 
 90 + -017 
 
 100 - -008 . 
 
 All these errors are within the breadth of the several 
 defining lines. 
 
 The surveyors' chain of 66 feet is divided into 100 links, 
 each being 7'92 inches in length. The standard 66 feet 
 now laid down is divided into 10 lengths of 10 links each. 
 The only practical mode of verifying all these lengths was to 
 compare the whole distance of 66 feet with the standard 
 10-feet steel bars carried successively along it for 60 feet, 
 and completing the measurement with the standard 6-feet 
 bar. The mean result of two series of minute observations 
 may be taken as the determined standard length, viz. 
 
 Ascertained error of standard chain of 66 feet at 
 82 P.= -019 inch. 
 
 A comparison was also made of each of the 10-link divi- 
 sions of the 66-feet chain, with the two pine measuring-rods 
 of 10 links each of Mr. Simras, in order to test any relative 
 difference between them, and in this manner to verify the 
 length of each, with reference to the relation of the sum of 
 the 10 links to the whole length of the 66-feet chain. It was 
 thus ascertained that the whole distance of 66 feet was 
 accurately divided into 10 equal parts of 10 links each, within 
 half the breadth of the dennin lines. 
 
26 STANDARDS. 
 
 The several mural standards of length, consisting of bed 
 measures of the imperial yard of 3 feet, of 2 feet, of 1 
 foot, and of the line divisions of these measures, including 
 those of 1 inch divided into tenths, have been accurately 
 compared, and found to have no sensible error at the normal 
 temperature of 62 F. 
 
 In France the new Metric System of measures, now com- 
 pletely established, was introduced in 1799, and is called 
 metrical, as derived from the measurement of the earth. Its 
 fundamental measure, the metre, is presumed to be the ten- 
 millionth part of a meridian line drawn from the pole to the 
 equator, and is 39*37079 English inches. Taking the one- 
 hundredth of the metre, we obtain the centimetre; and for 
 the standard of weight the gramme is a cubic centimetre of 
 distilled water at the temperature of maximum density, the 
 same being '0022054 of an English avoirdupois pound, or 
 15-438 English grains. All the multiples and subdivisions 
 of the current coins, as well as of every measure and weight, 
 are decimal, full details of which will be found under the 
 article " France." The advantage of such a system, when 
 once established, is so great, that all who are capable of ap- 
 preciating its merits look forward with interest to the intro- 
 duction of a similar one into Great Britain. It has already 
 been adopted in Austria, Belgium, Greece, Holland, Ger- 
 many, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 The Weights and Measures Act, 1878 (41 & 42 Viet. 
 cap. 49), came into operation on the 1st of January, 1879. By 
 it all previous Acts are for the most part repealed. It is 
 enacted, 
 
 That the Board of Trade shall have all such powers and 
 perform all such duties relative to standards of measure and 
 weight, and to weights and measures, as are by any Act or 
 otherwise vested in or imposed on the Treasury, or the 
 
STANDARDS. 27 
 
 Comptroller-General of the Exchequer, or the Warden of the 
 Standards. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trade to 
 conduct all such comparisons, verifications, and other opera- 
 tions with reference to standards of measure and weight, in aid 
 of scientific researches, or otherwise, as the Board of Trade 
 from time to time thinks expedient, and to make from time 
 to time a report to Parliament on their proceedings and 
 business under this Act. 
 
 The Board of Trade shall cause to be compared with the 
 Board of Trade standards all copies of any of those standards 
 which are submitted for the purpose by any local authority, 
 and have been used, or are intended to be used, as local 
 standards, and, if approved, shall cause them to be stamped 
 as verified in such manner as to show the date of such 
 verification. 
 
 A contract or dealing shall not be invalid on the ground 
 that the weights or measures used therein are weights or 
 measures of the metric system, or on the ground that decimal 
 subdivisions of imperial weights and measures, whether 
 metric or otherwise, are used. 
 
 The Board of Trade also possess accurate copies of metric 
 standards, and may, if they think fit, cause to be compared 
 with the metric standards in their custody, and verified, all 
 metric weights and measures, which are submitted to them 
 for the purpose, and are of such construction as may be from 
 time to time directed, and which the Board of Trade are 
 satisfied are intended to be used for the purpose of science or 
 of manufacture, and not for the purpose of trade within the 
 meaning of this Act. 
 
 The following is a list of the standards in the custody of 
 the Board of Trade at the passing of this Act : 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 Feet : 100, GO, 16}, 10, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. 
 
 12 duodecimal \ ecma j 
 10 decimal 
 
 I ( p'iris 
 
 ' 1G binary 
 
 c 2 
 
28 STANDAEDS. 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 Bushel, half-bushel, peck, 
 Gallon, half-gallon, 
 Quart, pint, half-pint, 
 Gill, half-gill, quarter- gill. 
 
 Measures used in the Sale of Drugs. 
 Fluid ounces : 4, 3, 2, 1. 
 
 drachms: 4, 3, 2, 1. 
 Minims : 30, 20, 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, I. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weights. 
 
 Pounds : 56, 28, 14, 7, 4, 2, 1. Ounces : 8, 4, 2, 1. 
 Drams : 8, 4, 2, 1, . Grains : 240, 120, 72, 48, 24. 
 
 Troy Bullion Weights. 
 
 Ounces : 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. 
 Decimals : -5, '4, -3, -2, -1, -05, -04, '03, -02, -01, '005, -004, -003, 
 002, 001. 
 
 Decimal Grain Weights. 
 
 Grains: 4,000, 2,000, 1,000, 500, 300, 200, 100, 50, 30, 20, 10, 5, 3, 
 2, 1, -5, -3, -2, -1, -05, -03, -02, -01. 
 
 Metric Measures and Weights. 
 
 1. Length. Metres: 2, 1, -1, -01, '001. 
 
 2. Weights. Kilograms : 20, 10, 5, 2, 1. 
 
 Grams: 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2, 1. 
 Decigrams : 5, 2, 1. Milligrams : 5, 2, 1, -05. 
 
 3. Capacity. Litres: 20, 10, 5, 2, 1, -5, -2, '1, '05, -02, -01, *005, 
 002, -001. 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Coins are pieces of metal, mostly of a round and flat 
 Bliape, stamped by authority with certain impressions, which 
 are intended to give them a legal and current value, and also 
 to serve as a guarantee for their weight and fineness. 
 
 Gold and silver are the principal metals of which coins 
 are made, being found the fittest for that purpose, both on 
 account of their qualities and their scarcity. 
 
 Copper and billon are likewise used, but always for coins 
 of inferior value. 
 
 The proportional value of gold and silver is variable ; for 
 
STANDARDS. 29 
 
 although they are generally considered as equivalents of 
 other property, and standard measures of value by which 
 commodities are bought, sold, and estimated, yet, being 
 themselves also saleable articles, they are liable to constant 
 fluctuation in price, as exchanged for each other, as well as 
 with respect to all property. 
 
 Pure gold and silver are invariable in their qualities, from 
 whatever mines they are produced. In their fine state they 
 are considered too flexible to make coins fit for general 
 wear; and hence the practice of mixing with them a cer- 
 tain proportion of harder metal, which is called alloy. 
 
 The coinage of William the Conqueror was after the plan 
 established by Charlemagne, in Prance, in the eighth century, 
 and is supposed to be derived from the liomans, with respect 
 to dividing the pound into 20 shillings and the shilling into 
 12 pence. 
 
 The Saxon pound weight was adopted by King "William, 
 and was called the moneyer's poun d ; and from it 20 shillings 
 were coined, which made 21^ to the pound troy. This 
 number was increased in succeeding reigns until the year 
 1665 (18th Charles II.), at which time it was settled at 62 
 shillings, and so continued until the year 1816, when it was 
 altered to 66 shillings, its present rate. 
 
 In the early coinages the silver penny or sterling was 
 minted with a deep cross. "When it was broken into two 
 parts, each was called a halfpenny, and when into four, each 
 part was called a fourth-thing, or farthing. Larger silver 
 pieces of fourpence were also coined, which were called 
 greats, or groats, and also grosses. There were besides, sil- 
 ver halfpence and farthings minted ; but no shillings until 
 the reign of Henry VII. (1504), nor copper coins until the 
 reign of Charles II. (1665.) 
 
 As to gold coins, the first after the Norman Conquest, ac- 
 cording to Snelling, was struck by order of Henry III. in 
 the year 1257. It weighed two silver pence, passed for 
 twenty pence, and was called the gold pennie. The samo 
 
30 STANDARDS 
 
 author observes, " that the king tried this expedient of com- 
 ing gold through necessity, and that the city of London 
 made a representation against this measure." 
 
 The next gold coinage in England was in the year 1344, 
 when the florin was struck, which took its name from Flo- 
 rence, where it had been first minted in 1252. It was after- 
 wards coined in most countries of Europe. In Germany 
 and Holland it was called the gulden, on account of its 
 having been originally gold. The florin, however, has been 
 long a silver coin, and also a money of account. 
 
 The above coins are supposed to have been of pure gold ; 
 but those minted in the subsequent reigns down to that of 
 Henry VIII. were 23 carats 3 grains fine, with -| grain of 
 alloy. This was called the old standard to distinguish it 
 from the new or the present standard, which was first 
 called crown gold, as being minted into crown pieces in 
 1527. 
 
 The principal gold coins of the old standard were nobles 
 of 6*. 8cl. each, with halves and quarters : the latter were 
 called farthing nolles. There were also marks of 13s. 4*/. 3 
 angels of 10 shillings, and sovereigns of 20 shillings each. 
 Sovereigns were first minted by Henry VII., and were fre- 
 quently altered during the four subsequent reigns ; but in 
 the 2nd of James I. they were fixed at 22 carats, at which 
 fineness all gold coins have since been minted. The 20 shil- 
 ling pieces first coined at this rate were called unites, and 
 33^- pieces were struck from the pound troy ; but in the reign 
 of Charles II. (1666) a new coinage of 44 J to the Ib. was 
 minted, and these were called guineas, on account of the 
 country from which the gold was originally brought. The 
 guinea varied in its current price from 20 shillings up to 
 30, until the year 1717, when, by the recommendation of 
 Sir Isaac Newton, it was fixed at 21 shillings, its present 
 rate. 
 
 The system of both metals being standard measures of 
 value, which they were in virtue of each being a legal tender 
 
STANDARDS. 31 
 
 to any amount, was the source of much disorder ; for as 
 their market prices were always subject to variation, one 
 kind of coin had a constant tendency to drive the other out 
 of circulation. 
 
 To remedy this great inconvenience, our present monetary 
 system was established in 1816, at which time, as gold was 
 the metal in which the principal payments were made in. 
 England, the following law was enacted : " That gold coins 
 shall be in future the sole standard measure of value, and 
 legal tender of payment, without any limitation of: amount, 
 and that silver coins shall be a legal tender for the limited 
 amount of forty shillings only, at any one time." 
 
 In the same year a new coinage of 20 shilling pieces, 
 called sovereigns, was minted, in due proportion to the 
 guinea, \iz. 46f sovereigns to the pound troy, and an 
 extensive silver coinage also took place, at the new rate of 
 06 instead of 62 shillings to the troy pound, which affords a 
 profit or seignorage of 6^ per cent., but its actual amount 
 must always depend on the market price of the metal. 
 
 The total existing quantity of gold when compared with 
 that of silver is estimated to be nearly as 1 to 50, and the 
 relative value of gold to silver is as about 16 to 1 ; conse- 
 quently the value of the general silver currency of the world 
 as compared with the gold currency is about 3 to 1. In Great 
 Britain however, gold being the only legal tender for sums 
 above forty shillings, the metallic currency is essentially gold, 
 and the silver and copper coins are only introduced as auxiliary 
 tokens for the purpose of effecting the fractional and smaller 
 payments. The circulation of silver coin, about 13,000,000?. 
 sterling including our colonies, is therefore of inconsiderable 
 amount when compared with that of other countries. 
 
 The following table, extracted from Kelly's Universal 
 Cambist, exhibits the history of English coins in a condensed 
 form. It should be observed that the last column is calcu- 
 lated according to the Mint proportions which overrate the 
 metallic value of silver. 
 
STANDARDS. 
 
 Table showing the Alterations English Coins have undergone with respect 
 to Weight and Fineness, and also the Comparative Value of Gold 
 and Silver^ from the Reign of WILLIAM THE CONCIUEROR to that of 
 GEORGE IV. 
 
 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 Reign. 
 
 Fineness 
 of Silver 
 Coins. 
 
 Pound 
 Troy of 
 such Silver 
 coined into 
 
 Fineness 
 of Gold 
 Coins. 
 
 Pound 
 Troy of 
 such Gold 
 coined into 
 
 Value of fine 
 Gold and 
 Silver. 
 
 1066 
 
 William I. 
 
 oz. dwt. 
 11 2 
 
 s. d. 
 1 4 
 
 car. gr. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Gold. Silver. 
 
 J280 
 
 8 Edward I. 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 
 1344 
 
 18 Edward III. 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 23 3 
 
 14 10 
 
 1 to 12-584 
 
 1349 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 14 18 8 
 
 11-571 
 
 1356 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 6 8 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 11-158 
 
 1421 
 
 9 Henry V. 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 _ 
 
 17 16 
 
 10-331 
 
 1464 
 1465 
 
 4 Edward IV. 
 
 
 
 200 
 200 
 
 
 
 22 4 6 
 24 
 
 10-331 
 11 '158 
 
 1470 
 
 49 Henry VI. 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 11-158 
 
 14S2 
 
 22 Edward IV. 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 11-158 
 
 1509 
 
 1 Henry VIII. 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 11-158 
 
 1527 
 1543 
 
 18 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 228 
 280 
 
 22 
 23 
 
 24 
 28 16 
 
 11-268 
 10 431 
 
 1545 
 
 
 6 
 
 280 
 
 22 
 
 ^000 
 
 6"S18 
 
 1546 
 
 37 
 
 4 
 
 280 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 5-000 
 
 1547 
 
 1 Edward VI. 
 
 4 
 
 280 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 5 000 
 
 1549 
 
 I F IT -I 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 50 
 
 3 12 
 312 
 
 22 
 23 3A 
 
 34 
 34 
 
 5-151 
 
 1 ^22 
 
 6 
 
 11 1 
 
 300 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 11*050 
 
 1553 
 
 1 Mary. 
 
 11 
 
 300 
 
 23 3k 
 
 36 
 
 11-057 
 
 1560 
 
 2 Elizabeth. 
 
 11 2 
 
 300 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 11-100 
 
 1600 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 23 3A 
 
 36 10 
 
 10-904 
 
 1604 
 
 2 James I. 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 22 
 
 33 10 
 
 12-109 
 
 1626 
 
 2 diaries I. 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 c 
 
 41 
 
 13346 
 
 16(56 
 
 18 Charles II. 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 
 44 10 
 
 14-485 
 
 1717 
 
 3 George I. 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 15 209 
 
 131S 
 
 56 George III. 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 14-287 
 
 1821 
 
 2 George IV. 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 14-287 
 
 By the above table it appears that silver coins have been 
 diminished in value, during the last oOO years, in the ratio 
 of 99 to 32, and gold coins nearly as 3| to 1. 
 
 In all regular governments, there has been a standard for 
 coins fixed by law ; that is, a certain proportion between the 
 quantity of pure metal and its alloy. Thus, the established 
 legal standard for gold in England is -If or -JJ ; that is, 
 eleven parts of pure metal, and one of alloy. The fine- 
 ness of gold is generally expressed in carats ; the whole 
 weight being supposed to be divided into 24 equal parts or 
 
STANDARDS. 33 
 
 carats, 22 of which are of pure metal and 2 of alloy : and 
 hence, the English standard gold is said to be 22 carats fine ; 
 and the carat is divided into 4 parts, called grains : but these 
 proportions differ in other countries. Experiments have 
 shown that the proportions of the British gold standard give 
 the combination of the two metals 1 which possesses the 
 greatest degree of hardness. 
 
 The carat is the 24th part of the pound troy, or 10 penny- 
 weights ; and therefore the carat grain is 2|- pennyweights 
 or 60 grains. 
 
 The English standard for silver is || or -|J; it is ex- 
 
 1 Wrought gold has two legal standards; one is 22 carats, the same as 
 the coin, and the other is 18 carats. The latter commenced in 1798, and 
 is used chiefly in the manufacture of watch-cases and rings. 
 
 Wrought silver has also two legal standards ; one the same as the coin, 
 and the other 8 dwts. hetter, that is 11 oz. 10 dwts. The latter, called 
 new-sterling, is seldom used. 
 
 All articles manufactured of gold and silver, except watch-cases, have to be 
 taken to the Assay Office of the district, and if found of legal quality are 
 stamped thus : 
 
 The Hall Mark, showing the district where manufactured, or the hall 
 where assayed, is at Birmingham, an anchor; Chester, three wheatsheaves, 
 or a dagger ; Dublin, a harp or figure of Hibernia ; Edinburgh, a thistle, 
 or castle and lion ; Exeter, a castle with two wings ; Glasgow, a tree, and 
 a salmon with a ring in its mouth ; LONDON, a leopard's head ; Newcastle- 
 on-Tyne, three castles ; Sheffield, a crown ; York, five lions and a cross. 
 
 The Standard Mark for gold of 22 carats, and silver of 1 1 oz. 2 dwts., 
 is for England a lion passant; for Edinburgh, a thistle ; for Glasgow, a liorx 
 rampant ; for Ireland, a harp crowned. Gold of 18 carats fine, a crown 
 and the figures 18. Silver of the new standard, figure of Britannia. 
 
 The Duty Mark is the head of the Sovereign, and indicates the duty has 
 been paid. 
 
 The Date Mark is a letter of the alphabet, which is changed every year ; 
 it differs however in different companies. The Goldsmiths' company of 
 London have used the following: from 17 1C to 1755, Roman capital let- 
 ters ; 1756 to 1775, small Roman letters; 1776 to 1795, old English 
 letters; 1796 to 1815, Roman capital letters, A to U ; 1816 to 1835, 
 small Roman letters a to u ; 1836 to 1855, old English letters a to 1). In 
 1856 a new Date Mark will be issued. (I and J are always regarded as one 
 letter ) 
 
 C 3 
 
' STAKDAEDS. 
 
 pressed in troy ounces and pennyweights, that is, 11 oz. 2 dwt. 
 of pure, and 18 dwt. of alloy, making together 1 pound troy. 
 
 The alloy of silver is mostly copper, and that of gold both 
 silver and copper ; but in the computation of coins the alloy 
 is never reckoned of any value, being always allowed in order 
 to save the trouble and expense that would be incurred in 
 refining the metals to their highest degree of purity. 
 
 Besides this standard fineness of coins, there is also a 
 legal weight fixed according to the mint regulation or rate 
 of coinage of each country. Thus, in England a pound troy 
 of standard gold is coined into 44^ guineas, or 46f sove- 
 reigns, and a pound of standard silver into G6 shillings, with 
 divisions and multiples in proportion ; and hence, the mint 
 price of standard gold is 3Z. 17s. \0\d. per ounce, and that 
 of standard silver, 66 pence per ounce. Before the year 
 1816, silver was coined at the rate of 62 pence per ounce ; 
 and this is sometimes reckoned the standard price in the 
 valuation of foreign silver coins. 
 
 Copper money is coined in the proportion of 24 pence to 
 the pound avoirdupois. Thus the penny should weigh lOf 
 drams or 291f grains, and the other pieces in proportion. 
 
 Silver coin is a legal tender for the limited amount of 
 40 shillings ; and copper to the amount of 12 pence. 
 
 According to the mint regulations of most countries, there 
 is an allowance for deviation from the standard weight and 
 fineness of coins, which is called the remedy of the mint. In 
 some places the remedy is allowed in the weight, in others in 
 the fineness ; but mostly in both weight and fineness. It is 
 considered generally as an allowance for the fallibility of 
 workmanship. In some mints, however, it is made a source 
 of emolument ; and where governments issue coins at a rate 
 above their intrinsic value, or the market price of the metal, 
 the profit thus made is called seignorage, and charges for 
 mint expenses are called brassage. 
 
 The remedy of the, mint, according to the law of 1815, for 
 gold coins is 12 grains per Ib. in the weight, and ^ of a 
 
STANDARDS. 
 
 carat in the fineness ; and for silver coins 1 dwt. per Ib. in 
 the weight, and the same in the fineness. The remedy for 
 copper coins is -nr of the weight. 
 
 The following tables exhibit the British imperial standard 
 weights and fineness of the various coins ; those marked t 
 are not now in ordinary circulation : 
 
 British Gold Coins. 
 
 Number of pieces in 
 the Troy pound. 
 
 Standard Weight 
 of each piece. 
 
 Fine Gold in 
 each piece. 
 
 Alloy in each 
 piece. 
 
 93 2 n T) Half sovereigns 
 46tr Sovereigns 
 f 9of;} 2 pieces 
 t 9^ 5 
 
 gr. 
 61-637 
 123-274 
 246-548 
 616-372 
 
 gr. 
 56-500 
 113-001 
 226-003 
 565-008 
 
 gr. 
 5-137 
 10-273 
 20-545 
 51-364 
 
 f!78 J guineas 
 tl-33j J 
 t 89 | 
 t 44 Guineas 
 t 22 J 2 guineas 
 t SJ 5 guineas 
 
 ' 32-3595 
 43-1460 
 64 7190 
 129-4382 
 258-8764 
 647-1910 
 
 29-6629 
 39-5505 
 5U-3258 
 118-6516 
 237-3034 
 593-2584 
 
 2-6966 
 3 5955 
 5-3932 
 10-7866 
 21-5730 
 53-9326 
 
 Gold Standard 
 
 ( 22 carats, or H fine gold j per pound 
 (2 ,, A- alloy ) troy. 
 British Silver Coins. 
 
 Number of pieces in 
 the Troy pound. 
 
 Standard Weight 
 of each piece. 
 
 Fine Silver in 
 each piece. 
 
 Alloy in each 
 piece. 
 
 t792 Pence 
 
 gr. 
 7-2727 
 
 gr. 
 6-7273 
 
 gr. 
 0-5455 
 
 t396 Twopences 
 
 14-5455 
 
 13-4545 
 
 1-0909 
 
 264 Threepences 
 
 21-8182 
 
 20-1818 
 
 1-6364 
 
 198 Fourpences 
 
 29-0909 
 
 26-9091 
 
 2-1818 
 
 132 Sixpences 
 
 43-6364 
 
 40-3636 
 
 3-2727 
 
 66 Shillings 
 
 87-2727 
 
 80-7273 
 
 6-5455 
 
 33 Florins 
 
 174-5455 
 
 161-4545 
 
 13-0909 
 
 26 1 Halfcrowns 
 
 218-1818 
 
 201-8182 
 
 16-3636 
 
 13*- Crowns 
 
 436-3636 
 
 403-6364 
 
 32-7273 
 
 Silver Standard 
 
 11 oz. 2 dwt. or i fine silver ) per pound 
 
 18 ? 3 o alloy ) troy. 
 
 British Bronze Coins. 
 
 An avoirdupois pound of copper was formerly coined into 
 twenty-four pence, or forty-eight halfpence, or ninety-six 
 farthings. In 1860 these were replaced by a bronze coinage, 
 of loss weight, composed of ninety-five parts of copper, four 
 
36 STANDARDS. 
 
 of tin, and one of zinc. A pound of bronze (7,000 grains) is 
 coined into forty-eight pence, or eighty halfpence, or one 
 hundred and sixty farthings. 
 
 The halfpence measure exactly an inch in diameter, so 
 that, in case of emergency, twelve of them placed in a line 
 might be used as a substitute for a foot-rule. 
 
 These bronze coins are also available as convenient letter- 
 weights, observing that 
 
 3 pence "j 
 
 5 halfpence \ go to tlie ounce, 
 or 10 farthings J 
 
 The silver coins in circulation are considered only as tokens, 
 payable by the government, and pass for more than their 
 metallic value as compared with gold. Precaution is taken 
 that it shall not be worth while to melt the silver coin into 
 bullion, and it is so nearly worth its current value that 
 imitation would not be ventured on so small a profit. The 
 government will always receive back its tokens however 
 worn they may be, provided they be not wilfully defaced or 
 fraudulently reduced. But gold, being the sole standard mea- 
 sure of value, and legal tender of payment, circulates as a 
 commodity; and hence the necessity of government receiving 
 it at value on its return to the mint, and making a deduction 
 for loss of weight when the same exceeds the remedy of the 
 mint. The wear and tear of the gold coinage is such, that 
 very nearly 3 per cent, of the whole circulation goes out 
 annually; and the quantity which will suffice to throw a 
 sovereign out of circulation is about one-fourth of a grain. 
 
 In 1853 a Select Committee was appointed to take into 
 consideration, and report to Parliament, the practicability 
 and advantages, or otherwise, that would arise from adopting 
 a decimal system of coinage. The practical substance of the 
 Report is conveyed in the following extracts. 
 
 " The first question to be decided is, what shall be the 
 unit of the new system of coinage ; and your Committee 
 have no hesitation in recommending the present pound 
 sterling. Considering that the pound is the present standard, 
 
STANDARDS. 37 
 
 and therefore associated with all our ideas of money value, 
 and that it is the basis on which all our exchange transactions 
 with the whole world rest, it appears to your Committee that 
 any alteration of it would lead to infinite complication and 
 embarrassment in our commercial dealings; in addition to 
 which it fortunately happens, that its retention would afford 
 the means of introducing the decimal system with the mini- 
 mum of change. Its tenth part already exists in the shape 
 of the florin or two-shilling piece, while an alteration of four 
 per cent, in the present farthing will serve to convert that 
 coin into the lowest step of the decimal scale which it is 
 necessary to represent by means of an actual coin, viz. the 
 thousandth part of a pound. To this lowest denomination 
 your Committee propose, in order to mark its relation to the 
 unit of value, to give the name of mil. The addition of a 
 coin to be called a cent., of the value of 10 mils, and equal 
 to the hundredth part of the pound, or the tenth part of the 
 florin, would serve to complete the list of coins necessary to 
 represent the monies of account, which would accordingly be 
 pounds, florins, cents, and mils. 
 
 " As respects the coins, it will be necessary to withdraw 
 from circulation certain of the coins at present in use, and 
 to substitute in their place other coins, having reference to 
 the decimal scale, before the decimal system can be considered 
 as fully developed. Tour Committee contemplate the reten- 
 tion under any circumstances, of the present sovereign (1000 
 mils), half-sovereign (500 mils), florin (100 mils), and shil- 
 ling (50 mils, or 5 cents). The present sixpence, under the 
 denomination of 25 mils, might be retained, and the crown, 
 or piece of 250 mils, of which few are in circulation, need 
 not be withdrawn. On the other hand, it will be desirable to 
 withdraw the halfcrown, and the threepenny and fotirpenny 
 pieces, which are inconsistent with the decimal scale. 
 
 " With regard to the coins not in actual existence, but 
 which it will be necessary eventually to introduce, it appears 
 to your Committee, from the evidence taken by them on the 
 
33 STANDARDS. 
 
 subject, that copper coins of 1, 2, and 5 mils, and silver coins 
 of 20 and 10 mils, will be required, to which should be added 
 such others as experience may show to be desirable. It is 
 important, however, to bear in mind, that the smaller the 
 number of the coins with which it is practicable to effect 
 purchases and exchanges, the better. 
 
 "Your Committee recommend that all the silver coins 
 hereafter coined should have their value in mils marked upon 
 them, in order that the public might, at the earliest possible 
 period, associate the idea of the system with their different 
 pecuniary transactions. They further recommend that all the 
 copper coins that may be issued under the decimal system, 
 should also have their value in mils similarly marked upon 
 them. They believe that the necessary inconvenience at- 
 tending a transition state will be far more than compensated 
 by the great and permanent benefits which the change will 
 confer upon the Public of this country, and of which the 
 advantages will be participated in to a still greater extent by 
 future generations." 
 
 Such is the decimal system of coinage recommended by the 
 Committee, after having taken voluminous evidence upon the 
 subject, and we must here accord to the report our full and 
 unreserved approval, not only as regards the general prin- 
 ciple, but in all its details. It must eventually be adopted, 
 and it is indeed convenient that so little modification in 
 existing coins will be requisite to bring it into practical 
 operation. The radical coins in circulation will be pounds, 
 florins, cents, and mils ; but it will not be absolutely essential 
 to treat them as separate moneys of account. There will be 
 no necessity to employ any other denominations in accounts 
 than the pound and mil that is, the pound and its decimals. 
 For further details on this subject we must refer to Dr. 
 Bowring's treatise on " The Decimal System," which also 
 contains well-executed wood-cut illustrations of English, 
 French, Greek, and Roman coins, and an elaborate and inter' 
 esting chapter on the numerals of different nations. 
 
39 
 
 COMPUTATION OF COINS AND BULLION. 
 
 The value of bullion, or of a gold or silver coin, depends 
 entirely upon the quantity of pure metal which, by a process 
 called its assay, it is found to contain. The alloy which 
 enters into its composition, is not estimated in the value, 
 being always disregarded, and allowed as a compensation for 
 the expense of refining. 
 
 Assays of gold are weighed in carats and carat grains, the 
 carat being a nominal weight containing 4 carat grains. 
 The carat weight is usually considered to be the 24th part 
 of the pound troy = 10 dwts. = 240 grains troy ; according 
 to which the carat grain 60 grains troy. It is not, how- 
 ever, requisite to give to it any fixed or absolute weight, as 
 it is only used to determine the proportions of pure metal 
 and alloy. 
 
 Assays of silver are weighed in ounces and pennyweights, 
 the ounce being a nominal weight containing 20 penny weights, 
 and so far these weights are analogous to the troy table. 
 
 The British standard of gold is 22 carats fine ; that is to say, 
 24 carats weight of the metal should contain just 22 carats of 
 fine or pure gold, the same being ~~- of the total weight l . 
 
 The British standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine ; that is, 
 12 oz. weight of the metal should contain just 11 oz. 2 dwts. 
 of fine or pure silver, being ||f or f of the total weight ! . 
 
 The reports of English assayers are made after com- 
 paring the ascertained weights with these standards, the 
 difference being usually called the betterness or worseness 
 of the metal, as the case may be. Thus gold found to be 
 23 carats 2 grains fine, is reported " better 1 carat 2 grains ;" 
 and gold of 20 carats 2 grains is reported " worse 1 carat 
 2 grains." Also pure silver, 12 oz. fine, would be reported 
 
 1 The British standards are also the mintage standards of the gold and 
 silver coins of the realm. 
 
COINS AND BULLION. 
 
 *' better 18 dwts. ;" and silver ascertained to be oz. 
 14 dwts. fine would be reported " worse 1 oz. 8 dwts." 
 
 Gold. Let w denote the total weight of a piece of gold or 
 gold coin, expressed in troy grains ; and g the number of 
 Carat grains in the fineness of the metal, as obtained from 
 the assay report. 
 
 Then, as the British standard of fineness contains 88 
 carat grains, the proportion of standard gold contained in 
 
 the metal is expressed by the fraction --. Consequently 
 
 88 
 
 the actual weight, in troy grains, of standard gold contained 
 in the piece -. 
 
 8b 
 
 The same, in troy ounces, = ^ x - = w & . 
 
 88 480 42240 
 
 Now, the Mint value of a troy ounce of standard gold is 
 3Z. 17s. 10|^., which, expressed in fractions of the pound 
 
 r 623 
 
 sterling, = _. 
 
 Therefore the value of the piece of gold or coin, expressed 
 in pounds sterling = 
 
 88 480 160 67584 y 10848' 
 
 The same, in shillings sterling, ^ pr-^7- 
 
 5424 32 
 
 From the preceding the following practical rules are 
 deduced : 
 
 (1.) From an assay report on gold metal to find the 
 fineness. 
 
 Rule. Put down 22 carats and the report underneath it : 
 add the report if "better," or subtract it if " worse," and 
 the sum or difference will be the "carats fine." 
 
 (2.) From an assay report and the weight of a piece of 
 gold, or gold coin, to find the quantity of fine or pure gold it 
 contains. 
 
 Rule. Find the fineness by (1), and reduce the same to 
 

 COINS AND BULLION. 41 
 
 carat grains at the rate of 4 grains to the carat. Multiply 
 the full weight of the metal by this number of carat grains, 
 and divide by 96. The result will be the "fine weight." 
 
 (3.) To find the quantity of standard gold contained in 
 the piece. 
 
 Rule. Proceed as in (2) ; only divide by 88 insteud of 96, 
 and the result will be the " standard weight." 
 
 Otherwise, multiply the weight of the piece by the num- 
 ber of carat grains in the assay report, "better or worse;" 
 divide by 88, and add the quotient to the full weight, if 
 "better," or subtract it if " worse." 
 
 (4.) To find the value of a piece of gold, or gold coin, in 
 sterling money. 
 
 Rule. From the assay report determine the fineness by 
 (1) ; reduce it at the rate of 4 grains to the carat, and 
 multiply the number so found into the total weight of the 
 metal, or coin, expressed in troy grains. Then divide the 
 product by 10848, and the result will be the required value 
 expressed in pounds sterling ; or, otherwise, multiply the 
 product by 59, divide by 4 and by 8, and finally cut off 
 three decimals, and the result will be the required value 
 expressed in shillings sterling. 
 
 The value, in shillings sterling, of a piece of gold, or gold 
 coin, may be otherwise obtained from the calculated number 
 of grains of fine gold it contains, by multiplying the same 
 by -177. 
 
 Silver. Let w be the weight of a piece of silver, or silver 
 coin, expressed in troy grains; p the number of penny- 
 weights contained in its degree of fineness. 
 
 Then, as the British standard of fineness contains 222 
 
 dwts., the proportion of standard silver is -=2_, and the actual 
 
 222 
 
 quantity of standard silver, in troy grains, = --2-. 
 
 222 j, 
 
 The same in troy ounces = -^ZL x - = : 
 
 222 480 106560 
 
42 COINS AND BULLION. 
 
 Thus, taking l 5s. or 60d. as the value of a troy ounce 
 of standard silver, the .value of the piece of silver or coin, 
 expressed in pence sterling = 
 
 !22. x x 60 - wp - 
 222 X 480 X "1776" 
 
 Hence the following practical rules for computations of 
 silver : 
 
 (L.) From an assay report on silver metal to find the 
 fineness. 
 
 'Rule. Put down 11 oz. 2 dwts., and the report under- 
 neath it; add the report if "better," or subtract it if 
 "worse," and the sum or difference will be the "fineness." 
 
 (2.) From an assay report and the weight of a piece of 
 silver, or silver coin, to find the quantity of fine or pure 
 silver it contains. 
 
 Rule. Find the fineness by (1), and reduce the same to 
 dwts., at the rate of 20 dwts. to the ounce. Multiply the 
 full weight of the metal by this number of dwts., and divide 
 by 240, and the quotient will be the " fine weight " re- 
 quired. 
 
 (3.) To find the quantity of standard silver. 
 
 Rule. Proceed as in (2) ; only divide by 222 instead of 
 240, and the result will be the " standard weight." 
 
 Otherwise, multiply the weight of the piece by the number 
 of dwts. in the assay report, "better" or "worse:" divide 
 by 222, and add the quotient to the full weight, if "better," 
 or subtract it if " worse." : 
 
 (4.) To find the value of a piece of silver, or silver coin. 
 
 Rule. From the assay report ascertain the fineness by (1) ; 
 reduce it to dwts., at the rate of 20 dwts. to the ounce, 
 and multiply the number so found into the total weight of 
 the metal, or coin, expressed in troy grains. Divide the 
 product by 1776 (or, if preferred, by 4, 4, and 111), and 
 
 1 The Mint price of standard silver, which was formerly G2d., is now Gtid. 
 per ounce ; but this is above the average market value, which is considered 
 to be about 60 d., the price now usually adopted in the valuation of coins. 
 
COINS AND BULLION. 43 
 
 the result will be the required value expressed in pence 
 sterling. 
 
 The value in pence sterling may be also obtained from 
 the calculated number of grains of pure silver, by multiplying 
 the same by 10, and then dividing by 74; or it may be 
 obtained from the number of grains of standard weight, 
 by simply dividing by 8. 
 
 Note. In France and Holland assays are made on the 
 decimal system, the proportion of fine metal estimated in 
 thousandth parts of the whole weight being called HILLIEMES. 
 By some assay calculators the same proportion put down in 
 hundredth parts, which, of course, expresses the pure metal 
 as a per centage, is called the TOUCH. 
 
 Both the Bank and the Mint now receive decimal reports, 
 which are both simple and convenient, and will ultimately 
 supersede the unnecessary cumbrous system of carats and 
 carat grains. 
 
 To calculate the fine weight from a decimal report it is 
 only requisite to multiply the total weight by the milliemes 
 and then to point off three decimals. 
 
 To obtain the value of coin from the fine weiht : 
 
 Silver-j f " 1 rpence 
 
 I fine grains X \ 2j I va l ue i n > 
 J L 0-177 J 
 
 ullion : 
 
 > fine ounces SY 
 
 " 1 
 Gold I fine grains X \ 2j I va l ue i n > ^ I -terling 
 
 0-177 J 
 
 ne grans X \ vaue n 
 
 J L 0-177 J L shillings 
 
 .For bullion : 
 
 > fine ounces X < SY > value in pounds sterling. 
 Gold J L 4\ J 
 
 With the gold, if worth while, deduct Id. for every SL of 
 value from this last calculation. 
 
 To show by actual examples the practical application of 
 the foregoing rules, the several calculations have been made 
 with respect to various coins, and the results of these calcu- 
 lations are exhibited in the last four columns of the following 
 table. These results are determined from the data given in 
 the two preceding columns, viz. the Assay and the "Weight. 
 
44 
 
 COINS AND BULLION. 
 
 ASSAYS, WEIGHTS, AND TALTJES OE GOLD AND SILVEB 
 COINS. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Fine- 
 ness. 
 
 Fine 
 weight, 
 or pure 
 metal. 
 
 Standard 
 weight. 
 
 Value in 
 sterling. 
 
 GOLD. 
 Austria Ducat 
 Baden Ducat 
 England Sovereign 
 
 France Napoleon, or 20 
 
 car. gr 
 B 1 2f 
 B 1 2- 
 
 Standard 
 
 grains 
 54 
 47^ 
 123^ 
 
 car. gr. 
 23 2| 
 23 2| 
 22 
 
 grains. 
 53-30 
 46-90 
 112-98 
 
 grains 
 58-14 
 51-17 
 123-25 
 
 *. d. 
 9 5-2 
 8 3-6 
 20 
 
 franc piece 
 
 WO 1 s 
 
 994 
 
 01 01 
 
 89*40 
 
 97-52 
 
 15 9'9 
 
 Hanover ...... Ducat 
 
 B 1 3 
 
 53? 
 
 23 3 1 
 
 53-33 
 
 58'18 
 
 9 5'3 
 
 , Gold Florin 
 
 W 3 O 1 
 
 50 
 
 18 3^ 
 
 39-32 
 
 4*>-oo 
 
 6 11*5 
 
 Holland Ducat 
 Milan Sequin 
 
 B 1 2] 
 B 1 3 
 
 53 
 53| 
 
 23 2l 
 23 3 
 
 52-77 
 53-19 
 
 57-57 
 58-03 
 
 9 4-1 
 9 5-0 
 
 piece (1818) 
 Prussia Frederick (1800)... 
 Russia Ducat (1796) 
 
 B 1 3| 
 WO 2 
 B 1 24 
 
 583 
 103 
 54 
 
 23 34 
 21 2" 
 23 24 
 
 57-95 
 92-27 
 53-16 
 
 63-21 
 100-66 
 57-99 
 
 10 3-1 
 
 16 4-0 
 9 49 
 
 ,, Imperial (1801) 
 Spain Doubloon (1772)... 
 Pistole (1801) 
 Sweden Ducat 
 United States, Ea^le 
 
 B 1 2; 
 WO 2j 
 W 1 1 
 B 1 2 
 W 04 
 
 185$ 
 416^ 
 104^ 
 53 
 270 
 
 23 2i 
 21 1| 
 20 3 
 23 2 
 21 3 1 
 
 181-87 
 372-03 
 90-13 
 51-90 
 246*09 
 
 198-41 
 405-85 
 98-33 
 56-61 
 268'47 
 
 32 2-3 
 65 10-2 
 15 11-4 
 9 2-2 
 43 6-7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SILVER. 
 Austria Rixdollar (1800) .. 
 
 oz. dwt. 
 W 1 5 
 
 dwt.gr. 
 18 1 
 
 oz.dwt. 
 9 17 
 
 grains. 
 355'4 
 
 grains. 
 3S4' 9 
 
 s. d. 
 4 
 
 Copfstuck, or 20 
 kreutzer piece ... 
 East Indies ... Sicca Rupee, coined 
 at Calcutta by 
 the East India 
 Company . 
 
 W4 3 
 B 13 
 
 4 6* 
 7 jj^ 
 
 6 19 
 11 15 
 
 59-4 
 175-8 
 
 642 
 190"0 
 
 8 
 1 11 '8 
 
 ,, Rupee of later 
 coinage 
 
 B 4 1 
 
 7 8 1 
 
 11 6 1 
 
 166-6 
 
 ISO'l 
 
 1 10'5 
 
 ,, Company's Rupee 
 now in circu la- 
 
 W 2 
 
 7 12 
 
 11 
 
 165-0 
 
 178-4 
 
 1 10 3 
 
 England Shilling, or half- 
 florin 
 
 standard 
 
 3 21 
 
 11 2 
 
 86'0 
 
 3 
 
 11 -6 
 
 France Franc (1818) 
 Hamburgh ... Rixdollar specie ... 
 Holland Florin, or Guilder. 
 
 WO 7 
 WO 10 
 WO 44 
 W4 10" 
 
 3 54 
 18 18" 
 6 18 
 4 
 
 10 15 
 10 12 
 10 17i 
 6 12 
 
 694 
 397-5 
 146-3 
 52-8 
 
 75 1 
 429-7 
 158-7 
 57-1 
 
 9-4 
 4 5-7 
 1 7-8 
 7-1 
 
 Naples Ducat 
 
 W 1 
 
 14 15 
 
 10 2 
 
 295-4 
 
 319-4 
 
 3 3'9 
 
 Netherlands ..Florin (1816) 
 Portugal New Crusado (1809) 
 Prussia Rixdollar (Conven- 
 tion) 
 
 WO 74 
 WO 4 
 
 W 1 ?. 
 
 6 22 
 9 3 
 
 18 1 
 
 10 144 
 10 18" 
 
 9 19 
 
 148-4 
 198-9 
 
 359-0 
 
 160-4 
 215-1 
 
 388-1 
 
 1 8 
 
 2 2-9 
 
 4 0-5 
 
 Russia Ruble (1805) 
 ., 10Copecpiece(1802) 
 Sardinia(Piedmont), 5 Franc piece 
 (1801) 
 
 W 16 
 W 13 
 
 WO 8 
 
 13 12 
 
 1 8 
 
 16 14 
 
 10 6 
 
 10 9 
 
 10 14 
 
 278-1 
 
 28-3 
 
 343-7 
 
 300-6 
 30-6 
 
 371-6 
 
 3 1 6 
 3-8 
 
 3 10-5 
 
 Sicily Scudo 
 Spain Dollar 
 Sweden Rixdollar 
 
 Tuscany .. Lira(l s 03) 
 
 W 1 4 
 WO S 
 W 14J 
 B 7 
 
 17 14" 
 17 8 
 
 18 17 
 2 8 
 
 9 18 
 10 14 
 10 7g 
 11 9 
 
 348-1 
 370-9 
 388-5 
 53-4 
 
 376-4 
 401-0 
 420-0 
 57 8 
 
 3 11-0 
 4 2-1 
 4 4-5 
 7*2 
 
 United States, Dollar 
 
 W 84 
 
 17 8 
 
 10 134 
 
 370-1 
 
 400-1 
 
 4 2-0 
 
 Venice Ducato 
 
 W 1 5" 
 
 14 6 
 
 9 17 
 
 280-7 
 
 303-5 
 
 3 1-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
45 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 A Bill of Exchange is a written order addressed by one 
 person to another, directing the latter to pay on account of 
 the former to some third person, or his order, or to the 
 order of the person drawing the bill, a certain sum of money 
 at a time therein specified. It is a mercantile contract, in 
 which four persons are mostly concerned, viz. : 
 
 The drawer and seller of the bill, who receives the value. 
 
 The drawee, his debtor, upon whom the bill is drawn. 
 He is called the acceptor, when he writes his acceptance 
 across the bill, and thereby engages to pay it when it becomes 
 due. 
 
 The payee, or person to whom it is ordered to be paid, 
 and who may, by indorsement, pass it to any other person. 
 
 The "buyer, who gives value for the bill. Mercantile pay- 
 ments are, for the most part, made in bills of exchange, 
 which generally pass from hand to hand, like any other cir- 
 culating medium, until due. The person who at any time 
 has a bill in his possession is called the holder, the payee 
 being the holder in the first instance. "When the holder of 
 a bill disposes of it, he writes his name on the back, which 
 is called indorsing. Any person may indorse a bill, and 
 every indorser, as well as the acceptor or payee, is a security 
 for the bill, and liable to be sued for payment. 
 
 Some bills are drawn at sight ; others at a certain number 
 of days, or months, after date, or after sight, and some at 
 usance, which is meant to express the customary or usual 
 term between different places. Days of grace are a certain 
 number of days granted to the acceptor or payee, after the 
 term of the bill is expired. 
 
 Inland exchange is the remittance of bills to places in the 
 same country, by which means debts are discharged more 
 conveniently than by cash remittances. Thus reciprocal 
 debts, of equal amount, due between persons in different 
 
40 EXCHANGE. 
 
 parts of the country, may be discharged without remitting 
 specie, and such an operation is recommended by general 
 convenience ; but when the debts are unequal, the debtor 
 place must pay its balance, either by transmitting cash or 
 bills ; and as the latter mode is generally preferred, an in- 
 creased demand for bills must be the consequence, which 
 enhances their price, as it would that of any other article 
 of sale or purchase. 
 
 This is the principle of exchange, and it is exemplified in 
 the premium paid for inland bills on London. The metro- 
 polis is the grand emporium of commerce that supplies 
 other places in the kingdom with foreign merchandise, and 
 being also the seat of government to which the revenue is 
 transmitted, and the residence of wealthy landlords, whose 
 rents must be remitted to them from the country, it has 
 generally a large balance of debt in its favour ; and as this 
 balance is chiefly paid in bills, a demand for them is created, 
 and a premium is the consequence. The premium on inland 
 bills is generally commuted for time ; that is, for a certain 
 number of days after date, or after sight, which date, or 
 term, varies according to the demand and other circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Foreign exchange is essentially the same as that of in- 
 land, with respect to settling accounts by a transfer of 
 claims, and also by the premium or price of bills being 
 regulated by the proportion between the demand and the 
 supply; but the mode of paying the premium for foreign 
 bills is different, and the operation of adjustment is more 
 complicated, owing to the introduction of the comparative 
 values of different moneys, since different countries have dif- 
 ferent coins, different in denomination, in weight, and con- 
 sequently in value. 
 
 In foreign exchange, one place always gives another a 
 fixed sum, or piece, of money for a variable price, expressed 
 Dy other coins ; the former is called the certain price, and 
 the latter the uncertain price. Thus London is said to 
 

 EXCHANGE, 47 
 
 give to Paris the certain for the uncertain when the pound 
 sterling is made exchangeable for a variable number of 
 francs ; and to Spain the uncertain for the certain when a 
 variable number of pence sterling is exchangeable for the 
 dollar of exchange. The uncertain price, as quoted at any 
 time, is called the rate, or course of exchange. 
 
 "When the demand in London for bills on Paris is great, a 
 less number of francs is given for the pound sterling, and 
 vice versa. Again, if the course of exchange between 
 London and Paris be 25 francs for the pound sterling, and 
 if this number of francs contains the same quantity of pure 
 silver as 20 shillings sterling, then the exchange is con- 
 sidered at par ; but if Paris should give a higher price, the 
 exchange is said to be against France, and in favour of 
 England. This is the general mode of judging whether the 
 exchange is favourable or unfavourable, though it is not 
 always that on which merchants act or speculate. 
 
 The intrinsic par of exchange is the value of the money ot 
 one country compared with that of another, with respect 
 both to weight and fineness according to accredited assays. 
 It is, in effect, the metallic par ; for though the moneys of 
 exchange are many of them imaginary, their value is always 
 deducible from that of the coins they represent, or to which 
 they have an established relation. 
 
 The commercial par is the comparative value of the moneys 
 of different countries, according to the weight, fineness, and 
 market prices of the metals. 
 
 Thus two sums of different countries are intrinsically at 
 par when they contain an equal quantity of the same kind of 
 pare metal ; and two sums of different countries are com- 
 mercially at par when they can purchase an equal quantity 
 of the same kind of pure metal. 
 
 The intrinsic par of exchange may be computed from gold 
 or from silver coins. As a general rule, the measure of 
 value should be of that metal in which the principal pay- 
 ments are made ; and, therefore, in some countries the par 
 
48 EXCHANGE. 
 
 should be computed from gold, and in others from silver, 
 according to the kind of money in which bills of exchange 
 are paid. It is, however, obvious that the intrinsic par of 
 exchange can be determined only between places which pay 
 their bills in the same kind of metal. Even the same metal 
 must differ considerably between two countries where one 
 possesses mines, and supplies the other with materials of 
 coinage, as between Spain and France, or between Portugal 
 and England. The difference in all such cases is usually 
 estimated according to the expenses of transporting the 
 precious metals ; and thus, from the intrinsic par and the 
 various charges and prices, the commercial equivalence ia 
 computed. 
 
 The fluctuations of exchange are occasioned by various 
 circumstances, both political and commercial. A greater or 
 less demand for money in a stated place at a particular time 
 may increase or diminish its commercial value without re- 
 ference to its intrinsic value. The principal cause of fluctua- 
 tion is generally stated to be the balance of trade, by which 
 is meant the difference between the commercial exports and 
 Imports of one country with respect to another. The de- 
 mand for bills of exchange arises out of the necessity of pay- 
 ing for importations. The supply arises out of the practice 
 of drawing for the amount of exportations. If the supply 
 and the demand be equal, if for every pound's worth of goods 
 imported there be a pound's worth of exported goods to be 
 drawn for, there will be no real exchange ; that is, the real 
 exchange, however much the nominal exchange may alter, 
 will be at par. "When, however, the importations are not 
 equal to the exportations, exchange can no longer remain at 
 par. AIL excess of importation would cause the exchange to 
 advance against the importing country, and vice versa. The 
 exchange may, however, be unfavourable to a country when 
 the balance of trade is greatly in its favour ; for the demand 
 for bills must chiefly depend on the balance of such debts as 
 come into immediate liquidation, that is to say, on the 
 
EXCHANGE. 49 
 
 balance of payments. Besides, it does not follow that large 
 exports are always successful, or quick in their returns ; and 
 even should this be the case, the balance of payments may 
 be still unfavourable from political causes, such as foreign 
 loans, subsidies, expeditions, or colonial establishments. 
 
 When any legal changes take place in the coinage or cur- 
 rency of a country, the exchange will of course vary, so as to 
 keep pace or correspond with such alterations. The same 
 remark is applicable to the debasement of coin through clip- 
 ping and wear. This, however, cannot in either case be con- 
 sidered as an absolute change in the price of bills, but only 
 in the money or medium through which they are bought or 
 sold. 
 
 In times of peace, the course of exchange seldom remains 
 long unfavourable to a country, at least beyond the expenses 
 that might be incurred by the transportation of the precious 
 metals ; for bullion is considered the universal currency of 
 merchants, and exchange gives it circulation, and thus tends 
 to maintain the level of money throughout the commercial 
 world. An unfavourable rate of exchange also operates as 
 an encouragement to the exportation of goods, and as a 
 check against the importation ; for the exporter can afford 
 to sell the goods cheaper in proportion to the premium 
 which he receives for his bill, while the discount on bills 
 from abroad operates as a tax or duty on importation. Tims 
 exchange has always, in ordinary times, a natural tendency 
 to restore an equilibrium. 
 
MEASUKES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS. 
 
 FOB the purpose of easy reference amongst the extensile 
 details contained under this head, the measures and weights 
 of Great Britain, and the tables appertaining to them, are 
 first enumerated and explained, and those of other countries 
 are afterwards given according to the alphabetical order of 
 the several places. The English equivalents are uniformly 
 in relation to Imperial measures, and avoirdupois weights 
 are always to be understood, unless otherwise stated. Troy 
 grains and avoirdupois grains are identical in value, though 
 the English grain has generally the former denomination, 
 being originally derived from the standard troy pound. The 
 names of places given at the top of the pages always refer to 
 the contiguous matter immediately underneath them, this 
 arrangement being considered the clearest for rapid reference. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The act, 5 G-eo. IV. c. 74, for establishing uniformity of 
 weights and measures, came into operation on the 1st of 
 January, 1826. The measures of capacity are the only ones 
 which it changed. The old wine gallon contained 231 cubic 
 inches ; the corn gallon, 268'8 ; and the old ale gallon, 282. 
 These were altered to the uniform imperial gallon, containing 
 277*274 cubic inches. The imperial standards remain un- 
 altered in the Weights and Measures Act, 1878, now in force. 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 3 barleycorns make 1 inch. 
 
 12 inches 1 foot (12 inches;. 
 
 3 feet 1 yard (36 inches). 
 
 5 J yards 
 
 ' 4 poles or 100 links 
 10 chains 
 
 8 furlongs 
 
 1 rod, pole or perch (oj yards or 16J feet). 
 1 chain (22 yards or 66 feet); 
 
 1 furlong (220 yards or 660 feet). 
 1 mile (1760 yards or 5280 feet). 
 
 A line is the ^th part of an inch. 
 
 A nail is 2J inches (used in measuring cloth). 
 
 A palm is 3 inches. 
 
 A hand is 4 inches (used for measuring the height of horses). 
 
GREAT BBITAIN. 
 
 51 
 
 A span is 9 inches. 
 
 A cubit is 1 1 foot. 
 
 A military pace is 2i feet. 
 
 An itinerary pace is 5 feet. 
 
 A Scotch ell is 37-OC inches 1 (used fa ^ ^^ ' ^ 
 
 An English ell is 45 inches J 
 
 A fathom is 2 yards or 6 feet (used in sounding depths). 
 
 A cable's length is 120 fathoms or 240 yards. 
 
 A league is 3 miles. 
 
 A degree of the equator is 69-1613 miles or 365172 feet. 
 
 A degree of the meridian is 69*046 miles or 364565 feet. 
 
 The old Scotch and Irish miles are 1-^ and 1 T 3 T English. 
 
 Among ordinary mechanics, the inch is usually divided 
 into eighths ; but in scientific calculations it is mostly 
 divided into decimals, or otherwise the foot is decimally 
 divided. 
 
 Pleasures of Surface. 
 
 144 square inches 
 
 9 square feet 
 30 1 square yards 
 16 poles 
 40 poles 
 
 4 roods, or 10 chains 
 640 acres 
 
 make 1 square foot. 
 
 ,, 1 square yard. 
 
 ,, 1 pole, rod or perch (30 1 square yards). 
 
 ,, 1 chain (484 square yards). 
 
 ,, 1 rood (1210 square yards). 
 
 ,, 1 acre (4840 square yards). 
 
 ,, 1 square mile. 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 1. Dry Measure. 
 
 make 
 
 pint 
 
 quart 
 
 gallon 
 
 peck 
 
 bushel 
 
 coomb 
 
 quarter 
 
 4 gills 
 2 pints 
 4 quarts 
 2 gallons 
 4 pecks 
 
 4 bushels 
 -2 coombs 
 
 5 quarters 
 ,2 weys 
 
 A pottle is 2 quarts or half a gallon. 
 A strike is 2 bushels. 
 A cubic foot is 1728 cubic inches. 
 
 A cubic yard is 27 cubic feet ; which measure of earth-is called a load. 
 D 2 
 
 (34*659 cubic inches). 
 
 (69-318 cubic inches). 
 (277'274 cubic inches). 
 
 (2 gallons). 
 
 (8 gallons). 
 
 (4 bushels). 
 
 (8 bushels). 
 1 wey or load (40 bushels). 
 1 last (80 bushels or 10 quarters) 
 
62 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 2. Wine and Spirit Measure. 
 
 4 gills - make 1 pint (34'G59 cubic inches). 
 
 2 pints ,, 1 quart (69*318 cubic inches). 
 
 4 quarts ,, 1 gallon (277'274 cubic inches). 
 
 36 gallons ,, 1 tierce (3G gallons). 
 
 1 tierces ,, 1 hogshead (54 gallons). 
 
 2 hogsheads (1 P*pe. butt, ) (108 gallons). 
 I or puncheon J 
 
 The larger quantities, such as hogsheads, puncheons, &c, 
 are gauged, and charged according to the actual contents. 
 
 3. Ale, Beer, and Porter Measure. 
 
 4 gills l make 1 pint. 
 
 2 pints ,, 1 quart. 
 
 4 quarts ,, 1 gallon (277*274 cubic inches). 
 
 9 gallons ,, I firkin (9 gallons). 
 
 2 firkins ,, I kilderkin (18 gallons). 
 
 2 kilderkins ,, 1 barrel (36 gallons). 
 
 3 kilderkins ,, 1 hogshead (54 gallons). 
 2 hogsheads ,, 1 butt (108 gallons). 
 2 butts 1 tun (216 gallons). 
 
 To reduce cubic inches to bushels. 
 
 Rule. Multiply by 5, and divide by 11091. 
 
 To reduce cubic inches to gallons. 
 
 Rule. Multiply by 40, and divide by 11091. 
 
 WEIGHTS. 
 
 Troy Weight. 
 
 24 grains make 1 pennyweight (24 grains). 
 
 20 pennyweights 1 ounce (480 grains). 
 
 12 ounces ,, 1 pound (5760 grains). 
 
 By troy weight gold, silver, jewels, and precious stones 
 are weighed. Diamonds and pearls are an exception ; they 
 
 1 In London the gill is commonly called a " quartern ;" in the North 
 of England the gill is termed a "noggin," and a half-pint is called a 
 "gill." 
 
GllEAT B1UTAIN. 53 
 
 are weighed by the carat, which contains 4 grains ; but 5 
 diamond grains are only equal to 4 troy grains j the ounce 
 troy containing 150 diamond carats. 
 
 The imperial standard pound troy, made in the year 1758, 
 is that from which all other weights are obtained : -j-^th of 
 it is the troy ounce ; ^th of the ounce is a pennyweight ; 
 and -Jjth of the pennyweight is a grain ; so that 5760 grains 
 is a troy pound, and 7000 such grains is a pound avoirdupois, 
 the grain in each case being identical. 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight. 
 
 20 grains make 1 scruple ('20 grains) sign 3 . 
 
 3 scruples 1 drachm (60 grains) sign 3. 
 
 8 drachms ,, 1 ounce (480 grains) sign 5. 
 
 12 ounces 1 pound (5760 grains) sign Id. 
 
 Apothecaries compound their medicines by these weights, 
 but buy and sell by avoirdupois. 
 
 The pound, ounce, and grain, are the same as in troy 
 weight. 
 
 Apothecaries' Fluid Measure. 
 
 60 minims (\]\) make 1 drachm (/3). 
 
 8 drachms 1 ounce (/3). 
 20 ounces ,, I pint. 
 
 8 pints 1 gallon. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. 
 16 drams make 1 ounce (437J grains). 
 16 ounces 1 pound (7000 grains). 
 
 14 pounds 
 
 2 stone 
 
 4 quarters 
 20 cwt. 
 
 1 stone (14 Ibs.). 
 
 1 quarter (28 Ibs.). 
 
 1 hundred (cwt.) (112 Ibs.) 
 
 Iton (2240 Ibs.). 
 
 The new act, 1878, declares that " all articles sold by 
 weight shall be by avoirdupois weight, except gold, silver, 
 platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals or stones, 
 and drugs when sold by retail; and that such excepted 
 articles, and none others, may be sold by troy weight.'* 
 
01 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The stone formerly varied from 8 Ib. to 16 Ib. in different 
 places ; but by the act passed in 1834, the stone is to con- 
 sist of 14 Ib. avoirdupois, and the cwt. of 8 stone ; and all 
 contracts made by any other measure are null and void. 
 
 Hay and Straw. 
 
 36 pounds make 1 truss of Straw. 
 
 56 pounds ,, 1 truss of Old Hay. 
 
 60 pounds ,, 1 truss of New Hay. 
 
 36 trusses ,, 1 load. 
 
 18 cwt. 1 load of Old Hay. 
 
 19 cwt. 32 Ibs. ,, 1 load of New Hay, 
 1 1 cwt. 64 Ibs. 1 load of Straw. 
 
 1 cubic yard of New Hay weighs 6 stone. 
 
 1 Oldish Hay 8 stone. 
 
 1 Old Hay 9 stone. 
 
 Hay is considered as new for three months, and is called 
 old on the 1st of September. 
 
 To find the weiyht of Hay contained in a Stack. Multiply 
 the length of the stack by its breadth, and multiply the 
 result by its height, all in feet ; divide the product by 27, which 
 will give the number of cubic yards ; this multiply by 6, 8, 
 or 9, according to the age of the hay, as above, and the pro- 
 duct will be the weight in stones. In measuring the height 
 deduct two -thirds of the distance in feet from the eaves to 
 the top. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 14 pounds make 
 
 28 pounds 
 
 56 pounds 
 
 1 sack of 112 pounds ,, 
 
 1 double sack of 224 pounds 
 
 20 cwt. or 10 large sacks ,, 
 
 21 tons 4 cwt. 
 20 keels, or 424 tons , 
 
 stone. 
 
 quarter cwt. 
 
 half cwt. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 ton. 
 
 barge or keel. 
 
 ship load. 
 
 140 cwt. or 7 tons 1 room. 
 
GEE AT BRITAIN. 55 
 
 The Newcastle chaldron is a weight of 53 cwt. 
 
 By the 1st and 2nd of William IV., it is directed that all 
 coals be sold by weight instead of measure ; 10 sacks of 
 224 Ibs. each to one ton. 
 
 To calculate the weight of Cattle. Measure round the 
 animal close behind the shoulder, then along the back, from 
 the fore part of the shoulder-blade to the bone at the tail. 
 Multiply the square of the girt by five times the length, 
 both expressed in feet. Divide the product by 21, and you 
 have the weight of the four quarters, in stones of 14 Ibs. 
 In very fat cattle, the weight is about a twentieth more 
 than that ascertained in this manner, while very lean ones 
 weigh about a twentieth less. The quarters are little more 
 than half the weight of the living animal. The skin weighs 
 about the eighteenth, and the tallow about the twelfth of the 
 whole. 
 
 Miscellaneous Liquid Measures. 
 
 Hogshead of Claret 46 gallons. 
 
 Butt of Sherry 108 
 
 Pipe of Port or Masden 115 
 
 Pipe of Madeira or Cape 92 
 
 Pipe of Teneriffe 100 ,, 
 
 Pipe of Lisbon or Bucellas . . . . . 117 > 
 
 Butt of Tent, Malaga or Mountain . . .105 
 
 Aum of Hock, Moselle, and other German wines . 30 ,, 
 
 Double aum of ditto . . . . . . CO ,, 
 
 Pipe of Marsala or Bronti 93 
 
 Puncheon of Scotch Whisky . . . 110 to 130 ,. 
 
 Puncheon of Brandy . . . . 110 to 120 ,. 
 
 Hogshead of Brandy . . . 55 to CO ,, 
 
 Puncheon of Rum .... 00 to 100 
 
 A hogshead is one-half -j 
 
 A quarter cask is one-fourth i of a pipe, butt or puncheon. 
 
 An octave is one- eighth J 
 
58 iill^AT 33KITA1U. 
 
 Money Table, 
 
 4 farthings make 1 penny (4 farthingaV 
 12 pence 1 shilling (48 farthings). 
 
 ^shilling, "n/-^ farthing,). 
 
 Other coins in use: 
 
 A half-sovereign is 10 shillings. 
 
 A crown is 5 shillings. 
 
 A half-crown is 2 shillings and 6 pence. 
 
 A florin is 2 shillings. 
 
 A sixpence or tester is 6 pence. 
 
 A fourpenny piece or groat is 4 pence. 
 
 A threepenny piece or bit is 3 pence. 
 
 A halfpenny is half a penny or 2 farthings. 
 
 Former coins now out of circulation : 
 
 Moidore ... 27 shillings. 
 
 Jacobus . . . 2.3 
 
 Carolus . . . 23 ,, 
 
 Guinea . . . 21 
 
 Mark . . . 13 shillings and 4 pence. 
 
 Half-guinea . . 10 shillings and 6 pence. 
 
 Angel . . . 10 shillings. 
 
 Seven shilling piece . 7 shillings. 
 
 Noble ... C shillings and 8 pence. 
 
 Proposed Decimal Coinage. 
 
 (The mil 0*24 penny = 06 farthing). 
 
 10 mils make 1 cent (2'4 pence). 
 
 10 cents 1 florin (24 pence). 
 
 10 florins 1 pound (240 pence). 
 
 The mil, cent, and their multiples are the only new coins 
 required. 
 
 This simple and uniform system will soon be generally 
 understood, and its advantages are obviously so great that it 
 must eventually come into operation. 
 
 Scotland and Ireland. In all bill or money transactions 
 relating to Scotland or Ireland, it is requisite to insert or 
 nention the word sterling, to indicate that the established 
 money values of England are intended. 
 
ABYSSINIA. 57 
 
 ABYSSINIA (AFEICA). 
 
 MEASUEES. The principal measure of length is the 
 Turkish pic, which contains 26'8 English inches or 0*6804 
 metre of France. 
 
 The measure for grain is the ardeb : 
 
 At Gondar, in the interior, the ardeb contains 10 madegas ; 
 Massowah, on the Bed Sea, , 24 ; 
 and about 80 madogas make an English imperial bushel. 
 
 Weight. The weights are the dirhem or drachm, the 
 wakea or ounce, and the rottolo or pound : 
 
 10 drachms make 1 wakea 
 
 12 wakeas I rottolo or liter 
 
 1 2 drachms ., 1 mocha 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 400 grains. 
 
 4800 grains or 10 troy ounces. 
 480 grains or 1 oz. troy. 
 
 Money. Coins of other countries are in circulation, 
 amongst which may be mentioned Venetian sequins, Spanish 
 dollars and imperial or Austrian dollars. The last are called 
 patakas or patacks : 
 
 23 harfs make 1 pataka or dollar, i 4s. Id. 
 2$ patakas 1 sequin. | 9*. ^d. 
 
 Payments of large amount are usually made in ingots of 
 gold, weighed by the wakea or Abyssinian ounce, containing 
 400 English grains. The pataka is also a money of account, 
 of fluctuating value, and about 12 patakas are reckoned as 
 the price of the wakea. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle ; see Prussia. 
 Aleppo (Syria) ; see Ottoman Asia. 
 Alexandria ; see Egypt. 
 Algiers (Africa) ; see France. 
 Alicante ; see Spain. 
 Altona ; see Denmark. 
 D 3 
 
53 
 
 ABABIA. 
 
 America; see United States. 
 Amsterdam ; see Holland. 
 Ancona ; see Eoman States. 
 Antwerp ; see Belgium. 
 
 AEABIA. 
 
 Measures. At Mocha the long measures are the guz (25 
 English inches) and the cobido or covid (19 inches), Ths 
 baiyd (4 farsakh) is 12 English miles. 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 16 vakias make 1 noosfia | imperial gallon. 
 
 8 noosfias 1 gudda I 2 gallons. 
 
 For dry measure, 40 mecmedas or kellas make the teman 
 or tomand, which, in rice, weighs 168 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Weights, 
 
 40 vakias make 1 maund 
 10 maund s ,, 1 frazil 
 1 5 frazils ,, 1 bahar 
 
 3 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 30 
 450 
 
 Money. 
 80 caveers current make 1 piastre (3s. bd. sterling). 
 
 Payments are however commonly made in Spanish dollars, 
 valued at 1^- piastre. The moneys coined in the country are 
 commassees, which contain but little silver (only 7 carats), 
 and pass at about 40 for the dollar, being used for small 
 payments. 
 
 Archangel ; see Eussia. 
 
 Arragon; see Spain. 
 
 Athens ; see Greece. 
 
 Augsburg ; see Bavaria 
 
ATJSTllIA. 
 
 59 
 
 12 punkte 
 
 make 1 linie 
 
 12 linien 
 
 1 zoll 
 
 12 zoll 
 
 Ifuss 
 
 6 fuss 
 
 ] klafter 
 
 4000 klafter 
 
 ,, 1 mcile 
 
 AUSTRIA : VIENNA. 
 
 Length. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0'0864 incli. 
 1-0371 
 
 12-445 inches or 1'0371 foot. 
 6-2226 feet or 2-0742 yards. 
 8207 yards or 47142 miles. 
 
 The elle is 3O66 English inches or 2*555 feet. 
 
 Surface. A joch, or day's work, supposed to be as much 
 ground as can be ploughed with one team in a day, is 1600 
 Vienna square klafters or fathoms = 6884 square yards or 
 1*4223 acre, and it is divided into 3 metzen. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 0-0770 imperial gallons. 
 0-1557 
 0-3114 ,. 
 
 3-1143 
 
 12-4572 
 308 6304 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 2 pfiff make 
 
 I seidel 
 
 2 seidel 
 
 kanne 
 
 2 kannen ,, 
 
 mass 
 
 10 mass ,, 
 
 viertel 
 
 4 viertel 
 
 eimer 
 
 32 eimer ,, 
 
 fuder 
 
 8 probmetzen make 
 
 becher 
 
 0-01 32 bushels. 
 
 4 becher 
 
 futtermassel 
 
 0-0520 
 
 2 futtermassel ,, 
 
 muhlmassel 
 
 0-1057 
 
 2 muhlmassel 
 
 achtel 
 
 0-2115 
 
 2 achtel 
 
 viertel 
 
 0-4230 
 
 4 viertel ,, 
 
 metze 
 
 1-6018 
 
 30 metzen 
 
 muth 
 
 50-7536 ( 
 
 or 6-3442 quarter 
 
 Weiglit, Commercial. 
 
 4 pfennig make 1 quentchen 
 
 4 quentchen 
 2 loth 
 4 unzen 
 2 vierding 
 2 mark 
 
 lloth 
 1 unze 
 1 vierding 
 1 mark 
 1 pfund 
 
 67*5 grains or 0-0006 Ib. 
 
 270-2 0-0386 
 
 540-4 0772 
 
 2161-6 ,, 0-3088 
 
 4323-2 0-6176 
 
 864G-4 1-2352 
 
CO AUSTRIA. 
 
 Weight, Apothecaries*. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 20 gran make 1 scrupel 
 
 3 scrupel ,, 1 drachme 
 
 8 drachmen ,, 1 unze 
 
 12 unzen 1 pfund 
 
 22-52 grains or 0*0469 oz. troy 
 G7'55 0-1407 
 540-4 1-1258 
 6484-8 13-510 
 
 The mark (4333 grains) is the unit of gold and silver 
 weight and the apothecaries' pound = 1| mark. 
 
 Money. 
 
 10 kreuzer piece 
 100 new kreuzers make 1 gulden or florin 
 
 4 penny sterling, 
 pence or two shilling*'. 
 4 shillings. 
 
 2 gulden 1 thaler or rixdollar 
 
 The gold ducat =. 9s. od. sterling. 
 
 half-sovereign = 13s. 11 d. 
 
 The standard of money is called 20 guldenfuss, as 20 
 gulden are coined from the Cologne mark of fine silver. 
 
 Since 1876 the only legal measures and weights are those 
 of the metric system of France ; see p. 75. 
 
 See also Bohemia and Venetian Lombardy. 
 
 BADEN (GERMANY). 
 Length. 
 
 10 punkte make 1 lime 
 ]0 liiiien ,, 1 zoll 
 10 zoll 1 fuss 
 
 10 fuss ,, 1 ruthe 
 
 0-1 18 inches. 
 1-181 
 
 11-811 or 0-9842 feet. 
 118-110 9-8425 , 
 
 The ruthe is 3 French metres. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 100 squaie ruthcnmake 1 viertel 
 4 viertel 1 morgen 
 
 9688 square feet or 0-2224 acre* 
 38752 0-8896 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 10 glass make 1 mass \ 0'3u01 gallons. 
 
 10 mass 1 stutze 3'3014 
 
 lOstutzcn,, 1 ohm 33-014 
 
 10 ohm 1 fudcr 330'140 r , 
 
 The ohm is 15 French decalitres. 
 
BADEN. 
 
 61 
 
 10 becher make 1 masslein 
 10 masslein ,, 1 sester 
 10 sester 1 matter 
 10 matter .. 1 zuber 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0-0413 bushels. 
 0-4127 
 
 4-1268 or 0*5158 quarters. 
 41*2680 5'1585 
 
 The malter is 15 French decalitres. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 77 grains. 
 77-2 
 
 772 or 0-1 103 lb, 
 7720 M029 
 
 10 ass make 1 pfennig 
 
 10 pfennig 1 centass 
 10 centass ,, 1 zehnling 
 10 zehnling 1 pfund 
 
 The pfund is \ French kilogramme. 
 The mark of Cologne (3609 grains troy) is used for 
 weighing gold and silver. 
 
 For apothecaries' weight, see Nurnberg. 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, see Germany, page 78, and France, page 75. 
 Barbadoes ; see West Indies. 
 Barcelona; see Spain. 
 Basle, or Bale ; see Switzerland, 
 Batavia ; see Java. 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 Length. 
 
 The 
 
 Bavarian foot 
 
 11 -42 inches or 0"951 7 fee 
 
 ell 
 
 32796 
 
 2-7330 
 
 Augsburg foot 
 
 11-66 
 
 0-9708 
 
 long ell 
 
 24-00 
 
 2-0000 
 
 short ell 
 
 23-32 
 
 1-9433 
 
 Nuremberg foot 
 
 11-96 
 
 0-9967 
 
 ell 
 
 2600 
 
 2-1667 
 
 The 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 Bavarian eimer = 14-116 gallons. 
 
 Augsburg mass == 0*326 
 
 ,, muid =r 15*080 
 
 Munich eimer 8-122 
 
 Nuremberg visirmass 14*963 
 
 schenkmass 13*964 
 
02 
 
 BAVAE1A. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 The Bavarian scheffel 
 
 6-1172 bushels. 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 12-037 
 
 > ,, (8 metzen) 
 
 5-050 
 
 Munich scheffel 
 
 9-976 
 
 Nuremberg malter 
 
 4'598 
 
 Weight. 
 
 The Bavarian pound 
 
 8642 grains or 1-2346 It 
 
 Augsburg mark 
 
 3643 
 
 0-5204 , 
 
 ,, heavy pound 
 
 7580 
 
 1-0829 , 
 
 > light 
 
 7295 
 
 1-0421 , 
 
 Munich pound 
 
 8656 
 
 1-2366 , 
 
 Nuremberg mark 
 
 3670 
 
 , 0-5243 , 
 
 pound 
 
 7870 
 
 M243 , 
 
 old troy 
 
 7360 
 
 , 1-0514 , 
 
 ,, apothecaries* 
 
 5520 
 
 0-7886 , 
 
 The Nuremberg apothecaries' pound is used for weighing 
 medicines throughout Germany, and its subdivisions are the 
 same as in England. See Ntirnberg. 
 
 Money (Austrian standard). 
 
 60 kreuzers make I florin 2s. sterling, 
 
 The rixdollar of 1800 4s. 
 The florin of Nuremberg 20 d. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, see Germany, page 78. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 The weights and measures are the same as those of 
 France or Holland, though some of them are differently 
 expressed, as aune for metre or ell, litron for litre or kan- 
 nen, and livre for kilogramme or ponden. 
 
 100 centimes make 
 
 Money. 
 
 1 franc I 9-4^. sterling. 
 . 1 florin 20rf. 
 
 The value of Belgian money in francs is the same as that 
 of France ; and in florins, as well as the old Brabaiit money 
 
BELGIUM. Go 
 
 in schillings and grotes, it is the same as that of Holland. 
 In the division of the florin, the stiver is 5 cents, so that 20 
 stivers make the florin ; and its value is about 2-g francs. 
 
 Bengal ; see East Indies. 
 Bergen ; see Sweden and Norway. 
 Berlin ; see Prussia. 
 Bermudas ; see "West Indies. 
 Berne ; see Switzerland. 
 
 BIIIMAH (ASIA) : RANGOON. 
 
 Length. 
 
 The paulgaut is 1 inch English. 
 
 The taim or cubit is 18 inches. 
 
 The saundaung or royal cubit is 22 inches. 
 
 The dha or bamboo is 7 royal cubits = 1 54 inches. 
 
 The dain or Birman league is 1000 dhas = 2*4306 miles, 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 lOOticalson . . . 
 
 dg IDS. avoirdupois. 
 
 3 catties } make } vis 
 150 vis 1 candy 
 
 500 
 
 The Birmans, like the Chinese, keep their accounts deci- 
 mally, and have no coin. Silver bullion and lead are the 
 currency of the country. 
 
 BOHEMIA: PRAGUE. 
 
 The Prague foot measures 11'88 English inches ; and the 
 ell, 23-2 inches. 
 
 For the existing weights, measures and money, see 
 Austria. 
 
 Bologna ; see Roman States. 
 Bombay ; see East Indies. 
 Bonn ; see Prussia. 
 Bordeaux ; see France. 
 Boston ; see United fStates. 
 
Gi 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 BKAZIL (SOUTH AMEEICA), 
 
 The old weights and measures are, with the exceptions 
 noticed below, the same as those of Portugal. The metric 
 system of France has lately been adopted. 
 
 The medida = English imperial gallon, 
 ,, alqueire = 1*1004 imperial bushel . 
 = 0*1378 quarter. 
 ,, mark =: 7'3781 ounces troy. 
 
 The rate of exchange for government estimates is 27 
 pence to the milreis (paper currency). At this rate of 
 exchange to reduce milreis to English pounds, divide by 10 
 and to the quotient at its -Jth part. 
 
 For further information, see Portugal. 
 
 BKEHEN (GERMANY). 
 
 Length. 
 
 10 linien make 1 zoll (inch) 
 12 zoll 1 fuss (foot) 
 2 fuss 1 elle (ell) 
 8 ellen 1 ruthe (rood) 
 The ktaftei is 3 ellen 
 The meile is 20,000 Rhenish feet 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0-95 inches. 
 
 11-38 or 0-94G3 feet. 
 22-76 1-8967 ,, 
 15-1 74 feet or IV058 yards. 
 
 5-69 feet. 
 6865 yards or 3*9006 miles. 
 
 Surveyors divide the fuss decimally. 
 
 Surface. 
 The morgen is 120 square ruthen (3070 square yards or 0'6343 acre). 
 
 Liqitid Capacity. 
 
 4 mingel make 
 
 quartier 
 
 0-177 
 
 9 quartier ,, 
 
 viertel 
 
 1-5951 
 
 5 viertel 
 
 anker 
 
 7-976, 
 
 4 anker 
 
 ohm 
 
 31-905. 
 
 G ohm ,, 
 
 fuder 
 
 191431 
 
 The stiibchen (gallon) is 4 quartier 
 
 0709 
 
 oxhoft (hogshead) is G anker 
 
 47-858 
 
BKEMEN. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 4 spinte make 1 viertel 0-5094 bushels. 
 
 4 viertel 1 scheffel 2*0377 
 
 40 scheffel 1 last 
 
 81*5088 or 10-1880 quarters. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 4 ort make 1 quentchen 
 
 4 quentchen 1 loth 
 
 2 loth I unze 
 
 8 unzen 1 mark 
 
 2 mark 1 pfund 
 
 60*1 grains or 0-1373 oz. 
 240 3 0-5493 
 480-6 1-0986 
 
 3845 0-5493 Ib. 
 
 7C90 1-0986 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of Cologne (3609 
 grains troy). For apothecaries' weights, see Niirnberg. 
 Money. 
 
 6 sclrwaren make 1 grot 
 
 0-55^. sterling. 
 
 1 rixdollar \ 
 orthaler ) 
 
 48 grot (silver piece) | 27c?. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, see Germany, page 78. 
 
 British Islands ; see Great Britain. 
 
 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NOBTfl AMERICA. 
 
 Throughout the United Canadas, New Brunswick, Nova 
 Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, Newfoundland and the ter- 
 ritories of the Hudson's Bay Company, the weights and 
 measures are those of Great Britain, but generally with the 
 old measures of capacity in wine gallons and Winchester 
 bushels, and therefore the same as in the United States. 
 
 The moneys of account are either in pounds, shillings and 
 pence sterling, in the same denominations of money in a 
 nominal currency, or in dollars and cents. 
 
 According to the Halifax currency, which prevails through- 
 out these provinces, the Spanish or American dollar is valued 
 at 5s. or 60d. currency, and what is called sterling is the 
 
G6 
 
 BRITISH AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. 
 
 valuation of the dollar at the former standard of 4s. Gd., and 
 between tins and the Halifax currency, the proportion is as 
 9 to 10, making 90Z. nominal sterling (in dollars at 4s. Qd.) 
 equal to 100?. in Halifax currency. 
 
 But if the sterling value of the dollar be estimated at 
 4s. 2d. } the par of exchange should be 83?. 6s. 8d. nominal 
 sterling for 100?, Halifax currency, the same being in the 
 proportion of 5 to 6, This proportion exists in New Bruns- 
 wick. In Canada and Nova Scotia it is 4 to 5. In New- 
 foundland the dollar passes for 5s., and its assumed value is 
 I*. 4d. sterling, making the par of exchange 86?. 13s. 4<d. 
 nominal sterling for 100?. currency, being in the proportion 
 of 13 to 15 ; but as the dollar is here overrated as to its 
 sterling value, bills on England usually bear a premium of 
 about 5 per cent. 
 
 The decimal coinage of the United States has been re- 
 cently adopted. 
 
 In Lower Canada, wheat is measured by the minot, an 
 old French measure (1-0736 imperial bushel). Land is 
 measured by the arpent, another old French measure (0'8449 
 acre). 
 
 BRUNSWICK (GERMANY). 
 Length. 
 
 12 zoll make 1 schuh (shoe or foot) 
 2 schuh 1 elle 
 The meile (34424 Rhineland feet) = 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 11-23 inches or 0-9358 feet. 
 22-40 1-8717 
 11816 yards or C 7140 miles. 
 
 Surface. 
 The morg.m (30720 square schuh) = 26904 square feet or 0-61/6 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 2 nosstl make 1 quartier 
 
 0-205 gallons. 
 
 4 quartier .,, 1 stiibchen 
 
 0-82 
 
 i 
 
 49 stubchen ,, 1 ohm 
 
 32-80 
 
 ii 
 
 The fuder (4 oxhoft) of wine r= 240 stiibchen 
 
 | 196-8 gallons. 
 
 The fass (4 tonnen) of beer =108 
 
 1 8856 
 
BRUNSWICK. 
 
 G7 
 
 4 becher or lochers make 1 vierfass 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALD1S. 
 
 0-2139 bushels. 
 
 4 vierfass 
 10 himt 
 
 1 himt 
 1 scheffel 
 
 0-8556 
 8-55GO 
 
 or 1-0695 quarter, 
 
 Weight. 
 
 2 heller make 1 pfennig 
 4 pfennig 1 quentchen 
 4 quentchen ,, 1 loth 
 10 loth 1 mark 3C05 
 
 2 mark 1 pfund 7210 
 
 The liespfund is 14 Brunswick pfund 
 
 The centner ,, 114 ,, ,, 
 
 The schiffpfund (ship-pound) is 20 liespfund 
 
 14"! grains. 
 56-3 
 225-3 or 0-515 oz. 
 
 0-515 Ib. 
 1-030 
 
 ]4-42lbs. 
 117-42 
 288-40 ,, 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of Cologne 
 (8609 grains troy). 
 
 For apothecaries' weights, see NiArnberg. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, see Germany, page 78. 
 
 Brussels ; see Belgium. 
 
 Cadiz ; see Spain. 
 
 Cairo ; see Egypt. 
 
 Calcutta ; see East Indies. 
 
 Canada ; see Great Britain, and British Possessions in 
 North America. 
 
 Ceylon ; see East Indies. 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS (iN ATLANTIC). 
 
 The measures, weights, and coins are from Spain, but 
 several of them are somewhat variable and depreciated in 
 value. 
 
 For long measure the pie is the Castilian foot (11 '128 
 English inches). 
 
 The standard libra, or pound, is 1-0148 Ifr. avoirdupois. 
 
68 CAFDIA. 
 
 CANDIA (rN MEDITEKKANEAN). 
 
 ENGLISH VALU5. 
 
 The pic or ell = 
 
 The rnistate (for oil) = 
 
 The carga (for corn) r= 
 
 Thecantaroof 100rottoU I 
 or 44 occas J 
 
 40 paras make 1 piastre 
 
 2o-ll inches. 
 2-456 gallons. 
 4-189 bushels. 
 
 d. sterling. 
 
 Canton ; see China. 
 
 CAPE OE GOOD HOPE (BRITISH COLONY). 
 
 For measures and weights, see Great Britain, page 44. 
 Money. British currency is also used ; and occasionally 
 the former Dutch currency, according to which, 
 
 6 stivers make 1 skilling I 2\d. sterling. 
 8 skillings 1 rixdollar | I8d. 
 
 Cape Verd Islands (in Atlantic) ; see Portugal. 
 Cassel (Germany) ; see Hesse Cassel. 
 Castile; see Spain. 
 
 CEYLON (INDIA) : COLTJMBO. 
 
 The parrah is 5*62 gallons ; and the seer 1 quart. 
 The candy or bahar weighs 500 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Measures of length and surface are the same as in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Since 1825, by order in council, the public accounts are 
 kept in British money, with the following values of the coin 
 in circulation : 
 
 The rixdollar 1*. Gd. sterling. 
 
 The Spanish dollar .... 4*. 2d. 
 
 The Sicca rupee \ . . ; 2s. ,, 
 
 The rupee of Madras and Bombay . Is. Wd. ,, 
 
 But the Sicca rupee has superseded the sterling currency 
 in all commercial transactions. 
 
 Christiana ; see Sweden and Norway. 
 
CHINA. 
 
 69 
 
 CUINA. 
 
 Length. 
 
 10 fna make 1 tsun 
 10 tsuns ,, 1 chik or covid 
 10 chika ,, 1 cheting or fathom 
 10 cheiings ,, 1 yin 
 Surveyors and engineers' chik 
 Itinerary 
 Pekin 
 
 Canton (commercial) 
 Imperial 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE, 
 
 1-41 inches. 
 14-1 
 
 141 or 11-75 feet. 
 1 17'5 feet. 
 
 12-70 inches. 
 
 12-17 
 
 13-12 
 
 14-70 
 
 12-612 
 
 The li or mile (1800 itinerary chiks) = 1826 English feet, 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 10 kops make 1 shing tsong 
 10 shings 1 tau (12 catties) 
 10 taus 1 hwuh 
 
 0-12 gallons or 0'96 pints. 
 1-2 9-6 
 
 12'0 96-0 
 
 The measures of dry capacity are nearly ^ greater than 
 these. 
 
 avoirdupois Ibs. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 16 taels make 1 catty or pound 
 100 catties 1 pecul or tan. 
 
 Therefore the tael or ounce (10 mace) -,-yb. or 583 grains. 
 
 Money. 
 
 f tf. sterling. 
 
 10 cash (" le ") make 1 candereen (" fun ") 
 10 candereens ,, 1 mace (" tseen ") 
 10 mace 1 tael (" leang ; ') 
 
 7 rf. 
 
 These moneys, excepting the cash, are imaginary, and 
 are formed from weights of Sysee silver, under the same 
 denominations ; and the tael in the money and commercial 
 weights are alike. The touch or fineness of Sysee silver 
 is 0*980. The cash are casts of common metal with 
 a square hole in the middle, through which they are 
 strung like beads in various numbers. Silver ingots from i 
 
70 CHINA. 
 
 to 100 taela are used as money ; but gold is considered as 
 merchandise, and is sold in ingots, called shoes. If the 
 metals be sysee or pure, 10 taels of silver are given for 1 of 
 gold. 
 
 Coblentz ; see Prussia. 
 
 COLOGNE (PRUSSIA). 
 
 In 1S1G a uniform system of weights and measures was 
 decreed for all the Prussian dominions, for which see Prussia. 
 The E-hineland foot was adopted as the standard unit for 
 measures of length, and the Cologne mark as the unit for 
 weights. As the system of weights previously established 
 at Cologne is still in use throughout Germany, it is here 
 inserted for reference. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 4 pfennig make 1 quentchen 
 
 4 quentchen ,, 1 loth 
 
 2 loth 1 unze 
 
 8 unzen ,, 1 mark 
 
 2 mark ,, 1 pfund 
 
 50-4 grains. 
 
 225-56 
 
 451-12 
 
 3G09 or 0-51 557 lb. 
 
 7218 1-03114 
 
 The standard copy of the Cologne mark in use at Ham- 
 burg has been ascertained to weigh 3608 English grains, being 
 1 grain lighter than the average of the Prussian standards. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, see Germany, page 78. 
 Constantinople ; see Turkey. 
 Copenhagen ; see Denmark. 
 Corsica (in Mediterranean) ; see France. 
 
 CEACOW (POLAND). 
 
 The Cracow foot =: 14-032 inches or 1-1693 foot. 
 Cremona (Italy) ; see Venetian Lombard} 7 . 
 Cuba ; see West Indies. 
 Damascus ; see Ottoman Asia. 
 Dantzic ; see Prussia. 
 Demerara ; see West Indies. 
 
RBHTMABS. 
 
 DEtfMAHK. 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 linien make 1 tomme 
 12 tommen 1 fod 
 2 fod 1 aln 
 
 Tliemiil is 12000 aln 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 1-03 inches. 
 
 12-357 M or 1-0298 feet. 
 24-714 2-0505 
 
 24,714 feet or 4-G807 miles. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 pott 
 
 2 pott make 1 kande 
 2 kanden 1 stiibclien 
 2 stiibchen I viertel 
 4Jviertel \ 
 
 = 30 pott J 
 
 0-2 1 2G gallons. 
 0-4252 
 0-C504 
 
 8-2914 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 pott = 
 
 18 pott make 1 skieppe 
 
 2 skieppen 1 fjerding 
 4 fjerding 1 tonne 
 22 tonnen 1 last 
 
 0-02G57 bushels. 
 
 0-47835 
 
 0*0567 01 O'lIOGquaitcr 
 
 3-82G8 0-47835 
 
 84-188 10-5235 
 
 The liquid and dry pott measures are identical in capa- 
 city. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 4 ort make 
 
 quintin 
 
 4 quintin 
 
 lod 
 
 2 lod 
 
 unze 
 
 8 unzen 
 
 mark 
 
 2 mark ,, 
 
 pund 
 
 The lispund is 1G pund 
 
 The skippund is 20 lispund 
 
 60-3 grains or 0*1378 oz. 
 
 241-2 0-5514 
 
 482-5 1-1020 
 
 38GO 0-5514 Ib. 
 
 7720 1-1020 
 
 17'G4Glbs. 
 352-014 or 3-151 cwt. 
 
 For gold and silver the pound is 72G6 English grains, and 
 is divided the same as the preceding. 
 
 The metric system of measures and weights is now being 
 adopted. 
 
DENMARK. 
 
 Money. 
 
 16 skillinge make 1 mark 
 6 mark 1 
 
 < \ dollar 
 
 I or rix-banco j 
 
 The Danish specie dollar 
 Since 1873 the monetary system has been 
 100 ore make 1 kroner | 1*. 1'3^. sterling. 
 Dresden ; see Saxony. 
 
 EAST INDIES. 
 1. BENGAL : CALCUTTA. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 4'4c7. sterling. 
 26-35ft T . 
 
 51 -4<J. 
 
 Length. 
 
 4 unglees 
 3 hands 
 2 spans 
 2 cubits 
 2 yards 
 
 1000 fathoms 
 
 1 unglee or finger 
 1 moot or hand 
 
 | inch. 
 3 inches. 
 
 1 span 
 1 haut or cubit 
 1 guz or yard 
 1 fathom 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 36 or 3 feet 
 6 feet. 
 
 1 Bengal coss "1 
 
 fiAfifl r>f 1 3 mil A 
 
 {1 
 or mile 
 
 Liquids and grain are measured by weight. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 FACTORY. 
 
 BAZAAR. 
 
 
 0-11671bs. 
 
 0-1283 Ibs. 
 
 
 1-8667 n 
 
 2-0533 
 
 
 74-667 
 
 82-133 
 
 
 20 cwt. 
 
 22 cwt 
 
 5 siccas make 1 chittack 
 16 chittack s 1 seer 
 40 seers ,, 1 maund 
 
 80 maunds = 
 
 These are the avoirdupois values of the Factory and Bazaar 
 weights, the latter being 10 per cent, heavier than the 
 former. The new Indian sicca weight or tola (180 grains), 
 established in 1833, is grain heavier than the above, and 
 it corresponds with the weight of the Company's silver rupee, 
 and also with that of the gold mohur. 
 
 Money. 
 
 12 pie or pice make 1 anna 
 
 16 annas 1 Company's rupee 
 
 The Sicca rupee = 
 
 The gold mohur of 16 sicca rupees 
 
 1*4(7. sterling. 
 
 23-Srf. 
 32*. 
 
EAST INDIES. 
 
 80 silver rupees, or 36 copper annas, weigh 80 new Indian 
 tolas, or 1 seer, which proportions suggest a ready and 
 available means of testing the correctness of the Bazaar 
 weights. 
 
 2. MADItAS. 
 
 LengtJi.ThQ covid for cloth measure is 18*6 inches ; but 
 the English yard is generally used. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 8 ollucks make 1 measure or puddy 
 
 8 measures 1 marcal 
 
 5 marcals ,, 1 parah or chunam 
 
 80 parahs 1 garce, weighing "1 
 
 8400 Ibs. J 
 
 Weight. 
 
 0-338 gallons. 
 2704 
 13-52 
 
 135-2 bushels or 1G*9 quartera 
 
 10 pagodas make 1 pollam 
 8 pollams 1 seer 
 5 seers ,, 1 vis 
 
 8 vis 1 maund 
 
 20 maunds 1 candy 
 
 Money. Same as Bengal, 
 
 0*078 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 0-625 ., 
 
 3-125 ? , 
 
 25 Ibs. 
 500 
 
 3. BOMBAY. 
 
 Length. 
 
 16 tussoos make 1 hath I 18 inches. 
 
 24 tussoos 1 guz 27 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 16 acloulies make 1 parah 
 8 parahi ,, 1 candy 
 
 3-03 burhels, 
 24-24 
 
 We] gld. 
 
 30 pice or 72 tanks make 1 seer j 0*7 11 p - 
 
 40 seers ,, 1 icaund 23 Ibs. or \ cwt. 
 
 20 maunds ,, I candy 560 5 
 
 E 
 
EAST INDIES. 
 
 Money. 
 
 100 reas make 1 quarter 
 
 rf. sterling. 
 
 or 16 annas J 
 
 The gold mohur or 15 rupee piece is of the same weight 
 and purity as the silver rupee, 15 alloy and 165 fine grains, 
 and its value at the British mintage rate is 11. 9s. 2d. The 
 gold pagoda star is valued at 7s. 4 d. sterling. 
 
 A lac is 100,000 and a crore is 10 millions of rupees. 
 
 At Singapore the Spanish dollar circulates at 2'18 rupees 
 or 4s. Id. sterling. 
 
 See also Ceylon. 
 
 EGYPT (AFEICA), 
 
 Length. 4 derahs make 1 gasab (2'832 English yards). 
 The principal measure for cloth and silk is the pic (26'8 
 English inches). 
 
 Ancient Measures. 
 
 The natural cubit (24 Egyptian fingers) is 1771 inches. 
 royal (28 ) 20-06 
 
 Surface. The feddan al risach, or acre, is 400 square 
 gasab = 3208 square yards or 0'6628 acre. 
 
 Capacity. 24 robs make 1 ardeb (4*9 imperial bushels or 
 0'6125 quarter). 
 
 Weight. 
 
 144 drachmas or meticals make 1 rotl or pound 
 100 rottoli 1 cantaro 
 
 The oke is 400 drachmas 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 1-008 Ibs. 
 100-8 
 28 
 
 Money. 40 paras make 1 piastre (2%d. sterling), 
 Elsinore ; see Denmark. 
 England; see Great Britain- 
 Falkland Islands ; see Great Britain r 
 Finland ; see Kussia. 
 Flanders ; see Belgium. 
 Florence ; see Tuscany. 
 
PflANCE. 
 
 75 
 
 FBANCE. 
 1. METRICAL SYSTEM NOW IN USE. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Millimetre (1000th of a metre) 
 Centimetre (100th of a metre) 
 Decimetre (10th of a metre) 
 Metre (unit of length) 
 
 Decametre (10 metres) 
 
 Hectometre (100 metres) 
 Kilometre (1000 metres) 
 Myriametre (10,000 metres) 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 003937 inches. 
 039371 
 3-93708 
 
 39-3708 or 3-2809 feet. 
 32-809 feet. 10*9363 yards. 
 328-09 109-3633 
 1093-63 yards or 0-62138 miles. 
 10936-33 6-21382 . 
 
 _ A . f (100th of an are or ^ 
 
 Centiare < v , x > 
 
 I a square metre) J 
 
 c (square decametre and ^ 
 \ unit of surface) J 
 
 Decare (10 ares) 
 
 Hectare (100 ares) 
 
 Surface. 
 
 1-19CO square yards. 
 1196033 or 0-0247 acres, 
 
 1196-033 
 11960-33 
 
 0-2474 
 2-4736 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 f (1000th of a litre or\ 
 
 Milhtre <^ .. A . . . > 
 
 L cubic centimetre) J 
 
 Centilitre (100th of a litre) 
 
 Decilitre (10th of a litre) 
 
 f (cubic decimetre and") 
 I unit of capacity) J 
 
 Decalitre (10 litres) 
 
 Hectolitre (100 litres) 
 
 Kilolitre 
 
 L cubic metre) J 
 
 Myrialitre (10,000 litres) 
 
 Decistere (10th of a stere) 
 Stere (cubic metre) 
 Decastere (10 steres) 
 
 0*06103 cubic inches. 
 061027 
 6-10270 
 
 61-02705 or 1-7608 pints. 
 
 610-2705 2-2010gallons. 
 
 3-53166 cubic feet 22-0097 
 
 35-31658 
 353-JG58 
 
 Solid. 
 
 220-0967 
 2200-9667 
 
 3-5317 cubic feet. 
 35-3160 
 353- 
 
 E 2 
 
76 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Milligramme (1000th of a gramme) 
 Centigramme (100th of a gramme) 
 Decigramme (10th of a gramme) 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0-0154 grains. 
 0-1544 
 1-5440 
 
 Gramme 
 Decagramme 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 Kilogramme 
 Myriagramme 
 
 (unit of weight) 
 (10 grammes) 
 
 (100 grammes) 
 
 (1000 grammes) 
 (10000 grammes) 
 
 15-44 
 154-4 
 
 1544 grains { 3' 2167 oz. troy, or 
 
 ( 3'529i oz.avoirdupcis, 
 ;. troy or 2-2057 Ibs. 
 
 321f 
 
 22-057 
 
 The foregoing metric system is now adopted in Austria, 
 Belgium, Greece, Holland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Por- 
 tugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. 
 
 2. "SYSTEMS USUEL." 
 (Formerly in use, but interdicted since 1840), 
 
 Length. 
 
 1-094 inches. 
 
 13-124 or 1-0936 feet. 
 39-371 3-2809 
 
 78742 6-5618 
 
 47-245 3-9371 
 
 12 lignes make 1 pouce 
 
 12 pouces 1 " pied usuel " 
 
 3 pieds 1 metre 
 
 2 metres I toise 
 
 72 grains make 1 gros 
 
 8 gros 1 once 
 
 8 onces 1 mark 
 
 2 marks 1 livre 
 
 Weight. 
 
 60-31 grains troy. 
 482-5 = 1 0052 oz. troy. 
 3860 = 8-0417 
 \ 7720 /= 1-3403 Ib. troy, 
 
 = 500 grammes / ' lor M029 avoird. 
 
 3. ANCIENT SYSTEM. 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 lignes make 1 poucc or inch 
 12 pouces 1 " pied de Roi" (0*3249 metre) 
 6 pieds 1 toise (1-9492 ) 
 
 Theaune (1-1880 ) 
 " Lieue de poste " (2000 toises) 
 
 1-066 inches. 
 1279 
 
 6-395 feet. 
 46-85 inches. 
 4263yardsor 2 4222 miles. 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 77 
 
 72 grains make 1 groa 
 8 gros 1 once 
 8 onces ,, 1 mark 
 
 2 marks 1 poids de raarc 
 
 10 decimes ^ 
 
 mr A.- ? 
 100 centimes J 
 
 5 franc piece in silver 
 10 franc piece in gold 
 20 franc piece or Napoleon 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 59-0 grains troy. 
 
 472-2 =0-9837 oz. troy. 
 3777-5 =7'8G98 
 
 3116 lb. troy, or 
 .0793 ,, avoirdupois. 
 
 7555 
 
 Money. 
 
 9'4<f. sterling. 
 
 7s. lid. 
 15s. lOrf. 
 
 There are gold coins of 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs, and 
 silver coins of 1, 2, and 5 francs ; also bronze coins of 1, 2, 
 5, and 10 centemes. 
 
 FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE 
 
 Length. 
 
 The foot measures 11 27 English inches, and the ell 
 21*54: inches. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 4 eich-mass^ . 
 
 make 1 viertel 1-5784 gallons. 
 
 i % neu-mass j 
 
 20 viertel 1 ohm 31-5C74 
 
 G ohm 1 fuder 189-4044 
 
 The mass is also divided into 4 schoppen. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 i achrot make 
 
 masschen 
 
 0-01233 bushels. 
 
 4 masscnen 
 
 gescheid 
 
 004932 
 
 4 gescheid 
 
 sechter 
 
 0-1973 
 
 2 sechter 
 
 metze 
 
 0-394G /t 
 
 2 metzen 
 
 simmer 
 
 0-7892 
 
 i simmer 
 
 malter or achtel 
 
 315G8 
 
78 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 2 heller mi 
 
 ike I pfennig 
 
 14-1 grains or 0-0322 oz. 
 
 4 pfennig 
 
 , 1 quentchen 
 
 5G-4 0-1289 
 
 4 quentchen 
 
 , 1 loth 
 
 225-6 0-5157 
 
 2 loth 
 
 , 1 unze 
 
 451-2 1-0314 
 
 8 unzen 
 
 , 1 mark 
 
 3610 0-5157 Ib. 
 
 2 mark 
 
 , 1 pfund 
 
 7220 1-0314 
 
 The heavy weight is 8 per cent, more than this table ; and 
 the zoll-centner is 110-24 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Apothecaries' weight is the same as at Niirnberg. 
 
 The gold ducat is about 9s. 4t?. sterling. 
 For the imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now in 
 use, see Germany (below). 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder ; see Prussia. 
 
 Gallen, St. Gall ; see Switzerland. 
 
 Geneva ; see Switzerland. 
 
 Genoa; see Sardinia. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 See Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Bohemia, Bremen, Brunswick, 
 Cologne, Frankfort, Hamburg, Hanover, Hesse, Lubeck, 
 Prussia, and Saxony. 
 
 The measures and weights throughout Germany are now 
 those of the metric system, the meter or stab (staff or ell) 
 and the kilogramme being the principal units ; the millimeter 
 is also denominated strich (lime) ; see France, p. 75. 
 
 The present imperial monetary system for the whole oi 
 Germany is 
 
 100 pfennige make 1 Reichs-mark | Is. sterling. 
 
 GIBRALTAR. 
 
 The weights and measures are those of Great Britain. 
 Money. 
 
 10 decimas make 1 real vellon 
 
 20 reals 1 dollar (Spanish) 
 
 16 dollars 1 doubloon (Spanish) 
 
 2'5d. sterling* 
 
 
 
 4s. 
 66s. Sd. 
 
GIBRALTAR. W 
 
 The Spanish hard dollar is a legal tender at this rate in 
 all the British Colonies. By an order in council, issued in 
 1845, it was directed that Spanish, Mexican, and Soutli 
 American dollars shall be legal tenders at 45. 2 d. sterling ; 
 and that gold doubloons, or 16 dollar pieces, of the same 
 countries, shall pass for 31. 6s. Sd. Mercantile operations 
 are carried on in dollars and cents. 
 
 Great Britain ; see page 44. 
 
 GEEECE. 
 
 Length. 
 
 The short picha (used for silks) 
 ,, long ,, (woollens and linens) 
 Ancient Greek foot (16 Egyptian fingers) 
 
 Attic or Olympic foot 
 
 Pythic foot 
 
 ENGLISH VAIUE. 
 
 25 inches. 
 27 
 11-81 
 12-10 
 975 
 
 The cubit is 1| feet and the stadium 400 cul v 'ts or 600 
 feet. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 The kila measures 0-9152 bushel or 0*1144 quarter. 
 The staro, of 3 bachels, measures 2'259 bushels. 
 The ancient keramion or metretes is 8 488 gallon?, 
 
 Weujlit. 
 
 The pound is G1C8 grains or 0*8811 Ib. avoirdupois, 
 The cantaro, of 40 okes, is 112 Ibs. or I cwt. 
 
 The French metric system is now uniformly established, 
 only with a different nomenclature ; see p. 75. 
 
 Hfoney. 
 
 The silver drachma (=100 lepta or centimes) 
 The 5 drachma silver piece 
 The 10 drachma 
 The 20 drachma gold piece 
 
 o'4J. sterling. 
 
 3s. Grf. 
 
 7*. Od 
 
 14*. 2d. 
 
 GUINEA (AFETCA). 
 Length. The jack tan = 12 English feet. 
 
80 
 
 GDIKEA. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 2 media-tabla make 1 agulrage 
 2 agulrages 1 piso or uzan 
 4 pisos ,, 1 benda-offa 
 
 2 benda-offas 1 benda 
 The quinto is 3 mcdia-tabla 
 seron 6 
 f , eggeba 10 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 62 grains. 
 
 124 
 
 496 
 
 902 
 
 93 
 
 186 
 
 330 
 
 Money. 100 cents make 1 dollar (5Qd. sterling). 
 
 The decimal system was introduced in 1839, the previous 
 money being that of Holland, of which 3 guilders were to 
 represent 1 dollar currency. 
 
 HAMBTJBG (GERMANY). 
 
 8 achtel make 1 zoll 
 12 zoll 1 fuss 
 
 2 fuss 1 elle 
 
 The Rhenish foot 
 
 0*94 inches. 
 11*29 or 0-0408 feet. 
 
 22*58 
 12'357 
 
 1-8817 crl 
 0-6272 yard. / 
 1-0298 feet. 
 
 Engineers and surveyors use the Ehenish foot and inch, 
 decimally divided. 
 
 The meile is 2-1000 Ehenish feet = 4-6807 English miles. 
 
 Surface. The morgen is 117600 square fuss = 2'3895 
 acres. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 2 ossel make 
 
 quartier 
 
 55-2 cubic inches or 0-1992 
 
 2 quartier 
 
 kanne 
 
 110-4 0-31)83 
 
 2 kannen ,, 
 
 stlibchen 
 
 220-9 0-79G7 
 
 2 stiibohen ,, 
 
 viertel 
 
 441-8 1-5934 
 
 5 viertel 
 
 anker 
 
 2209 ., ., 7-9608 
 
 4 anker 
 
 ohm 
 
 8835 31-867 
 
 6 ohm 
 
 fuder 
 
 53016 191-202 
 
 The eimer is 
 
 4 viertel 
 
 6-3734 gallons. 
 
 The tonne is 2 
 
 1 
 
 38-2404 
 
 The oj hoft is 3 
 
 E> 
 
 47-8006 
 
81 
 
 4 spintt 
 2 himt 
 2 fass 
 
 make 1 himt 
 1 fass 
 1 scheffel 
 
 1606- 
 3213 
 6426 
 
 10 schcflel 
 3 wispel 
 
 f , 1 wispel 
 1 last 
 
 64260 
 192780 
 
 Dry Capacity * 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 1606'5 cubic inches or 07242 bushels 
 
 1-4485 
 2-8969 
 28-9694 
 ,, 86-9083 
 or 1-0864 lasts. 
 
 Weiglit. 
 
 4 pfennig make 1 quentchen 
 
 58'4 grains. 
 
 4 quentchen ,, 1 loth 
 
 2336 
 
 2 loth 1 unze 
 
 467-2 or 1-068 oz. 
 
 P unzen ,, 1 mark 
 
 3738 8-544 
 
 2 mark 1 pfund 
 
 7476 l-0681bs. 
 
 The schiffpfund or 20 liespfund is 280 pfund. 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne mark ; and 
 medicine by Niirnberg apothecaries 1 weight. 
 
 Money. 
 
 12 pfennige make 1 schilling 
 16 schillinge ,, 1 mark 
 3 mark "1 1 rix dollar "| 
 
 48 schillinge J (nominal) / 
 
 The mark banco (imaginary) 
 
 The rixdollar specie 
 
 The gold ducat 
 
 sterling. 
 
 Is. 5id. 
 
 . 4d. 
 
 The weight of the Cologne mark, according to the Ham- 
 burg standard, is 3608 English troy grains. This weight of 
 fine silver is coined into 34 marks, and its value, at the rate 
 of 5s. sterling per ounce standard, is 405. 7d. ; hence the 
 value of the " mark current " as above. Banco is a nominal 
 valuation of the Cologne mark of silver at 27| marks Banco, 
 according to which the estimated value of the " mark banco " 
 is 17|J. sterling, 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now 
 in use, soe Germany, p. 78. 
 
82 
 
 HANOYER. 
 
 HANOVER (GERMANY). 
 Length. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUt. 
 
 12 hmcn ^ * , 
 , } make 1 z ll 
 
 0'95 inches. 
 
 = 8achtel J 
 
 
 12 zoll 1 fuss 
 
 11-45 or 0-9542 feet. 
 
 2 fuss 1 elle 
 
 22-9 1-9083 
 
 8 ellen 1 rutlie 
 
 183-2 15-2GG7 
 
 The meile (25,400 fuss) = 
 
 24236 feet 4-5901 miles. 
 
 Surface. The morgen of Calenberg is 30720 square fuss 
 
 3108 square yards or 0*6438 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 2 nossel make 1 quartier 
 
 0-214 gallons. 
 
 2 quartier I kanne 
 
 0-428 
 
 2 kannen 1 stiibchen 
 
 0-856 
 
 2 stiibchen 1 viertel 
 
 1-7H8 r, 
 
 5 viertel I anker 
 
 8-559 
 
 4 anker 1 ohm 
 
 34-236 
 
 6 ohm 1 fuder 
 
 205-416 
 
 The eimer is 8 viertel 
 
 13-6944 
 
 The oxhoft is 30 viertcl 
 
 51-354 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4vierfass 1 make x himt 
 = 3 drittel J 
 
 08556 bushels. 
 
 6 himt 1 malter 
 
 5-1337 or 06417 quarters, 
 
 8 malter 1 wispel 
 
 41-07 5-1337 
 
 2 wispel 1 last 
 
 82-14 10-2675 
 
 Weight. 
 
 4 ortchen make quentchen 
 
 58-7 grains or 0*1341 oz. 
 
 4 quentchen loth 
 
 234-8 0-5366 
 
 2 loth ,, unze 
 
 469-5 1-0731 
 
 8 unzen mark 
 
 S756 0-53GG Ib. 
 
 2 mark ,, pfund 
 
 7512 1-0731 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne mark ; and 
 medicine by Niirnberg apothecaries' weight. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now 
 in use, see Germany, p. 78- 
 
IIESSE-CASSEL. 
 
 83 
 
 Havannah ; see AVest Indies. 
 
 Hayti or Haiti (St. Domingo) ; see West Indies. 
 
 HESSE-CASSEL 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 linien make 1 zoll 
 12 zoll 1 (standard) fuss 
 The (surveyors') fuss 
 
 ENGLISH VALtE. 
 
 0-9437 inches. 
 
 1 1-324 or 0-9437 foot. 
 11-217 0-9347 
 
 Surface. The acker (29400 square surveyors' fuss) = 
 2854 square yards or 0*5897 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 4 schoppen make 1 mass 
 4 mass ,, 1 viertel 
 
 20 viertel 1 ohm 
 6 ohm 1 fuder 
 
 0-44 gallons. 
 1-76 
 35-2 
 211-2 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 masschen make 1 metze 0*27G bushels. 
 
 4 metzen 1 himt 1'105 
 
 2 himt 1 scheffel 2-21 
 
 Weujlit. 
 
 4 quentchen make 1 loth 
 
 2 loth 1 unze 
 
 1C unzen 1 pfund 
 
 234 grains or 0'535 02. 
 408 1-07 
 7490 l071b. 
 
 Gold and silver by the Cologne mark ; and apothecaries' 
 weight the same as at Niirnberg. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now 
 in use, see Germany, p. 78. 
 
 HESSE-DARMSTADT (GERMAN?). , 
 
 Length. 
 
 10 linien make 1 zoll 
 10 zoll 1 fuss 
 10 fuss 1 klafter 
 
 0-984 inches* 
 
 9-843 (J French metre) 
 98-427 = 8-2022 feet 
 or 2-7341 yaxds 
 
HESSE-DARMSTADT. 
 
 Surface. The morgeu is 40,000 square fuss or 100 square 
 klafter = 2990 square yards or 0'6178 acre. 
 
 4 schoppen make 1 mass 
 4 mass ., 1 viertel 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0'44 gallons. 
 176 
 
 20 viertel 
 C ohm 
 
 I ohm 
 1 fuder 
 
 35-2 
 211-2 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 masschen make 1 gescheid 
 4 gescheid ,, 1 kiimpf 
 4 kiimpf 1 simmer 
 4 simmer .. 1 malter 
 
 0*055 bushels, 
 0-22 
 0-88 
 3-52 
 
 4 pfennig 
 4 quentchen 
 32 lothe 
 
 Weight. 
 
 make 1 quentchen 
 1 loth 
 \ pfund 
 
 60-3 grains. 
 
 241-1 or 0-5511 oz. 
 7716 1-1023 Ib. 
 
 Previously to 1821 the weights and measures were those 
 of Frankfort. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now 
 in use, see Germany, p. 78. 
 
 Hindoostan (Asia) ; see East Indies. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 Vrtth the exception of the old nomenclature, the weights 
 and measures of Holland, since 1817, have been according 
 to the metric system of France. 
 
 Length. 
 
 The streep is the millimetre 
 
 duim 
 palm 
 
 ellc 
 
 roedc 
 
 mijh 
 
 centimetre 
 
 decimetre 
 
 metre 
 
 decametre 
 
 kilometre 
 
 0-03037 inches. 
 
 0-30371 
 
 3-93708 
 
 39-3708 or 3-2809 feet 
 32 809 feet or ] )*93S3 yards. 
 1093-03 yards or 0*f i>14 mile. 
 
HOLLAND. 
 
 85 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 The vingerhoed is the centilitre 
 maatje decilitre 
 
 kan ,, litre 
 
 ,, vat ,, hectolitre 
 
 0-61027 cubic inches. 
 6-10270 
 
 C 1-02705 or 1-7G08 pints* 
 3-5316G cubic feet or 22-0007 gallons. 
 
 The maatje is the decilitre 
 ,, kop ,, litre 
 
 schepel ,, decalitre 
 
 mudde^ 
 
 or zak J 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 6-10270 cubic inches. 
 61-02705 
 CIO 2705 or 0-275 12 bushels, 
 
 last 
 
 hectolitre 
 is 30 mudde 
 
 The korrel is the decigramme 
 99 wigtje gramme 
 ,, lood decagramme 
 ons ,, hectogramme 
 ,, pond kilogramme 
 
 3-53 1G6 cubic feet or 2-7512 
 
 82-536 bushels or 10-317 quarters ^ 
 or 1-031 7 last imperial..} 
 
 Weight. 
 
 1-544 grains. 
 15-44 
 154-4 
 
 1544 or 3-5291 02. 
 
 15440 2-2057 Ibs. 
 
 Apothecaries' weight is similar to that of Great Britain. 
 Money. 
 
 5 cents make 1 stiver 
 20 stivers 1 1 florin or~l 
 
 100 cents / guilder / 
 
 The rixdollarl . g /50 stivers V 
 (nominal) / I. 2J florins / 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 Id. sterling. 
 
 igroot make J 1 sc "g\ 
 \Flemish / 
 
 6d. 
 
 The ducatoon 
 
 5s. 5d. 
 
 The gold ducat 
 
 9s. 5d. 
 
 ,, ,. 10 florin piece 
 i, ryder 
 
 IGc. 6rf 
 25*. Id. 
 
 Holstem ; see Denmark. 
 Hungary ; see Austria. 
 
86 IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS (iN MEDITERRANEAN). 
 
 Since 1817, the weights and measures have been those of 
 Great Britain with Italian designations. 
 
 The libbra sottile is the pound troy ; the libbra grossa the 
 pound avoirdupois ; the centinajo is 100 libbre. 
 
 The dicotoli is the English pint ; the chilo the bushel ; the 
 barile is 16 gallons ; the stadio is the chain (22 yards), &c. 
 Honey. 104 oboli make 1 Spanish dollar (5Qd. sterling), 
 Ireland ; see Great Britain. 
 Jamaica ; see West Indies. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 The measures and weights now adopted throughout Itaty 
 are those of the metric system of France ; see p. 75. 
 
 Money* 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 100 centimes make 1 lira. | 9* 125^. sterling. 
 For former measures, weights, and moneys, see Modena, 
 Naples, Parma, Roman States, Sardinia, Sicily, Tuscany, and 
 Yenetian Lombardy. 
 
 JAPAN (ASIA). 
 The long measure of Japan is the inc (6J English feet). 
 
 Money. 
 
 10 rin make 1 sen I \d. sterling. 
 
 100 sen 1 yen I 4s. 2d. 
 
 ISLAND OF JAVA: BATAVIA. 
 
 Length. The ell is 27f English inches ; the foot is the 
 llhineland foot (12-357 inches) ; the ikje (8 ells) is 83J 
 inches. 
 
 Capacity. The kanne is about f of an English gallon. 
 Weight. The weights are those of China. 
 Monet/. The old florin of Batavia is valued at 19Jt?, 
 sterling ; the rixdollar S7d. ; and the new gulden or florin 
 of the Netherlands is valued at 20& sterling. See Holland. 
 Kiel ; see Germany* 
 Konigsberg ; see Prussia, 
 
LTJBECK. 
 
 87 
 
 Leghorn ; see Tuscany. 
 
 Lcipzic ; see Saxony. 
 
 Lille ; see France. 
 
 Lisbon ; see Portugal. 
 
 Lombardo-Veneto ; see Venetian Lombard}*. 
 
 London ; see Great Britain, p. 50. 
 
 LTJBECK (GERMANY). 
 Length. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 12 punkte make 1 linie 0-16 inches 
 
 
 6 linien 1 zoll 
 
 0-95 
 
 
 12 zoll 1 fuss 
 
 11-45 
 
 or 0-9542 feet. 
 
 2 fuss 1 ello 
 
 22-90 
 
 1-9084 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 
 2 ort make 
 
 planke 
 
 0-0996 gallons or 07968 pints, 
 
 2 planken 
 
 quartier 
 
 0-1992 
 
 1-5936 
 
 2 quartier 
 
 kanne 
 
 0-3985 
 
 n 3-188 y; 
 
 2 kannen ,, 
 
 stubchen 
 
 0-797 
 
 > 
 
 2 stubchen 
 
 viertel 
 
 1-594 
 
 > 
 
 5 viertel 
 
 anker 
 
 7-97 
 
 
 
 4 anker 
 
 ohm 
 
 31-88 
 
 i 
 
 6 ohm 
 
 fuder 
 
 191-28 
 
 n 
 
 The eimer is 4 viertel 
 
 G-376 
 
 rt 
 
 The oxhoft is 30 
 
 47'82 
 
 n 
 
 Dry Capacity (Wheat, 
 
 4 fass 
 4 scheffel 
 3 tonnen 
 8 drb'mt 
 
 make 1 scheffel 
 1 tonne 
 1 dromt 
 .. 1 last 
 
 0-92 bushels. 
 
 3-68 
 11-04 
 88-32 
 
 or 1*38 quartT3. 
 11-04 
 
 The corresponding measures for oats are th larger. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 4 pfennig 
 4 quentchen 
 2 loth 
 8 unzen 
 2 mark 
 
 make 1 quentchen 
 1 loth 
 1 unze 
 1 mark 
 i pfund 
 
 58-4 grains or 0-1336 oz. 
 233-7 0-5343 
 467-5 1'0686 
 
 3740 0-5343 Ib. 
 
 7480 ,, 1-0686 
 
88 
 
 LUBECK. 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne mark (3609 
 grains) ; and apothecaries* weight is the same as Niirnberg. 
 
 Money (Hamburg standard}. 
 12 pfcnnige make 1 schilling | I' Id. sterling. 
 
 1G schillinge 1 mark 17 ''6d. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, see Germany, p. 78. 
 
 Lucca (Italy) ; see Tuscany. 
 
 Lucerne ; see Switzerland. 
 
 Lyons ; see France. 
 
 Madeira (in Atlantic) ; see Portugal. 
 
 Madras ; see East Indies. 
 
 Madrid ; see Spain. 
 
 Malaga ; see Spain. 
 
 MALTA (IN MEDITERRANEAN). 
 
 Length. The foot is 1T17 English inches; the palmo is 
 10*3 inches ; and the canna is 8 palmi or 82'4 inches. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 The caffiso of oil is 
 ,, barile of wine is 
 salma of corn is 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 4'580 gallons imperial. 
 9-160 
 
 7'%'9 bushels. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 The rottolo of 30 ounces is 
 cantaro of 100 rottoli is 
 64 rottoli make 
 
 1| Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 175 
 1 cwt. 
 
 Money. 
 
 20 grani make 1 taro 
 12 tari 1 scudo 
 2 scudo"\ 1 pezza, ] 
 = 30 tari / " Sicilian dollar J 
 
 l'65d. sterling 
 
 As dollars and doubloons here form the principal cir- 
 culating medium, it was ordered, in 1845, that the Spanish 
 or South American dollar should pass for 4*. 2d. or 30 tari, 
 
MALTA. 
 
 and the Sicilian dollar for 4s. or 28 tari and 16 grani. But 
 the pezza or dollar of Sicily is usually valued at 5Qd. as 
 above stated. 
 
 Marseilles ; see France. 
 
 MAURITIUS (iN INDIAN SEA). 
 
 For weights and measures, see Great Britain ; and also 
 France (" ancient system "). 
 
 Monet/. 100 cents make 1 current dollar (50c/. sterling). 
 
 The Spanish dollar is valued at 4s. 4d. sterling, and is 
 divided into halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths. 
 
 In 1843 an order in council established the pound sterling 
 as the money for public accounts, and gave to the coins 
 circulating in the colony the following values : 
 
 Dollars of Spain, Mexico, ( 
 
 and South America I 4 *' 2 * = 1<04i *** dollars ' 
 
 East India Company's rupee Is. 10^.=0-45f 
 
 ,, gold mohur 295. 26?. 7*29 - ,, 
 
 5 franca .... 3*. 10=0'96f J 
 
 Napoleon of 20 francs . . los. 10^. 3'95| 
 
 To obviate fractions, the population freely pass rupees at 
 two to the Mauritius dollar ; which, therefore, represents 
 only 3s. Sd. instead of 4s. Thus British coins are practically 
 excluded, excepting in government transactions, and rupees 
 have become the principal currency. 
 
 Subsequent to 1875 the metric system of France has 
 been introduced into the Mauritius and its dependencies. 
 
 Primary standards of the metre, litre, and kilogram have 
 recently been issued for that government by the Board of 
 Trade. 
 
 | (GEEMANY). 
 
 MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN 
 MECKLENBURG- STRELITZ 
 
 The weights and measures were the same as Hamburg, 
 with the exception of measures of capacity which were those 
 of Lubeck, For metric system now in use, see Germany. 
 Meniel ; see Prussia. 
 
90 
 
 MEXICO, 
 
 MTJXTCO (NORTH AMERICA). 
 
 The weights and measures of Mexico aro those of Spain, 
 with some local variations difficult to ascertain and enu- 
 merate. See Spain. 
 
 Accounts are kept in pesos' or dollars of "8 reals, the real 
 being usually valued at 6 pence sterling. 
 
 Milan (Italy) ; see Venetian Lombardy. 
 Mocha ; see Arabia. 
 
 MODENA (ITALY). 
 
 Length. 
 
 The piede, or foot, is 20-502 English inches. 
 
 6 piedi make 1 cavezzo (123*55 inches == 10*296 feet 
 
 = 3-432 yards). 
 The braccio (2^ Genoa palmi) = 24*52 inches. 
 
 Surface. The biolca, of 72 tavole (288 square cavezzi) 
 = 3392 square yards or 0'7009 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 ,*$ boccali make 1 fiasco 
 20 liasci 1 barile 
 
 4584 gallons. 
 9-1G80 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 2 staja make 1 sacco | 3'87G bushels or 0*4845 quail er. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 16 ferlini make 1 oncia I 411 grains or 0394 ox, 
 
 12 oncie 1 libbra or lira I 4932 07046 Ib 
 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 80. 
 Montpelier ; see France. 
 
 MOROCCO (AFRICA). 
 The cubit or canna I 21 inches. 
 
 The pic 
 
 The commercial pound 
 
 The market pound 
 
 20 
 1*100 !!> 
 1*785 ,. 
 
MOROCCO. 91 
 
 The principal coins in circulation are Spanish dollars and 
 doubloons. 
 
 Moscow ; see Eussla. 
 Munich ; see Bavaria. 
 Muuster ; see Prussia. 
 Nantes ; see France. 
 
 NAPLES, THE TWO SICILIES (iTALT). 
 
 Length. 
 
 5 minuti make 1 oncYa 
 ! 2 oncie 1 palmo 
 
 8 palmi ,, 1 canna 
 The pertica or passo is 7i 
 The mfglio is 7000 palmi 
 
 ENGLISH VALUR, 
 
 0-8G5 inches. 
 
 10-382 or 0-8G52 feet. 
 83055 69213 
 77-8G3 6 4887 
 C056 feet or M470 mile. 
 
 Surface. 
 The moggio is 900 square passi Oi 
 
 . . > 37898 square feet or 0'8700 acre. 
 5062o square palmi/ 
 
 Liquid Capacity (Wine, Spirits, Sfc\ 
 
 60 caratfi make 1 barlle 
 
 12barili 1 botte 
 
 ? botti 1 carro 
 
 9-174 gallons, 
 110-088 
 220-176 
 
 Liquid Capacity (Oil). 
 
 6 misurelle make 1 quarto 
 16 quart! 1 stajo 
 16 staja 1 salma 
 
 0-1392 gallons. 
 2-228 
 35647 
 
 The stajo is also divided into 20 pignate. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 24 misure make 1 tomolo | 1 '407 bushels. 
 
 36 tomoli 1 carro 50 660 or 6'332 quartet 
 
NAPLES. 
 
 Weight (Troy and Apothecaries). 
 
 20 accini make 1 trapeso or scrupolo 
 3 scrupoli 1 dramma 
 10 dramme 1 oncia 
 12 oncie ., 1 libbra 
 
 13 grains. 
 4H 
 
 412J or 0-8594 oz. troy 
 4950 0-8594 Ib. 
 
 The rotolo grosso is 33-J- oncie 1-9643 Ib. avoirdupois. 
 The rotolo piccolo is 18 oncie j 1-0607 
 
 10 grani make 1 carlino 
 
 2 carlini 1 taro 
 
 Stari | 
 
 100 grani) 
 
 The gold oncetta (1818) 
 
 Money. 
 
 I ducat 
 
 4cl. sterling. 
 
 V~C(, 
 
 10*. 
 
 For more recent information, see Italy, p. 86. 
 Netherlands ; see Holland. 
 Neuchatel or Neufchatel ; see Switzerland. 
 New South Wales ; see Great Britain. 
 New York ; see United States. 
 Newfoundland ; see Great Britain. 
 Nice (Italy) ; see Sardinia. 
 North America ; see United States - 
 Norway ; see Sweden and Norway. 
 Nova Scotia ; see British Possessions in North America 
 
 NURNBERG, OB NUREMBERG (BAVARIA). 
 
 The apothecaries' weight of Niirnberg is used for medi- 
 cines throughout Germany. Its pfund is f- of the old 
 Niirnberg money pound, or l old Niirnberg mark, and is 
 subdivided thus : 
 
 20 gran make 1 scrupel 
 3 scrupel 1 drachme 
 8 drachmen ,, 1 unze 
 
 12 unzen ,, 1 pfund 
 
 19-2 grains. 
 57-5 
 
 460 or 0-9583 oz. troy. 
 5520 11J 
 
 For further particulars of the weights, measures, and 
 money of Niirnberg, see Bavaria. 
 
 Odessa ; see Russia. 
 Oporto ; see Portugal. 
 Ostend; see Belgium. 
 
OTTOMAN ASIA. 
 OTTOMAN ASIA: ALEPPO, SMYRNA, &C. 
 
 The Turkish pic (2G'8 inches) is used for measures of 
 length, and the oke for weight. At Damascus the pic is 23 
 inches. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 6 okes make 1 batman 1 16*974 Ibs. 
 
 1\ batman 1 cantaro I 127*305 
 
 Ottoman Eaipire ; see Turkey. 
 
 Padua (Italy) ; see Venetian Loinbardy. 
 
 Palermo (Sicily) ; see Sicily. 
 
 Paris ; see France. 
 
 PABMA (ITALY). 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 atom! make 1 punto 
 12 punti 1 oncia 
 12 oncie ,, I braccio di legno 
 6 braccia 1 pertica 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0*15 inches. 
 1-78 
 
 2134 or 1-7783 feet. 
 128-04 10-6700 
 
 22-428 , 1-8690 , 
 
 The pie or foot 
 
 Surface. The biolca, of 6 stari (288 square pertica) 
 3043 square yards or 07527 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. See Milan. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 8 quartaroli make 1 mina I 0-7066 bushels. 
 
 2 mine 1 stajo I 1-4132 ,, 
 
 Weight. 
 
 24 grani make 1 denaro 
 
 24 denari ,, 1 oncia 
 12 oncie 1 libbra 
 
 25 libbre 1 rubbio 
 
 17*5 grains. 
 419-8 
 
 5038 or 0-7197 lb. 
 17'99 Ibs. 
 
 For gold and silver weight, see Venetian Loinbardy < 
 Money. 
 
 The 5 lire silver piece (1815) 
 
 3s. lid. sterling. 
 
 15*. 
 
 The gold sequin (zecchino) 
 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 86. 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PEitsiA (ASIA), 
 
 Length. 
 
 The royal guerze, or monkelser, is 37 English inches. 
 The common guerze is f the royal, or 25 ,, 
 The arish is 38 '27 English inches. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 4 sextarios make 1 chenicas 
 2 chenicas 1 capichas 
 25 capichas 1 artaba 
 
 80*26 cubic inches. 
 160-52 
 4013 or 1-009 bushels, 
 
 Weight. 
 
 2 mascais make 1 dirhem 
 50 dirhems 1 rattel 
 6 rattels 1 batman 
 
 0-0423 Ibs. or 0-0211 Ibs. 
 2-1136,, 1-0568 
 12-6816 6-3408 
 
 Both sorts of weights are used with these divisions. 
 The batman of Shirez is 12 '68 16 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Tauris 6'340S 
 
 The dirhem used for weighing gold and silver = 150 
 grains troy. 
 
 sterling. 
 
 
 
 Money. 
 
 5 dinars simple make 1 kasbequis 
 
 0'2lGd. 
 
 2 kasbequis 
 
 ri 
 
 1 dinars-bisti 
 
 0'4'32d. 
 
 5 dinars bisti 
 
 
 
 1 shatree 
 
 2'lGd. 
 
 2 shatrees 
 
 ii 
 
 1 mamoodi 
 
 4-32d. 
 
 2 mamoodi 
 
 
 
 1 abassi 
 
 8-64f?. 
 
 50 abassi 
 
 > 
 
 1 toman 
 
 11. 16*. 
 
 The silver rupee 
 
 Is. lid. 
 
 gold 
 
 n 
 
 11. 9s. 2d. 
 
 The above dinar and toman are imaginary moneys of 
 account, not represented by coins. The Persian gold toman 
 is worth about 11s. sterling; and the silver rupee about 1SJ, 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 05 
 
 Petersburg ; see Bussia. 
 Philadelphia ; see United States. 
 Piedmont ; see Sardinia. 
 Pondicherry (Asia) ; see Prance. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 pontos make 1 linha or line 
 1 1 pollegada, -j 
 12 linhas < thumb, or 
 L inch J 
 Jj pollegadas ,, 1 palmo or span 
 5 palmos ,, 1 vara or yard 
 
 / 1 braca or "| 
 ? raras < \ 
 I fathom / 
 
 0-090 
 1-082 
 
 8-G5G 
 43-28 
 
 8G-5G 
 
 ENGLISH VALVV* 
 
 or 0-7214 feet. 
 3-GOG7 
 
 7*214 
 
 The grao (of barley, in width) is 2 linhas 
 dedo or finger ,, 8 linhas 
 
 covada or cubit 
 
 3 palmos 
 
 0-1 803 inches 
 0-7213 
 
 25-9G8 
 
 or2-!G4feet 
 
 The commercial covada measures 27 inches. 
 The Portuguese mile is 1*2786 miles English. 
 To reduce Portuguese palmos to English feet. Take 
 f ths and increase the same by its i^-th part. 
 
 Surface. The square palmo = 74*926 square inches or 
 0*5203 square feet. 
 
 The geira is 4840 square vara ~- 62959 square feet or 
 1*4153 acres. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 LISBON. OPORTO* 
 
 4 quartilhos make 1 Canada 
 
 / 1 pote, cantaro,") 
 G canadas \ ' \ 
 {. or alqueire J 
 
 2 potcs 1 almude 
 
 0-3034 
 1-8202 
 3'G405 
 
 0-46 -x 
 2-76 I gallons. 
 5-52 J 
 
 ml , ^, f (Lisbon = 3*040^) . 
 The almude of < ~ r r _ . _ >- imperial gallons. 
 
 (Oporto = 5-5200) r 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUR. 
 LISBON. OPORTO. 
 
 8 outavas make 1 alqueire 
 4alqueires 1 fanga 
 15 fangas 1 moio 
 
 0*3720 
 1-48J8 
 22-317 
 
 0*4696 -i 
 1-8782 Uushels. 
 28'173 J 
 
 ff Lisbon = 1-4878) . 
 The fanga of ^^ j imperial bushel. 
 
 24 graos make 
 
 scropulo 
 
 3 scropulos 
 
 outava 
 
 8 outavas 
 
 onca 
 
 16 onca 
 
 arratel or pound 
 
 32 arratels 
 
 arroba 
 
 4 arrobas ] 
 
 . quintal 
 
 Timber is measured in cubic polegadas ; masonry in cubic 
 palmas ; earthwork in cubic bra9as. 
 
 A cubic palmo = 648'56 cubic inches or 0*37532 cubic 
 foot. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 18-45 grains. 
 5534 
 442-69 
 
 7083 or 1-01186 Ib. 
 32-3795 Ibs. 
 129-518 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the marco of 8 oncas ; and 
 medicines are weighed by a libra of 12 onas = f arratel. 
 
 In Portugal the measures and weights are now those oi 
 the metric system ; see France, p. 75. 
 
 Money. 
 1 vintem 
 1 testoon 
 1 pataca 
 1 crusado 
 1 sello or 
 new crusado/ " 
 Silver crown, 1 milrea 
 Brazillian dollar 
 Gold crown, 5 milreas 
 Moeda of 4000 gold 
 n 6400 
 
 Milrea of Madeira 
 
 Azores 
 
 The rei is an imaginary coin of reckoning, and the milrea 
 = 1000 reis is usually written 14^000 ; also 1000 milreis, or 
 one million of reis, is called a conto of reis, and written 
 1 : 000^000. 
 
 rr 20 reas 
 
 1*1 pence 
 
 zr 100 
 
 5-6 
 
 = 320 
 
 17'9 
 
 = 400 
 
 22-4 
 
 = 480 
 
 26-9 
 
 = 1000 
 
 56-0 
 
 = 1920 ,, 
 
 107-5 
 
 = 5000 
 
 I/. 3*. 4d. 
 
 9000 
 
 21. 2s. Gd. 
 
 n 16000 
 
 31. Us. 8d. 
 
 41 '6d. 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 97 
 
 In 1834, foreign moneys were ordered to be received as a 
 legal tender at the rate of 4120 reis for an English sove- 
 reign, and 870 reis for a Spanish or Mexican dollar. 
 
 Prague ; see Bohemia. 
 
 Prince Edward's Island; see British Possessions in 
 
 North America. 
 Presburg ; see Vienna. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 Length. 
 
 12 scrupel 
 12 linien 
 
 12zoll 
 
 make 1 linie 
 1 zoll 
 
 1 fuss 1 
 Rhein-fuss/ 
 12 Rhein-fuss 1 ruthe 
 2000 ruthen 1 post-meile 
 
 The elle is 25 zoll or 2J Rhein-fuss 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0-086 inches. 
 1-03 
 
 12-357 
 
 or 1-0298 feet. 
 
 12-357 feet or 4-119 yards. 
 8238 yards or 4-G807 miles. 
 26 258 inches = 2-1882 feefc 
 or 7294 yard, 
 
 Surface. 
 
 The morgen is 180 square ruthen | 3054 square yards or 0*6310 acre, 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 2 6'ssel make 
 30 quartier 
 2 anker ,, 
 2 eimer ,, 
 G ohm 
 
 quartier 
 
 anker 
 
 eimer 
 
 ohm 
 
 fuder 
 
 70 cubic inched or 0*252 gallons- 
 2096 7-559 
 4192 15-118 
 8384 30-237 
 50304 181-4 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 masschen make 
 4 metzen 
 4 viertel 
 
 12 scheffel 
 6 m alter 
 The wispel is 
 
 4 quentchen make 
 2 loth 
 
 8 unzen 
 2 mark 
 
 1 metze 
 1 viertel 
 1 scheffel 
 1 malter 
 Hast 
 18 scheffel 
 
 209-6 cubic inches or 0-0945 bushel* 
 
 838-5 0-3780 
 3354 1-5121 
 
 18-145 bushels or 2-2681 quarters, 
 108*870 1-3609 last. 
 
 27-2175 3-4022 quarters. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 lloth 
 1 unze 
 1 mark 
 (Cologne) 
 i pfunJ 
 
 225-6 grains or 5156 oz. 
 451-1 1-0311 
 
 3609 51.56 Ibs. 
 
 7218 1'OSll ,, 
 
98 PRUSSIA. 
 
 The pfund is ^ of a Rhineland cubic foot of distilled 
 water, weighed, and reduced to a vacuum, at the temperature 
 of 15 Keaumur or 65| Fahrenheit. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 The liespfund is 16 pfund 
 The centner "1 , -. A 
 
 _ , . f If *MJ M 
 
 = o stem J 
 
 The schiffpf ind \ Q QA 
 
 > ,, oou 
 = 3 centner J 
 
 17-014 UM. 
 
 113-426 
 
 340-277 
 
 For weighing Gold and Silver. 
 288 grains make 1 Cologne mark = 3609 English grains, 
 
 Apothecaries* Weight. 
 
 20 gran make 1 scrupel 
 3 scrupel 1 drachme 
 8 drachme J 1 unze 
 
 12 unzen 1 pfund 
 
 18*8 grains or 0*039 oz. troy. 
 66-4 0-117 
 451*1 0-940 
 5413-5 ,, 11-278 w 
 
 Money. 
 
 12 pfcnnige make 1 grosche.n 1^^. sterling. 
 
 30 silver groachen 1 rix dollar 2s. 10|f. 
 
 or thaler 
 
 The dollar used formerly to be divided into 24 good 
 groschen. 
 
 The Cologne mark weight of fine silver is coined into 14 
 Prussian dollars, from which the above sterling value is 
 calculated. 
 
 The gold ducat is estimated at 9s. 3d., and the Frederick 
 at 16s. 4tZ. sterling. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, 
 now in use, sec Germany, p. 78. 
 
 Quebec ; see Great Britain. 
 Eangoon ; see Birmah. 
 Kevel ; see Eussia. 
 Eiga ; see Eussia. 
 Eio de Janeiro ; sec Brazil. 
 Eochelle ; see France. 
 
BOMAN STATES. 
 
 99 
 
 HOMAN" STATES 
 
 1. HOME. 
 
 Length ( Comm ercia T) . 
 
 The pie* or foot measures 
 The palrao 
 
 The canne 
 
 The braccio 
 
 ENGLISH VALUI. 
 
 11-502 inches or G-966 feet. 
 
 8-796 0*733 
 
 78-4 6-533 
 
 30-732 2-5G1 
 
 The palmo measures 
 
 The fathom of 3 palmi 
 The fathom of 4 palmi 
 
 For Cloth, Sfc. 
 
 8 347 inches. 
 25-041 
 33-388 
 
 Length (Architects, 
 
 10 decirni make 1 oncia 
 
 0-73 inches. 
 
 
 12 oncie ,, 1 palmo 
 
 8-79 or 0-7325 
 
 feet 
 
 10 palmi ,, 1 canna 
 
 87'9 7-3250 
 
 if 
 
 The pie is 16 oncie 
 
 1172 ,. 0-9767 
 
 if 
 
 The catena\ 5 *. a]mi 
 
 42- 119 feet. 
 
 
 The ancient foot = 
 
 11-62 inches. 
 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 
 4 quartucci make 1 foglietta 
 
 0-1003 gallons. 
 
 
 4 fogliette 1 boccale 
 
 0-4012 
 
 
 32 boccali 1 barile 
 
 12-84 
 
 
 16 barili 1 botte 
 
 205-44 
 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 
 4 quartucci make 1 scorzo 
 
 0-3682 bushels. 
 
 
 If scorzi 1 starello 
 
 0-5063 
 
 
 4 starelli ,, 1 quarta 
 
 2-0251 
 
 
 4 quarte ,, 1 rubbio 
 
 8-1004 
 
 
 The stairo is | quarta 
 
 0-6750 
 
 
 24 grani make 1 denaro 
 24 denari 1 oncia 
 12 oncie 1 libbra 
 The ancient libbra 
 
 Weight. 
 
 F2 
 
 18-2 grains* 
 
 436-2 or 9970 oz. 
 
 5234 7477 lb. 
 
 49G6 r , 7094 
 
100 
 
 ROMAN STATES. 
 
 Money. 
 
 10 bajocchi make 1 paolo 
 
 in v 1 Boman scudo ) 
 
 10 paoh 
 
 (silver crown) j 
 
 The 10 scudi gold piece = 
 The gold sequin = 
 
 ,, ,, pistole = 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 5d. sterling. 
 50K 
 
 425. Sd. 
 9a. U. 
 135. Qd. 
 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 86. 
 
 2. BOLOGNA. 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 4 fogliette make 1 boccale 
 15 boccali 1 quarterone 
 
 4 quarteroni 1 corba 
 
 0*288 gallons. 
 4-32 
 17-28 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 quarticini make 1 quarterone 
 4 quarteroni 1 stajo 
 2 staja 1 corba 
 
 0-27 bushels. 
 1-08 
 2-16 
 The capacity of the corba is the same in both liquid and 
 
 dry measure. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 2-9 grains. 
 29-1 
 58-2 
 
 465-5 ,, or 1-064 oz. 
 5586 0798 Ib. 
 
 4 grani make 1 carato 
 
 10 carati ,, 1 ferlino 
 
 2 ferlini 1 ottavo 
 
 8 ottavi ,, 1 oncia 
 
 12 oncie 1 libbra 
 
 For more recent information see Italy. 
 
 3. ANCONA. 
 
 Tho foot measures 
 
 ,, braccio or ell 
 
 soma ,, 
 
 ,, rubbio ,, 
 
 ,. commercial libbra weighs 
 
 15-384 inches or 1-282 feet. 
 
 25 2J 
 
 18-9 gallons. 
 7' 7 3 bushels. 
 5094 grains or 0'7277 Ib. 
 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 
 
 Rotterdam ; see Holland. 
 Rouen; see France. 
 
BU98IA,. 
 
 101 
 
 ETJSSIA.. 
 
 Length. 
 
 16 verschoks make 1 archine 
 3 archines 1 sachine 
 
 500 sachines 
 
 1 ver%t or wcrst 
 
 The Lithuania meile is 28530 Rhein-fuss 9793 yards or 5-5641 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 28 inches. 
 7 feet. 
 
 3500 
 
 or 0-G629 miles. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 100 tscharkeys make 1 vedro 
 3 vedros >, 1 anker 
 
 40 vedros 1 sarokowaja 
 
 750 cubic inches or 27049 gallons. 
 2250 8-1147 
 324-588 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 2 garnetz make 1 tschetwerka 
 
 4 tschetwerkas 1 tschet\verik 
 
 2 tschetweriks 1 pajak 
 
 2 pajaks ,, 1 osrnin 
 
 2 osmins tschetwert 
 
 400 cubic inches or 0-1803 oushela. 
 
 1600 07213 
 
 3200 1-4426 
 
 6400 2-8852 
 
 12800 5-7704 
 
 Weight. 
 
 96 doli make 1 zolotnic 
 3 zolotnics ,, 1 loth 
 8 zolotrklcs 1 lana 
 12 lanas ") Ifuntor ~\ 
 (32loths)J pound / 
 40 funts 1 pud 
 10 puds 1 berkowitz 
 3 berkowitz 1 packen 
 
 65 -8 grains or 0-1504 oz. 
 197-4 0-4513 
 526-5 1-2035 
 
 6318-5 0-90264 Ib* 
 
 36-1056 Ibs. 
 361-05G 
 1083-168 
 
 Money. 
 100 copecs make 1 silver ruble (37J^. sterling). 
 
 The gold ducat 
 imperial 
 
 (1796) 
 (1801) 
 
 9s. 5d. sterling. 
 32s. 2f. 
 
 The paper ruble, 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. sterling. 
 
 St. Domingo (Hayti) ; see West Indies. 
 St. Gall, or St. Gallen ; see Switzerland. 
 St. Petersburg ; see Russia. 
 
102 
 
 SABDINIA. 
 
 SARDINIA. (ITALY). 
 
 1. GENOA. 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 atom? make 1 punto 
 
 12 punti 
 
 > 
 
 1 oncia 
 
 1-686 
 
 12 oncie 
 
 M 
 
 1 piede liprando 
 
 20-228 
 
 8 oncie 
 
 It 
 
 1 piede manuale 
 
 14-712 
 
 5| oncie 
 
 
 
 1 palmo 
 
 9-808 
 
 2 palmi 
 
 M 
 
 1 braccio 
 
 22-885 
 
 9 palmi -^ 
 
 
 1 canna 
 
 87-GO 
 
 nearly/ 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE, 
 
 0-140 inches. 
 
 or 1-6857 foot. 
 1-2260 
 0-8173 w 
 1-9071 
 
 7-30 
 
 >? 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 90 amole or 
 50 pinte 
 2 barili 
 
 \ make 1 barile 
 1 rnezzarubla 
 
 1G'337 gallons. 
 32-674 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 12 gombette make 1 quarto 
 8 quart! 1 mina 
 
 0-41 5 bushels. 
 3-321 
 
 24 grani make 1 denaro 
 
 24 denari 1 oncia 
 
 12 oncie 1 libbra 
 
 18 oncie 1 rottolo 
 
 Weight. 
 
 17 grains. 
 
 4077 or 0-8491 02. troy* 
 4892 0-8494 Ib. 
 7338 1-0483 avoirdupois, 
 
 Money. 100 centesimi make 1 lira nuova (9*12d. sterling). 
 Also see Italy, p. 86. 
 
 2. PIEDMONT : TURIN. 
 
 Length. 
 
 0-140 inches 
 1-686 
 20-228 
 10-114 feet. 
 20-228 
 23 CO inches. 
 7305 feet or 1-3835 miles. 
 
 12 atom! make 1 punto 
 
 12 punti 1 oncia 
 
 12 oncie 1 piede liprando 
 
 6 piede liprando 1 trabucco 
 2 trabucci 1 pertica 
 
 The raso or ell is 1 4 oncie 
 The miglio is 4333J piedi liprando 
 
tfAUBINIA. 103 
 
 jSurface.'Tho giornata is 100 square pertica or 14400 
 square piedi liprando = 40917 square feet or 0'9393 acre, 
 
 2 quartini make 1 boccalo 
 2 boccali 1 pinta 
 6 pinte 1 rubbio 
 
 C rubbi 1 brenta 
 
 10 brente 1 carro 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALTTJ?. 
 
 0*1722 gallons. 
 0-3444 
 2-OGG4 
 12-3984 
 123-984 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 20 cucchiari make 1 copello 
 4 copelli 1 quartiere 
 2 quartieri 1 mina 
 
 2 mine ,, 1 stajo 
 
 3 staja 1 sacco 
 
 0-06G bushels. 
 0-2G4 
 0'527 
 1-054 ,, 
 3-1G2 
 
 Weight. 
 
 24 granotini make 1 grano 
 
 24 grani 1 denaro 
 
 3 denari ,, 1 ottavo 
 
 8 ottavi ,, 1 oncia 
 
 12 oncie 1 libbra 
 
 The marco is 8 oncie 
 
 0*8 grains. 
 13'8 
 59-3 
 
 474-4 or 0-9883 oz troy. 
 5693 0-9883 Ib. 
 3795 0-G589 
 
 For gold ^and silver the carato is 4 grani. 
 The apothecaries' pound is 1^ niarco. 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 86. 
 Savoy ; see Sardinia. 
 
 SAXONY (GERMANY): DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG. 
 Length. 
 
 10 linien make 1 zoil 
 12zoll 1 fuss 
 2 fuss 1 elle 
 8 ellen 1 ruthe 
 The post-meile is 24000 fuss 
 Leipzic (architects') fuss 
 
 0-929 inches. 
 11-148 or 0-9290 foot. 
 
 1-858 feet 0-G193 yards. 
 14-8G4 4-9547 ,, 
 
 7432 yards or 4'2227 miles. 
 11-13 inches or 0-9275 foo',. 
 
104 
 
 SAXONY. 
 
 Liqitid Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VAITTE. 
 
 4 quartier make 1 nossel 
 
 0-1325 gallons. 
 
 2 nossel 1 kanne 
 
 0-2650 
 
 f>3 karmen 1 eimer 
 
 16-6942 
 
 2 eimer 1 ohm 
 
 33-3883 
 
 6 ohm ,, 1 fader 
 
 200-330 
 
 The anker is 54 kannen 
 
 14-309 
 
 oxhoft ,, 3 eimer 
 
 50-083 
 
 fasa 5 
 
 83-471 
 
 The Dresden liquid measures are -^th less. 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 masschen make metze 
 
 4 metzen viertel 
 
 4 viertel scheffel 
 
 12 schefFel malter 
 
 2 malter wispel 
 
 0-1786 bushels. 
 
 07146 
 
 2-8583 or 0-3573 quarter^ 
 34-3 4-2875 
 
 68-6 8-5750 
 
 Weight. 
 
 15 gran make 1 pfennig 
 
 14-1 grains. 
 
 4 pfennig ,, 
 
 1 quentlein 
 
 56-4 
 
 or 0-1289 oz. 
 
 4 quentlein 
 
 lloth 
 
 2255 
 
 0-5154 
 
 2 loth 
 
 1 unze 
 
 451 
 
 1-0309 
 
 8 unzen ,, 
 
 1 mark 
 
 3608 
 
 0-5154 Ib. 
 
 2 mark 
 
 1 pfund 
 
 7216 
 
 1-0309 
 
 Money (same standard as Prussia). 
 12 pfennige make 1 neu-groschen 1J<?. sterling. 
 
 30 neu-groschen 1 dollar or thaler 34|6?. 
 The gold ducat 9s. 5d. 
 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now 
 in use, see Germany, p. 78. 
 
 Seville ; see Spain. 
 SIAM (ASIA). 
 
 Length 
 
 12 nins make 1 kub 
 2 kubs 1 sok 
 2 soks 
 2 kens 
 
 , 1 ken 
 , 1 wa 
 The roencng of 2000 vouhs = 
 
 10 inches 
 20 
 40 
 80 
 12612 feet or 2-3886 miles 
 
SLAM. 
 
 105 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 100 inns make 1 thanan or cocoa-nut-shell 
 
 57*87 cubic inches. 
 
 2000 nin make 1 thangsat or 
 bucket 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0-52178 bushel= 1157-41 
 inches. 
 
 cubic 
 
 Weight. 
 
 936-25 grains or 0-13375 IDS. 
 2-675 Ibs. 
 
 4 bats or ticals make 1 tael 
 20 taels make 1 chang or catty 
 50 changs or catties make 1 
 
 hap or pecul 13375 
 
 Money.- The coins are gold ticals, which pass for 10 silver 
 ticals, each of the latter being worth about 2Qd. 
 Siberia ; see Russia. 
 
 SICILY. 
 
 Length. 
 
 The palmo is 9-53 inches. 
 The canna (8 palmi) is 76*25 inches. 
 Archimedes foot 876 inches. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 The salma of Messina is 19-226 gallons. 
 ,, Syracuse is 16-823 
 grossa (dry measure) is 9 '472 bushels. 
 
 generale 
 
 7'630 
 
 Weight. 
 
 The libbra of 12 oncie is 07 lb. 
 
 rottolo grosso of 33 oncie 1-925 lb. 
 
 sottile of 30 oncie ,,175 
 
 Money. 
 
 20 grani make 1 taro 4-1^. sterling. 
 
 12 tari 1 scudo 4s. 1'4^. 
 
 2| scudi i . 10s. 3J^. 
 
 = 30 tari ) " 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 8ti. 
 
 Smyrna (Asia) ; see Turkey* 
 F 3 
 
106 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 SPAIN: MADBID AND CASTILE. 
 
 Length. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0'077 inches. 
 
 0'927 
 
 5-564 
 
 11-128 or 0-9273 feet. 
 
 33-384 2-782 ,. 
 
 133-530 11-128 
 
 0-G955 
 
 12 puntos make 1 linea 
 
 12 lineas 
 
 1 pulgada 
 
 C pulgadas ,, 
 
 1 sesma 
 
 2 sesmas ,, 
 
 1 pie (foot) 
 
 3 pie 
 
 I vara 
 
 4 varas 
 
 1 estadal 
 
 The dedo is 
 
 9 lineas 
 
 The palmo 
 
 12 dedos 
 
 The legua 8000 vara 
 
 8-346 
 
 22250 feet or 4-2152 miles. 
 
 Liquid Capacity (Wine, 
 
 4 copas make 1 quartillo 
 4 quartillos 1 azumbre 
 
 Bazumbres 
 
 cantaro / 
 
 0-1 105 gallons. 
 0-4422 
 
 3-5380 
 
 The arroba for oil contains 2*78 English gallons and ia 
 divided into 4 quartillos or 100 panillas. The standards of 
 the arroba are 34 libras of water and 25 libras of oil. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 ochavillos make 1 racion 
 
 0*0081 bushels. 
 
 4 raciones 
 
 N 
 
 1 quartillo 
 
 0-0323 
 
 
 2 quartillos 
 
 
 
 1 medio 
 
 0'0646 
 
 2 medios 
 
 n 
 
 I almude 
 
 0*1292 
 
 
 12 almudes 
 
 it 
 
 1 fanega 
 
 1-5503 
 
 
 12 fanegas 
 
 N 
 
 1 cahiz 
 
 18-6034 
 
 or 2-3254 quarters, 
 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 12 granos 
 
 make 
 
 1 tomin 
 
 9-2 grains. 
 
 
 3 tomines 
 
 it 
 
 1 adarme 
 
 27-7 n 
 
 
 2 adarmes 
 
 *> 
 
 dracma J 
 
 55-5 
 
 
 8 ochavag 
 
 M 
 
 1 onza 
 
 443-8 
 
 or 0-0634 Ib. 
 
 8 onzas 
 
 n 
 
 1 marco 
 
 3550-5 
 
 0-5072 
 
 2 marcos 
 
 H 
 
 1 libra 
 
 7101 
 
 1-0144 
 
SPAIK. 
 
 107 
 
 Money. 
 
 20 reals vellonorl ffiake f 1 duro, piastre, 1 , (60A sterli % 
 1 Of reals of plate J I or hard dollar J 
 
 The reals are eacli of them divided into 34 maravedises. 
 
 The legal money of Spain is founded on the reals \ellon 
 which are now more commonly divided into 10 decimas or 
 100 centenas. 
 
 The Spanish dollar is by law also divided into 100 cents, 
 
 The gold pistole is estimated at 15s. lid. sterling. 
 ,, doubloon ,, ,, 65s. 106?. ,, 
 The silver peseta is one -fifth of the piastre. 
 
 The metric system of measures, weights, and decimal 
 system of moneys is now adopted. See France, p. 75. 
 Stockholm ; see Sweden and Norway. 
 Strasbourg ; see Germany. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 Length. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE, 
 
 0-9742 inches. 
 
 11-6904 or 0-9742 foot. 
 23-3808 1-9484 
 
 5-8452 feet. 
 15-5872 
 
 11G30 yards or 6-6423 miles. 
 The fot is now decimally divided. 
 
 12 linies make 1 turn 
 12 turns 1 fot 
 
 2 fots 1 aln 
 
 3 alns ,, 1 famn 
 The stang is 8 aln 
 The mil GOOO famn 
 
 4 jungfrus make 1 qwarter 
 4 qwarters 1 stop 
 2 stops I karma 
 48 kannas ., 1 tunna 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 0-575G pints. 
 2-3024 
 
 4-G048 or 0-575G gallon, 
 27-6288 gallons. 
 
 4 orts make 1 qwarter 
 4 qwarters 1 stop 
 2 stops 1 kanna 
 7 kannas ] fjerding 
 4 fjerdings 1 spann 
 
 2 spanns l tunna of 
 
 32 kappe 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 0-0000 bushels. 
 0-0300 
 0-0720 
 0-5038 
 2-0150 
 
 4-0300 or 0-50375 quarter 
 
108 
 
 SWEDEN AND NOEWAY. 
 
 Weight (Commercial). 
 
 The smallest denomination of weight in Sweden is the S 
 - 07418 English grain. 
 
 4 cjwintin make 1 lod 
 2 lods 1 untz 
 IGuntzs Iskalpundj 
 
 = 8848 as J 
 
 The lispund is 20 skalpunds 
 The skeppund is 400 skalpunds 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 205-1 grains. 
 410-2 
 
 65G3-2 
 
 18-752 Ibs. 
 375-040 
 
 or 0-9376 Ib. 
 
 Weight (Gold and Silver). 
 
 4 qwintin make 1 lod 
 2 lods 1 untz 
 
 1 mark ^ 
 = 4384 as] 
 
 8 untzs 
 
 203'2 grains or 0*4234 oz. troy. 
 406*5 0-846U 
 
 3252 
 
 6-7750 
 
 20 grains make 1 scrupel 
 3 scrupels 1 drachma 
 8 drachmas 1 untz 
 
 1 skalpund) 
 = 7416 as / 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight. 
 
 19-1 grains or 0-0398 oz. troy. 
 57'3 0-1194 
 458 4 0-9550 
 
 1 2 untzs 
 
 6501 
 
 11-4604 
 
 Money. 
 
 12 runsfycken make 1 skilling I'ld. sterling. 
 
 , i MV 1 riksdaler 1 
 
 48 skillmgs > 53d. 
 
 (silver specie) J 
 
 The gold ducat 9*. 2d. 
 
 The riksdaler banco is only f the above value. 
 In Norway the riksdaler is divided into 120 skilliugs. 
 The measures, weights, and currency of Sweden and Nor- 
 way are since 1875 established on the decimal system. The 
 monetary basis is now the following : 
 
 Money. 
 
 100 ore make 1 riksdaler | Is. I'Zd. sterling. 
 
 The measures and weights, now in use, are those of the 
 metric system of France, See p. 75. 
 
SWITZERLAND. 
 
 109 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 1. BERNE. 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 secundes make 1 linie 
 12 linien 1 zoll 
 12 zoll 1 fuss 
 
 10 fuss 1 ruthe 
 
 The ell = 
 
 The Swiss meile is 26G6G fuss = 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 0-08 inches. 
 
 o-90 ;, 
 
 11-54 orO-9G17feet. 
 115-40 9-6167 
 
 21-40 1-7833 
 
 8548 yards or 4-85G8 miles. 
 
 Surface. The jucliart or feld acker, is 400 square rutheD 
 = 4110 square yards or 0*8492 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 2 bechers 
 
 make 1 vierteli 
 
 0-091 9 g 
 
 allons 
 
 4 vierteli 
 
 1 mass 
 
 0-3676 
 
 n 
 
 25 mass 
 
 1 eimer 
 
 9-19 
 
 
 
 4 eimer 
 
 1 saum 
 
 3G-76 
 
 n 
 
 6 saum 
 
 1 landfass 
 
 220'56 
 
 n 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 2 sechszehnerli make 1 achterli 
 2 acliterli ,, 1 immi 
 
 2 immi 1 massli 
 
 2 massli I mass 
 
 12 mass 1 miitt 
 
 O'O 4 82 bushels. 
 0-0964 
 0-1927 
 0-3854 
 4-G250 
 
 Weight ( Commercial) . 
 
 4 pfennig make 1 quent 
 
 4 quent ,, 1 loth 
 
 2 loth ,, 1 unze 
 
 16 unzen ,, 1 pfund 
 
 63 grains. 
 251-9 
 
 503-7 or 1-1514 oz. 
 8060 1-1514 Ib, 
 
 Weight (Gold and Silver). 
 
 4 pfennig make I quent 
 
 4 quent ,, 1 loth 
 
 2 loth 1 unze 
 
 8 unzen 1 marc 
 
 2 marc 1 pfund 
 
 69'5 grains. 
 
 238-1 or 0-4961 oz. troy. 
 
 476-3 0-9923 
 3810-3 7-9381 
 7G20-6 15-8762 
 
110 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 20 gran make 1 scrupel 
 3 scrupel ,, 1 drachma 
 8 drachmen 1 unze 
 
 12 unzen 1 pfund 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 19*05 grains. 
 57-15 
 
 457-2 
 5486-4 
 
 or 0-9525 oz. troy. 
 11-430 . 
 
 Money. 
 
 The silver franc (1803) 
 ,, gold ducat 
 pistole 
 
 Is. 2d. sterling. 
 9s. 2d. 
 18s. IQd. 
 
 Since 1873 the legal system of measures, weights, and 
 moneys have been uniformly the same as those of France. 
 See p. 75. 
 
 2. LUCERNE. 
 
 Length. The elle is 2 schuh (or Rhein-fuss) = 24 f 714 
 inches, or 2'0595 feet. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 10 primas make 1 schoppen 
 4 schoppen ,, 1 mass 
 100 mass ,, 1 saum 
 The ohm is 30 mass 
 
 0-0951 gallons. 
 
 0-3803 
 38-035 
 11-410 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 10 primas make 1 becher 
 
 16 primas ,, 1 immi 
 
 10 immi 1 viertel 
 
 4 viertel 1 miitt 
 
 4 miitt .. 1 malter 
 
 0-0598 bushels. 
 0-0956 
 0-9561 
 3-8245 
 15-2980 
 
 Weight. 
 
 4 quentchen make 1 loth 
 36 loth ,, 1 pfund 
 
 226 grains or 0-5167 oz. 
 8138 1-1626 Ib. 
 
 The French metric system of measures and weights has 
 been adopted since 1873 ; see p. 75. 
 
 12 liniea make 1 zoll 
 
 12 zoll 1 fuss 
 
 (Builders) ,, 
 
 The ell 
 
 3. ZTJKICH. 
 Length. 
 
 0-984 inches. 
 
 ; ii-si 
 
 11-86 
 23-64 
 
 or 0-9842 foot. 
 0-9883 
 1-9700 
 
 
SWITZIiELAKD. 
 
 Ill 
 
 2 stotzen make 1 quartli 
 2 quartli 1 mass 
 16 mass 1 viertel 
 4 viertel 1 cimer 
 The kopt is 2 mass 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 (H807 gallons. 
 0-3G14 
 5-421 
 
 21-G84 
 0-7228 
 
 The land-mass measures are ^th greater. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 2 1 immi make 1 massli 
 4 massli 1 vierling 
 4 vierling 1 viertel 
 4 viertel 1 mutt 
 4 mutt .. 1 malter 
 
 0-0355 bushels. 
 0-1422 
 0-5G88 
 
 2-275 
 9-10 
 
 Weight. 
 
 22G grains or 0-51G7 02, 
 
 452 1-0334 
 
 8138 MG26ib. 
 
 12 quenten make 1 loth 
 
 2 loth 1 unze 
 
 lOunzen 1 pfund 
 
 Honey. 
 
 The silver crown (1781) I 3*. 8d. sterling. 
 
 gold ducat Os. 4d. 
 
 Since 1873 the measures, weights, and moneys have bee!: 
 the same as those of France ; see page 75. 
 
 The foot 
 The ell 
 
 4. GENEVA. 
 
 Length. 
 
 23-028 inches or 1-9190 feet. 
 45-04 3-7533 , 
 
 2 pots make 1 quarteron 
 
 24 quarterons 1 setter 
 12 setters 1 char 
 
 Liquid Capacitij. 
 
 0-415 gallons. 
 9-954 
 119-448 
 
 Dry Capacity. The coupe (or sack) = 2-135 bushels. 
 Weight. 
 
 24 grains make 1 dernier 
 24 dernier 1 unze 
 18 unzen 1 pfund 
 
 19-7 grains. 
 
 472-2 or 1-0794 oz. 
 8500 1-2143 Ib. 
 
112 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Money (same as France). 100 cents make 1 lira nuova 
 (franc) (9d. sterling). 
 
 Since 1873 the measures and weights have been those of 
 the metric system of France ; see p. 75. 
 
 5. BASLE OR BALE. 
 
 Length. 
 
 The foot 
 
 The aune (large ell) 
 
 The brasse (small ell) 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 11-74 inches or 0-9783 feet. 
 46-4 3-8667 
 21-4 1-7833 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 32 pott make 1 ohm i 1 1 gallons. 
 
 3 ohm 1 saum 33 ,, 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 2 becher make 1 kopflein J bushel. 
 
 32 kopflein ,, 1 coupe or sack I 3| bushels. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 72 grains make 1 gros 
 8 gros 1 unze 
 16 unzen 1 pfund 
 
 59-4 grains. 
 
 475 or 1-0857 oz. 
 7600 l-08571b. 
 
 Money. 
 100 raps make 1 Swiss frank I lZ\d. sterling. 
 
 The silver crown 3s. 6d. ,, 
 
 Since 1873 the measures, weights, and moneys have been 
 the same as those of France ; see p. 75. 
 
 6. ST. GALLEN. 
 
 Length. 
 The ell for cloth = i 24-2 inches. 
 
 silks = I 31-6 
 
 Liquid Capacity. The eimer (containing 32 mass) = 11 
 gallons. 
 
 Dry Capacity. The mutt (containing 4 viertel) = 2'1 
 
 bushels. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 The heavy pound = I 9016 grains or 1-288 Ib. 
 
 The light - I 7175 1-025 
 
 
SWITZEKLAND. 113 
 
 Money. 60 kreuzers make 1 florin or guilder (20id. ster- 
 ling). 
 
 Since 1873 the measures, weights, and moneys have been 
 the same as those of France ; see p. 75. 
 
 7. NEUFCHATEL. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 The foot I 11-81 inches. 
 
 The ell = I 43-80 
 
 The French metric system is now adopted throughout 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Toulon ; see France. 
 Trieste ; see Austria. 
 
 TRIPOLI (BARBARY). 
 
 Length. 
 
 The.Turkish dreah or pik =2 3 palmi, is 26 -42 English inches. 
 The arbi dreah or lesser pic is 19 '03 ,, 
 
 Liquid Capacity. The barile 24 bozze, is 3956 cubic 
 inches or 14'267 imperial gallons. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 2 nufs-orbah make 1 orhah 
 4 orbahs ,, 1 temen 
 
 4 temen 1 ueba 
 
 409-4 cubic in. or 0*1846 bushels. 
 1637-7 0-7383 
 6551 2-9533 
 
 Weight. 
 
 16 kharoubas make 1 dram 
 10 drams ,, 1 okie (oz.) 
 
 16 okies 1 rottol 
 
 100 rottols ,. 1 cantar 
 
 48 grains. 
 
 480 or 1 oz. troy. 
 7680 l|lb. 
 109f Ib. avoird. or 133J Ibs. troy. 
 
 The metrical (for gold and silver) is 73-6 grains. 
 
 Money. 
 
 40 paras make 1 piastre 2%d. 
 
 20 piastres 1 mahhub 4s. 2d. 
 
 Turin ; see Sardinia. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 Length. The pic or pike is 26*8 inches. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 The almud is 319'4 cubic inches or 1-152 imperial gallon. 
 The almud of oil should weigh 8 okes or 22| Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
114 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 The killow contains 2023 cubic inches or 0'912 bushel. 
 The fortin is 4 killows = 8092 cubic inches or 3' 648 bushels. 
 
 The killow of rice is supposed to weigh 10 okes. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 100 drams make 1 chequee 
 4 chequees 1 oke 
 45 okes 1 kintal or"! 
 
 cantaro J 
 The rotolo of 18 drams 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 4950 grains or 0'7072 Ibs. 
 19800 2-8286 
 
 127-3 Ibs. 
 
 8910 grains or 1'2729 Ibs. 
 
 Money. 40 paras make 1 piastre (2d. sterling). 
 
 Piastre of Selim (1801) (13^ ). 
 
 - - - (1818) (9* ). 
 
 TUSCANY (ITALY) : FLOEENCE AND LEGHOEN. 
 Length. 
 
 12 denari make '. 
 
 10 soldi : 
 
 2 pal mi ] 
 
 4 braccia ,, 1 
 
 5 braccia .. 1 
 
 soldo 
 
 palmo 
 
 braccio 
 
 canna 
 
 canna 
 
 architects and surveyors j 
 The miglio is 2833 braccia 
 
 1*15 inches. 
 
 11-49 or 0-9575 feet. 
 22-98 1-9150 
 
 7 '66 feet or 2-5533 yards. 
 
 9-575 3-1916 
 
 5426 
 
 l-0277milo. 
 
 Liquid Capacity (Wine, 
 
 2 quartucci make 1 mezzetta 
 
 2 mezzette 
 2 boccali 
 20 fiasci 
 
 1 boccale 
 ,, 1 fiasco 
 1 barile ~\ 
 weighing 133] libbre/ 
 
 0-1254 gallons. 
 0-2508 
 0-5016 
 
 10-032 
 
 Liquid Capacity (Oil). 
 
 2 boccali make 1 fiasco | 0-5016 gallons. 
 
 16 fiasci 1 barile "\\ 8-026 
 
 weighing 120 libbre Jj 
 2 barili make 1 so ma 
 
 The barile of spirits also weighs 120 libbre. 
 
 16-052 
 
TUSCANY. 
 
 115 
 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 
 E.S 7 GLTSH VALUE. 
 
 2 bussoli 
 
 make 1 quartuccio 
 
 0-0105 bushels. 
 
 2 quartucci 
 
 1 mezzetta 
 
 0-0210 
 
 2 mezzette 
 
 ,, 1 metadella 
 
 0-0419 
 
 4 metadelle 
 
 ,, 1 quarto 
 
 0-1676 
 
 2 quarti 
 
 ,, 1 mina 
 
 0-3352 
 
 2 mine 
 
 1 stajo 
 
 06704 
 
 3 staja 
 
 ,, 1 sacco 
 
 2-0112 
 
 8 sacci 
 
 ,, 1 moggio 
 
 16-0896 or 2-01 12 quarter s* 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 24 graiii 
 
 make 1 denaro 
 
 18-2 grains or 0'0026 Ib. 
 
 3 denari 
 
 1 dramma 
 
 54-6 0-0078 
 
 8 dramme 
 
 ,, 1 oncia 
 
 436-7 0-0624 
 
 12 oncie 
 
 1 libbra 
 
 5240-2 0-7486 
 
 Money. 
 
 100 centesimi make 1 lira (7'82d. sterling). 
 The gold sequin is estimated at 9s. 5d. sterling. 
 
 rosini 17*. 
 
 rusponi 28*. 5d. 
 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 86. 
 
 UNITED STATES (NORTH AMERICA). 
 
 The weights and measures of the United States are pre- 
 cisely the same as those of Great Britain, with the ex- 
 ception of the measures of capacity, for which the old 
 standards are still retained. Thus the unit of DRY CAPACITY 
 is the old "Winchester bushel = 2150'42 cubic inches = 
 7*75556 imperial gallons^ 0'96944i l imperial bushel. 
 
 Also the unit of LIQUID CAPACITY is the old Wine gallon 
 =: 231 cubic inches = 0'S3311 l imperial gallon. 
 
 Money. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 100 cents make 1 dollar I 50d. sterling. 
 
 The gold eagle, 10 dollar piece I 21. 3s. Gd. 
 
 which expressions may expedite reductions to English imperial measures. 
 
116 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 In mercantile transactions between the United States 
 and Great Britain, the dollar is valued at a fixed par of 
 is. 6d. sterling, making 444*44 dollars, equal to 100Z. 
 sterling ; and the variation of exchange is made by a cor- 
 responding per centage, premium or discount, on the sterling 
 amounts. But by an Act of Congress, passed July 27, 
 1842, the Custom-house valuation is fixed at the rate of 
 4*84 dollars to the pound sterling, thereby making the 
 value of the dollar about 4s. I'Qd. This compared with the 
 par of 4iS. Qd. per dollar is equal to a premium of nearly 
 per cent. See British Possessions in North America. 
 
 Valencia ; see Spain. 
 
 VENETIAN LOMBAEDT: MILAN AND YENICE. 
 
 Length. 
 
 12 atomi make 1 punto 
 12 punti 1 oncia 
 12 oncie 1 braccio 
 
 Milan foot 
 
 Venice 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 0-16 inches. 
 
 195 
 23-42 
 16-62 
 13-69 
 
 New Decimal Metric System introduced in 1803. 
 
 10 atomi make 1 dito 
 10 diti 1 palmo 
 
 10 palmi 1 metro or braccio 
 
 1000 metri 1 miglio 
 
 0-394 inches. 
 3-937 
 
 39-3708 or 3 2803 feet. 
 1093 63 yards or 0-6214 mile. 
 
 Surface. 100 square palmi make 1 tornatura, identical 
 with the Erench are, 119 '6 square yards or nearly ^ acre. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 0-2201 gallon or 0-0275 bushel. 
 
 10 coppi make 1 pinta 
 10 pinte 1 mina 
 10 mine 1 soma 
 
 0-2751 bushels. 
 
 2-7512 or 0-3439 quarter 
 
 WcigTit. 
 
 10 grani make 1 denaro 
 
 10 denari 1 grosso 
 
 10 gross! 1 oncia 
 
 JIO oucie 1 libbra metrics 
 
 0353 oz. 
 0-3527 
 3 5274 
 2-2046 Ibs. 
 
VENETIAN LOMBAIIDY. 
 
 For Gold and Silver. 
 
 117 
 
 24 &'. f ani make 1 denaro 
 24 denari 1 oncia 
 8 oncie 1 marco 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 18-9 grains. 
 
 453-4 or 0-9445 oz. troy. 
 3627 7-5562 
 
 Money. 
 
 5 centesimi make 1 soldo Austriaca (0'4d. sterling). 
 
 20 soldi Austriachi 1 lira Austriaca (8- Id. ). 
 
 The value of the lira is the same as the 20 kreuzer piece, 
 or -J-rd of the Austrian florin ; and therefore the 3 lire piece 
 is of the same value as the florin. 
 
 The silver ducat is estimated at 3*. 2d. sterling. 
 ,, gold sequin (zecchino) 9s. 5d. tt 
 
 pistole 15*. Id. 
 
 For more recent information see Italy, p. 86. 
 Venice ; see Venetian Lombardy. 
 Verona ; see Venetian Lornbardy. 
 Vienna ; see Austria. 
 Warsaw (Poland) ; see Russia. 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 The weights and measures are generally those of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Money. 100 cents make 1 dollar (50 d. sterling). Pounds, 
 shillings, and pence sterling are also used in accounts, the 
 dollar being reckoned at the government par of 4s. 2d., as 
 above, and the 16 dollar piece (Spanish onza), known as the 
 doubloon, at 64s. sterling. 
 
 In most of the "West India islands, a fixed valuation was 
 established between the currency and nominal sterling, and 
 the variations of exchange were effected by a per centage on 
 the actual sterling, as at present in the Halifax currency. 
 The legislature, in Jamaica, declared, in 1838, that 
 1667. 13s. 4^., Jamaica currency, should represent 100Z. 
 sterling, the same being in the proportion of 5 to 3, and the 
 
118 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 Spanish coinage was regulated accordingly. The late cur- 
 rencies have, however, been abolished in all the islands. 
 
 The British currency was established in Bermuda in 1842, 
 and all existing contracts were directed to be settled at the 
 rate of If?, currency per pound sterling, which corresponds 
 with the rate of currency at Jamaica. 
 
 WUBTEMBTOG (GEBMANY). 
 
 Length. 
 
 10 punkte make 1 linie 
 10 linien 1 zoll 
 10 zolle ,, 1 fuss 
 The klafter (6 fuss) = 
 The ruthe (10 fuss) = 
 The (Stuttgard) elle = 
 
 ENGLISH VALUK. 
 
 0'1126 inches. 
 
 1-126 
 11-26 or 0-9383 foot. 
 
 5-63 feet. 
 
 9-3833 
 24-18 inches or 2'015 feet. 
 
 Surface. The morgen (38400 square fuss) =3757 square 
 yards or 07763 acre. 
 
 Liquid Capacity. 
 
 4 schoppen make 1 mass 0-4043 gallons. 
 
 10 mass 1 immi 4-0432 
 
 16 immi 1 eimer 64*692 
 
 6 eimer 1 fuder 388-15 
 
 Dry Capacity. 
 
 4 viertelein make 1 ecklein 
 2 ecklein 1 masslein 
 
 1 achtel 
 
 1 viertel 
 
 1 simri 
 
 1 scheffel 
 
 2 masslein 
 2 achtel 
 4 viertel 
 8 simri 
 
 0-0192 bushels. 
 0-0384 
 0-0767 
 0-1534 
 0-6136 
 
 4-9090 
 
 For apothecaries' weight, see Nurnberg. 
 For the new imperial measures, weights, and moneys, now 
 in use, see Germany, p. 78. 
 
 Zurich ; see Switzerland. 
 
GENERAL TABLES. 
 
 IN reducing foreign measures tc the corresponding values in other dene mi- 
 nations, architects, engineers, and practical men generally, of different 
 countries, often experience considerable perplexity, in consequence of the 
 necessity of frequent and varied references, and the tediousness of arithme- 
 tical calculation. The following Tables are designed to simplify and ex- 
 pedite all such reductions. Table I. contains a list of the principal linear 
 measures of the various countries, states, and cities throughout Europe, 
 arranged in an alphabetical order. The names of the places occupy the 
 first column, and the columns of figures on the right exhibit, to four places 
 of decimals, the value of an unit of each respective measure, when estimated 
 in English inches, English feet, Florence braccia, French metres, French 
 pieds, Napolitan palmi, Rhineland feet, Roman palmi, Venice feet, and 
 Vienna feet. Thus, in the line opposite the " Ancona foot," we read that 
 it is equivalentto 15-384 English inches, 1-2820 English feet, 0*6695 parts 
 of a Florence braccio, 0-3908 parts of a metre, 1-2029 French feet, 1-4818 
 Napolitan palmi, or 1*2449 Rhineland feet, &c. Table II. shows the com- 
 parisons of square or superficial measures, on precisely the same plan as 
 Table I. 
 
 The following examples will practically exemplify their use. 
 
 Example 1. Reduce 320 Bergamo linear feet to the corresponding 
 measure in Rhineland feet. 
 
 In Table I., opposite tc Bergamo foot, and under Rhineland feet, we see 
 that a Bergamo foot is equal to T3896 Rhineland feet. Therefore, multi- 
 plying 1*3896 by 32G, we get 453*0 for the required measure in Rhineland 
 feet. 
 
 Example 2. Reduce 218*54 Frankfort feet into English feet. 
 
 Referring to Table I., opposite Frankfort foot, and in the second column 
 under English feet, we observe that a Frankfort foot is equal to 0-9392 parts 
 of an English foot. Therefore, multiplying 218*54 by 0-9392, the result is 
 205-25 English feet. 
 
 Example 3. Reduce 215-36 Malta square feet into Venice square feet. 
 
 In Table II., opposite Malta foot and under Venice feet, we take out 
 6656 for the parts of a Venice foot which are measured by one Malta foot. 
 Consequently by multiplying 21 5*36 by 0*6656, the answer is 143*34 Venice 
 superficial feet. 
 
 Example 4. Reduce 562*18 Palermo square palmi to English feet. 
 
 Referring to Table II. C as before, we find a Palermo square palmo is 
 equal to 0*6308 parts of an English square foot. Hence multiply 562' 18 
 by 0-6308, and the required result is found to be 354*62 English square 
 feet. 
 
120 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 CONVERSION OF STANDAED LINEAB MEASTOES, 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Enj 
 Inches. 
 
 jlish 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fre 
 
 Metres. 
 
 neh 
 Pieds. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle foot 
 
 11*410 
 
 0-9508 
 
 0-4966 
 
 0-2898 
 
 0-8921 
 
 Amsterdam foot 
 
 11-150 
 
 0-9292 
 
 0-4853 
 
 0-2832 
 
 0-8719 
 
 Ancona foot 
 
 15-384 
 
 1-2820 
 
 0-6695 
 
 0-3908 
 
 1-2029 
 
 Anspach foot 
 
 11-720 
 
 0-9767 
 
 0-5101 
 
 0-2977 
 
 0-9164 
 
 Antwerp foot 
 
 11-240 
 
 0'9367 
 
 0-4892 
 
 0-2855 
 
 0-8789 
 
 Aquileia foot 
 
 13-530 
 
 1-1275 
 
 0-5888 
 
 0-3437 
 
 1-0579 
 
 Augsburg foot 
 
 11-650 
 
 0-9708 
 
 0-5070 
 
 0-2959 
 
 0-9109 
 
 Austria foot 
 
 12-445 
 
 1-0371 
 
 0-5416 
 
 0-3161 
 
 0-9731 
 
 Baden foot 
 
 11-811 
 
 0-9842 
 
 0-5140 
 
 0-3000 
 
 0-9235 
 
 Basle foot 
 
 11-740 
 
 0-9783 
 
 0-5109 
 
 0-2982 
 
 0-9179 
 
 Bavaria foot 
 
 11-420 
 
 0-9517 
 
 0-4970 
 
 0-2901 
 
 0-8930 
 
 Bergamo foot 
 
 17-172 
 
 1-4310 
 
 0-7473 
 
 0-4362 
 
 1-3427 
 
 Berlin foot 
 
 12-190 
 
 1-0158 
 
 0-5305 
 
 0-3096 
 
 0-9531 
 
 Berne foot 
 
 11-540 
 
 0-9617 
 
 0*5022 
 
 0-2931 
 
 0-9024 
 
 Bohemia foot 
 
 11-670 
 
 0-9725 
 
 0-5079 
 
 0-2964 
 
 0-9125 
 
 Bologna foot 
 
 14-928 
 
 1-2440 
 
 0-6497 
 
 0-3792 
 
 1-1672 
 
 Bremen foot 
 
 11-380 
 
 0-9483 
 
 0-4952 
 
 0-2890 
 
 0-8898 
 
 Brescia foot 
 
 18-720 
 
 1-5600 
 
 0-8147 
 
 0-4755 
 
 1-4637 
 
 T"JYIPPI n 
 
 9 VI 04- 
 
 9*flQ9O 
 
 1 009^ 
 
 O'fi'A'Tfi 
 
 1 '0^90 
 
 Ul CllyV/lU 
 
 Breslau foot 
 
 i\J \JT: 
 
 11-190 
 
 ~< Ui/>i U 
 
 0-9325 
 
 J. V/Jy^U 
 
 0-4870 
 
 \J \JO t vJ 
 
 0*2842 
 
 1 U\J \J 
 
 0-8750 
 
 Brunswick foot 
 
 11-230 
 
 0-9358 
 
 0-4887 
 
 0-2852 
 
 0-8781 
 
 Brussels foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
 Cagliari palmo 
 
 7'970 
 
 0-6642 
 
 0-3469 
 
 0-2024 
 
 0-6232 
 
 Calenberg foot 
 
 11-500 
 
 0-9583 
 
 0-5005 
 
 0-2921 
 
 0-8992 
 
 Carrara palmo 
 
 9'808 
 
 0-8173 
 
 0-4268 
 
 0-2491 
 
 0-7669 
 
 Chamberry foot 
 
 13'284 
 
 1-1070 
 
 0-5781 
 
 0-3374 
 
 1-0387 
 
 China math, foot 
 
 13-120 
 
 1-0933 
 
 0-5710 
 
 0-3332 
 
 1-0258 
 
 imp. foot 
 
 12-612 
 
 1-0510 
 
 0-5489 
 
 0-3203 
 
 0-9861 
 
 Cleves foot 
 
 11-660 
 
 0-9717 
 
 0-5075 
 
 0-2962 
 
 0-9117 
 
 Cologne foot 
 
 10-830 
 
 0-9025 0-4713 
 
 0-2751 
 
 0-8468 
 
121 
 
 TABLE I, 
 
 CONTBBSION OF STANDABD LIKEAB MEASUEES. 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Napoli- 
 tan 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Feet. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle foot 
 
 1-0990 
 
 0-9233 
 
 1-2971 
 
 0-8334 
 
 0-9168 
 
 Amsterdam foot 
 
 1-0740 
 
 0-9023 
 
 1-2676 
 
 0-8145 
 
 0-8960 
 
 Ancona foot 
 
 1-4818 
 
 1-2449 
 
 1-7489 
 
 1-1237 
 
 1-2361 
 
 Anspach foot 
 
 1-1289 
 
 0-9484 
 
 1-3324 
 
 0-8561 
 
 0-9418 
 
 Antwerp foot 
 
 1-0827 
 
 0-9096 
 
 1-2779 
 
 0-8210 
 
 0-9032 
 
 Aquileia foot 
 
 1-3032 
 
 1-0949 
 
 1-5382 
 
 0-9883 
 
 1-0872 
 
 Augsburg foot 
 
 1-1221 
 
 0-9427 
 
 1-3244 
 
 0-8509 
 
 0-9301 
 
 Austria foot 
 
 1-1987 
 
 1-0071 
 
 1-4148 
 
 0-9090 
 
 1-0000 
 
 ! Baden foot 
 
 1-1376 
 
 0*9557 
 
 1-3426 
 
 0-8627 
 
 0-9490 
 
 Basle foot 
 
 1-1308 
 
 0-9500 
 
 1-3346 
 
 0-8575 
 
 0-9433 
 
 Bavaria foot 
 
 1-1000 
 
 0-9242 
 
 1-2983 
 
 0-8342 
 
 0-9177 
 
 Bergamo foot 
 
 1-6540 
 
 1-3896 
 
 1-9522 
 
 1-2543 
 
 1-3798 
 
 Berlin foot 
 
 1-1741 
 
 0-9864 
 
 1-3858 
 
 0-8904 
 
 0-9795 
 
 Berne foot 
 
 1-1116 
 
 0-9339 
 
 1-3120 
 
 0-8429 
 
 0-9273 
 
 Bohemia foot 
 
 1-1241 
 
 0-9443 
 
 1-3267 
 
 0-8524 
 
 0-9377 
 
 Bologna foot 
 
 1-4379 
 
 1-2080 
 
 1-6971 
 
 1-0904 
 
 1-1995 
 
 Bremen foot 
 
 1-0961 
 
 0-9209 
 
 1-2937 
 
 0-8312 
 
 0-9144 
 
 Brescia foot 
 
 1-8031 
 
 1-5148 
 
 2-1281 
 
 1-3674 
 
 1-5042 
 
 Vk*in ^n'f^. 
 
 2-4180 
 
 2-0314 
 
 2-8539 
 
 1-8337 
 
 2-0172 
 
 
 Breslau foot 
 
 1-0778 
 
 0-9055 
 
 1-2721 
 
 0-8174 
 
 0-8991 
 
 Brunswick foot 
 
 1-0816 
 
 0-9087 
 
 1-2766 
 
 0-8202 
 
 0-9023 
 
 Brussels foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
 Cagliari pal mo 
 
 0-7677 
 
 0-6450 
 
 0-9061 
 
 0-5822 
 
 0-6404 
 
 Calenberg foot 
 
 1-1076 
 
 0-9306 
 
 1-3073 
 
 0-8400 
 
 0-9240 
 
 Carrara palmo 
 
 0-9447 
 
 0-7936 
 
 1-1150 
 
 0-7164 
 
 0-7881 
 
 Chamberry foot 
 
 1-2794 
 
 1-0750 
 
 1-5102 
 
 0-9703 
 
 1-0674 
 
 China math, foot 
 
 1-2637 
 
 1-0616 
 
 1-4915 
 
 0-9583 
 
 T0542 
 
 imp. foot 
 
 1-2148 
 
 1-0206 
 
 1-4338 
 
 0-9212 
 
 1-0134 
 
 Cleves foot 
 
 1-1231 
 
 0-9436 
 
 1-3256 
 
 0-8517 
 
 0-93G9 
 
 Cologne foot 
 
 1-0432 
 
 0-8764 
 
 1-231*2 
 
 0-7911 
 
 0-8702 
 
122 
 
 CONVERSION OF STANDARD 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fre 
 Metres. 
 
 nch 
 Pieds. 
 
 Constantinople pic 
 
 26-800 
 
 2-2333 
 
 1-1663 
 
 0-6807 
 
 2-0955 
 
 Copenhagen foot 
 
 12-357 
 
 1-0298 
 
 0-5378 
 
 0-3139 
 
 0-9663 
 
 Cracow foot 
 
 14-032 
 
 1-1693 
 
 0-6107 
 
 0-3564 
 
 1-0972 
 
 Dantzic foot 
 
 11-290 
 
 0-9408 
 
 0-4913 
 
 0-2868 
 
 0-8828 
 
 Denmark foot 
 
 12-357 
 
 1-0298 
 
 0-5378 
 
 0-3139 
 
 0-9663 
 
 Dordrecht foot 
 
 14-160 
 
 1-1800 
 
 0-6162 
 
 0-3597 
 
 1-1072 
 
 Dresden foot 
 
 H'150 
 
 0-9292 
 
 0-4853 
 
 0-2832 
 
 0-8719 
 
 Embden foot 
 
 11-660 
 
 0-9717 
 
 0-5075 
 
 0-2962 
 
 0-9117 
 
 England foot 
 
 12-000 
 
 1-0000 
 
 0-5222 
 
 0-3048 
 
 0-9383 
 
 Farrari foot 
 
 15-804 
 
 1-3170 
 
 0-6878 
 
 0-4014 
 
 1-2357 
 
 Florence foot 
 
 11-940 
 
 0-9950 
 
 0-5196 
 
 0-3033 
 
 0-9336 
 
 1^-nnnn'n 
 
 22-978 
 
 1-9148 
 
 1-0000 
 
 0-5836 
 
 1-7966 
 
 
 France foot 
 
 12-790 
 
 1-0658 
 
 0-5566 
 
 0-3249 
 
 1-0000 
 
 n-v>X4-/- 
 
 39-371 
 
 3-2809 
 
 1-7134 
 
 I'OOOO 
 
 3-0784 
 
 
 Frankfort foot 
 
 11-270 
 
 0-9392 
 
 0-4905 
 
 0-2863 
 
 0-8813 
 
 Geneva foot 
 
 23-028 
 
 1-9190 
 
 1-0022 
 
 0-5849 
 
 1-8006 
 
 Genoa palmo 
 
 9 808 
 
 0-8173 
 
 0-4268 
 
 0-2491 
 
 0-7669 
 
 
 87-600 
 
 7-3000 
 
 3-8123 
 
 2-2250 
 
 6-8495 
 
 CcUlUu 
 
 Gottingen foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
 Gotha foot 
 
 11-320 
 
 0-9433 
 
 0-4926 
 
 0-2875 
 
 0-8851 
 
 Greece foot 
 
 11-810 
 
 0-9842 
 
 0-5140 
 
 0-3000 
 
 0-9235 
 
 Groningen foot 
 
 11-490 
 
 0-9575 
 
 0-5000 
 
 0-2918 
 
 0-8984 
 
 Hamburg foot 
 
 11-290 
 
 0-9408 
 
 0-4913 
 
 0-2868 
 
 0-8828 
 
 Hanover foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
 Harlem foot 
 
 11-250 
 
 0-9375 
 
 0-4896 
 
 0-2857 
 
 0-8797 
 
 Heidelberg foot 
 
 10-960 
 
 0-9133 
 
 0-4770 
 
 0-2784 
 
 0-8569 
 
 Hildesheim foot 
 
 11-050 
 
 0-9208 
 
 0-4809 
 
 0-2807 
 
 0-8640 
 
 Inspruck foot 
 
 12-500 
 
 1-0417 
 
 0-5440 
 
 0-3175 
 
 09774 
 
 Konigsberg foot 
 
 12-110 
 
 1-0092 
 
 0-5270 
 
 0-3076 
 
 09469 
 
 Leghorn foot 
 
 11-904 
 
 0-9920 
 
 0-5181 
 
 0-3024 
 
 0*9308 
 
 Leipsic foot 
 
 11-130 
 
 0-9275 
 
 0-4844 
 
 0-2827 
 
 0-8703 
 
 Ley den foot 
 
 12-340 
 
 1-0283 
 
 0-5370 
 
 0-3134 
 
 0-9649 
 
 Liege foot 
 
 11-320 
 
 0-9433 
 
 0-4926 
 
 0-2875 
 
 0-8851 
 
 Lindau com. foot 
 
 11-400 
 
 0-9500 
 
 0-4961 
 
 0-2896 
 
 0-8914 
 
 i 1 nri o* 'fnnt' 
 
 12-400 
 
 1-0333 
 
 0-5396 
 
 0-3149 
 
 0-9695J 
 
 lUllii 1UUU 
 
LINEAR MEASURES, 
 
 123 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Napoli- 
 tan 
 Pal mi. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Feet. 
 
 Constantinople pic 
 
 2-5814 
 
 2*1687 
 
 3-0467 
 
 1-9575 
 
 2-1534 
 
 Copenhagen foot 
 
 1-1903 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-4049 
 
 0-9026 
 
 0-9930 
 
 Ciacow foot 
 
 1-3515 
 
 1-1355 
 
 1-5952 
 
 1-0249 
 
 1-1275 
 
 Dantzic foot 
 
 1-0874 
 
 0-9136 
 
 1-2835 
 
 0-8246 
 
 0-9072 
 
 Denmark foot 
 
 1-1903 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-4049 
 
 0*9026 
 
 0-9930 
 
 Dordrecht foot 
 
 1-3639 
 
 1-1458 
 
 1-6098 
 
 1-0343 
 
 1-1378 
 
 Dresden foot 
 
 1-0740 
 
 0-9023 
 
 1-2676 
 
 0-8145 
 
 0-8960 
 
 Ernbden foot 
 
 1-1231 
 
 0-9436 
 
 1-3256 
 
 0-8517 
 
 0-9369 
 
 England foot 
 
 1-1558 
 
 0-9710 
 
 1-3642 
 
 0-8765 
 
 0-9642 
 
 Farrari foot 
 
 1-5223 
 
 1-2789 
 
 1-7967 
 
 1-1544 
 
 1-2699 
 
 Florence foot 
 
 1-1501 
 
 0-9662 
 
 1-3574 
 
 0-8721 
 
 0-9594 
 
 1\*nnns*ls\ 
 
 2-2132 
 
 1-8593 
 
 2-6122 
 
 1-6783 
 
 1-8463 
 
 
 France foot 
 
 1-2319 
 
 1-0350 
 
 1-4540 
 
 0-9342 
 
 1-0277 
 
 vnX4>MA 
 
 3-7922 
 
 3-1859 
 
 4-4758 
 
 2-8757 
 
 3-1635 
 
 
 Frankfort foot 
 
 1-0856 
 
 0-9120 
 
 1-2813 
 
 0-8232 
 
 0-9056 
 
 Geneva foot 
 
 2-2181 
 
 1-8635 
 
 2-6179 
 
 1-6821 
 
 1-8504 
 
 Genoa pal mo 
 
 0-9447 
 
 0-7936 
 
 1-1150 
 
 0-7164 
 
 0-7881 
 
 
 8-4376 
 
 7'0886 
 
 9-9586 
 
 6-3985 
 
 7-0388 
 
 
 Gottingen foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
 Gotha foot 
 
 1-0903 
 
 0-9160 
 
 1-2869 
 
 0-8268 
 
 0-9096 
 
 Greece foot 
 
 1-1376 
 
 0-9557 
 
 1-3426 
 
 0-8627 
 
 0-9490 
 
 Groningen foot 
 
 1-1067 
 
 0-9298 
 
 1-3062 
 
 0-8393 
 
 0-9233 
 
 Hamburg foot 
 
 1-0874 
 
 0-9136 
 
 1-2835 
 
 0-8246 
 
 0-9072 
 
 Hanover foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0'8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
 Harlem foot 
 
 1-0836 
 
 0-9104 
 
 1-2789 
 
 0-8217 
 
 0-9040 
 
 Heidelberg foot 
 
 1-0556 
 
 0-8868 
 
 1-2459 
 
 0-8005 
 
 0-8806 
 
 Hildesheim foot 
 
 1-0643 
 
 0-8941 
 
 1-2562 
 
 0-8071 
 
 0-8879 
 
 Tnspruck foot 
 
 1-2040 
 
 1-0115 
 
 1-4211 
 
 0-9131 
 
 1-0044 
 
 Konigsberg foot 
 
 1-1665 
 
 0-9800 
 
 1-3768 
 
 0-8846 
 
 0-9731 
 
 Leghorn foot 
 
 1-1466 
 
 0-9633 
 
 1-3533 
 
 0-8695 
 
 0-9565 
 
 Leipsic foot 
 
 1-0720 
 
 0-9006 
 
 1-2653 
 
 0-8130 
 
 0-8943 
 
 Leyden foot 
 
 1-1886 
 
 0-9985 
 
 1-4028 
 
 0'9013 
 
 0-9915 
 
 Liege foot 
 
 1-0903 
 
 0-9160 
 
 1-2869 
 
 0-8268 
 
 0-9096 
 
 Lindau com. foot 
 
 1-0980 
 
 0-9225 
 
 1-2960 
 
 0-8327 
 
 0-9160 
 
 long foot 
 
 1-1943 
 
 1-0034 
 
 1-4096 
 
 0-9057 
 
 0-9963 
 
 9 2 
 
124 
 
 CONTEESION OF STANDABD 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 jlish 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fre 
 
 Metres. 
 
 nch 
 Pieds. 
 
 Lisbon archit. foot 
 
 13-331 
 i O'O^n 
 
 1-1109 
 
 1. f\ O f\f\ 
 
 0-5802 
 
 K R.A (\ 
 
 0-3386 
 
 1-0424 
 
 Lombardy arch, foot 
 
 \.z you 
 15-611 
 
 UoUO 
 
 1-3009 
 
 oo40 
 0-6794 
 
 0'3292 
 0-3965 
 
 1*0134 
 1-2206 
 
 Lorraine foot 
 
 11-300 
 
 0-9417 
 
 0-4918 
 
 0-2870 
 
 0-8836 
 
 Liibeck foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
 Lucca braccio 
 
 23-496 
 
 1-9580 
 
 1-0225 
 
 0-5968 
 
 1-8372 
 
 Luneburg foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-89-53 
 
 Macedonia foot 
 
 13-918 
 
 1-1598 
 
 0-6057 
 
 0-3535 
 
 1-0882 
 
 Magdeburg foot 
 
 15-160 
 
 0-9300 
 
 0-4857 
 
 0-2835 
 
 0-8726 
 
 Malta foot 
 
 11-170 
 
 0-9308 
 
 0-4861 
 
 0-2837 
 
 0-8734 
 
 Manheim foot 
 
 11-410 
 
 0-9508 
 
 0-4966 
 
 0-2898 
 
 0-8921 
 
 Mantua braccio 
 
 25-104 
 
 2-0920 
 
 1-0925 
 
 0-6376 
 
 1-9629 
 
 l-V 1 0. 
 
 18-252 
 
 1-5210 
 
 0*7943 
 
 0-4636 
 
 1-4272 
 
 
 Maestricht foot 
 
 11-050 
 
 0-9208 
 
 0-4809 
 
 0-2807 
 
 0-8640 
 
 Mentz foot 
 
 11-850 
 
 0-9875 
 
 0-5157 
 
 0-3010 
 
 0-9266 
 
 Middleburg foot 
 
 11-810 
 
 0-9842 
 
 0-5140 
 
 0-3000 
 
 0-9235 
 
 Milan foot 
 
 15-620 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-6798 
 
 0-3968 
 
 1-2214 
 
 dec. foot 
 
 10-260 
 
 0-8550 
 
 0-4465 
 
 0-2606 
 
 0-8023 
 
 braccio 
 
 23-420 
 
 1-9517 
 
 1-0192 
 
 0-5949 
 
 1-8313 
 
 4- 1-v ' 
 
 39-371 
 
 3-2809 
 
 1-7134 
 
 1-0000 
 
 3-0784 
 
 
 Modena foot 
 
 20-592 
 
 1-7160 
 
 0-8962 
 
 0-5230 
 
 1-6101 
 
 Monaco foot 
 
 9-250 
 
 0-7708 
 
 0-4025 
 
 0'2349 
 
 0-7232 
 
 Moscow foot 
 
 13-170 
 
 1-0975 
 
 0-5732 
 
 0-3345 
 
 1-0298 
 
 Munich foot 
 
 11-490 
 
 0-9575 
 
 0-5000 
 
 0-2918 
 
 0*8984 
 
 Naples palmo 
 
 10-382 
 
 0-8652 
 
 0-4518 
 
 D-2637 
 
 0-8118 
 
 Naples canna 
 
 83^055 
 
 6-9213 
 
 3-6146 
 
 2-1096 
 
 6-4942 
 
 Neufchatel foot 
 
 11-810 
 
 0-9842 
 
 0-5140 
 
 0-3000 
 
 0-9235 
 
 Normandy foot 
 
 11-720 
 
 0-9767 
 
 0-5101 
 
 0-2977 
 
 0-9164 
 
 Nuremberg foot 
 
 11-960 
 
 0-9967 
 
 0-5205 
 
 0-3038 
 
 0*9352 
 
 Oldenburg foot 
 
 11-650 
 
 0-9708 
 
 0-5070 
 
 0-2959 
 
 0-9109 
 
 Osnaburg foot 
 
 11-000 
 
 0-9167 
 
 0-4787 
 
 0-2794 
 
 0-8601 
 
 Padua foot 
 
 13-930 
 
 1-1608 
 
 0-6062 
 
 0-3538 
 
 1-0892 
 
 Palseste foot 
 
 12-138 
 
 1-0115 
 
 0-5283 
 
 0-3083 
 
 0-9491 
 
 Palermo palmo 
 
 9-530 
 
 0-7942 
 
 0-4148 
 
 0-2421 
 
 0-7452 
 
 Parma foot 
 
 22-428 
 
 1-8690 
 
 0-9761 
 
 0-5697 
 
 1-7537 
 
LINEAB MEASUEES. 
 
 125 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Napoli- 
 tan 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Ftet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Feet. 
 
 Jisbon archit. foot 
 
 1*2840 
 
 1-0787 
 
 1-5155 
 
 0-9737 
 
 1-0712 
 
 /i/Ain ff\r\4- 
 
 1 '94-fi^ 
 
 1 'O4R7 
 
 i -4.7QQ 
 
 0*94fifi 
 
 1 *O4 1 4 
 
 Jombardy arch, foot 
 
 L ^TTO O 
 
 1-5036 
 
 L \J iO / 
 
 1-2632 
 
 L T: f O O 
 
 1-7747 
 
 \J XT VJU 
 
 1-1402 
 
 L V/T 1 ^t 
 
 1-2544 
 
 Lorraine foot 
 
 1-0885 
 
 0-9144 
 
 1-2847 
 
 0-8254 
 
 0-9080 
 
 Laibeck foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
 [mcca braccio 
 
 2-2631 
 
 1-9013 
 
 2-6711 
 
 1-7162 
 
 1-8880 
 
 Luneburg foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
 Macedonia foot 
 
 1-3405 
 
 1-1262 
 
 1-5822 
 
 1-0166 
 
 1-1183 
 
 Magdeburg foot 
 
 1-0749 
 
 0-9031 
 
 1-2687 
 
 0-8152 
 
 0-8967 
 
 Malta foot 
 
 1-0759 
 
 0-9039 
 
 1-2698 
 
 0-8159 
 
 0-8975 
 
 IVIanheim foot 
 
 1-0990 
 
 0-9233 
 
 1-2971 
 
 0-8334 
 
 0-9168 
 
 Mantua braccio 
 
 2-4180 
 
 2-0314 
 
 2-8539 
 
 1-8337 
 
 2-0172 
 
 brasso 
 
 1-7580 
 
 1-4770 
 
 2-0750 
 
 1-3332 
 
 1-4666 
 
 Maestricht foot 
 
 1-0643 
 
 0-8941 
 
 1-2562 
 
 0-8071 
 
 0-8879 
 
 Mentz foot 
 
 1-1414 
 
 0*9589 
 
 1-3472 
 
 0-8656 
 
 0-9522 
 
 Middleburg foot 
 
 1-1376 
 
 0*9557 
 
 1-3426 
 
 0-8627 
 
 0-9490 
 
 Milan foot 
 
 1-5046 
 
 1-2640 
 
 1-7758 
 
 1-1410 
 
 1-2551 
 
 rlpp 'Pnnt" 
 
 fvQQQQ 
 
 0*OQO 
 
 1 ! (\f\A 
 
 H-74Q4 
 
 0S944 
 
 "Kvio /-/- -1/-V 
 
 U t/ OOc 
 
 9 . 9 c K o 
 
 OO v't 
 1 QQc;9 
 
 L L UUT 
 
 9fifi9^ 
 
 \J t 1 U TC 
 
 1 '71 07 
 
 U O ^T;T^ 
 
 i sm o 
 
 
 i) O O 
 
 3-7922 
 
 I OVu~ 
 
 3-1859 
 
 ^ UU^d 
 
 4-4758 
 
 i / i \j i 
 
 2-8757 
 
 1 OO 1 y 
 
 3-1635 
 
 
 Modena foot 
 
 1-9834 
 
 1-6663 
 
 2-3410 
 
 1-5041 
 
 1-6546 
 
 Monaco foot 
 
 0-S909 
 
 0-7485 
 
 1-0515 
 
 0-6756 
 
 0-7432 
 
 Moscow foot 
 
 1-2685 
 
 1-0657 
 
 1-4972 
 
 0-9620 
 
 1-0582 
 
 Munich foot 
 
 1-1067 
 
 0-9298 
 
 1-3062 
 
 0-8393 
 
 0-9233 
 
 Naples palmo 
 
 1-0000 
 
 0-8402 
 
 1-1803 
 
 0-7584 
 
 0-8343 
 
 Naples canna 
 
 8-0000 
 
 6-7210 
 
 9-4421 
 
 6-0667 
 
 6-6738 
 
 Neufchatel foot 
 
 1-1376 
 
 0-9557 
 
 1-3426 
 
 0-8627 
 
 0*9490 
 
 Normandy foot 
 
 1-1289 
 
 0-9484 
 
 1-3324 
 
 0-8561 
 
 0-9418 
 
 Nuremberg foot 
 
 1-1520 
 
 0-9678 
 
 1-3597 
 
 0-8736 
 
 0-9610 
 
 Oldenburg foot 
 
 1-1221 
 
 0-9427 
 
 1-3244 
 
 0-8509 
 
 0-9361 
 
 Osnaburg foot 
 
 1-0596 
 
 0-8902 
 
 1-2506 
 
 0-8035 
 
 0-8839 
 
 Padua foot 
 
 1-3417 
 
 1-1272 
 
 1-5836 
 
 1-0175 
 
 1-1193 
 
 Palseste foot 
 
 1-1692 
 
 0-9822 
 
 1-3799 
 
 0-8866 
 
 0-9753 
 
 Palermo palmo 
 
 0-9180 
 
 0-7712 
 
 1-0835 
 
 0-6961 
 
 0-7658 
 
 Parma foot 
 
 2-1603 
 
 1-8149 
 
 2-5497 
 
 1-6382 
 
 1-8021 
 
126 
 
 CONVERSION OF STANDARD 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fre 
 Metres. 
 
 nch 
 
 Fieds. 
 
 Parma braccio 
 
 21-340 
 
 1-7783 
 
 0-9287 
 
 0-5420 
 
 1-6686 
 
 Pavia foot 
 
 18-480 
 
 1-5400 
 
 0-8042 
 
 0-4694 
 
 1-4450 
 
 T--pn rpin 
 
 18-300 
 
 1-5250 
 
 0-7964 
 
 0-4648 
 
 1-4309 
 
 
 Persia arish 
 
 38-270 
 
 3-1892 
 
 1-6655 
 
 0-9721 
 
 2-9924 
 
 Phileterian foot 
 
 13-937 
 
 1-1614 
 
 0-6065 
 
 0-3540 
 
 1-0897 
 
 Piacenza foot 
 
 22-428 
 
 1-8690 
 
 0-9761 
 
 0-5697 
 
 1-7537 
 
 Piedmont liprando ft. 
 
 20-228 
 
 T6857 
 
 0-8803 
 
 0-5138 
 
 1-5817 
 
 
 13-484 
 
 1-1237 
 
 0-5868 
 
 0-3425 
 
 1-0544 
 
 
 Poland foot 
 
 14-032 
 
 1-1693 
 
 0-6107 
 
 0-3564 
 
 1-0972 
 
 Pomerania foot 
 
 11-500 
 
 0-9583 
 
 0-5005 
 
 0-2921 
 
 0-8992 
 
 Portugal archit. foot 
 
 13-331 
 
 1-1109 
 
 0-5802 
 
 0-3386 
 
 1-0424 
 
 Prague foot 
 
 11-880 
 
 0-9900 
 
 0-5170 
 
 0-3018 
 
 0-9289 
 
 Prussia foot 
 
 12-357 
 
 1-0298 
 
 0-5378 
 
 0-3139 
 
 C'9663 
 
 Pythian foot 
 
 9-749 
 
 0-8124 
 
 0-4243 
 
 0-2476 
 
 0-7623 
 
 Ratsburg foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
 Revel foot 
 
 10-530 
 
 0-8775 
 
 0-4583 
 
 0-2675 
 
 0-8234 
 
 Reggio braccio 
 
 20-850 
 
 1-7375 
 
 0-9074 
 
 0-5296 
 
 1-6303 
 
 Rhineland foot 
 
 12-357 
 
 1-0298 
 
 0-5378 
 
 0-3139 
 
 0-9663 
 
 R/iga foot 
 
 10-790 
 
 0-8992 
 
 0-4696 
 
 0-2741 
 
 0-8437 
 
 Rimini braccio 
 
 21-390 
 
 1-7825 
 
 0-9309 
 
 0-5433 
 
 1-6725 
 
 Rome common foot 
 
 11-592 
 
 0-9660 
 
 0-5045 
 
 0-2944 
 
 0-9064 
 
 archit. foot 
 
 11-720 
 
 0-9767 
 
 0-5101 
 
 0-2977 
 
 0-9164 
 
 -^lm 
 
 8-796 
 
 0-7330 
 
 0-3828 
 
 0-2234 
 
 0-6878 
 
 
 braccio 
 
 30-732 
 
 2-5610 
 
 1-3375 
 
 0-7806 
 
 2-4030 
 
 palmo d'archit. 
 
 8-790 
 
 0-7325 
 
 0-3825 
 
 0-2233 
 
 0-6873 
 
 Rome canna d'archit. 
 
 87*900 
 
 7'3250 
 
 3-8254 
 
 2-2326 
 
 6-8731 
 
 Rostock foot 
 
 11-380 
 
 0-9483 
 
 0-4952 
 
 0-2890 
 
 0-8898 
 
 Rotterdam foot 
 
 12-357 
 
 1-0298 
 
 0-5378 
 
 0-3139 
 
 0-9663 
 
 Russia foot 
 
 13-750 
 
 1-1458 
 
 0-5984 
 
 0-3492 
 
 1-0751 
 
 Sardinia palmo 
 
 9-808 
 
 0-8173 
 
 0-4268 
 
 0-2491 
 
 0-7669 
 
 Sicily palmo 
 
 9-530 
 
 0-7942 
 
 0-4148 
 
 0-2421 
 
 0-7452 
 
 A M/VK *-!- f\A nt*,1 f4- 
 
 9 7fiO 
 
 (V7^00 
 
 O'^ttl 9 
 
 0*2225 
 
 0'6850 
 
 Sienna foot 
 
 O | UU 
 
 14-868 
 
 \J I O\J\s 
 
 1-2390 
 
 \J OO L & 
 
 0-6471 
 
 0-3776 
 
 1-1625 
 
 Spain foot 
 
 11-130 
 
 0'9275 
 
 0-4844 
 
 0-2827 
 
 0-8703 
 
 Stade foot 
 
 11 '450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
LINEAU MEASURES. 
 
 127 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Napoli- 
 tan 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Feet. 
 
 Parma braccio 
 
 2*0555 
 
 1-7268 
 
 2-4260 
 
 1-5587 
 
 17147 
 
 Pa via foot 
 
 1-7MH) 
 
 1-4954 
 
 2-1009 
 
 1-3498 
 
 1-4849 
 
 T--MO/-'/-V 
 
 i 7ft97 
 
 1 .4 QfW 
 
 9-OQ04. 
 
 I t0 .fi7 
 
 1 '4704 
 
 Persia arish 
 
 I / U<6 / 
 
 3-6862 
 
 1 T OUO 
 
 3-0968 
 
 U O U ^r 
 
 4-3507 
 
 1 O >J U / 
 
 2-7954 
 
 1 ^l / U-i 
 
 3-0751 
 
 Phileterian foot 
 
 1*3421 
 
 1-1278 
 
 1-5844 
 
 1-0180 
 
 1 1199 
 
 Piacenza foot 
 
 2-1603 
 
 1-8149 
 
 2'5497 
 
 1 6382 
 
 1-8021 
 
 Piedmont liprando ft. 
 
 1-9484 
 
 1-6369 
 
 2-2996 
 
 1-4775 
 
 1-6254 
 
 pnTmnnn Tr* 
 
 1 .9000 
 
 1 -001 9 
 
 1 53^0 
 
 (VOS40 
 
 i n s ^ -i 
 
 Poland foot 
 
 1 \J o O 
 
 1-3515 
 
 i \j \j i 
 
 1-1355 
 
 1 U O ' J U 
 
 1-5952 
 
 \f *J O T iJ 
 
 1-0249 
 
 1 UOO <) 
 
 1-1275 
 
 Pomerania foot 
 
 1-1076 
 
 0-9306 
 
 1-3073 
 
 0'8400 
 
 0-9240 
 
 Portugal archit. foot 
 
 1-2840 
 
 1-0787 
 
 1-5155 
 
 0-9737 
 
 1-0712 
 
 Prague foot 
 
 1-1443 
 
 0-9613 
 
 1-3506 
 
 0-8678 
 
 0-9546 
 
 Prussia foot 
 
 1-1903 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-4049 
 
 0-9026 
 
 0-9930 
 
 Pythian foot 
 
 0-9390 
 
 0-7889 
 
 1-1083 
 
 0-7121 
 
 0-7833 
 
 Eatsburg foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
 Revel foot 
 
 1-0143 
 
 0-8521 
 
 1-1971 
 
 0-7691 
 
 0-8461 
 
 Eeggio braccio 
 
 2-0083 
 
 1-6872 
 
 2-3703 
 
 1-5229 
 
 1-6753 
 
 Ehineland foot 
 
 1-1903 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-4049 
 
 0-9026 
 
 0-9930 
 
 Eiga foot 
 
 1-0393 
 
 0-8732 
 
 1-2267 
 
 0-7882 
 
 8670 
 
 Eimini braccio 
 
 2-0603 
 
 1-7309 
 
 2-4317 
 
 T5624 
 
 1-7187 
 
 Rome common foot 
 
 1-1166 
 
 0-9380 
 
 1-3178 
 
 0-8467 
 
 0-9315 
 
 archit. foot 
 
 1-1289 
 
 0-9484 
 
 1-3324 
 
 0-8561 
 
 0-9418 
 
 ,-X1vW./-v 
 
 0-8472 
 
 0*7118 
 
 roooo 
 
 0-6425 
 
 7068 
 
 
 T-kMrt flS*' f* 
 
 2-9601 
 
 2-4869 
 
 3-4937 
 
 2-2448 
 
 2-4694 
 
 
 palmo d'archit. 
 
 0'8467 
 
 0-7113 
 
 0-9993 
 
 0-6421 
 
 0-7063 
 
 Rome canna d'archit. 
 
 8'4666 
 
 7-1130 
 
 9-9929 
 
 6-4205 
 
 7-0630 
 
 Rostock foot 
 
 1-0961 
 
 0-9209 
 
 1-2937 
 
 0-8312 
 
 0-9144 
 
 Rotterdam foot 
 
 1-1903 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-4049 
 
 0-9026 
 
 0-9930 
 
 Russia foot 
 
 1-3244 
 
 1-1126 
 
 1-5631 
 
 1-0043 
 
 1-1048 
 
 Sardinia palmo 
 
 0-9447 
 
 0-7936 
 
 1-1150 
 
 0-7164 
 
 0-7881 
 
 Sicily palmo 
 
 0-9180 
 
 0-7712 
 
 1-0835 
 
 0-6961 
 
 0-7658 
 
 Archimedes' ft. 
 
 0-8438 
 
 0-7089 
 
 0'9959 
 
 0-6399 
 
 0-7039 
 
 Sienna foot 
 
 1-4322 
 
 1-2031 
 
 1-6902 
 
 1-0860 
 
 1-1947 
 
 Spain foot 
 
 1-0720 
 
 0-9006 
 
 1-2653 
 
 0-8130 
 
 0-8943 
 
 Stade foot 
 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9266 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9201 
 
128 
 
 STANDARD 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Braccia. 
 
 Frei 
 Metres. 
 
 ich. 
 Pieds. 
 
 Stettin old foot 
 
 11-120 
 
 09267 
 
 0-4840 
 
 0-2825 
 
 0-8695 
 
 Strasburg foot 
 
 11-390 
 
 0-9492 
 
 0-4957 
 
 0-2893 
 
 0-8906 
 
 Stuttgard foot 
 
 11-260 
 
 9383 
 
 0-4900 
 
 0-2860 
 
 0-8804 
 
 Sweden foot 
 
 11-690 
 
 0-9742 
 
 0-5088 
 
 0-2969 
 
 0-9141 
 
 Trent foot 
 
 14-412 
 
 1-2010 
 
 0-6272 
 
 0-3661 
 
 1-1269 
 
 Turin liprando foot 
 
 20-228 
 
 1-6857 
 
 0-8803 
 
 0*5138 
 
 1-5817 
 
 pomTnon "Print" 
 
 1 ^*4K4 
 
 1 *1 9^7 
 
 O'^Rfia 
 
 O-Q49C; 
 
 i -0^4.4 
 
 ras 
 
 1 O T:O J 
 
 23-496 
 
 L L ') ( 
 
 1-9580 
 
 \J O O U O 
 
 1-0225 
 
 U OT O 
 
 0-5968 
 
 1 \/OT 1 
 
 1-8372 
 
 Turkey pic 
 
 26-800 
 
 2-2333 
 
 1-1663 
 
 0-6807 
 
 2-0955 
 
 Ulm foot 
 
 11-390 
 
 0-9492 
 
 0-4957 
 
 0-2893 
 
 0-8906 
 
 Utrecht foot 
 
 10-740 
 
 0-8950 
 
 0-4674 
 
 0-2728 
 
 0-8398 
 
 Venice foot 
 
 13-691 
 
 1-1409 
 
 0-5958 
 
 0-3477 
 
 1-0705 
 
 Verona foot 
 
 13-404 
 
 1-1170 
 
 0-5833 
 
 0-3405 
 
 1-0481 
 
 Vicenza foot 
 
 13-632 
 
 1-1360 
 
 0-5933 
 
 3463 
 
 1-0659 
 
 Vienna foot 
 
 12445 
 
 1-0371 
 
 0-5416 
 
 0-3161 
 
 0-9731 
 
 Warsaw foot 
 
 11-725 
 
 0-9771 
 
 0-5103 
 
 0-2978 
 
 0-9168 
 
 Iji*ji/*fYW "Fnn"f~ 
 
 H'0^9 
 
 1'1693 
 
 O f fil07 
 
 0*3564 
 
 1-0972 
 
 Wistnar foot 
 
 u o & 
 
 11-580 
 
 0-9650 
 
 \j \j i \j ( 
 0-5040 
 
 0-2941 
 
 L \JiS 1 . 
 
 0-905," 
 
 Wiirtemberg foot 
 
 11-260 
 
 0-9383 
 
 0-4900 
 
 0-2860 
 
 0-8804 
 
 Zell foot 
 
 11-450 
 
 0-9542 
 
 0-4983 
 
 0-2908 
 
 0-8953 
 
 Ziriczee foot 
 
 12-210 
 
 1-0175 
 
 0-5314 
 
 0-3101 
 
 0-9547 
 
 Zurich foot 
 
 11-810 
 
 0-9842 
 
 0-5140 
 
 0-3000 
 
 0-9235| 
 
LINEAR MEASURES. 
 
 129 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 Napoli- 
 
 tan 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Feet. 
 
 Stettin old foot 
 
 I 0711 
 
 0-8999 
 
 1-2642 
 
 0-8123 
 
 0-8936 
 
 Strasburg foot 
 Stuttgard foot 
 Sweden foot 
 
 1-0971 
 1-084:) 
 1-1260 
 
 0-9217 
 0-9111 
 0-9460 
 
 1-2949 
 1-2800 
 1-3290 
 
 0-8320 
 0-8224 
 0-8539 
 
 0-9153 
 0-9047 
 0-9394 
 
 Trent foot 
 
 1-3882 
 
 1-1662 
 
 1-6384 
 
 1-0527 
 
 1-1580 
 
 Turin liprando foot 
 common foot 
 
 1-9484 
 1-2988 
 
 1-6369 
 1-0912 
 
 2-2996 
 1-5330 
 
 1-4775 
 0-9849 
 
 1-6254 
 1-0835 
 
 ras 
 
 2-2631 
 
 1-9013 
 
 2-6711 
 
 1-7162 
 
 1-8880 
 
 Turkey pic 
 Ulm foot 
 
 2-5814 
 1-0971 
 
 2-1687 
 0-9217 
 
 3-0467 
 1-2949 
 
 1-9575 
 0-8320 
 
 2-1534 
 0-9153 
 
 Utrecht foot 
 
 1-0345 
 
 0-8691 
 
 1-2210 
 
 0-7845 
 
 0-8630 
 
 Venice foot 
 
 1-3187 
 
 1-1079 
 
 1-5564 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-1001 
 
 Yerona foot 
 
 1-2911 
 
 1-0847 
 
 1-5238 
 
 0-9791 
 
 1-0770 
 
 Vicenza foot 
 
 1-3130 
 
 1-1031 
 
 1-5497 
 
 0-9957 
 
 1-0954 
 
 Vienna foot 
 
 1-1987 
 
 1-0071 
 
 1-4148 
 
 0*9090 
 
 1-0000 
 
 Warsaw foot 
 
 1-1294 
 1-3515 
 1-1154 
 
 0-9488 
 1-1355 
 09371 
 
 1-3330 
 1-5952 
 1-3165 
 
 0-8564 
 1-0249 
 0-8458 
 
 0-9421 
 1-1275 
 0-9305 
 
 Wismar foot 
 
 Wiirtemberg foot 
 Zell foot 
 
 T0845 
 1-1029 
 
 0-9111 
 0-9266 
 
 1-2800 
 1-3017 
 
 0-8224 
 0-8364 
 
 0-9047 
 0-9201 
 
 Ziriczee foot 
 
 1-1761 
 
 0-9880 
 
 1-3881 
 
 0-8918 
 
 0-9811 
 
 Zurich foot 
 
 1-1376 
 
 0-9557 
 
 1-3426 
 
 0-8627 
 
 0-9490 
 
 3 a 
 
180 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 CONVERSION OF STANDARD SQUARE MEASURES. 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 ish 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Square 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fre 
 Square 
 Metres. 
 
 nch 
 Square 
 Pieds. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle foot 
 
 130-19 
 
 0-9040 
 
 0-2466 
 
 0-0840 
 
 0-7959 
 
 Amsterdam foot 
 
 124-32 
 
 0-8634 
 
 0-2355 
 
 0-0802 
 
 0-7602 
 
 Ancbna foot 
 
 236-67 
 
 1-6435 
 
 0-4482 
 
 0-1527 
 
 1-4470 
 
 Anspach foot 
 
 137-36 
 
 0-9539 
 
 0-2602 
 
 0-0886 
 
 0-8398 
 
 Antwerp foot 
 
 126-34 
 
 0-8774 
 
 0-2393 
 
 0-0815 
 
 0-7725 
 
 Aquileia foot 
 
 183-06 
 
 1-2713 
 
 0-3467 
 
 0-1181 
 
 1-1192 
 
 Augsburg foot 
 
 135-72 
 
 0-9425 
 
 0-2570 
 
 0-0876 
 
 0-8297 
 
 Austria foot 
 
 154-88 
 
 1-0756 
 
 0-2933 
 
 0-0999 
 
 0-9469 
 
 Baden foot 
 
 139-48 
 
 0-9686 
 
 0-2642 
 
 0-0900 
 
 0-8528 
 
 Basle foot 
 
 137-83 
 
 0-9571 
 
 0-2610 
 
 0-0889 
 
 0-8426 
 
 Bavaria foot 
 
 130-42 
 
 0-9057 
 
 0-2470 
 
 0-0341 
 
 0-7974 
 
 Bergamo foot 
 
 294-88 
 
 2-0478 
 
 0-5585 
 
 0-1902 
 
 1-8029 
 
 Berlin foot 
 
 148*60 
 
 1-0319 
 
 0-2814 
 
 0-0959 
 
 0-9084 
 
 Berne foot 
 
 133-17 
 
 0-9249 
 
 0-2522 
 
 0-0859 
 
 0-8143 
 
 Bohemia foot 
 
 136-19 
 
 0-9458 
 
 0-2579 
 
 0-0879 
 
 0-8326 
 
 Bologna foot 
 
 22285 
 
 1-5475 
 
 0-4221 
 
 0-1438 
 
 1-3624 
 
 Bremen foot 
 
 129-50 
 
 0-8993 
 
 0-2453 
 
 0-0835 
 
 0-7917 
 
 Brescia foot 
 
 350-44 
 
 2-4335 
 
 0-6637 
 
 0-2261 
 
 2-1425 
 
 i^ ^^*^ 
 
 630-21 
 
 4-3764 
 
 1-1936 
 
 0-4066 
 
 3-8530 
 
 
 Breslau foot 
 
 125-22 
 
 0-8696 
 
 0-2372 
 
 0-0808 
 
 0-7656 
 
 Brunswick foot 
 
 126-11 
 
 0-8757 
 
 0-2388 
 
 0-0814 
 
 0-7710 
 
 Brussels foot 
 
 131-10 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0*2483 
 
 0-0846 
 
 0-8016 
 
 Cagliari palmo 
 
 63-52 
 
 0-4412 
 
 0-1203 
 
 0-0410 
 
 0-3884 
 
 Calenberg foot 
 
 132-25 
 
 0-9183 
 
 0-2505 
 
 0-0853 
 
 0-8085 
 
 Carrara palmo 
 
 96-20 
 
 0-6680 
 
 0-1822 
 
 0-0621 
 
 0-5881 
 
 Chamberry foot 
 
 176-46 
 
 1-2255 
 
 0-3342 
 
 0-1138 
 
 1-0789 
 
 China math, foot 
 
 172-13 
 
 1-1953 
 
 0-3260 
 
 0-1110 
 
 1-0523 
 
 !~,-~ *, . 4. 
 
 159-06 
 
 1-1046 
 
 0-3013 
 
 0-1026 
 
 0-9725 
 
 imp. lOuc 
 
 Cleves foot 
 
 135-96 
 
 0-9442 
 
 0-2575 
 
 0-0877 
 
 0-8313 
 
 Cologne foot !ll7'29 
 
 0-8145 
 
 0-2221 
 
 0-0757 
 
 0-7171 
 
131 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 CONVERSION OE STANDAKD SQUARE MEASURES. 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Napoli- 
 tan 
 Square 
 Palrai. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle foot 
 
 1-2078 
 
 0-8524 
 
 1-6824 
 
 0-6945 
 
 0-8405 
 
 Amsterdam foot 
 
 1-1535 
 
 0-8141 
 
 1-6069 
 
 0-6633 
 
 0-8027 
 
 Aucona foot 
 
 2-1957 
 
 1-5497 
 
 3-0587 
 
 1-2627 
 
 1-5281 
 
 Anspach foot 
 
 1-2744 
 
 0-8995 
 
 1-7753 
 
 0-7329 
 
 0-8869 
 
 Antwerp foot 
 
 1-1722 
 
 0-8273 
 
 1-6329 
 
 0-6741 
 
 0-8158 
 
 Aquileia foot 
 
 1-6984 
 
 1-1987 
 
 2-3660 
 
 0-9767 
 
 1-1820 
 
 Augsburg foot 
 
 1-2591 
 
 0-8887 
 
 1-7540 
 
 0-7241 
 
 0-8762 
 
 Austria foot 
 
 1-4369 
 
 1-0142 
 
 2-0017 
 
 0-8263 
 
 1-0000 
 
 Baden foot 
 
 1-2941 
 
 0-9134 
 
 1-8027 
 
 0-7442 
 
 0-9006 
 
 Basle foot 
 
 1-2780 
 
 0-9024 
 
 1-7811 
 
 0-7353 
 
 0-8898 
 
 Bavaria foot 
 
 1-2100 
 
 0-8540 
 
 1-6856 
 
 6959 
 
 0-8421 
 
 Bergamo foot 
 
 2-7358 
 
 T9309 
 
 3-8110 
 
 1-5733 
 
 1-9039 
 
 Berlin foot 
 
 1-3785 
 
 0-9730 
 
 1-9203 
 
 0-7928 
 
 0-959-1 
 
 Berne foot 
 
 1-2356 
 
 0-8721 
 
 1-7212 
 
 0-7106 
 
 0-8599 
 
 Bohemia foot 
 
 1-2635 
 
 0-8918 
 
 1-7601 
 
 0-7266 
 
 0-8793 
 
 Bologna foot 
 
 2*0675 
 
 1-4592 
 
 2-8800 
 
 1-1889 
 
 1-4388 
 
 Bremen. foot 
 
 1-2014 
 
 0-8480 
 
 1-6736 
 
 0-6909 
 
 0-8361 
 
 Brescia foot 
 
 3-2512 
 
 2-2947 
 
 4-5290 
 
 1-8696 
 
 2-2626 
 
 "k^^^*^ 
 
 5-8468 
 
 4-1267 
 
 8-1448 
 
 3-3623 
 
 4-0689 
 
 
 Breslau foot 
 
 1-1617 
 
 0-8199 
 
 1-6183 
 
 0-6681 
 
 0-8085 
 
 Brunswick foot 
 
 1-1699 
 
 0-8257 
 
 1-6297 
 
 0-6728 
 
 0-8142 
 
 Brussels foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8165 
 
 Cagliari palmo 
 
 0-5894 
 
 0-4160 
 
 0-8210 
 
 0-3389 
 
 0-4102 
 
 Calenberg foot 
 
 1-2269 
 
 0'8659 
 
 1-7091 
 
 0-7055 
 
 0-8538 
 
 Carrara palmo 
 
 0-8924 
 
 0-6299 
 
 1-2431 
 
 0-5132 
 
 0-6210 
 
 Chamberry foot 
 
 1-6372 
 
 1-1555 
 
 2-2807 
 
 0-9415 
 
 1-1394 
 
 China math, foot 
 
 1-5969 
 
 1-1271 
 
 2-2*245 
 
 0-9183 
 
 1-1113 
 
 ^^ ^ f^ ^ i_ 
 
 T4757 
 
 1-0415 
 
 2-0557 
 
 0-8486 
 
 1-0270 
 
 
 Cleves foot 
 
 T2614 
 
 0\S903 
 
 1-757-2 
 
 0-7254 
 
 0-8778 
 
 Cologne foot 
 
 1-0882 
 
 0*7680 
 
 1-5159 
 
 0-6258 
 
 0-7573 
 
132 
 
 CONVERSION 
 
 STAKDAJID 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Square 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fr 
 
 Square 
 Metres. 
 
 ?nch 
 Square 
 Pieds. 
 
 Constantinople pic 
 
 718-24 
 
 4-9877 
 
 1-3603 
 
 0-4G34 
 
 4-3912 
 
 Copenhagen foot 
 
 152-70 
 
 1-0605 
 
 0-2892 
 
 0-0985 
 
 0-9330 
 
 Cracow foot 
 
 196-90 
 
 1-3673 
 
 0-3729 
 
 0-1270 
 
 1*2038 
 
 Dantzic foot 
 
 127'46 
 
 0-8851 
 
 0-2414 
 
 0-0822 
 
 0-7793 
 
 Denmark foot 
 
 152-70 
 
 1-060,0 
 
 0-2892 
 
 0-0985 
 
 0933G 
 
 Dordrecht foot- 
 
 200-51 
 
 1-3924 
 
 0-3798 
 
 0-1294 
 
 1-2259 
 
 Dresden foot 
 
 124-32 
 
 0-8634 
 
 0-2355 
 
 0-0802 
 
 0-7602 
 
 Embden foot 
 
 135-96 
 
 0-9442 
 
 0-2575 
 
 0-0877 
 
 0-8313 
 
 England foot 
 
 144-00 
 
 1-0000 
 
 0-2727 
 
 0-0929 
 
 0-8804 
 
 Farrari foot 
 
 24977 
 
 1-7345 
 
 0-4731 
 
 0-1611 
 
 1-5271 
 
 Florence foot 
 
 142-56 
 
 0-9900 
 
 0-2700 
 
 0-0920 
 
 0-8716 
 
 V10/->rtl/~l 
 
 527-99 
 
 3-6664 
 
 L-0000 
 
 0-3406 
 
 3-2279 
 
 
 France foot 
 
 163-58 
 
 1-1360 
 
 0*3098 
 
 0-1055 
 
 1-0000 
 
 iiir*i"pp 
 
 1550-08 
 
 10-7640 
 
 2 9358 
 
 1-0000 
 
 9-4768 
 
 
 Frankfort foot 
 
 127-01 
 
 0-8821 
 
 0-2406 
 
 0-0819 
 
 0-7766 
 
 Geneva foot 
 
 530-29 
 
 3-6826 
 
 1-0044 
 
 0-3421 
 
 3-2422 
 
 Genoa palmo 
 
 96-20 
 
 0-6680 
 
 0-1822 
 
 0-0621 
 
 0-5881 
 
 canna 
 
 7fi7'*'7fi 
 
 SQ -OOOO 
 
 14*5340 
 
 4*9506 
 
 4.fi-Q1 fif) 
 
 Got tin gen foot 
 
 / U 1 O / U 
 
 131-10 
 
 t)t) \J\J\J 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0-0846 
 
 7C\J U 1 \J\J 
 
 0-8016 
 
 Gotha foot 
 
 128-14 
 
 0-8898 
 
 0-2427 
 
 0-0827 
 
 0-7834 
 
 Greece foot 
 
 139-48 
 
 0-9686 
 
 0-2642 
 
 0-0900 
 
 0-8528 
 
 Groningeii foot 
 
 132-02 
 
 0-9168 
 
 0*2500 
 
 0-0852 
 
 0-8072 
 
 Hamburg foot 
 
 127'46 
 
 0-8851 
 
 0-2414 
 
 0822 
 
 0-7793 
 
 Hanover foot 
 
 131-10 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0-0846 
 
 0-8016 
 
 Harlem foot 
 
 126-56 
 
 0-8789 
 
 0-2397 
 
 0-0817 
 
 0-7738 
 
 Heidelberg foot 
 
 120'12 
 
 0-8341 
 
 0-2275 
 
 0-0775 
 
 0-7343 
 
 Hildesheim foot 
 
 122-10 
 
 0-8479 
 
 0-2312 
 
 00788 
 
 0-7465 
 
 Inspruck foot 
 
 15625 
 
 1-0851 
 
 0-2960 
 
 0-1008 
 
 09553 
 
 Konigsberg foot 
 
 146-65 
 
 1-0185 
 
 0-2778 
 
 0-0946 
 
 0-8967 
 
 Leghorn foot 
 
 141-71 
 
 09841 
 
 0-2684 
 
 0-0914 
 
 0-8664 
 
 Leipsic foot 
 
 123-88 
 
 0-8602 
 
 0-2346 
 
 0-0799 
 
 0-7574 
 
 Ley den foot 
 
 152-28 
 
 1-0574 
 
 0-2884 
 
 0'0982 
 
 0-9309 
 
 Liege foot 
 
 128-14 
 
 0-8898 
 
 0-2427 
 
 0-0827 
 
 0-7834 
 
 Lindau com. foot 
 
 129-96 
 
 0-9025 
 
 0-2461 
 
 0-0838 
 
 0-7945 
 
 long foot 
 
 153-76 
 
 1-0677 
 
 0-2912 
 
 0-0992 
 
 0-9400 
 
SQTTARE MEASURES. 
 
 133 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Napolitan 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhineland 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Constantinople pic 
 
 6-6635 
 
 4-7031 
 
 9-2824 
 
 3-8320 
 
 4-6372 
 
 Copenhagen foot 
 
 1-4168 
 
 I'OOOO 
 
 1-9736 
 
 8147 
 
 0-9860 
 
 Cracow foot 
 
 1-8267 
 
 1-2893 
 
 25446 
 
 1-0505 
 
 1-2712 
 
 Dantzic foot 
 
 1-1825 
 
 0-8346 
 
 1-6173 
 
 0-C800 
 
 0-8229 
 
 Denmark foot 
 
 1-4168 
 
 I'OOOO 
 
 1 9736 
 
 0-8147 
 
 09860 
 
 Dordrecht foot 
 
 1-8602 
 
 1-3129 
 
 2-5913 
 
 1-0697 
 
 1-294G 
 
 Dresden foot 
 
 1-1535 
 
 0-8141 
 
 1-6069 
 
 0-6633 
 
 0-8027 
 
 Embden foot 
 
 1-2614 
 
 0-8903 
 
 1-7572 
 
 0-7254 
 
 0-8778 
 
 England foot 
 
 1-3360 
 
 0-9429 
 
 1-8611 
 
 0-7683 
 
 0-9297 
 
 Farrari foot 
 
 2-3173 
 
 1-6355 
 
 3-2280 
 
 1-3326 
 
 1-6126 
 
 Florence foot 
 
 1 3226 
 
 9335 
 
 1-8425 
 
 7606 
 
 0-9204 
 
 braccio 
 
 48983 
 
 3-4572 
 
 6-8234 
 
 2-8168 
 
 3-4088 
 
 France foot 
 
 1-5176 
 
 1-0711 
 
 2-1141 
 
 0-8727 
 
 1-0561 
 
 s 4-nn 
 
 H.qo i rv 
 
 i n-i ^on 
 
 orvn^^n 
 
 8.0/QQQ 
 
 1 n n n Q n 
 
 Frankfort foot 
 
 do 1U 
 
 1-1785 
 
 1 U J. U \J U 
 
 0'8318 
 
 \J UOOU 
 
 1-6416 
 
 .\J&U 
 
 0-6777 
 
 JLU UUoU 
 
 0-8201 
 
 G eneva foot 
 
 4-9199 
 
 3-4725 
 
 6-8536 
 
 2-8293 
 
 3-4239 
 
 Genoa palmo 
 
 0-8924 
 
 0-6299 
 
 1-2431 
 
 0-5132 
 
 0-6210 
 
 
 71-1930 
 
 50-2480 
 
 99-1745 
 
 40-9410 
 
 49-5450 
 
 
 Gottingen foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
 Gotha foot 
 
 1-1888 
 
 0-8390 
 
 1-6560 
 
 0-6836 
 
 08273 
 
 Greece foot 
 
 1-2941 
 
 0-9134 
 
 1-8027 
 
 7442 
 
 0-9006 
 
 Groningen foot 
 
 1-2248 
 
 0-8645 
 
 1-7062 
 
 0-7044 
 
 0-8524 
 
 Hamburg foot 
 
 1-1825 
 
 0-8346 
 
 1-6473 
 
 6800 
 
 0-8229 
 
 Hanover foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
 Harlem foot 
 
 1-1742 
 
 0*8287 
 
 1-6357 
 
 0-6752 
 
 0-8171 
 
 Heidelberg foot 
 
 1-1143 
 
 0-7865 
 
 1-5523 
 
 0-6408 
 
 0-7755 
 
 Hildesheim foot 
 
 1-1328 
 
 0-7995 
 
 1-5780 
 
 0-6514 
 
 0-7883 
 
 Inspruck foot 
 
 1-4487 
 
 1-0232 
 
 2-0195 
 
 0-8337 
 
 1-0089 
 
 Kdnigsberg foot 
 
 1-3607 
 
 0-9604 
 
 1-8955 
 
 0-7825 
 
 09469 
 
 Leghorn foot 
 
 1-3147 
 
 09279 
 
 1-8314 
 
 0-7560 
 
 0-9149 
 
 Leipsic foot 
 
 1-1493 
 
 0-8111 
 
 1-6010 
 
 0-66C9 
 
 0-7998 
 
 Ley den foot 
 
 1-4127 
 
 0-9971 
 
 19679 
 
 0-8124 
 
 09831 
 
 Liege foot 
 
 1-1888 
 
 0-8390 
 
 1-6560 
 
 0-6836 
 
 0-8273 
 
 Lindau com. foot 
 
 1-2057 
 
 0*8510 
 
 1-6796 
 
 0-6934 
 
 0-8391 
 
 long foot 
 
 1-4265 
 
 1-0068 
 
 1-9871 
 
 0-8203 
 
 9927 
 
184 
 
 CONTEESION OE STANDARD 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Square 
 Braccia. 
 
 Frc 
 Square 
 
 Metres. 
 
 >nch 
 Square 
 Fieds. 
 
 Lisbon arc-hit, foot 
 
 177-72 
 
 1-2341 
 
 0-3366 
 
 0-1147 
 
 1-0865 
 
 /-\w f/-\n4- 
 
 167-96 
 
 1-1664 
 
 0-3181 
 
 0-1084 
 
 1-0269 
 
 
 Lombardy arch .ft. 
 
 243-70 
 
 1-6923 
 
 0-4616 
 
 0-1572 
 
 1-4899 
 
 Lorraine foot 
 
 127-69 
 
 0-8868 
 
 0-2419 
 
 0-0824 
 
 0-7807 
 
 Liibeck foot 
 
 131-10 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0-0840 
 
 0-8016 
 
 Lucca braccio 
 
 552-06 
 
 3-8337 
 
 1-0456 
 
 0-3562 
 
 3 3752 
 
 Luneburg foot 
 
 131-10 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0-0846 
 
 0'801(i 
 
 Macedonia foot 
 
 193-71 
 
 1-3451 
 
 0-3669 
 
 0-1250 
 
 1-1842 
 
 Magdeburg foot 
 
 124-55 
 
 0-8649 
 
 0-2359 
 
 0-08U3 
 
 0-7614 
 
 Malta foot 
 
 124-77 
 
 0-8664 
 
 0-2363 
 
 0-0805 
 
 0-7628 
 
 Manheim foot 
 
 130-19 
 
 0-9040 
 
 0-2466 
 
 0-0840 
 
 0-7959 
 
 Mantua braccio 
 
 630-21 
 
 4-3764 
 
 1-1930 
 
 0-4066 
 
 3-8530 
 
 "n-nn^r,^ 
 
 333-14 
 
 2-3134 
 
 0-6310 
 
 0-2149 
 
 2-0368 
 
 
 Maastricht foot 
 
 12T10 
 
 0-8479 
 
 0-2312 
 
 0-07S8 
 
 0-7465 
 
 Mentz foot 
 
 140-42 
 
 0-9752 
 
 0-2660 
 
 0-0906 
 
 0-8585 
 
 Middleburg foot 
 
 139-48 
 
 0-9686 
 
 0-2642 
 
 0-0900 
 
 0-8528 
 
 Milan foot 
 
 243-98 
 
 1 6944 
 
 0-4621 
 
 0-1574 
 
 1-4918 
 
 /!/% f^^4- 
 
 105-27 
 
 0-7310 
 
 0-1994 
 
 0-0679 
 
 0-6436 
 
 
 l-,-^.-,^^^. 
 
 548-50 
 
 3-8091 
 
 1-0389 
 
 0-3539 
 
 3 3535 
 
 
 *Vl.r-J- lx^>^^ 
 
 1550*08 
 
 10*7640 
 
 2-9358 
 
 1-0000 
 
 9-4768 
 
 
 Modena foot 
 
 424-03 
 
 2-9447 
 
 0-8031 
 
 0-2736 
 
 2-5925 
 
 Monano foot 
 
 85-56 
 
 0-5941 
 
 0-1620 
 
 0-0552 
 
 0-5231 
 
 Moscow foot 
 
 173-45 
 
 1-2045 
 
 0-3285 
 
 0-1119 
 
 1-0604 
 
 Munich foot 
 
 132 02 
 
 0-9168 
 
 0-2500 
 
 0-0852 
 
 0-8072 
 
 Naples palmo 
 
 10779 
 
 0-7486 
 
 0-2042 
 
 0-0695 
 
 6591 
 
 
 6898-30 
 
 47-9050 
 
 13-0653 
 
 4-4504 
 
 42-1754 
 
 
 Neufchatel foot 
 
 139-48 
 
 0-9686 
 
 0-2642 
 
 0-0900 
 
 0-8528 
 
 Normandy foot 
 
 137-36 
 
 0-9539 
 
 0-2602 
 
 0-0886 
 
 0-8398 
 
 Nuremberg foot 
 
 143 04 
 
 0-9934 
 
 0-2709 
 
 00923 
 
 0-8746 
 
 Oldenburg foot 
 
 135-72 
 
 0-9425 
 
 0-2570 
 
 0-0876 
 
 0-8297 
 
 Osnaburg foot 
 
 121-00 
 
 0-8403 
 
 0-2292 
 
 0-0781 
 
 0-7398 
 
 Padua foot 
 
 194-04 
 
 1-3475 
 
 0-3675 
 
 0-1252 
 
 1-1853 
 
 Pala3ste foot 
 
 147-33 
 
 1-0232 
 
 0-2790 
 
 0-0951 
 
 0-9008 
 
 Palermo palmo 
 
 9082 
 
 0-6308 
 
 0-1720 
 
 0-0586 
 
 0-55^3 
 
 Parma foot 
 
 503-02 
 
 3-4932 
 
 0-9527 
 
 0-3245 
 
 3-0754 
 
SQTJABE MEASTOES. 
 
 135 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Napolitan 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rliineland 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Lisbon archit. foot 
 
 1-6488 
 
 1-1637 
 
 2-2908 
 
 0-9482 
 
 1-1474 
 
 r j 
 
 I.e coo 
 
 i -noo^ 
 
 oi 7o r 
 
 O'&Qfil 
 
 i -nK44 
 
 Lombardy arch. ft. 
 
 OOOo 
 
 2-2609 
 
 1 Ut/c/o 
 
 1-5957 
 
 & J. / V/C> 
 
 3-1495 
 
 \J Oy U 1 
 
 1-3002 
 
 1 U O rL T: 
 
 1-5734 
 
 Lorraine foot 
 
 1-1847 
 
 0-8362 
 
 1-6504 
 
 0-6813 
 
 0'8245 
 
 Liibeck foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
 Lucca braccio 
 
 5-1218 
 
 3-6149 
 
 7'1348 
 
 2-9454 
 
 3-5643 
 
 Luneburg foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
 Macedonia foot 
 
 1-7970 
 
 1-2684 
 
 2-5033 
 
 1-0334 
 
 1-2506 
 
 Magdeburg foot 
 
 1-1555 
 
 0-8155 
 
 1-6096 
 
 0-6645 
 
 0-8041 
 
 Malta foot 
 
 1-1575 
 
 0-8170 
 
 1-6124 
 
 0-6656 
 
 0-8055 
 
 Manheim foot 
 
 1-2078 
 
 0-8524 
 
 1-6824 
 
 0-6945 
 
 0-8405 
 
 Mantua braccio 
 
 5-8468 
 
 4-1267 
 
 8-1448 
 
 3-3623 
 
 4-0689 
 
 ^ 
 
 3-0907 
 
 2-1814 
 
 4-3055 
 
 1-7774 
 
 2-1509 
 
 
 Mae st rich t foot 
 
 1-1328 
 
 0-7995 
 
 1-5780 
 
 0-6514 
 
 0-7883 
 
 Mentz foot 
 
 1-3028 
 
 0-9195 
 
 1-8148 
 
 0-7492 
 
 0-9067 
 
 Middleburg foot 
 
 1-2941 
 
 0-9134 
 
 1-8027 
 
 0-7442 
 
 0-9006 
 
 Milan foot 
 
 2'2637 
 
 1-5977 
 
 3-1534 
 
 1-3018 
 
 1-5754 
 
 flr*p "Pnni" 
 
 0-9767 
 
 0-6893 
 
 1-3605 
 
 0-5616 
 
 0-6797 
 
 
 I-MO -/-! r\ 
 
 5-0889 
 
 3-5917 
 
 7-0890 
 
 2-9264 
 
 3-5414 
 
 urd,odo 
 
 met T briccio 
 
 14*3810 
 
 1 0*1 ^00 
 
 20'0330 
 
 8-26QQ 
 
 10*0080 
 
 Modena foot 
 
 39340 
 
 I \J A O \J \J 
 
 2-7766 
 
 5-4802 
 
 O . \JU c/ 
 
 2-2624 
 
 2-7378 
 
 Monaco . foot 
 
 0-7937 
 
 0-5620 
 
 1-1057 
 
 0-4565 
 
 0-5524 
 
 Moscow foot 
 
 1-6092 
 
 1-1357 
 
 2-2416 
 
 0-9254 
 
 1-1199 
 
 Munich foot 
 
 1 -2248 
 
 0-8645 
 
 1-7062 
 
 0-7044 
 
 0-8524 
 
 Naples palmo 
 
 1-0000 
 
 0-7059 
 
 1-3932 
 
 0-5751 
 
 0-6960 
 
 
 fi4.nnno 
 
 -d-^-i *7i n 
 
 OQ.1 KA O 
 
 Oft.QfWf) 
 
 44.COQA 
 
 Neufchatel foot 
 
 UTC UUUU 
 
 1-2941 
 
 1J 1 / 1U 
 
 0-9134 
 
 o U A O i U 
 
 1-8027 
 
 oU O UT \J 
 
 0-7442 
 
 ~L~l t)OV\J 
 
 0-9006 
 
 Normandy foot 
 
 1-2744 
 
 0-8995 
 
 1-7753 
 
 0-7329 
 
 0-8869 
 
 Nuremberg foot 
 
 1-3272 
 
 0-9367 
 
 1-8488 
 
 07632 
 
 0-9236 
 
 Oldenburg foot 
 
 1-2591 
 
 0-8887 
 
 1-7540 
 
 0-7241 
 
 0-8762 
 
 Osnaburg foot 
 
 1-1227 
 
 0-7924 
 
 1-5639 
 
 06456 
 
 0-7813 
 
 Padua foot 
 
 1-8002 
 
 1-2706 
 
 2-5077 
 
 1-0352 
 
 1-2528 
 
 Pala3ste foot 
 
 1-3669 
 
 0-9648 
 
 1-9041 
 
 0-7861 
 
 0-9513 
 
 Palermo palmo 
 
 0-8427 
 
 0-5948 
 
 1-1739 
 
 0-4846 
 
 0-5864 
 
 Parma foot 
 
 4-6668 
 
 3-2938 
 
 6-5010 
 
 2-6837[ 3-2477 
 
136 
 
 CONVERSION OF STANDARD 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 Squaie 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Squa-e 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fr 
 
 Square 
 Metres. 
 
 ench 
 Square 
 Pieds. 
 
 Parma braccio 
 
 455-40 
 
 3-1624 
 
 0-8G25 
 
 2938 
 
 2-7842 
 
 Pavia foot 
 
 341-51 
 
 2-3716 
 
 0-6468 
 
 0-2203 
 
 2*0880 
 
 1-kYinsm* -K 
 
 334-89 
 
 2 '3256 
 
 0-6343 
 
 0-2161 
 
 2-0475 
 
 
 Persia arish 
 
 1464-f,9 
 
 10-1710 
 
 2-7740 
 
 0-9449 
 
 8-9545 
 
 Phiieterian foot 
 
 194-24 
 
 1-3488 
 
 0'3679 
 
 0-1253 
 
 1-1875 
 
 Piacenza foot 
 
 503*02 
 
 3-4932 
 
 0-9527 
 
 0-3245 
 
 3-0754 
 
 Piedmont lipr. ft. 
 
 409-17 
 
 2-8416 
 
 0-7750 
 
 0-2640 
 
 2-5017 
 
 p n m ft" 
 
 1 8 1 *R9 
 
 i -9fi97 
 
 0-^444 
 
 0-1 1 73 
 
 1.1117 
 
 Poland foot 
 
 1 O 1 O ^ 
 
 196-90 
 
 1 ~ V ' / 
 
 1-3673 
 
 OTT;T 
 
 0-3729 
 
 \J I l 1 O 
 
 0-1270 
 
 A. iii/ 
 
 1-2038 
 
 Pomerania foot 
 
 132-25 
 
 0-9183 
 
 0-2505 
 
 0-0853 
 
 0-8085 
 
 Portugal arch. ft. 
 
 17772 
 
 1-2341 
 
 0-3366 
 
 0*1147 
 
 1-0865 
 
 Prague foot 
 
 141-13 
 
 0-9801 
 
 0-2673 
 
 0-0911 
 
 0-8629 
 
 Prussia foot 
 
 152-70 
 
 1-0605 
 
 0-2892 
 
 0-0985 
 
 0-9336 
 
 Pythian foot 
 
 95-04 
 
 0-6600 
 
 0-1800 
 
 0-0613 
 
 0-5811 
 
 Ratsburg foot 
 
 131'10 
 
 09105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0*0846 
 
 0'8016 
 
 E/evel foot 
 
 110-88 
 
 0-7700 
 
 0-2100 
 
 0-0715 
 
 0-6779 
 
 Eeggio braccio 
 
 434-72 
 
 3-0188 
 
 0-8233 
 
 0*2805 
 
 2-6578 
 
 Rhineland foot 
 
 152-70 
 
 1-0605 
 
 0-2892 
 
 0-0985 
 
 0*9336 
 
 Riga foot 
 
 116-42 
 
 0-8086 
 
 0-2205 
 
 0-0751 
 
 0*7119 
 
 Rimini braccio 
 
 457*53 
 
 3-1773 
 
 0-8666 
 
 0*2952 
 
 2*7973 
 
 Rome com. foot 
 
 134-37 
 
 0-9332 
 
 0-2545 
 
 0-0867 
 
 0-8216 
 
 -w/-"U*,4- f^.^4- 
 
 m'*3fi 
 
 0'9539 
 
 0*2602 
 
 0*0886 
 
 0'8398 
 
 
 ou 
 
 77-37 
 
 0-5373 
 
 0-1465 
 
 0*0499 
 
 0-4730 
 
 
 Dvnppin 
 
 944*46 
 
 6*5587 
 
 1*7888 
 
 0*6093 
 
 5*7743 
 
 "ni linn fl'iTph 
 
 77-26 
 
 0-5366 
 
 0-1463 
 
 0-0498 
 
 c* i i rftj 
 
 0-4724 
 
 U d,l 111 U VJl CdL^jilt 
 
 Rome canna d'arc. 
 
 7726-41 
 
 53-6560 
 
 14 6340 
 
 4-9847 
 
 47'2390 
 
 Rostock foot 
 
 129-50 
 
 0-8993 
 
 02453 
 
 0-0835 
 
 0-7917 
 
 Rotterdam foot 
 
 152-70 
 
 1-0605 
 
 0-2892 
 
 0-0985 
 
 0*9336 
 
 Russia foot 
 
 189-06 
 
 1-3129 
 
 0*3581 
 
 0-1220 
 
 1-1558 
 
 Sardinia palmo 
 
 96-20 
 
 0-6680 
 
 0-1822 
 
 0*0621 
 
 0-5881 
 
 Sicily palmo 
 
 90-82 
 
 0-6308 
 
 0-1720 
 
 0-0586 
 
 0*5553 
 
 Archimedes' ft. 
 
 76-74 
 
 0-5329 
 
 0-1453 
 
 0-0495 
 
 0*4692 
 
 Sienna foot 
 
 221-06 
 
 1-5351 
 
 0-4187 
 
 0-1426 
 
 1*3515 
 
 Spain foot 
 
 123-88 
 
 0-8602 
 
 0-2346 
 
 0-0799 
 
 0-7574 
 
 Stade foot 
 
 131-10 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0-0846 
 
 0-8016 
 
DQTJAEE MEASURES. 
 
 137 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Napolitan 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhineland 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Roman 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Parma braccio 
 
 4-2249 
 
 2-9819 
 
 5-8855 
 
 2-4296 
 
 2-9402 
 
 Pavia foot 
 
 3-1684 
 
 2-2362 
 
 4-4137 
 
 1-8220 
 
 2-2050 
 
 T~lYnfp1 f\ 
 
 3. 1070 
 
 2*1929 
 
 4*3281 
 
 1*7867 
 
 2*1622 
 
 Persia arish 
 
 13-5880 
 
 9-5905 
 
 18-9290 
 
 7-8141 
 
 9-4563 
 
 Phileterian foot 
 
 1-8020 
 
 1-2719 
 
 2-5103 
 
 1-0363 
 
 1-2541 
 
 Piacenza foot 
 
 4-6668 
 
 3-2938 
 
 6-5010 
 
 2-6837 
 
 3-2477 
 
 Piedmont lipr. ft. 
 
 37963 
 
 2-6794 
 
 5-2883 
 
 2-1831 
 
 2-6419 
 
 com ft 
 
 1*6869 
 
 1*1906 
 
 2*3500 
 
 0-9701 
 
 1*1740 
 
 Poland foot 
 
 1-8267 
 
 1*2893 
 
 2-5446 
 
 1-0505 
 
 1-2712 
 
 Pomerania foot 
 
 1-2269 
 
 0-8659 
 
 1-7091 
 
 07055 
 
 0-8538 
 
 Portugal arch. ft. 
 
 1-6488 
 
 1-1637 
 
 2-2968 
 
 0-9482 
 
 1-1474 
 
 Prague foot 
 
 1-3094 
 
 0-9242 
 
 1-8241 
 
 07530 
 
 0-9113 
 
 Prussia foot 
 
 1-4168 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-97-36 
 
 0-8147 
 
 0-9860 
 
 Pythian foot 
 
 0-8817 
 
 0-6223 
 
 1-2283 
 
 0-5071 
 
 0-6136 
 
 Eatsburg foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0*858,5 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
 Eevel foot 
 
 1-0287 
 
 0-7261 
 
 1-4330 
 
 0-5916 
 
 0-7159 
 
 Keggio braccio 
 
 4-0331 
 
 28466 
 
 5-6182 
 
 2-3193 
 
 2-8067 
 
 Khineland foot 
 
 1-4168 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-9736 
 
 0-8147 
 
 0-9860 
 
 Eiga foot 
 
 1-0802 
 
 0-7624 
 
 1-5048 
 
 0-6212 
 
 0-7518 
 
 Eimini braccio 
 
 4-2448 
 
 2-9960 
 
 5-9132 
 
 2-4411 
 
 2-9541 
 
 Eome com. foot 
 
 1-2467 
 
 0-8799 
 
 1-7367 
 
 0-7169 
 
 0-8676 
 
 archit. foot 
 
 1-2744 
 
 0-8995 
 
 1-7753 
 
 0-7329 
 
 0-8869 
 
 palmo 
 
 0-7178 
 
 0-5066 
 
 1-0000 
 
 0-4128 
 
 0-4995 
 
 V*v,rt^*,rv 
 
 c.7fi9Q 
 
 fi'l 84d 
 
 1 9*9fifio 
 
 ec-n^fto 
 
 6'OQYQ 
 
 
 O / \JO 
 
 0-7168 
 
 O lOtt 
 
 0-5059 
 
 1 j \j\J \J 
 
 0-9986 
 
 cl \JOOtJ 
 
 0-4122 
 
 V/t/ / \J 
 
 0-4989 
 
 
 Eome canna d'arc. 
 
 71-6840 
 
 50-5940 
 
 99-8570 
 
 41-2230 
 
 49-8860 
 
 Eostock foot 
 
 1-2014 
 
 0-8480 
 
 1-6736 
 
 0-6909 
 
 0-8361 
 
 Eotterdam foot 
 
 1-4168 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1*9736 
 
 0-8147 
 
 0*9860 
 
 Eussia foot 
 
 1-7540 
 
 1-2379 
 
 2*4433 
 
 1-0086 
 
 1*2206 
 
 Sardinia palmo 
 
 0-8924 
 
 0-6299 
 
 1-2431 
 
 0-5132 
 
 0-6210 
 
 Sicily palmo 
 
 08427 
 
 0-5948 
 
 1-1739 
 
 0-4846 
 
 0-5864 
 
 Archimedes' ft. 
 
 7119 
 
 0-5025 
 
 0-9917 
 
 0-4094 
 
 0-4955 
 
 Sienna foot 
 
 2-0509 
 
 1-4475 
 
 2-8569 
 
 1-1794 
 
 1-4272 
 
 Spain foot 
 
 1-1493 
 
 0-8111 
 
 1-6010 
 
 0-6609 
 
 0*7998 
 
 Stade foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
138 
 
 COKVEKSIOtf OE STANDAED 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Eng 
 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 lish 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Florence 
 Square 
 Braccia. 
 
 Fre 
 
 Square 
 Metres. 
 
 nch 
 Square 
 Pieds. 
 
 Stettin old foot 
 
 123-65 
 
 0-8588 
 
 0-2342 
 
 0-0798 
 
 0-7561 
 
 Strasburg foot 
 
 129-73 
 
 0*9010 
 
 0-2457 
 
 0-0837 
 
 0-7932 
 
 Stuttgard foot 
 
 126-79 
 
 0-8804 
 
 0-2401 
 
 0-0818 
 
 0-7751 
 
 Sweden foot 
 
 136-66 
 
 0-9491 
 
 0-2588 
 
 0-0882 
 
 0-8356 
 
 Trent foot 
 
 207-71 
 
 1-4424 
 
 0-3934 
 
 0-1340 
 
 1-2699 
 
 Turin liprando foot 
 
 409-17 
 
 2-8416 
 
 0-7750 
 
 0-2640 
 
 2-5017 
 
 
 181-82 
 
 1-2627 
 
 0-3444 
 
 0-1173 
 
 1-1117 
 
 
 
 552-06 
 
 3-8337 
 
 1-0456 
 
 0-3562 
 
 3-3752 
 
 
 Turkey pic 
 
 718-24 
 
 4*9877 
 
 1-3603 
 
 0-4634 
 
 4-3912 
 
 Ulm foot 
 
 129-73 
 
 0-9010 
 
 0-2457 
 
 0-0837 
 
 0-7932 
 
 Utrecht foot 
 
 115-35 
 
 0-8010 
 
 0-2185 
 
 0-0744 
 
 0-7052 
 
 Venice foot 
 
 187-44 
 
 1-3017 
 
 0-3550 
 
 0-1209 
 
 1-1460 
 
 Verona foot 
 
 179-67 
 
 1-2477 
 
 0-3403 
 
 0-1159 
 
 1-0984 
 
 Vicenza foot 
 
 185-83 
 
 1-2905 
 
 0-3520 
 
 0-1199 
 
 1-1362 
 
 Vienna foot 
 
 154-88 
 
 i-0756 
 
 0-2933 
 
 0-0999 
 
 0-9469 
 
 Warsaw foot 
 
 137 48 
 
 0-9547 
 
 0-2604 
 
 0-0887 
 
 0-8405 
 
 f^vtnsm-r,-, -fV-w ..* 
 
 196-90 
 
 1-3673 
 
 0-3729 
 
 0-1270 
 
 1-2038 
 
 
 Wismar foot 
 
 134-10 
 
 0-9312 
 
 0-2540 
 
 0-0865 
 
 0-8199 
 
 Wurtemberg foot 
 
 126-79 
 
 0-8804 
 
 2401 
 
 0-0818 
 
 0-7751 
 
 Zell foot 
 
 131-10 
 
 0-9105 
 
 0-2483 
 
 0-0846 
 
 0-8016 
 
 Ziriczee foot 
 
 14908 
 
 1-0353 
 
 0-2824 
 
 0-0962 
 
 0-9115 
 
 Zurich * foot 
 
 139-48 
 
 0-9686 
 
 0-2642 
 
 0-0900 
 
 0-8528 
 
SQUARE MEASURES. 
 
 139 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 N;i|!oli- 
 tan 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Rhine- 
 land 
 Square 
 Fret. 
 
 Roman 
 Square 
 Palmi. 
 
 Venice 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Vienna 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Stettin old foot 
 
 I 1473 
 
 0-8098 
 
 1-5982 
 
 0-6598 
 
 0-7984 
 
 Strasburg foot 
 
 1-2037 
 
 0-8496 
 
 1-6768 
 
 0*6922 
 
 0-8377 
 
 Sfcuttgard foot 
 
 1-1762 
 
 0-8302 
 
 1-6385 
 
 06764 
 
 0-8185 
 
 Sweden foot 
 
 1-2679 
 
 0-8949 
 
 1-7663 
 
 0-7292 
 
 0-8824 
 
 Trent foot 
 
 1 9270 
 
 1-3601 
 
 2'6844 
 
 1-1082 
 
 1-3410 
 
 Turin liprando foot 
 
 3-79(33 
 
 26794 
 
 5-2883 
 
 2-1831 
 
 26419 
 
 /- /-. l--V fs\ t-\ 4- 
 
 1 'ftQftQ 
 
 1 -1 QOfi 
 
 9.9 =ino 
 
 0-Q70 1 
 
 1 -1 740 
 
 COI11. 1OOL 
 
 L UOUf 
 
 5-1218 
 
 JL 1 U U U 
 
 3-6149 
 
 t O OU \J 
 
 7-1348 
 
 \J U 1 \l I 
 
 2-9454 
 
 1 1 / T V7 
 
 3*5643 
 
 
 Turkey pic 
 
 G'6635 
 
 4-7031 
 
 9-2824 
 
 3-8320 
 
 4'63?2 
 
 Ulm foot 
 
 1-2037 
 
 8496 
 
 1-6768 
 
 0-6922 
 
 0-8377 
 
 Utrecht foot 
 
 1-0701 
 
 0-7553 
 
 1-4907 
 
 0-6154 
 
 0-7447 
 
 Venice foot 
 
 1-7390 
 
 1-2274 
 
 2-4225 
 
 1-0000 
 
 1-2102 
 
 Verona foot 
 
 1-6669 
 
 1-1765 
 
 2-3220 
 
 0-9586 
 
 1-1600 
 
 Vicenza foot 
 
 1-7241 
 
 1-2169 
 
 2-4017 
 
 0-9915 
 
 1-1998 
 
 Vienna foot 
 
 1-4369 
 
 1-0142 
 
 2-0017 
 
 0-8263 
 
 1-0000 
 
 Warsaw foot 
 
 1-2755 
 
 0-9002 
 
 1-7768 
 
 0-7335 
 
 0-8876 
 
 r^.n/-^-r^r f^^4- 
 
 T8267 
 
 1-2893 
 
 2-5446 
 
 1-0505 
 
 1-2712 
 
 v/J7a,C'O vV IOOU 
 
 Wismar foot 
 
 1-2441 
 
 0-8781 
 
 1-7331 
 
 0-7155 
 
 0-8658 
 
 \Viirtemberg foot 
 
 1-1762 
 
 0-8302 
 
 1-6385 
 
 0-6764 
 
 0-8185 
 
 Zell foot 
 
 1-2164 
 
 0-8585 
 
 1-6945 
 
 0-6995 
 
 0-8465 
 
 Ziriczee foot 
 
 1-3831 
 
 0-9762 
 
 1-9267 
 
 0-7954 
 
 0-9625 
 
 Zurich foot 
 
 1-2941 
 
 09134 
 
 1-8027 
 
 0-7442 
 
 0-9006 
 
140 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 ITINERARY OB ROAD MEASURES, 
 
 Distance. 
 
 Er 
 
 Yards. 
 
 gliah 
 Miles. 
 
 Arabia mile, 6000 Arabian feet . . 
 
 2146 
 
 1-2193 
 
 baryd, of 4 farsakh .... 
 
 21120 
 
 12-0000 
 
 Austria mile, post, 24,000 Vienna feet 
 
 8297 
 
 4-7142 
 
 marine, 60 to the degree 
 
 2025 
 
 T1508 
 
 Baden 
 
 9721 
 
 5-5234 
 
 post, 14,815 Baden feet 
 
 4860 
 
 2-7617 
 
 Bavaria 25,046 Bavarian feet . 
 
 8059 
 
 4-5792 
 
 of Anspach .... 
 
 9443 
 
 5-3652 
 
 Belgium old measure .... 
 
 2132 
 
 T2111 
 
 marine, 60 to the degree 
 
 2025 
 
 1-1508 
 
 metrical (kilometre) 
 
 1094 
 
 0-6214 
 
 league, 20 to the degree . . 
 
 6076 
 
 3-4522 
 
 Berne, Switzerland, league, 18,000 Berne feet 
 
 5770 
 
 3-2784 
 
 Birinah dain or league, 1000 dhas . . 
 
 4278 
 
 2-4306 
 
 Bohemia league, 16 to the degree . . 
 
 7595 
 
 4-3154 
 
 5 J> *T J> 
 
 10126 
 
 5-7534 
 
 Brabant 20 
 
 6076 
 
 3-4522 
 
 Brazil 18 . . 
 
 6751 
 
 3-8360 
 
 Bremen mile, 20,000 Ehenish feet 
 
 6865 
 
 3-9006 
 
 Brunswick 34,424 . . 
 
 11816 
 
 6-7140 
 
 China li, or mile 
 
 609 
 
 0-3458 
 
 Dautzic mile, 27 5 000 Dantzic feet 
 
 8467 
 
 4-8110 
 
 Denmark 12 000 alns 
 
 8238 
 
 4-6807 
 
 league, 14^ to the degree . . 
 
 8381 
 
 4-7618 
 
 East Indies : Bengal coss or mile, 1000 fathoms 
 
 2000 
 
 1-1364 
 
 England mile, statute 
 
 1760 
 
 1-0000 
 
 geographical, 60 to the degree 
 
 2025 
 
 1-1508 
 
 league 20 
 
 6076 
 
 3-4523 
 
 Flanders 20,000 Ehein-fuss . . 
 
 6865 
 
 3-9006 
 
 France mile, old measure .... 
 
 2132 
 
 1-21 LI 
 
 marine, 60 to the degree 
 
 2025 
 
 1-1508 
 
 metrical (kilometre) . . 
 
 1094 
 
 0-6214 
 
 league, post, 2000 ancient toises 
 
 4263 
 
 2-4222 
 
 post (2 post leagues) . . . 
 
 8527 
 
 4-8445 
 
ITINEEABr OE EOAD MEASURES. 
 
 141 
 
 Distance. 
 
 E 
 Yards. 
 
 nglish 
 Miles. 
 
 France league, common, 25 to the degree 
 marine, 20 
 mean, 2450 toises 
 Genoa post, of 4000 French toises . 
 Germany mile, geographical, 15 to the degree 
 post (2 German miles) . . . 
 mile long, 12 to the degree . . 
 short 
 
 4861 
 6076 
 5223 
 8527 
 8101 
 16203 
 10126 
 6859 
 1640 
 8238 
 11572 
 7442 
 8114 
 2432 
 63S6 
 6076 
 1094 
 8238 
 9002 
 2000 
 4051 
 3472 
 2240 
 2025 
 16203 
 9769 
 7148 
 1094 
 2028 
 8238 
 10126 
 2018 
 1094 
 12182 
 9708 
 G076 
 8527 
 8101 
 6076 
 2250 
 
 2-7617 
 3-4521 
 2-9674 
 4-8445 
 4-6030 
 9-2060 
 5-7534 
 3-8972 
 0-9320 
 4-6807 
 6-5750 
 4-2287 
 4-6102 
 1-3820 
 3-6340 
 3-4521 
 0-6214 
 4-6807 
 5-1145 
 1-1364 
 2-3015 
 1-9727 
 1-2727 
 1-1508 
 9-2062 
 5-5503 
 4-0615 
 0-6214 
 1-1520 
 4-6807 
 5-7534 
 1-1468 
 0-0214 
 6-9216 
 5-5160 
 3-4522 
 4-8445 
 4-6028 
 3-4521 
 1-2787 
 
 ,, ,, metric, 1500 metres . . 
 Hamburg 24,000 Ehenish feet . . 
 Hanover old measure, 18,192 elles . 
 (since 1818) 11,700 . 
 of 25,400 Calenberg feet . 
 Hebrew ancient Eastern mile of 4000 cubits 
 Holland mile, old measure, 19 to the degree 
 marine, 20 
 legal (Netherlandic) . . 
 Holstein 12,000 alns 
 
 Hungary league, 13 \ to the degree 
 India Bengal coss or mile, 1000 fathoms 
 ,, league .... 30 to the degree 
 
 Carnatic league, 35 
 Ireland old mile, 320 poles of 7 yards 
 Italy mile, 60 to the degree . . . 
 post, of 8 Italian miles . . . 
 Lithuania league, 12 '44 to the degree . 
 Livonia 17 to the degree . . 
 Lombardo-Yeneto, metrical mile (kilometre) 
 Liibeck mile, marine 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 league, 12 to the degree . . 
 Naples mile, of 7000 palmi . . 
 Netherlands metrical (kilometre) . . 
 Norway 
 
 Oldenberg 30,000 Oldenberg feet . 
 Persia parasang, 20 to the degree 
 Piedmont post, of 4000 French toises . 
 Poland league, long, 15 to the degree 
 ., short, 20 
 Portugal mile . . 54 
 
142 
 
 ITINEKARY OE EOAD MEASUEEB, 
 
 Distance. 
 
 English 
 Yards. Miles. 1 
 
 Portugal mile, marine, 60 to the degree 
 league (3 miles), 18 
 
 marine, 20 
 
 Prussia mile, of 24,000 Ehineland feet 
 
 geographical, 15 to the degree 
 
 Eome 74J to the degree . . 
 
 metrical (kilometre) . 
 
 geographical, 60 to the degree 
 
 ancient millarium, 1000 Eoman- 
 
 passus or paces, or 5000 
 ancient feet .... 
 Eussia werst or verst, 500 sachines 
 
 Lithuania mile, 2S,530Ehein-fuss 
 
 Sardinia mile, 4333^- piede liprando 
 Saxony post mile, 24,000 fuss . 
 
 league, 12J to the degree , 
 
 Scotland old mile, 1920 Scotch ells , 
 Si am, Asia roeneng, 2000 vouahs . , 
 
 Silesia mile , 
 
 league, 1125 Silesian ells, being 
 
 17 to the degree . . . 
 
 Spain mile 
 
 marine, 60 to the degree 
 
 league, common, 8000 varas . 
 
 legal, 5000 
 
 26^- to the degree 
 
 marine, 20 ., 
 
 Suabia or Swabia : mile, 12 
 Sweden mile, 6000 Swedish fathoms . 
 Switzerland mile, 26 3 666| fuss . . 
 
 league, 13 3 to the degree 
 
 Tuscany mile, 2833^ bracci . . 
 Turkey berri, 66| to the degree 
 
 United States of North America . . 
 
 Weimar mile 
 
 Westphalia league, 10 to a degree . . 
 Wiirtemberg mile, 26,000 Stuttgard feet 
 
 2025 
 6751 
 6076 
 8238 
 8101 
 1630 
 1094 
 2025 
 
 1614 
 1167 
 9793 
 2435 
 7432 
 9853 
 1977 
 4204 
 7086 
 
 7148 
 1522 
 2025 
 
 4637 
 
 6076 
 
 10126 
 
 11690 
 
 8548 
 
 913 
 
 1809 
 
 1827 
 
 1760 
 
 7443 
 
 12152 
 
 8132 
 
143 
 
 MEASUEES OF TIME. 
 
 TIME, in the abstract, is truly measured by the space or 
 distance described by a moving body or machine when the 
 velocity of the same is sustained with perfect uniformity. 
 
 A SOLAII DAT is measured by the duration of a complete 
 rotation of the earth round its axis with respect to the sun. 
 The motion of the earth's rotation in space is uniform ; but 
 as it is here estimated with reference to the sun, it is 
 affected by the movement of the earth in its orbit round 
 the sun, the velocity of which is subject to a gradual ac- 
 celeration and retardation, both on account of the ellipticity 
 of the orbit and of the perturbations produced by the planets. 
 To obviate this fluctuation, clocks are adjusted to an average 
 or mean solar day, which is subdivided as follows : 
 
 60 seconds make 1 minute 
 60 minutes 1 hour 
 24 hours 1 day. 
 
 In astronomical reckoning the day is supposed to com- 
 mence at noon, and is counted throughout the twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 In civil reckoning the day commences at midnight, and is 
 divided into two equal portions of twelve hours each, called 
 morning and evening. 
 
 A WEEK is a period of seven days, and has been in use 
 amoDgst eastern countries to the remotest periods of anti- 
 quity. The English names of these days are Sunday, 
 Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Sa- 
 turday. 
 
 A SOLAR YEAB, also called a tropical or civil year, is 
 determined by a revolution of the earth in its orbit round 
 the sun, estimated with respect to the sun and the equinox. 
 In ordinary phraseology it is the time in which the sun 
 moves from the vernal equinox to the vernal equinox again, 
 
144 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 and its average value, called a MEAN SOLAR TEAR, has been 
 found by astronomers to be 365'24222 mean solar days, or 
 865 days 5 hours 48 min. 48 sec. 
 
 A CALENDAR MONTH is an interval varying from 28 to 31 
 days, and was probably first derived from the synodic revo- 
 lution of the moon, or lunar month according to the periodi- 
 cal phases, the mean value of which period has been found 
 to be 29-5305887 days, or 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 2-8 sec. 
 The year is divided into twelve calendar months, each of 
 which consists of an integral number of days, viz. : 
 
 January 31 days 
 
 February 28 
 
 March 31 
 
 April 30 
 
 May 31 
 
 June 30 
 
 July 31 
 
 August 31 
 
 September 30 
 
 October 31 
 
 November 30 
 
 December 31 
 
 365 days. 
 
 A BISSEXTILE YEAR, frequently called teap-year, consists 
 of 366 days, an additional day being intercalated in the 
 month of February, which is then made 29 days. This is 
 occasionally required for the purpose of adjusting the calen- 
 dar, so that the course of the seasons and the labours of 
 agriculture, which depend on the situation of the sun, shall 
 be correctly indicated. Before the time of Julius Csesar, 
 the Eoman calendar was in great confusion, and, guided by 
 Sosigenes, his astronomer, he adjusted it by making every 
 fourth civil year into a bissextile of 366 days. The cor- 
 rection so made is called the Julian correction, and the 
 
MEASUBES OP TIME. 
 
 length of a mean Julian year, or year of the Julian Calendar, 
 is hence 3G5| or 365'25 days. 
 
 In the Ecclesiastical Calendar the intercalary day is placed 
 between the 24th and 25th of February ; in the Civil Calendar 
 it is accounted the 29th. 
 
 THE GREGOKIAN CALENDAR. 
 
 Independently of the gradual and progressive improve- 
 ment in astronomical knowledge and astronomical data, the 
 length of the mean Julian year was practically ascertained 
 to be in excess of the actual mean solar or tropical 
 year, which contains only 365-24222 days; and it was 
 found that the vernal equinox, which, at the Council of 
 Nice, in the year 325, was supposed to correspond to the 
 21st of March l , after the lapse of about 1200 years, had 
 retrograded to the llth. To get rid of the accumulated 
 error, and so restore the equinox to its supposed former 
 place, Pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, directed ten days to bo 
 suppressed in the calendar, by calling the 5th of October 
 the 15th for that year ; and as the error of the Julian inter- 
 calation, according to the calculations of Aloysius Lilius, a 
 celebrated astronomer and physician of Naples, was found to 
 amount to about three days in 400 years, it was ordered that 
 the intercalations on centenary years should thenceforward 
 be omitted, excepting those which are multiples of 400. This 
 important adjustment is usually called the reformation of the 
 calendar, and it has since been adopted in almost all Christian 
 countries, under the name of the Gregorian Calendar, or 
 New Style, the Julian Calendar formerly in use being called 
 the Old Style. ' 
 
 For the sake of distinctness we shall here state the Gre- 
 gorian rule of intercalation. 
 
 1. For years that are not even centuries : 
 
 If the year, when divided by 4, leaves a remainder, such 
 
 1 There 19 some slight inaccuracy in this ; but it is of no consequence. 
 
 H 
 
146 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 year is ordinary ; if there be no remainder, the year is bis- 
 sextile. 
 
 2. For years that are even centuries : 
 
 If the number of centuries, when divided by 4, leaves a 
 remainder, the year is ordinary ; if there be no remainder, it 
 is bissextile. 
 
 Thus, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1861 are ordinary; 
 1856, 1860, 1864, 1868 are bissextile. 
 Also, 1000, 2100, 2200, 2300 are ordinary; 
 2000, 2400, 2800, 3200 are bissextile. 
 Hence every period of 400 years consists of 
 97 bissextile years or 35502 days, 
 303 ordinary 110595 
 
 146097 days ; 
 
 and therefore, taking the 400th part of this number, an 
 average or mean Gregorian year is 365*24250 days. 
 
 Now the actual value of the mean solar or tropical year 
 is 365*24222 days, so that the Gregorian rule causes the 
 year to be only 0*00028 day in excess, which will amount 
 to a day in about 3600 years 2 . This small error might be 
 corrected by carrying the rule one step further and changing 
 multiples of 4000 into ordinary years instead of bissex- 
 tiles. 
 
 The Gregorian Calendar was immediately adopted in Den- 
 mark, France, Holland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain, as well as 
 by Catholics in other countries. It was established in Ger- 
 many and Switzerland in 1700, and was not adopted in Great 
 Britain until the year 1752, no less than 170 years after its 
 first formation. 
 
 The Act of Parliament passed in 1751, and is entitled " An 
 Act for regulating the Commencement of the Year, and for 
 correcting the Calendar now in use." The preamble recites, 
 
 2 The Julian error (0'00778 day in excess) amounts to a day in 129 
 years. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 147 
 
 that according to the legal supputation in England, the year 
 began on the 25th of March ; that this practice had produced 
 various inconveniences, not only from its differing from the 
 usage of neighbouring nations, but also from the legal com- 
 putation in Scotland, and from the common usage through- 
 out the whole kingdom ; that the Julian Calendar then in 
 use had been discovered to be erroneous, by means whereof 
 the vernal or spring equinox, which at the time of the General 
 Council of Nice, A.D. 325, happened on the 21st of March, 
 now fell on the 9th or 10th of that month ; that this error 
 was still increasing ; that a method of correcting the calendar 
 had been received and established, and was generally prac- 
 tised by almost all other nations of Europe ; and that it 
 would be of general convenience to merchants and others 
 corresponding with foreign nations if the like correction 
 were received and established in his Majesty's dominions. 
 It was therefore enacted, 
 
 1. That throughout all his Majesty's dominions in Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, and America, the supputation according to which 
 the year of our Lord began on the 25th of March shall not 
 be used after the last day of December, 1751, and that the 
 1st day of January next following shall be reckoned as the 
 1st day of the year 1752, and so in all future years. 
 
 2. That from and after the 1st day of January, 1752, the 
 several days of each month shall go on and be reckoned and 
 numbered in the same order, and the feast of Easter and 
 other moveable feasts thereon depending shall be ascertained 
 according to the same method, as they now are, until the 2nd 
 of September, 1752 ; that the natural day next immediately 
 following the 2nd of September, 1752, shall be called and 
 reckoned as the fourteenth day of September, omitting the 
 eleven intermediate nominal days of the common calendar ; 
 that the days which follow next after the said 14th of Sep- 
 tember shall be reckoned in numerical order from that day ; 
 and all public and private proceedings whatsoever after the Istr 
 of January, 1752, were ordered to be dated accordingly. 
 
 H 2 
 
148 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 3. That the several years of our Lord 1800, 1900, 2100, 
 2200, 2300, or any other hundredth years of our Lord which 
 shall happen in time to come (excepting only every fourth 
 hundredth year of our Lord, whereof the year 2000 shall be 
 the first), shall not be deemed Bissextile or Leap-years, but 
 shall be considered as common years, consisting of 365 days 
 only ; and that the years of our Lord 2000, 2400, 2800, and 
 every other fourth hundredth year of our Lord, from the 
 year 2000 inclusive, and also all other years of our Lord, 
 which by the present supputation are considered bissextile 
 or leap-years, shall for the future be esteemed bissextile or 
 leap-years, consisting of 366 days. 
 
 4. That whereas according to the rule then in use for cal- 
 culating Easter-day, that feast was fixed to the first Sunday 
 after the first full moon next after the 21st of March ; and if 
 the full moon happens on a Sunday, then Easter-day is the 
 Sunday after, which rule had been adopted by the General 
 Council of Nice, A.D. 325 ; but as the method of computing the 
 full moons then used in the Church of England, and accord- 
 ing to which the table to find Easter prefixed to the Book of 
 Common Prayer was formed, had become considerably erro- 
 neous, it was enacted that the said method should be dis- 
 continued, and that from and after the 2nd of September, 
 1752, Easter-day, and the other moveable and other feasts, 
 were henceforward to be reckoned according to the Calendar, 
 Tables, and Rules annexed to the Act, and attached to the 
 Books of Common Prayer. 
 
 DIFFERENCE OF STYLE. Erom 1582 to 1700 the differ- 
 ence of style continued to be 10 days ; but 1700 being big. 
 &extile in the Julian Calendar and ordinary in the Gregorian, 
 the difference of the styles from 1700 to 1800 was 11 days. 
 The Julian leap-year 1800 was also, ordinary in the Grego- 
 rian Calendar, and therefore the difference during the present 
 century is 12 days. After 1900 it will be 13 days, and will 
 so continue till 2100, because the year 2000 will be a leap- 
 
MEASURES OP TIME. 
 
 149 
 
 year in both styles. Thus if c denote the number of com- 
 pleted centuries, the number of days' difference between the 
 old and new styles, which has accumulated since the second 
 century, will be correctly represented by the formula, 
 
 c 
 
 -2, 
 
 where to denotes the integral quotient of-?, rejecting any 
 
 4 
 
 fraction or remainder. 
 
 Hence the following table, the extension of which is 
 evident without calculation : 
 
 Date. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 1500 to 1700 
 
 10 days 
 
 2900 to 3000 
 
 20 days 
 
 1700 
 
 1800 
 
 11 
 
 
 3000 
 
 3100 
 
 21 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1900 
 
 12 
 
 
 3100 
 
 3300 
 
 22 
 
 
 1900 
 
 2100 
 
 13 
 
 
 3300 
 
 3400 
 
 23 
 
 
 2100 
 
 2200 
 
 14 
 
 
 3400 
 
 3500 
 
 24 
 
 
 2200 
 
 2300 
 
 15 
 
 
 3500 
 
 3700 
 
 25 
 
 
 2300 
 
 2500 
 
 16 
 
 
 3700 
 
 3800 
 
 26 
 
 
 2500 
 
 2600 
 
 17 
 
 
 3800 
 
 3900 
 
 27 
 
 
 2600 
 
 2700 
 
 18 
 
 
 3900 
 
 4100 
 
 28 
 
 
 2700 
 
 2900 
 
 19 
 
 
 &G. 
 
 &c. 
 
 The difference requires to be added to the day of the 
 month according to the old style to deduce the same day in 
 the new style, and vice versa. Thus 1872, June 10, old 
 style, is the same day as 1872, June 22, new style. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTEE. The dominical or Sunday letter is 
 one of the first seven letters of the alphabet, and is used for 
 the purpose of determining the day of the week correspond- 
 ing to any given date. In the Ecclesiastical Calendar the 
 first letter A is placed opposite to the first day of the year or 
 January 1, the second letter B is placed opposite the second 
 day or January 2, and so on through the seven letters ; after 
 which they are in like manner repeated over and over again 
 
150 
 
 MEASUBES OF TIME, 
 
 to the end of the year. Then the letter which falls opposite 
 the first Sunday in the year will also fall opposite every fol- 
 lowing Sunday throughout the year, because the number of 
 letters is the same as the number of days in the week. In 
 ordinary years the letter so indicated is the dominical letter. 
 But in bissextile or leap-years an interruption takes place in 
 the order of the letters on account of the intercalary day, and 
 it is made as a matter of convenience in chronological tabu- 
 lations. As the intercalary day falls on the 24th of February, 
 the 24th and 25th days are denoted by the same letter, so 
 that after the 24th day of February the dominical letter goes 
 back one place. In the Civil Calendar, however, according to 
 which calculations are generally made, the intercalary day is 
 supposed to be added at the end of February, so that the 
 change of letter takes place on entering March. 
 
 As an ordinary year contains 365 days or 52 weeks and 
 1 day over, and a bissextile year contains 52 weeks and 2 
 days over, it is evident from the foregoing account that for 
 a series of consecutive years the dominical letters stand in 
 a retrograde order, and go back one letter after every ordinary 
 year and two letters after a bissextile year, the first change 
 in the latter case occurring at the intercalary day, and the 
 second at the end of the year. Thus a bissextile or leap-year 
 has always two dominical letters, one to be used before and 
 the other after the intercalary day. 
 
 For any proposed year Y of the Gregorian Calendar, at 
 any near or remote period of time, let c denote the number 
 of completed centuries and y the year of the current cen- 
 tury, so that Y= 100 c + y ; then the number of bissextile 
 years, from the year 1 of the calendar up to the year Y 
 
 inclusive, will be (~\ c + (^\ , and the dominical 
 \4/t0 \4i/tp 
 
 letter may be determined in the following manner : 
 
 From the year to the year Y = 100 c + y the total number 
 of intervening years is Y, and, if ordinary and bissextile 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 151 
 
 years are separately enumerated, the numbers are, according 
 to what precedes 
 
 Ordinary years =F ( (\ c 
 Embolismic years = l~\ c + (- \ 
 
 In passing from January 1 of the year to January 1 
 of the proposed year Y 9 the advancement of the day of the 
 week, consisting of one day for every ordinary year, and two 
 days for every intervening bissextile year, is obviously 
 
 ^+ I (~i~") ~~~ c ~^\< ' ) I rejecting sevens 
 
 But as fc\ denotes the quotient and ( G - ) the remainder, 
 
 \4/ Wr 
 
 when the number c is divided by 4, we have the relation 
 
 Therefore, ( c -\ =2c 2Q \ , rejecting sevens, 
 Similarly, =2y-2 
 
 Hence, by substitution, the advancement of the day of the 
 week, or the number by which the dominical letter has 
 retrograded, is 
 
 /c\ /?/\ 
 LO L=:12Gc+3# "2( - ) 2(^ J , rejecting sevens, 
 
152 MEASURE OF TIME. 
 
 The value of the sought number L is therefore 
 i=2 u) +2 (f ) ~ 8 y+ L re J ectin g sevens 
 
 It will be observed that sevens are rejected in this investi- 
 gation because they do not alter the day of the week, and 
 that sevens may be added to negative numbers for a like 
 reason. 
 
 The letter L denotes the number that indicates the ordinal 
 position in which the dominical letter stands in the alphabet. 
 Similarly L denotes the corresponding ordinal number for 
 the year 0. Thus I/ L determines how much the domi- 
 nical number or dominical letter has retrograded through 
 the entire period, that is, after sevens have been freely 
 rejected from the result. 
 
 The number L refers to a given year, and is, therefore, 
 a constant. It will be requisite to ascertain its value in 
 order to finally adapt the foregoing formula to direct calcula- 
 tion. Before proceeding to do tso it may be well to observe 
 by way of explanation of the object attained by the pre- 
 ceding deductions, that the terms of the expression have 
 been severally put in the form of remainders, so as to sim- 
 plifly the computation as much as possible by the exclusive 
 use of very small numbers. 
 
 By testing the last expression with any given year for 
 which L is known, it is found that the constant L 1. 
 Therefore the dominical letter for any year, Y=^WQc-{-y, 
 in the Gregorian Calendar may always be found from the 
 simple and general formula, 
 
 L=2 ( c -\ + 2 (!L\ +4. ('A +1 (rejecting sevens) ; 
 
 \4Jf \4/r \j/t 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 153 
 
 where the small letter r is placed to indicate that it is the 
 remainder of each division that enters into the calculation. 
 The resulting number L may be called the dominical number, 
 as it will indicate the numerical order of the required letter. 
 
 Thus if be 1 
 
 The letter will be A 
 
 6/7 
 
 P G 
 
 1 ? the proposed year be bissextile, the letter so calculated 
 will be the second letter of the year, or that which applies 
 after the intercalary day in February. 
 
 The preceding formula may be put down in the following 
 rule : 
 
 Rule. Divide the number of centuries by 4 ; the years of 
 the current century by 4, and the same by 7 : put down the 
 three remainders ; multiply them respectively by 2, 2, 4 ; 
 add together the three products with an additional unit, and 
 the sum after rejecting sevens, if necessary, will be the 
 dominical number, or the ordinal number in which the 
 dominical letter stands in the alphabet. 
 
 Example. Eequired the dominical letter for the year 
 1942. The centuries are here 19, and the years of the 
 current century 42 ; the three remainders are therefore 
 3, 2, ; the three products are 6, 4, ; which added toge- 
 ther with an additional unit give 11 ; therefore rejecting 7, 
 the ordinal number of the required letter is 4 ; it is there- 
 fore D, the fourth letter of the alphabet. 
 
 The dominical letter or letters of any proposed year may 
 be obtained, by inspection, from the following table, to which 
 an auxiliary table is added, showing the means by which the 
 dominical letter is made to indicate the day of the week 
 answering to any given date. 
 
 H 3 
 
154 
 
 MBASCEES OF TIME. 
 
 PERPETUAL TABLE OF DOMINICAL LETTERS. 
 
 
 Completed Centuries (c). 
 
 Year of the Current 
 Century (y). 
 
 ax- 
 
 (5> 
 
 (0-=' 
 
 G>= 
 
 
 1700 
 
 1800 
 
 1900 
 
 2000 
 
 
 2100 
 
 2200 
 
 2300 
 
 2400 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 BA 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 57 
 
 85 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 58 
 
 86 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 59 
 
 87 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 4 
 
 tf 
 
 60 
 
 88 
 
 FE 
 
 AG 
 
 CB 
 
 DC 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 89 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 62 
 
 SO 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 63 
 
 91 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 64 
 
 92 
 
 AG 
 
 CB 
 
 ED 
 
 FE 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 65 
 
 93 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 66 
 
 94 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 11 
 
 39 
 
 67 
 
 95 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 68 
 
 96 
 
 CB 
 
 ED 
 
 GF 
 
 AG 
 
 13 
 
 41 
 
 69 
 
 97 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 14 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 98 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 71 
 
 99 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 72 
 
 
 ED 
 
 GF 
 
 BA 
 
 CB 
 
 17 
 
 45 
 
 73 
 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 18 
 
 46 
 
 74 
 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 19 
 
 47 
 
 75 
 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 76 
 
 
 GF 
 
 BA 
 
 DC 
 
 ED 
 
 21 
 
 49 
 
 77 
 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 22 
 
 50 
 
 78 
 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 23 
 
 51 
 
 79 
 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 24 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 
 
 BA 
 
 DC 
 
 FE 
 
 GF 
 
 25 
 
 53 
 
 81 
 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 26 
 
 54 
 
 82 
 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 27 
 
 55 
 
 83 
 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 28 56 
 
 84 
 
 
 DC 
 
 FE 
 
 AG 
 
 BA 
 
MEASTTKES OF TIME. 
 
 155 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE DAY OF THE WEEK, 
 
 Month. 
 
 Dominical Letter. 
 
 Jan. Oct. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F | G 
 
 Feb. Mar. Nov. 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 Apr. July 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 May 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 June 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 August 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 Sept. Dec. 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1C 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 2G 
 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 CYCLE OF THE SUN. As the number of dominical letters, 
 cr days in the week, is seven, and as every fourth year is 
 bissextile or leap-year, the same order of dominical letters 
 for a specified year of the Julian Calendar only returns 
 after 4 times 7, or 28 years, which is the period of the solar 
 cycle. The cycle is considered as having commenced nine 
 years before the era, so that the number or year of the cycle 
 corresponding to any year Y of the Julian Calendar, is de- 
 termined by the formula, 
 
 s = 
 
 28 
 
 which may be stated in the following rule : 
 
 Rule. Add 9 to the given year; divide the sum by 28 ; 
 
156 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the re- 
 mainder is the number or year of the cycle : if there be no 
 remainder, the number is 28, the last of the current cycle. 
 If preferred, the calculation may be modified thus : 
 
 Second Rule. Having, as before, added 9 to the year, 
 divide by 4, and the integral quotient again by 7 ; then the first 
 remainder added to 4 times the second remainder will give 
 the number of the solar cycle. If there be no remainder to 
 either division, the required number is 28. 
 
 Example. Eequired the number of the solar cycle for the 
 year 1942. 
 
 The year, augmented by 9, is 1951. 
 
 1951, divided by 4, gives 487, with first remainder 3 ; 
 487 7 69 second 4; 
 
 and adding 3 to 4 times 4, the number of the solar cycle is 
 19. 
 
 Otherwise the solar cycle may perhaps most conveniently 
 be deduced by subtracting from the given year the next less 
 number contained in the following formula : 
 
 Cycle (s) = year-(1811, 1839, 1867, 1895, 1923, 1951, 
 1979, 2007, 2035, 2063, 2091, &c.). 
 
 The cycle of the sun, or more properly the Sunday cycle, 
 was invented for the purpose of determining the dominical 
 letter or letters for any given year of the Julian Calendar, by 
 means of a short and convenient table exhibiting the same 
 for each of the 28 years of one cycle. 
 
 But according to the Gregorian Calendar now in general 
 use in every Christian country, with the exception of Eussia, 
 the order of the letters is necessarily interrupted by the 
 first suppression of a centenary leap-year, and the table of 
 dominical letters must therefore, after every such year, be 
 reconstructed for the next following century. We have, 
 however, found, page 140, that the complete intercalary 
 period of 400 Gregorian years consists of 146,097 days. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 167 
 
 As this number is divisible by 7 without a remainder, and 
 therefore comprises exactly 20,871 weeks, it follows that 
 the same order of dominical letters and days of the week 
 will recur after this period of 400 years, which is therefore 
 the complete Sunday cycle of the Gregorian Calendar. The 
 purport of these remarks may perhaps receive further elu- 
 cidation from an examination of the perpetual table of domini- 
 cal letters already given, which extends through a complete 
 cycle of 400 years, and will therefore in future calculations 
 supersede the use of the solar cycle. 
 
 NUMBER. The cycle of the moon or lunar 
 cycle, sometimes called the Metonic cycle, after the name 
 of its original inventor, Meton, is a period of nineteen 
 years, after which the new moons fall on the same days of 
 the Julian year, within an hour and a half. The number 
 which any given year occupies in the current cycle was 
 called the golden number, from the circumstance of its 
 being usually marked in letters of gold in ancient calendars, 
 and it was used for the purpose of determining the days of 
 new moon, and of thereby fixing the date of Easter-day, on 
 which the other moveable feasts of the ecclesiastical calen- 
 dar are made to depend. The year of the birth of our 
 Saviour is reckoned the first of the lunar cycle, and there- 
 fore the golden number for any year Jfis determined by the 
 formula, 
 
 19 
 
 which may be expressed by the following rule : 
 
 Rule. Add 1 to the year ; divide the sum by 19 ; the 
 quotient is the number of completed cycles, and the re- 
 mainder is the golden number. If remains, the number 
 is 19, the year being in that case the 19th or last of the 
 cycle. 
 
 By this rule the following table has been calculated, and 
 the golden number for any proposed year can be taken from 
 it by inspection. 
 
158 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 PERPETUAL TABLE OF 
 
 
 i 
 
 Centuries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 500 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 2100 
 
 2200 
 
 2300 
 
 2400 2500 
 
 2000 
 
 2700 
 
 Year of the Century. 
 
 3800 
 
 3000 
 
 4000 
 
 4100 
 
 4200 
 
 4300 4400 
 
 4500 
 
 4000 
 
 
 
 5700 
 
 5800 
 
 5900 
 
 0000 
 
 0100 
 
 0200 
 
 0300 
 
 0400 
 
 6500 
 
 
 
 7000 
 
 7700 
 
 7800 
 
 7900 
 
 8000 
 
 8100 
 
 8200 
 
 83UO 
 
 8100 
 
 
 
 Golden Number (#). 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 57 
 
 70 
 
 05 
 
 1 
 
 G 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 58 
 
 77 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 78 
 
 07 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 CO 
 
 70 
 
 08 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 01 
 
 80 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 02 
 
 81 
 
 
 G 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 G 
 
 25 
 
 44 
 
 03 
 
 82 
 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 04 
 
 83 
 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 40' 
 
 05 
 
 84 
 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 47 
 
 00 
 
 85 
 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 07 
 
 80 
 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 08 
 
 87 
 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 50 
 
 00 
 
 88 
 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 52 
 
 71 
 
 00 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 G 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 53 
 
 72 
 
 01 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 35 
 
 54 
 
 73 
 
 02 
 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 55 
 
 74 
 
 03 
 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 U 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 04 
 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 As the lunar months in the construction of the calendar 
 must necessarily be estimated in integral days, and as the 
 mean value of the lunar synodical month is over 29 \ days, 
 it is evident that the calendar lunations must consist mainly 
 of 30 and 29 days alternately, but that on the whole there 
 should be rather more of the former than the latter. Now 
 19 ordinary years of 365 days make 6935 days ; these are 
 distributed into 235 calendar lunations in the following 
 manner. 
 
 The lunations are made to consist of 30 and 29 days 
 alternately, so that each lunar year of 12 lunations thus 
 
MEASUEES OF IIME. 
 
 159 
 
 GOLDEN NUMBERS. 
 
 Year of the Century. 
 
 Centuries. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 1200 
 
 1300 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 
 
 1700 
 
 1800 
 
 2800 
 
 2900 
 
 3000 
 
 3100 
 
 3200 
 
 3300 
 
 3400 
 
 3500 
 
 3f;oo 
 
 3/00 
 
 4700 
 
 4800 
 
 4900 
 
 5000 
 
 5100 
 
 5200 
 
 5300 
 
 5400 
 
 5500 
 
 5600 
 
 6600 
 
 6700 
 
 6800 
 
 6900 
 
 7000 
 
 7100 
 
 7200 
 
 7300 
 
 7400 
 
 7500 
 
 8500 
 
 8600 
 
 8700 
 
 8800 
 
 8900 
 
 9000 
 
 9100 
 
 9200 
 
 c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Golden Number (</). 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 57 
 
 76 
 
 95 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 
 58 
 
 77 
 
 96 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 G 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 59 
 
 78 
 
 97 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 G 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 79 
 
 98 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 
 80 
 
 99 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 62 
 
 81 
 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 44 
 
 63 
 
 82 
 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 726 
 
 45 
 
 64 
 
 83 
 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 46 
 
 65 
 
 84 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 47 
 
 66 
 
 85 
 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 48 
 
 67 
 
 86 
 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 30 
 
 49 
 
 68 
 
 87 
 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 50 
 
 69 
 
 88 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 
 70 
 
 89 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 52 
 
 71 
 
 90 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 53 
 
 72 
 
 91 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 1G 
 
 35 
 
 54 
 
 73 
 
 92 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 ,36 
 
 55 
 
 74 
 
 93 
 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18137 
 
 56 
 
 75 
 
 94 
 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 comprises 354 days, which is 11 days short of the ordinary 
 calendar year of 365 days. To correct this accumulating 
 deficiency, G embolismic months of 30 days each are intro- 
 duced in the course of the cycle of 19 years, and one of 29 
 days is added at the termination of the cycle. In this way 
 the 235 lunations become divided thus : 
 
 120 calendar lunations of 
 
 30 days = 3600 days 
 29 =3335 
 
 235 
 
 30 and 29 = 6935 days. 
 
160 
 
 MEASUEES OP TIME. 
 
 Furthermore, in every bissextile year the intercalary day is 
 also added to the days of the lunation in which it happens 
 to be included, making the same 30 instead of 29 days, so 
 that the 235 lunations thus distributed will then accurately 
 measure 19 Julian years. Thus, as the intercalary day of 
 the Julian Calendar occurs uniformly once in every four 
 years without interruption, the average number of such 
 days, distributed in periods of 19 years, will be 4-| days, 
 which, added to the 6935 days, give 6939 J days for the mean 
 value of the entire cycle so formed, and this is exactly equal 
 to 19 mean Julian years of 365| days. 
 
 There are two objections, in point of accuracy, to the per- 
 manency of this lunar-solar period. In the first place, the 
 Julian year, employed as the basis of calculation, does not 
 correctly represent either the mean solar or the Gregorian 
 year ; as compared with the latter, the accumulated error after 
 any stated epoch will be represented by the augmentation 
 of the requisite correction for reducing the old to the new 
 style. In the second place, the period of 6939 1 days is 
 nearly an hour and a half in excess of 235 mean astronomi- 
 cal lunations, and therefore the correct time of new moon 
 will in successive cycles happen so much earlier, and will 
 retrograde a day in every 308 years. Tor the purpose of 
 correcting and adjusting the errors whenever they amount 
 to one day, by an established system of calculation, Lilius 
 introduced another set of numbers called Epacts. 
 
 EPACT. The epact for any year is a number designed to 
 represent the age of the moon on the first day, that is, on 
 the 1st day of January, of that year. 
 
 Suppose, for the first year of a lunar cycle, a new moon to 
 happen on the 1st day of January ; then the age on the day 
 of new moon being 0, the epact for that year will be 0. Now 
 the civil year containing 365 days, and the lunar year only 
 354 days, the new moon will at the end of the year have 
 retrograded 11 days, and this will be the same if the 
 
MEASTTEES OF TIME. 
 
 1G1 
 
 year be a bissextile of 36G days, because in that case the 
 intercalary day is also included in the lunations, causing the 
 lunar year to consist of 355 days. It therefore follows that 
 the moon's age on the 1st of January of the second year of the 
 cycle, or the epact of the second year, will be 11 days. 
 Similarly the epact for the third year will be 22 days. An- 
 other addition of 11 would give 33 for the fourth year ; but 
 in consequence of the insertion of the embolismic month of 
 30 days, the epact for the fourth year is reduced to 3. In 
 like manner the epacts of the following years are deduced 
 by successively adding 11 and rejecting 30 whenever the 
 sum exceeds that number, excepting at the termination of the 
 cycle, where the last embolismic month being only 29 days, 
 the same number is deducted, and we again have for the 
 epact of the first year of the next cycle. The order of the 
 epacts throughout each cycle is therefore as follows : 
 
 Year of the Cycle, or Golden Number (</). 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 * 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 2G 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 Epact (e). 
 
 This table will exhibit the epacts correctly from the year 
 1700 to the year 1900, the mathematical relations being, 
 
 But it has been explained under the article Golden Number, 
 that in the course of centuries the astronomical new moon 
 will deviate from the preceding deductions, from two cause?, 
 viz. the small error of the cycle of 235 calendar lunations as 
 compared with 235 mean astronomical lunations, and the 
 gradual shifting of dates on account of the difference between 
 the Julian and Gregorian styles. We now proceed to in- 
 
1G2 
 
 MEAGUHES OF TIME. 
 
 vestigate the principles on which these irregularities are 
 calculated and adjusted. 
 
 To determine the error on account of the inaccurate mea- 
 sure of the lunations, we have 
 
 19 mean Julian years, ) 
 
 i, OZK or j r 6939-75 days 
 
 each 365-25 days j 
 
 235 astronomical lunations, ) ftQQ(V pQQQ< 
 each 29-5305887 davs f 6939 68834 
 
 0-06166 day. 
 
 The excess of the established period of the lunar cycle or 
 the Julian Calendar over the astronomical lunations is 
 therefore 0*06166 day, or about 1 h. 28'8 min. Thus after 
 every cycle of 19 years the times of new moon will happen 
 Ih. 28'8 min. earlier than in the preceding cycle, and there- 
 fore the age of the moon will become periodically increased 
 by the same quantity, which will amount to a day in about 
 308 years. In the construction of the calendar it has been 
 assumed to amount to 8 days in 25 centuries, and, when 
 computed from the year 1700, to be determined by the 
 formula, 
 
 = (L=1T) , correction = ( c -^\ -5. 
 V 25 Jw \ 3 Jw 
 
 Thus after a period of 25 centuries, 
 
 c will be augmented by 25, 
 
 ^ J> >J *! 
 
 C tt ,, ,, ^4 \ 
 
 therefore the correction { ^-^ ) 5 will give exactly 8 
 
 days in every 25 centuries, and this reduces the lunar error 
 to less than a day in 270,000 years. 
 
 To obtain the correction on account of difference of style, 
 if c, as before, denote the number of completed centuries in 
 the proposed year TJ we have ascertained that the number 
 of days' difference betv. een the old and new styles will then 
 
MEASUKES OF TIME. 163 
 
 have amounted to c ( - ) 2. "When c = 17 it is 11 
 \4/M> 
 
 days for the year 1.700; therefore, from 1700 to the 
 given year Y, the divergence on account of style will be 
 
 c ( ) 13, and the age of the moon or epact for the 
 V4/w 
 
 year will thereby be diminished by the number of days re- 
 presented by this last formula, which expresses, in fact, the 
 number of centenary years passed over that are not made 
 bissextile. 
 
 For the complete correction of the epact or moon's age, it 
 
 will hence be requisite to add ( ~~ ) 5, and to sub- 
 
 \ 3 Jw 
 
 tract c (-) 13, or to apply the difference of these 
 \4/w 
 
 corrections, viz. 8 + ( ? ) + ( - | c. Thus in the 
 \4/w \ 3 )w 
 
 new style or Gregorian Calendar, the general formulae for 
 determining the epact for any year Tare 
 
 - 
 30 r \&w \ 3 
 
 Should the calculation of this expression come out negative, 
 an erabolismie month of 30 days must be added. 
 
 24 25 
 
 Note. Should the result be 05 > change it into HQ when- 
 
 ever the golden number exceeds 11. 
 
 Example. Kequired the epact for the year 1942. 
 
 Here Y = 1942 and c = 19. 
 
 Y + 1 = 1942 + 1 = 1943, which on being divided by 
 19 leaves as remainder the golden number g = 5. 
 
 11 (0 1) = 11 X 4 = 44, which divided by 30 leaves 
 as remainder = 14. 
 
164 
 
 MEASURES Or TIME, 
 
 o 17 = 2, which divided by 25, the whole number of 
 the quotient is a = : (this will always be until the year 
 4200.) 
 
 Therefore the required epact = e + 8 
 
 6 ~~ 19 = 1B * 
 
 By first taking out the golden number from the table, 
 page 15 8) the epact for any given year may be obtained by 
 inspection from the following table, in the column under 
 fche completed centuries. 
 
 TABLE OF EPACTS. 
 
 
 Last Competed Century (c). 
 
 Golden 
 
 
 11900 
 
 2200 
 
 
 2600 
 
 31003400 3800 
 
 Num- 
 
 1500 
 
 1700 2000 
 
 
 2300 
 
 2700 2900 
 
 3200 |35003900 
 
 ber (#). 
 
 1600 
 
 1800 
 
 2100 
 
 2400 
 
 2500 
 
 2800 3000 
 
 3300 3600 
 
 3700 
 
 4000 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 UJ 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2G 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 7 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 NUMBER or DIRECTION. The number of direction is the 
 number of days that Easter-day falls later than the 21st of 
 March. Easter, as ordained by the Council of Nice, is the 
 first Sunday after the first full moon which happens upon or 
 
MEA.SUUES OF TIME. 165 
 
 next after the 21st day of March ; and if the full moon 
 happens on a Sunday, then Easter-day is the Sunday after. 
 This last condition was introduced to avoid the celebration 
 of Easter at the same time as the Jewish Passover; notwith- 
 standing which, this coincidence will sometimes happen, and 
 will next occur in the year 1903. The moon on which Easter 
 immediately depends is called the paschal moon, and the 
 full moon is defined to be the 14th day of the moon, that is, 
 13 days after the preceding day of new moon. 
 
 Now the epact, e, is the age of the moon on January 1 ; 
 and therefore January (31 e) is a day of new moon. And 
 as the months January and February together comprise the 
 same number of days as two alternate lunations of 29 and 
 30 days, it follows that March (31 e) must likewise be a 
 day of new moon. Adding 13 days, the 14th day of this 
 moon will fall on March (44 e), and this will be upon or 
 later than the 21st day of March, and therefore be the paschal 
 full moon, provided e be less than 24. "When e is 24 or 
 greater than 24 the next following moon will be the paschal 
 moon, and the date so found will require to be increased by 
 29 or 30 days respectively as the period of the current luna- 
 tion. The reason of this distinction is, that the epacts 24 
 and 25 are made to occupy the same day in the calendar 
 whenever the lunation is required to pass from 29 to 30 
 days, which is the case in April. The number of days from 
 March 21 to the day of the paschal full moon, which for 
 uniformity we shall designate the Paschal Direction and de- 
 note by P, is therefore thus determined : 
 
 "When0< 21, P = 23 e\ 
 e = 21, P = 28; 
 e > 24, P = 53 e. 
 
 Next, to find the Sunday following the paschal full moon, 
 if L denote the dominical number, L + 4 + fw days after 
 March 21 will be a Sunday, and the number of days which 
 intervene between the day of the paschal full moon and this 
 
1G6 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Sunday will be L + 3 + 7m P. Therefore the number 
 of days which intervene between the paschal full moon and 
 the immediately following Sunday, or Easter, will be the 
 least positive remainder of L + 3 + 7m P when divided 
 by 7 ; and, denoting these intervening days by p, 
 
 when P = 23 - e, p = 
 
 >*=*> *= 
 
 = 53 - e, P = 
 
 Hence if 2V be the number of direction, JV = P -f 1 + p, 
 and we obtain the following general formulae for its com- 
 putation : 
 
 When e < 24, N= 24 - e + 
 ,=24,^=29 + 
 
 Example. Pind by calculation the number of directioC 
 for the year 1942. 
 
 The dominical number, page 153, has been found to be 
 L = 4 ; and, page 164, the epact to be e = 13 
 
 Therefore, e being less than 24, 
 
3EEABUBES OF TIME. 
 
 167 
 
 Tnis calculation however may in all cases be dispensed with 
 by entering the folding table with the epact and dominical 
 letter, 
 
 Perpetual Table for finding the NUMBER OF DIRECTION (N) 
 from the Epact and Dominical Letter, 
 (For Leap Years use the second letter,) 
 
 Epact 
 (). 
 
 Dominical Letter. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 6 
 
 * 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 EASTEH-DAY. The date of Easter-day is obtained by 
 simply adding the number of direction to March 21. It ia 
 therefore March (N + 21), or April (-ZV"" 10); and by 
 
163 
 
 MEASUBES OP TIME. 
 
 employing the foregoing values of ^we deduce the following 
 formulae for its determination : 
 
 When e < 24, Easter is fMarch(45 -*) 
 (April (14- 
 
 April 19 + 
 
 e > 24 
 
 April (44 - e) + 
 
 By entering the following table with the epact and the 
 dominical letter the date of Easter-day may always be 
 ascertained by inspection, 
 
 Perpetual TaWefor determining EASTER-DAY/rom the Epact and 
 Dominical Letter. 
 
 Epact 
 (e). 
 
 Dominical letter. 
 (For Leap Years use the second letter.) 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 Apr. 16 
 
 Apr. 17 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 Apr. 19 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 Apr. 14 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 , 17 
 
 i, 18 
 
 , 19 
 
 ii I 3 
 
 ii I* 
 
 ii 15 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 ii 18 
 
 , 12 
 
 i> 13 
 
 ,, 1* 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 ii 11 
 
 i 12 
 
 ,i 13 
 
 ,, H 
 
 ,, 15 
 
 4 
 
 , 16 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 , 13 
 
 I* 
 
 , 15 
 
 5 
 
 i 9 
 
 10 
 
 ii 11 
 
 i 12 
 
 , 13 
 
 n H 
 
 n 15 
 
 6 
 
 , * 
 
 10 
 
 >, 11 
 
 i 12 
 
 i 13 
 
 ii 1* 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 7 
 
 > 9 
 
 10 
 
 ., 11 
 
 i 12 
 
 , 13 
 
 n 7 
 
 ii 8 
 
 8 
 
 , 9 
 
 10 
 
 n H 
 
 , 12 
 
 6 
 
 .1 7 
 
 n 8 
 
 9 
 
 , 9 
 
 10 
 
 , 11 
 
 i 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 ,, 10 
 
 , 4 
 
 , 5 
 
 i 6 
 
 ,, 7 
 
 n 8 
 
 11 
 
 , 9 
 
 3 
 
 , 4 
 
 i 5 
 
 i 6 
 
 ii 7 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 12 
 
 , 2 
 
 3 
 
 , 4 
 
 i 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 n 8 
 
 13 
 
 , 2 
 
 3 
 
 , 4 
 
 , 5 
 
 , 6 
 
 n 7 
 
 M 
 
 14 
 
 , 2 
 
 ii 3 
 
 , 4 
 
 , 5 
 
 i 6 
 
 Mar. 31 
 
 M 
 
 15 
 
 , 2 
 
 it 3 
 
 , 4 
 
 5 
 
 Mar, 30 
 
 ii 31 
 
 , 
 
 16 
 
 > 2 
 
 i 3 
 
 , 4 
 
 Mar. 29 
 
 n 30 
 
 31 
 
 , 
 
 17 
 
 , 2 
 
 ii 3 
 
 Mar. 28 
 
 i> 29 
 
 i 30 
 
 n 31 
 
 p 
 
 18 
 
 i 2 
 
 Mar. 27 
 
 >i 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 ii 31 
 
 , 
 
 19 
 
 Mar. 26 
 
 ii 27 
 
 n 28 
 
 n 29 
 
 30 
 
 n 31 
 
 . 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 ii 27 
 
 ii 28 
 
 29 
 
 ., 30 
 
 ii 31 
 
 Mar. 25 
 
 21 
 
 ;; 26 
 
 ,, 27 
 
 28 
 
 n 29 
 
 30 
 
 n 24 
 
 ii 25 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 ii 27 
 
 ,, 28 
 
 .1 29 
 
 i> 23 
 
 i. 24 
 
 ,, 25 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 ii 23 
 
 n 24 
 
 ,, 25 
 
 24 
 25 
 
 Ap . 23 
 
 ; 23 
 
 Apr. 24 
 ii 24 
 
 Apr. 25 
 n 25 
 
 Apr. 19 
 , 19 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 , 20 
 
 Apr. 21 
 ,, 21 
 
 Apr. 22 
 , 22 
 
 26 
 
 , 23 
 
 ,, 24 
 
 n 18 
 
 , 19 
 
 , 20 
 
 .1 21 
 
 , 22 
 
 27 
 
 , 23 
 
 ii 17 
 
 n 18 
 
 19 
 
 , 20 
 
 ii 21 
 
 , 22 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 I , 19 
 
 , 20 
 
 ,, 21 
 
 i 22 
 
 29 
 
 , 16 
 
 ,i 17 
 
 ,, 18 ' , 19 
 
 i 20 
 
 ii 21 
 
 i 1* 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 1G9 
 
 INDICTION. The Roman Indiction is a mode of measur- 
 ing time by a cycle of 15 years, formerly used by the 
 Romans for some time after the Emperor Constantine, but 
 the precise time of its first adoption has not been ascer- 
 tained with certainty, beyond the fact that the year 313 of 
 the Christian era was a first year of a cycle of indiction. 
 
 To find the indiction, we must therefore observe the fol- 
 lowing rule : 
 
 Rule. Add 3 to the year ; divide the sum by 15, and tho 
 remainder will be the Indiction. If there be no remainder, 
 the Indiction is 15. Or divide the sum by 30, and diminish 
 the remainder by 15 if greater than 15. 
 
 DIONYSIAN PERIOD. The Dionysian is a period of 532 
 years, formed from the product of the lunar cycle 19 and 
 the solar cycle 28, and invented by Dionysius Exiguus 
 about the time of the Council of Nice, to include all the 
 varieties of the new moons and dominical letters ; so that 
 after every 532 years they were expected to recur in the 
 same order. This would have been very convenient for 
 fixing the date of Easter and of the other days of the calendar 
 by a table calculated for the years of one cycle ; but as the 
 measure of the lunar cycle was supposed to be exact, which 
 is not the case, and as the Sunday cycle is now interrupted 
 at the centenary years that are not bissextile, the Dionysian 
 period is no longer used in such calculations. 
 To find the year of the Dionysian Period : 
 Rule. Add 457 to the year of Christ ; divide the sum by 
 532, and the remainder will be the number required. Or 
 for any year, from the present time up to the year 2203, 
 
 Year of the Dionysian = 129 + (Year 1800), 
 
 or=Year-(1671, 2128, &c.). 
 
 When divided by 28 the remainder is the solar cycle ; when 
 divided by 19 the remainder is the lunar cycle or golden 
 number* 
 
 I 
 
170 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 JULIAN PERIOD. The Julian Period is a large cycle of 
 7980 years, formed by multiplying together the lunar cycle 
 of 19 years, the solar cycle of 28, and the indiction of 15, 
 and its commencement goes back 4714 years beyond the 
 Christian era. 
 
 To determine the number for any year. 
 
 Rule. Add 4713 to the given year; divide the sum by 
 7980 ; the remainder will be the year of the Julian Period. 
 Or for any year from the present time up to the year 3267, 
 
 Tear of the Julian Period = 6513 + (Year - 1800). 
 
 If the year of the Julian Period be divided by 19, the 
 remainder will be the golden number ; if it be divided by 
 28, the remainder will be the solar cycle; and if it be 
 divided by 15, the remainder will be the indiction for the 
 corresponding year. Also, if it be divided by 532, the re- 
 mainder will be the year of the Dionysian. 
 
 MOON'S AGE. The age of the moon on any given date 
 may be approximately deduced by adding to the epact the 
 day of the month and the number below for the month, 
 rejecting 30's if necessary. 
 
 I Jan. I Feb. Mar. I Apr. I May ) June 1 July i Aug. I Sept. | Oct. I Xor.l Dec. I 
 I 1 I 1 I 2 I 3 I 4. 1 6 I 7 I 7 j 9 I 9 I 
 
 MOVEABLE FEASTS. These are in general made to depend 
 on the date of Easter- day. The following are some of the 
 principal Sundays : 
 
 Septuagesima Sunday is 9l 
 
 Shrove Sunday 7 I weekg before EaRtert 
 
 1 Sunday in Lent 6 
 
 Midlent Sunday 3J 
 
 Rogation Sunday is 51 
 
 "Whit-Sunday 7V weeks after Easter. 
 
 Trinity Sunday 8J 
 
MEASUBES OF TIME, 171 
 
 Advent Sunday is the nearest Sunday to November 30, 
 whether before or after. 
 
 Also, 
 
 Erst day of Lent is 3 days after Shrove Sunday. 
 Good Friday 2 before Easter. 
 Ascension-day 4 after Rogation Sunday. 
 
 The number of days which intervene between Epiphany 
 (January G) and Septuagesima Sunday is 10 + JW in ordi- 
 nary years, and 11 + -ZVin bissextile years, N" denoting the 
 number of direction. Therefore, as the Epiphany Sundays 
 are included in this interval, 
 
 Sundays after Epiphany ( - i j in ordinary years 
 
 = ( \ bissextile 
 
 Also the number of days intervening between Trinity 
 Sunday and November 27, the earliest possible date of 
 Advent Sunday, = 194 N. Therefore, 
 
 Sundays after Trinity = / 19 ^- $\ 
 
 To determine the elements of the Christian calendar, for 
 any given year, it is only requisite to take out, by inspection, 
 
 the Dominical Letter from the table, page 154 
 Golden Number 158 
 
 Epact 1.64 
 
 Number of Direction 167 
 
 "When the number of direction has thus been ascertained, 
 the moveable feasts and other articles of the calendar will 
 be shown by the following tables. 
 
 i 2 
 
172 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Talk of the MOVEABLE FEASTS, $c. t according to the Number of Direction. 
 
 Number 
 of Diree- 
 
 | tion(#.) 
 
 Domini- 
 cal 
 
 Letter. 
 
 **5 
 
 SlJ 
 
 O *-} p. 
 
 - g 
 
 Septua- 
 gesima 
 Sunday. 
 
 Shrove 
 Sunday. 
 
 First Day 
 of Lent. 
 
 1 Sunday 
 in Lent. 
 
 Midlent 
 Sunday. 
 
 1 
 
 D, ED 
 
 1 
 
 Jan. 18, 19 
 
 Feb. 1, 2 
 
 Feb. 4, 5 
 
 Feb. 8, 9 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 2 
 
 E, FE 
 
 1 
 
 19,20 
 
 2, 3 
 
 5, 6 
 
 9, 10 
 
 2 i 
 
 3 
 
 F, GF 
 
 1, 2 
 
 20,21 
 
 3, 4 
 
 6, 7 
 
 10, 11 
 
 ,, 3 
 
 4 
 
 G, AG 
 
 2 
 
 ,, 21,22 
 
 ,, 4, 5 
 
 7, 8 
 
 11, 12 
 
 ,, 4 
 
 5 
 
 A, BA 
 
 2 
 
 22,23 
 
 5, 6 
 
 8, 9 
 
 12, 13 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 B, CB 
 
 2 
 
 23,24 
 
 6 7 
 
 9,10 
 
 13, 14 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 C, DC 
 
 2 
 
 24,25 
 
 7, 8 
 
 10, 11 
 
 14, 15 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 D, ED 
 
 2 
 
 25, 26 
 
 8, 9 
 
 11, 12 
 
 15, 16 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 E, FE 
 
 2 
 
 ,, 26, 27 
 
 9, 10 
 
 12, 13 
 
 16, 17 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 F, GF 
 
 2,3 
 
 27,28 
 
 10, 11 
 
 13, 14 
 
 ; , 17, 18 
 
 ,, 10 
 
 11 
 
 G, AG 
 
 3 
 
 28,29 
 
 ,, 11,12 
 
 ,, 14, 15 
 
 18, 19 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 A, BA 
 
 3 
 
 29, 30 
 
 12, 13 
 
 15, 16 
 
 19, 20 
 
 ,, 12 
 
 13 
 
 B, CB 
 
 3 
 
 30, 31 
 
 13, 14 
 
 16, 17 
 
 ,, 20, 21 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 C, DC 
 
 3 
 
 31, Fl 
 
 14, 15 
 
 17, 18 
 
 21, 22 
 
 ,, 14 ' 
 
 15 
 
 D, ED 
 
 3 
 
 Feb. 1, 2 
 
 15, 16 
 
 18, 19 
 
 22, 23 
 
 15 : 
 
 16 
 
 E, FE 
 
 3 
 
 2, 3 
 
 16, 17 
 
 19, 20 
 
 23, 24 
 
 16 1 
 
 17 
 
 F, GF 
 
 3,4 
 
 3, 4 
 
 17, 18 
 
 20, 21 
 
 24, 25 
 
 17 ] 
 
 18 
 
 G, AG 
 
 4 
 
 4, 5 
 
 18, 19 
 
 21, 22 
 
 25, 26 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 A, BA 
 
 4 
 
 5, 6 
 
 19, 20 
 
 , 22, 23 
 
 26, 27 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 B, CB 
 
 4 
 
 6, 7 
 
 20, 21 
 
 , 23, 24 
 
 ,, 27, 28 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 C, DC 
 
 4 
 
 , 7, 8 
 
 21, 22 
 
 , 24, 25 
 
 28, 29 
 
 ,, 21 
 
 22 
 
 D, ED 
 
 4 
 
 8, 9 
 
 22, 23 
 
 , 25, 26 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 E, FE 
 
 4 
 
 9, 10 
 
 23, 24 
 
 , 26, 27 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 F, GF 
 
 4,5 
 
 10, 11 
 
 24, 25 
 
 , 27, 28 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 G, AG 
 
 5 
 
 11, 12 
 
 25, 26 
 
 , 28, 29 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 A, BA 
 
 5 
 
 12, 13 
 
 ,, 26, 27 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 B, CB 
 
 5 
 
 13, 14 
 
 27, 28 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 C, DC 
 
 5 
 
 14, 15 
 
 28, 29 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 D, ED 
 
 5 
 
 ,, 15, 18 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 E, FE 
 
 5 
 
 16,17 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 F, GF 
 
 5,6 
 
 17, 18 
 
 ,, 3 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 ,, 31 
 
 32 
 
 G, AG 
 
 6 
 
 18, 19 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 33 
 
 A, BA 
 
 6 
 
 19, 20 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 B, CB 
 
 6 
 
 20, 21 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 C, DC 
 
 6 
 
 21, 22 
 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 *** Second entries in the above table are for bissextile years. 
 
 P 
 
 LAW TERMS. The Law Terms and Returns were formerly regu- 
 lated by statute 1 William IV, cap. 70, passed the 22nd of July, 
 
MEASURES OP TIME. 
 Table (ootitinued) of the MOVEABLE E'EASTS, $c. 
 
 173 
 
 Good 
 Friday. 
 
 Easter 
 Day. 
 
 Rogation 
 Sunday. 
 
 Ascen- 
 sion. 
 
 "Whit- 
 Sunday. 
 
 Trinity 
 Sunday, 
 
 && 
 
 111 
 
 02 H 
 
 Advent 
 Sunday. 
 
 Mar. 20 
 
 21 
 
 Mar. 22 
 23 
 
 Apr. 26 
 27 
 
 Apr. 30 
 May 1 
 
 May 10 
 11 
 
 May 17 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 Nov. 29 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 ,, 23 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 ,, 24 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 ,, 14 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 ,, 27 
 
 May 1 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 Nov. 27 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 , 4 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 ,, 30 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 30 
 
 Ap 1 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 ,, 27 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 ,, 11 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 3 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 Nov. 27 
 
 ,, 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 >, 4 
 
 6 
 
 , 11 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 June 1 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 K 
 i> " 
 
 ;, 7 
 
 , 12 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 6 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 , 13 
 
 ,, 17 
 
 ,, 27 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 ' 2 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 , 14 
 
 ,, 18 
 
 28 
 
 ,, 4 
 
 25 
 
 >, 3 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 , 15 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 ,, 5 
 
 24 
 
 Nov. 27 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 June 1 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 n 2 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 ,, 3 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 1 15 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 ,, 5 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 Nov. 27 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 ,, 20 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 ,, 15 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 ,, 31 
 
 10 
 
 ,, 17 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 ,, 23 
 
 28 
 
 June 1 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 Nov. 27 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 ,, 3 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 1830. The following is an abstract of clause vi. of the Act: 
 " Hilary Term shall begin on the llth and end on the 31st 
 
174 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 day of January ; Easter Term shall begin on the fifteenth day 
 of April, and end on the eighth day of May ; Trinity Term shall 
 begin on the twenty-second day of May, and end on the twelfth 
 day of June ; and Michaelmas Term shall begin on the second 
 and end on the twenty-fifth day of November ; and that the 
 Essoign and General Eeturn Days of each Term shall, until 
 further provision be made by Parliament, be as follows ? 
 that is to say, the first Essoign or General Eeturn day for 
 every Term shall be the fourth day before the day of the 
 commencement of the Term, both days being included in 
 the computation ; the second Essoign day shall be the fifth 
 day of the Term ; the third shall be the fifteenth day of 
 the Term ; and the fourth and last shall be the nineteenth 
 day of the Term, the first day of the Term being already 
 included in the computation ; with the same relation to the 
 commencement of each Term as they now bear, and shall be 
 distinguished by the day of the Term on which they re- 
 spectively fall, the Monday being in all cases substituted for 
 the Sunday when it shall happen that the day would fall en 
 Sunday, except always that in Easter Term there shall be 
 but four Eeturns instead of five, the last being omitted ; 
 provided that in case the day of the month on which any 
 Term according to the Act aforesaid is to end shall fall to 
 be on a Sunday, then the Monday next after such day shall 
 be deemed and taken to be the last day of the Term ; and 
 that if the whole or any number of the days l intervening 
 between the Thursday before and the Wednesday next after 
 "Easter-day shall fall within Easter Term, there shall be no 
 Sittings in Bane on any of such intervening days, but the 
 Term shall in such case be prolonged and continue for such 
 number of days of business as shall be equal to the numbel 
 
 1 The intervening days, exclusive of Easter-day, are 
 Good Friday, 
 Saturday, 
 Easter Monday, 
 Easter Tuesday. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 175 
 
 of the intervening days before mentioned exclusive of Easter- 
 day, and the commencement of the ensuing Trinity Term 
 shall in such case be postponed and its continuance pro- 
 longed for an equal number of days of business." 
 
 The wording of the Act is somewhat confused and obscure, 
 and its correct interpretation and practical application re 
 quire some little consideration. In order to obviate this 
 inconvenience, as these terms are not yet entirely obsolete, 
 we annex the following table, in which the dates of the 
 commencement and ending of the several terms are made 
 to depend simply on the Number of Direction. 
 
 Table of the OLD LAW TERMS, according to the Number of 
 Direction. 
 
 No. of Direction 
 UV). 
 
 Name. 
 
 Begins. 
 
 Ends. 
 
 No. of 
 days. 
 
 I, 2, 3, 5,f 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 1] 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 8, 9, 10, 12, J 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 8 
 
 24 
 
 15, 16, 17, 19,1 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 22 
 
 June 12 
 
 22 
 
 22 [ 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 24 
 
 A \ 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 1 1 ' 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 8 
 
 24 
 
 8^ 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 22 
 
 June 12 
 
 22 
 
 18 I 
 
 Michaelmas ,, 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 26 
 
 25 
 
 C f 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 /Jan. 31 
 1 Feb. 1 (bis.) 
 
 2l\ 
 
 22 J 
 
 13. 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 9 
 
 25 
 
 20) 
 
 Trinity ,, 
 
 May 22 
 
 June 13 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 Michaelmas ,, 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 24 
 
 7f 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 /Feb. 1 
 \Jan. 31 (bis.) 
 
 22 \ 
 21/ 
 
 14. 
 
 Easter ,, 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 8 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 22 
 
 June 12 
 
 22 
 
 L 
 
 Michaelmas ,, 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 24 
 
 f 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 9 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 Trinity 
 Michaelmas 
 
 May 23 
 Nov. 2 
 
 June 13 
 Nov. 25 
 
 22 
 24 
 
 f 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 M J 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 10 
 
 26 
 
 I 
 
 Trinity ,, 
 Michaelmas 
 
 May 24 
 Nov. 2 
 
 June 14 
 Nov. 25 
 
 22 
 24 
 
176 
 
 HEASUKES OF TIME. 
 
 Table of the OLD LAW TERMS, according to the Number of 
 Direction. 
 
 No. of Direction 
 (N). 
 
 Name. 
 
 Begins. 
 
 Ends. 
 
 No. of 
 days. 
 
 f 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 os > 
 
 Easter ,, 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 10 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 24 
 
 June 14 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 26 
 
 25 
 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 
 Easter ,, 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 11 
 
 27 
 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 15 
 
 22 
 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 24 
 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 /Jan. 31 
 
 \Feb. 1 (bis.) 
 
 22/ 
 
 27 J 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 12 
 
 28 
 
 "1 
 
 Trinity 
 Michaelmas ,, 
 
 May 26 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 June 16 
 Nov. 25 
 
 22 
 24 
 
 on 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 [Feb. 1 
 '(Jan. 31 (bis.) 
 
 221 
 21 / 
 
 35 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 13 
 
 2.9 
 
 ,1 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 27 
 
 June 17 
 
 22 
 
 L 
 
 Michaelmas ,, 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 23 
 
 24 
 
 r 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 29, 30, 31 < 
 
 Easter 
 Trinity 
 
 Apr. 15 
 May 27 
 
 May J3 
 June 17 
 
 29 
 22 
 
 [ 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 24 
 
 r 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 09 j 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 12 
 
 28 
 
 i 
 
 Trinity 
 
 May 20 
 
 June 16 
 
 22 
 
 i 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 23 
 
 r 
 
 Hilary Term 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 21 
 
 33 ) 
 
 Easter 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 12 
 
 28 
 
 l 
 
 Trinity 
 Michaelmas 
 
 May 26 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 June 16 
 Nov. 25 
 
 24 
 
 LAW SITTINGS. On the 1st of November, 1875, the Judi- 
 cature Act, 1873, came into force, and the division of the 
 legal year into terms was abolished so far as relates to the 
 administration of justice. The Rules of Court provide that 
 there shall be four sittings in every year of the Court of 
 Appeal and High Court of Justice, namely : 
 
MEASUEES OF TIME. 
 
 177 
 
 1. MICHAELMAS SITTINGS, beginning October 24, ending De- 
 
 cember 21. 
 
 2. HILARY SITTINGS, beginning January 11, ending "Wednesday 
 
 before Easter. 
 
 3. EASTER SITTINGS, beginning Tuesday after Easter week, ending 
 
 Friday before Whit Sunday. 
 
 4. TRINITY SITTINGS, beginning Tuesday after Whitsun week, 
 
 ending August 12. 
 
 There are also Law Terms in use observed by the Inns of 
 Court. These terms are 
 
 Hilary. Same as old Law Term, January 11 to January 31 or 
 
 February 1. 
 
 Easter. The first 28 days of the Easter Law Sittings. 
 Trinity. The first 21 days of the Trinity Law Sittings. 
 Michaelmas. Same as old Law Term, November 2 to Novem- 
 
 ber 25 or November 26. 
 
 UNIVERSITY TERMS. The University Terms may also be 
 obtained simply from the Number of Direction by means of 
 the following formulary table : 
 
 
 
 5, 
 
 ', 
 
 
 
 Oxford Act. 
 
 Cambridge 
 Commencement. 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 July 1 
 
 June 17 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 ?: 
 
 , 18 
 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 o 
 
 . 19 
 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 , 20 
 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 , 21 
 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 , 22 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 
 7 
 
 , 23 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY TERMS. 
 
 When the beginning or ending of a Term falls on a fes- 
 tival, the rule is to take the day after, excepting the ending 
 of Easter Term, which is to be the day before. The festivals, 
 besides Sundays, which interfere are 
 
 Annunciation March 25. 
 
 St. Mark April 25. 
 
 Accession Chas. II May 29. 
 
 St. Barnabas . . . . . . June 11. 
 
 i a 
 
178 
 
 MEASUKES OP TIME. 
 
 / 
 
 or Mar. 15 + N (if J\T= 12) 
 
 May 7 + ^ 
 
 or May 6 + 1? (if ^=35) 
 
 The Act + 4 
 
 Dec. 17 \ 
 
 (if Sunday) Dec. 18 J 
 
 The Act, first Tuesday in July. 
 Term begins Jan. 14 ends Mar. 13 + 
 
 (if Sunday) Jan. 15 
 
 ,, Mar. 24 + JV 
 (if If =1,32) Mar. 25 + ^ 
 ,, ,, May 8 + ^ 
 (if JV=34) May 10 + JV 
 Michaelmas ,, ,, Oct. 10 
 (if Sunday) Oct. 11 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVEESITY TEEMS before 1884. 
 Commencement, Tuesday before Midsummer. 
 Term begins Jan. 13 ends Mar. 12 + JV 
 
 ,, ,, Mar. 26 + JV" ,, Comm. + 3 
 
 Michaelmas ,, ,, Oct. 1 ,, Dec. 16 
 
 Hilary Term divides ...... Feb. 1 1 + J N 
 
 (bis) ...... Feb. 11 + J (-ZV + 1) 
 
 Easter ,, divides ...... May J (N + Comm. - 1) 
 
 Michaelmas ,, ...... Nov. 8, noon. 
 
 (See page 207.) 
 
 Hilary. 
 Easter 
 Trinity 
 
 Hilary 
 Easter 
 
 To facilitate the construction of the Gregorian Calendar 
 for any proposed year, the following table is inserted, show- 
 ing the dominical letter, golden number, epact, number of 
 direction, and Easter Sunday for three centuries, namely, 
 from 1800 to 2100. It is only requisite to take the number 
 of direction from the last column but one, and, with it, to 
 enter the table on pages 172 and 173, and everything be- 
 comes immediately known without any calculation. 
 
 Elements of the G-KEGORIAN CALENDAR fo r Three Centuries, 
 1800 to 2100. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Mi 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter, 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 07). 
 
 Epact (e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 (JO- 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 1800 
 
 E 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 SH 
 
 April 13. 
 
 1801 
 
 D 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1802 
 
 C 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 1803 
 
 B 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 1804 
 
 AG 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 17D 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 
 1805 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 1806 
 
 E 
 
 2 
 
 1807 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 1808 
 
 CB 
 
 4 
 
 1809 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 1810 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 1811 
 
 F 
 
 7 
 
 1812 
 
 ED 
 
 8 
 
 1813 
 
 C 
 
 9 
 
 1814 
 
 B 
 
 10 
 
 1815 
 
 A 
 
 11 
 
 1816 
 
 GF 
 
 12 
 
 1817 
 
 E 
 
 13 
 
 1818 
 
 D 
 
 14 
 
 1819 
 
 C 
 
 15 
 
 1820 
 
 BA 
 
 16 
 
 1821 
 
 G 
 
 17 
 
 1822 
 
 F 
 
 18 
 
 1823 
 
 E 
 
 19 
 
 1824 
 
 DC 
 
 1 
 
 1825 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 1826 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 1827 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 1828 
 
 FE 
 
 5 
 
 1829 
 
 D 
 
 6 
 
 1830 
 
 C 
 
 7 
 
 1831 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 1832 
 
 AG 
 
 9 
 
 1833 
 
 F 
 
 10 
 
 1834 
 
 E 
 
 11 
 
 1835 
 
 D 
 
 12 
 
 1836 
 
 CB 
 
 13 
 
 1837 
 
 A 
 
 14 
 
 1838 
 
 G 
 
 15 
 
 1839 
 
 F 
 
 16 
 
 Kpact (e). 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 9 
 
 20 
 1 
 
 12 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 * 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 3 
 
 14 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 23 
 
 4 
 15 
 
 (e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 (.v). 
 
 Easier 
 Sunday. 
 
 
 24 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 April 14. 
 April 6. 
 March 29. 
 
 
 27 
 12 
 
 April 17. 
 April 2. 
 
 
 32 
 24 
 8 
 
 April 22. 
 April 14. 
 March 29. 
 
 
 28 
 20 
 
 April 18. 
 April 10. 
 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
 
 24 
 16 
 1 
 
 April 14. 
 April 6. 
 
 March 22. 
 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 
 12 
 32 
 17 
 9 
 
 April 2. 
 
 April 22. 
 April 7. 
 March 30o 
 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 
 13 
 5 
 
 April 3. 
 March 26. 
 
 
 25 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 April 15. 
 April 6. 
 April 19. 
 
 
 21 
 13 
 32 
 17 
 9 
 
 April 11. 
 April 3. 
 April 22. 
 April 7. 
 March 30. 
 
 
 29 
 13 
 5 
 
 April 19. 
 April 3. 
 March 26. 
 
 
 25 
 10 
 
 April 15, 
 March 31. 
 
180 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Ye.ir. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (ff). 
 
 Epact (e}. 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 (A). 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 1840 
 
 ED 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 1841 
 
 C 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 1842 
 
 B 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 March 27. 
 
 1843 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1844 
 
 GF 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 April 7. 
 
 1845 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 March 23. 
 
 1846 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1847 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 1848 
 
 BA 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 April 23. 
 
 1849 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 1850 
 
 F 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1851 
 
 E 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 1852 
 
 DC 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 1853 
 
 B 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 March 27. 
 
 1854 
 
 A 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1855 
 
 G 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 1856 
 
 FE 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 March 23. 
 
 1857 
 
 D 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1858 
 
 C 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 1859 
 
 B 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 April 24. 
 
 1860 
 
 AG 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 1861 
 
 F 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1862 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 1863 
 
 D 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1864 
 
 CB 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 March 27. 
 
 1865 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1866 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1867 
 
 F 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. / 
 
 1868 
 
 ED 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1869 
 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 1870 
 
 B 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1871 
 
 A 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 1872 
 
 GF 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1873 
 
 E 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 i 1874 
 
 D 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 181 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (<?) 
 
 Epact (e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 uv). 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 1875 
 
 c 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 1876 
 
 BA 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1877 
 
 G 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1878 
 
 F 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 1879 
 
 E 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 1830 
 
 DC 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 1881 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1882 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 1883 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 March 25. 
 
 1884 
 
 FE 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 1885 
 
 D 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1886 
 
 C 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 April 25. 
 
 1887 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 1888 
 
 AG 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1889 
 
 F 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 April 21, 
 
 1890 
 
 E 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 1891 
 
 D 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 1892 
 
 CB 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1893 
 
 A 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 April 2. 
 
 1894 
 
 G 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 March 25. 
 
 1895 
 
 F 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 1896 
 
 ED 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1897 
 
 C 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 1898 
 
 B 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 1899 
 
 A 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 April 2. 
 
 1900 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 1901 
 
 F 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 April 7. 
 
 1902 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 1903 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1904 
 
 CB 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 1905 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 April 23. 
 
 1906 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 1907 
 
 F 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1908 
 
 ED 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 1909 
 
 C 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (<7). 
 
 Epact(e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 (A T )- 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 1910 
 
 B 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 March 27. 
 
 1911 
 
 A 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1912 
 
 GF 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 April 7. 
 
 1913 
 
 E 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 March 23. 
 
 1914 
 
 D 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1915 
 
 C 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 1916 
 
 BA 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 April 23. 
 
 1917 
 
 G 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 1918 
 
 F 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1919 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 1920 
 
 DC 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 1921 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 March 27. 
 
 1922 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1923 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1924 
 
 FE 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 1925 
 
 D 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1926 
 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 1927 
 
 B 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1928 
 
 AG 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 1929 
 
 F 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1930 
 
 E 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 1931 
 
 D 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1932 
 
 CB 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 March 27. 
 
 1933 
 
 A 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 1934 
 
 G 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1935 
 
 F 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 1936 
 
 ED 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1937 
 
 C 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 1938 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1939 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 1940 
 
 GF 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 March 24. 
 
 1941 
 
 E 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 1942 
 
 D 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1943 
 
 C 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 April 25. 
 
 1944 
 
 BA 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
MEASUKES OF TIME. 
 
 183 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 07). 
 
 Epact (e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 uo- 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 1945 
 
 G 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1946 
 
 F 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 1947 
 
 E 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 1948 
 
 DC 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 1949 
 
 B 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1950 
 
 A 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 1951 
 
 G 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 March 25. 
 
 1952 
 
 FE 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 1953 
 
 D 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 1954 
 
 C 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 1955 
 
 B 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 1956 
 
 AG 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 1957 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 1958 
 
 E 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 1959 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 1960 
 
 CB 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 1961 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 April 2. 
 
 1962 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 April 22. 
 
 1963 
 
 F 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 1964 
 
 ED 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 1965 
 
 C 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 1966 
 
 B 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 1967 
 
 A 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
 1968 
 
 GF 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 1969 
 
 E 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 1970 
 
 D 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 1971 
 
 C 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 1972 
 
 BA 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 April 2. 
 
 1973 
 
 G 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 April 22. 
 
 1974 
 
 F 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 1975 
 
 E 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 1976 
 
 DC 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 1977 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 1978 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
 1979^ 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
184 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (?). 
 
 Epact (e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 Uv). 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 1980 
 
 FE 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 1981 
 
 D 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 1982 
 
 C 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 April 11 
 
 1983 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 1984 
 
 AG 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 April 22 
 
 1985 
 
 F 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 April 7, 
 
 1986 
 
 E 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 1987 
 
 D 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 1988 
 
 CB 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 1989 
 
 A 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
 1990 
 
 G 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 1991 
 
 F 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 1992 
 
 ED 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 1993 
 
 C 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 1994 
 
 B 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 1995 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 Apiil 16. 
 
 1996 
 
 GF 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 April 7. 
 
 1997 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 1998 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 1999 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 2000 
 
 BA 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 April 23. 
 
 2001 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 2002 
 
 F 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 2003 
 
 E 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 2004 
 
 DC 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 April 11-. 
 
 2005 
 
 B 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 March 27 
 
 2006 
 
 A 
 
 12 
 
 x 
 
 26 
 
 April 16, 
 
 2007 
 
 G 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 2008 
 
 FE 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 March 23, 
 
 2009 
 
 D 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 2010 
 
 C 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 2011 
 
 B 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 April 24. 
 
 2012 
 
 AG 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 2013 
 
 F 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 2014 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
MEASURES OP TIME. 
 
 185 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominica] 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (g}. 
 
 Epact (e] 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 (#) 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 2015 
 
 D 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 2016 
 
 CB 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 March 27, 
 
 2017 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 2018 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 2019 
 
 F 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 2020 
 
 ED 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 2021 
 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 2022 
 
 B 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 2023 
 
 A 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 2024 
 
 GF 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 March 81. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2025 
 
 E 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 2026 
 
 D 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 2027 
 
 C 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 2028 
 
 BA 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 2029 
 
 G 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 2030 
 
 F 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 2031 
 
 E 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 2032 
 
 DC 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 2033 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 2034 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 2035 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 March 25. 
 
 2036 
 
 FE 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 April 13. 
 
 2037 
 
 D 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 2038 
 
 C 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 April 25. 
 
 2039 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 2040 
 
 AG 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 April 1. 
 
 2041 
 
 F 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 2042 
 
 E 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 2043 
 
 D 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 2044 
 
 CB 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 27 
 
 April 17. 
 
 2045 
 
 A 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 April 9. 
 
 2046 
 
 G 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 March 25. 
 
 2047 
 
 F 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 2048 
 
 ED 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 April 5. 
 
 2049 
 
 C 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
186 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter. 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (3). 
 
 Epact (e). 
 
 No of 
 Direction 
 (#) 
 
 Enster 
 Sunday. 
 
 2050 
 
 B 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 2051 
 
 A 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 April 2. 
 
 2052 
 
 GF 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 April 21. 
 
 2053 
 
 E 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 2054 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 2055 
 
 C 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 2056 
 
 BA 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 April 2. 
 
 2057 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 April 22. 
 
 2058 
 
 F 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 2059 
 
 E 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 2060 
 
 DC 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 April 18. 
 
 2061 
 
 B 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 2062 
 
 A 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
 2063 
 
 G 
 
 12 
 
 * 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 2064 
 
 FE 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 April 6. 
 
 2065 
 
 D 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 March 29. 
 
 2066 
 
 G 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 2067 
 
 B 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 2068 
 
 AG 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 April 22. 
 
 2069 
 
 F 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 April 14. 
 
 2070 
 
 B 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 2071 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 2072 
 
 CB 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 April 10. 
 
 2073 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
 2074 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 2075 
 
 F 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 April 7. 
 
 2076 
 
 ED 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 2077 
 
 C 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 2078 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 2079 
 
 A 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 April 23. 
 
 2080 
 
 GF 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 April 7. 
 
 2081 
 
 E 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 2082 
 
 D 
 
 12 
 
 # 
 
 29 
 
 April 19. 
 
 2083 
 
 C 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 2084 
 
 BA 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 March 26. 
 
MEASUKES OF TIME. 
 
 187 
 
 Year. 
 
 Dominical 
 Letter 
 
 Golden 
 Number 
 (<?) 
 
 Epaot (e). 
 
 No. of 
 Direction 
 
 (N). 
 
 1 
 
 Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
 2085 
 
 G 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 2086 
 
 F 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 2087 
 
 E 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 2088 
 
 DC 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 April 11. 
 
 2089 
 
 B 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 April 3. 
 
 2090 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 April 16. 
 
 2091 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 April 8. 
 
 2092 
 
 FE 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 March 30. 
 
 2093 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 2094 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 April 4. 
 
 2095 
 
 B 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 April 24. 
 
 2096 
 
 AG 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 April 15. 
 
 2097 
 
 F 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 March 31. 
 
 2098 
 
 E 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 April 20. 
 
 2099 
 
 D 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 April 12. 
 
 2100 
 
 C 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 March 28. 
 
 HEBREW CALENDAR 
 
 A paper on the computation of the Hebrew Calendar was 
 given by Mr. Herschell Fillipowski, in the " Lady and Gen- 
 tleman's Diary," for the year 1850. As the Diary is out of 
 print the following introductory extract maybe acceptable: 
 
 "Of all calendars known the Hebrew Calendar is the 
 most complicated. It is the more remarkable on account of 
 its astronomical system as laid down by the Hebrews, 
 A.D. 358, and which, to the present time, agrees in its results 
 with the revolutions of both luminaries. 
 
 " The Hebrew Calendar is composed either of twelve or 
 thirteen months, the former being called a common the latter 
 an embolismic year. The months receive alternately thirty 
 and twenty-nine days ; thus, in a common year the number 
 of days amount to 354, whilst in an embolismic one they 
 amount to 884 ; in both these cases they are called regular 
 
188 MEASURES OP TIME. 
 
 years. The month of intercalation is always the twelfth in 
 the year, and invariably receives thirty days ; it is then called 
 ADAR THE FIRST, whilst in a common year there is only one 
 month of Adar. 
 
 " The year begins with the month of TISHRI, it being the 
 seventh in the year, and is fixed on or immediately after 
 the day of the mean new moon of that month (which always 
 takes place during the month of September), provided fee 
 new moon does not occur within the last six hours of the 
 day (the day commences and terminates at 6 p.m.). 
 
 " The new year is not to be fixed on either of the following 
 days Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday ; accordingly, if the 
 new moon happens to take place on either of these three 
 days, though within the first eighteen hours of the day, the 
 new year is postponed respectively to the next following 
 day. These regulations cause, occasionally, either the eighth 
 month, Heshvon, to receive thirty days instead of twenty- 
 nine, thus increasing the year with one day ; or the ninth 
 month, Kislev, to receive twenty-nine days instead of thirty, 
 by which the year is made one day shorter. 
 
 " The time of one mean lunar revolution is assumed by the 
 Hebrews to be 29 days, 12 hours, and 44-iV minutes, differ- 
 ing from the modern astronomers by only half a second. 
 With this they have measured, without exception, all lunar 
 months ever since the introduction of their calendar, the 
 results of which seem to correspond closely with those of 
 modern computation." 
 
 The Jews date their Calendar from the Creation, which is 
 considered by them to have occurred 3760 years and 3 months 
 before the commencement of the Christian era. The year is 
 luni- solar, and, according as it is ordinary or embolismic, 
 consists of twelve or thirteen lunar months, each of which 
 has 29 or 30 days. It is occasionally made a day more or 
 less than the mean value in order that certain festivals may 
 fall on proper days of the week for their due observance. 
 The days of the respective months, according to the number 
 comprised in the different years, are distributed as follows : 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 189 
 
 ., 
 
 Ordinary year. 
 
 Emboli.mic year. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Common. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Common. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Tisri 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Hesvan 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 Kislev 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Tebet 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 Sebat 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Adar 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 (Veadar) 
 Nisan 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 (29) 
 30 
 
 (29) 
 30 
 
 (29) 
 30 
 
 Yiar 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 Sivan 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Tamuz 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 Ab 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Elul 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 354 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 No. of"! 
 days in / 
 the year J 
 
 353 
 
 355 
 
 383 
 
 384 
 
 385 
 
 The intercalary month, Yeadar, is introduced that Pass- 
 over, the 15fch day of Nisan, may be kept at its proper 
 season, which is the full moon of the vernal equinox, or that 
 which takes place after the sun has entered the sign Aries. 
 The distribution of the embolismic years is determined by a 
 cycle of 19 years, according to the following rule. 
 
 Divide the Hebrew year by 19, the quotient is the num- 
 ber of the last completed cycle, and the remainder is the 
 year of the current cycle; should it be 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 
 17, or 19 (0), the year is embolismic ; if any other it is 
 ordinary. 
 
 Or if Y denote the year, and 
 
 7p- 
 - 
 
 the year is embolismic when R > 11. 
 
 The calendar is constructed by assuming the mean luna- 
 tion to be 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 3J- sec., and that the 
 year commences on, or immediately after, the new moon 
 
100 MEASTJKES OP TIME. 
 
 following the autumnal equinox. The mean solar year i& 
 also assumed to be 365 days 5 hours 55 min. 25ff sec. 1 , so 
 that a cycle of nineteen of such years contains 6939 days 
 16 hours 33 min. 3^ sec., the exact measure of 235 of the 
 assumed lunations. The year 5606 was the first of a cycle, 
 and the computed new moon answering to the 1st of Tisri 
 for that year was 1845, Oct. 1, 15h. 42m. 43^s., accord- 
 ing to Lindo, adopting the civil mode of reckoning from the 
 previous midnight. The future times of new moon are con- 
 sequently deduced by successively adding 29 days 12h. 44m. 
 3^-s. to this date. 
 
 Or to compute the times of new moon which belong 
 to the commencement of successive years, we must in 
 passing from an ordinary year, deduce the new moon of 
 the following year by subtracting the interval that twelve 
 lunations fall short of the corresponding Gregorian year of 
 365 or 366 days ; and for an embolismic year we must add 
 the excess of thirteen lunations over the Gregorian year ; 
 that is, to get the new moon of Tisri for the year imme- 
 diately following any given year Y, we must, 
 
 for an ordinary year, subtract < > days 15h. llin. 20s., 
 
 embolismic add j ~ i days 21h. 32m. 43^-s., 
 
 the second mentioned number of days being used whenever 
 the year Yia divisible by 4 without a remainder, or, more 
 correctly, when the following or new Gregorian year is 
 bissextile. 
 
 Thus, by knowing which of the years are embolismic, from 
 their ordinal position in the cycle, according to the rule be- 
 fore stated, the times of the commencement of successive 
 years may be carried on indefinitely without much trouble. 
 
 1 This being 6 min. 37 sec. in excess of the mean solar year, the dates 
 of commencement of future Jewish years so calculated will advance for- 
 ward from the equinox a day in error in every 218 years. The lunations 
 it will be observed, are estimated with greater precision. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 191 
 
 We annex a few by way of example, and have distinguished 
 by a * the years which are embolismic and bissextile. The 
 hours are counted from the previous midnight, according to 
 the civil reckoning. 
 
 d. h. m. s. 
 
 Year 5GOO, 
 
 year of cycle 1, 
 
 date 1845 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 15 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 5607 
 
 
 
 2, 
 
 
 1846 
 
 Sept. 21 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 23 
 
 5608 
 
 
 
 *3, 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 5G09 
 
 
 
 4, 
 
 
 *1848 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 46s- 
 
 5610 
 
 
 
 5, 
 
 
 1840 
 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 41 
 
 26| 
 
 5611 
 
 
 
 *6, 
 
 
 1850 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 q 
 
 5612 
 
 
 
 7, 
 
 
 1851 
 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 5613 
 
 
 
 *8, 
 
 
 *1852 
 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 51 
 
 30 
 
 5614 
 
 
 
 9, 
 
 
 1853 
 
 Oct. 3 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 13J 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 But it must be observed, for the reasons before assigned, 
 to avoid certain festivals falling on incompatible days of the 
 week, that the year must not begin on a Sunday, "Wednes- 
 day, or Friday, so that if the computed conjunction falls on 
 one of these days the new year is to be fixed on the day 
 after. The following conditions also require to be attended 
 to: 
 
 If the computed new moon be after 12h. the following 
 day is to be taken, and if that happen to be Sunday, 
 Wednesday, or Friday, it must be postponed one day more. 
 
 If in an ordinary year the new moon is on Tuesday, as 
 late as 9h. llm. 20s., it is not to be observed thereon ; and, 
 as it may not be held on Wednesday, it is to be postponed 
 to Thursday. 
 
 If in a year immediately following an embolismic year 
 the new moon is on Monday, as late as 15h. 30m. 52s., the 
 new year is to be fixed on Tuesday. 
 
 The number of days contained in any given Jewish year, 
 and the day of the week on which it commences, may be 
 readily calculated by means of the following tables, the use 
 of which will be best explained by an example. 
 
192 
 
 MEASURES or 
 
 Example. Eequired the character of the Jewish yeai 
 5640. 
 
 Having found the next less year in the table of completed 
 cycles, the calculation is as follows : 
 
 Proposed year .... 5640 
 
 296 cycles 5624 
 
 Tear of cycle . . 16 
 
 Number 2525,480 
 (5 = 11) 2278,271 
 
 Sum 4803,751 
 
 Eeferring to the third table in the column under R = 11, 
 the number next less to this sum is 4743,996, and it stands 
 opposite to " 354 Thur.," showing that the year is ordinary, 
 contains 354 days, and begins on a Thursday. 
 
 By the second table the approximate date of com- 
 mencement is 17 Sept., and the corresponding year of our 
 Lord is 5640 3761 = 1879. Now, referring to the table, 
 page 146, the Dominical letter for this year is E, and 
 17 Sept. is "Wednesday. Therefore, as the Jewish year has 
 been found to begin on a Thursday, the true date of com- 
 mencement is 18 Sept. 1879. 
 
 The Gregorian epact being the age of the moon of Tebet 
 at the beginning of the year, it represents the day of Tebet 
 which corresponds to Jan. 1 ; and the approximate date of 
 Tisri 1 may be otherwise deduced by subtracting the epact 
 
 from / Se P*- 24 \ after an { ordinar ? . \ year. 
 I Oct. 24 J I embolismic J J 
 
 The result so obtained would in general be more accurate 
 than the Jewish calculation, and it may differ a day from 
 the latter, as fractions of a day are omitted in these com- 
 putations. The difference may, however, be adjusted as 
 before by means of the day of the week. 
 
MEAStTBES OF TIME. 
 
 103 
 
 Com- 
 pleted 
 
 Cycles. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number. 
 
 295 
 296 
 297 
 298 
 299 
 
 5C05 
 5624 
 5643 
 5662 
 5681 
 
 1200,895 
 2525,480 
 402,705 
 1727,290 
 3051,8/5 
 
 300 
 301 
 302 
 303 
 304 
 
 5700 
 5719 
 5738 
 5757 
 5776 
 
 929,100 
 2253,685 
 130,910 
 1455,495 
 2780,080 
 
 305 
 306 
 
 307 
 
 308 
 309 
 
 5795 
 5814 
 5833 
 5852 
 5871 
 
 657,305 
 1981,8.00 
 3306,475 
 1183,700 
 2508,285 
 
 310 
 311 
 312 
 313 
 314 
 
 5890 
 5909 
 5928 
 5947 
 5966 
 
 385,510 
 1710,095 
 3034,680 
 911,905 
 2236,490 
 
 315 
 31C 
 317 
 318 
 319 
 320 
 
 6985 
 6004 
 6023 
 6042 
 6061 
 6080 
 
 113,715 
 1438,300 
 2762,885 
 640,110 
 1964,695 
 3289,280 
 
 Year of 
 Cycle. 
 
 R. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Approximate 
 Commence- 
 ment (Tisri 1 ). 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 8 
 15 
 3 
 
 ~10~ 
 17 
 5 
 12 
 
 
 722,076 
 2872,800 
 lf>76,164 
 1033,315 
 
 2 Oct. * 
 21 Sept. 
 
 10 ,; 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 3184,039 
 1887,403 
 1344,554 
 47,918 
 2952,429 
 
 18 Sept. 
 8 
 27 
 15 
 4 Oct. 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 7 
 14 
 2 
 9 
 16 
 
 1655,793 
 359,157 
 3263,608 
 1907,032 
 670,396 
 
 23 Sept. 
 12 
 1 Oct. 
 20 Sept. 
 9 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 
 4 
 11 
 18 
 6 
 13 
 
 127,547 
 2278,271 
 981,635 
 438,786 
 2589,510 
 
 28 Sept. 
 17 ,, 
 
 25 
 14 
 
 * The corresponding year of our Lord 
 is obtained by subtracting 3761 from the 
 Jewish year, and vice versa; and the ap- 
 proximate date of commencement may be 
 adjusted to the accurate date by means of 
 the true day of the week taken from the 
 next table. 
 
 Ordinary Years. 
 
 i Embolismic Years. 
 
 Character. 
 
 R = ... 4 
 
 J2 = 5,6 
 
 R = 7 . ..11 
 
 R = 12... 18 
 
 Character. 
 
 353 Mon. 
 355 Mon. 
 354 Tues. 
 
 
 311,676 
 934,591 
 
 
 311,676 
 
 934,591 
 
 
 311,676 
 984,900 
 
 
 542,849 
 984,060 
 
 383 Mon. 
 385 Mon. 
 384 Tues. 
 
 354 Thur. 
 355 Thur. 
 353 Sat. 
 355 Sat. 
 
 1296,636 
 2281,596 
 2462,400 
 2593,272 
 
 1296,636 
 2281,596 
 2462,400 
 2774,076 
 
 1296,630 
 2281,596 
 2462,400 
 
 2774,076 
 
 1477,440 
 183!),48<") 
 2462,400 
 ! 3005,249 
 
 383 Thur. 
 385 Thur. 
 383 Sat. 
 385 Sat. 
 
 353 Mon. 
 355 Mon. 
 354 Tues. 
 
 3447,360 
 3759,036 
 4381,951 
 
 3447,360 
 3759,036 
 4381,951 
 
 3447,360 
 3759,036 
 4432,320 
 
 3447,300 
 39.00,209 
 4432,320 
 
 383 Mon. 
 385 Mon. 
 384 Tues. 
 
 354 Thur. 
 355 Thur. 
 353 Sat. 
 355 Sat. 
 
 4743,996 
 5728,956 
 5909,760 
 6040,632 
 
 4743,996 
 5728,956 
 5909,760 
 6221,436 
 
 4743,996 
 5728,956 
 5009,700 
 6221,436 
 
 4924,800 
 5286,845 
 5<J09,760 
 6452,609 
 
 383 Thur. 
 385 Thur. 
 383 Sat. 
 385 Sat. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 The annexed table exhibits the principal fasts and festivals, and it is 
 followed by a table of the dates, &c. of Jewish years up to the year 
 2072, and the completion of the 307th cycle. Whei* the date of com- 
 mencement and number of days contained in a year are known, the number 
 of days contained in the several months are shown in the table, page 189, 
 and the construction of a detailed calendar for that year is obvious. 
 
 Principal Days oftlie JEWISH CALEKDAK. 
 
 Tebet 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 10 Fast, 
 
 1st of Tebet. 
 Fast; Siege of Jerusalem. 
 
 Sebat 
 
 1 
 
 1st of Sebat. 
 
 Adar 
 if 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 13, or 11 ifTisri 1\ 
 be Thursday J 
 
 }<}pi 
 
 1st of Adar. 
 
 Fast of Esther! In Embol Years 
 ,-p . ^substitute Veadar, 
 iSe U ZlDayJ d same days. 
 
 Vcadar 
 
 i 
 
 1st of Veadar (if Embolisrnic Year). 
 
 Nisan 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^Passover 
 
 1st of Nisan. 
 J Passover, 
 t Second Day. 
 
 Yiar 
 
 1 
 
 1st of Yiar. 
 
 Sivan 
 
 
 PI 
 
 kjSebuot 
 
 1st of Sivan. 
 / Pentecost. 
 V Second Day. 
 
 Tainuz 
 
 
 1 
 
 17, or 18 if Tisri l'\ 
 be Monday J 
 
 1st of Tamuz. 
 Fast ; Taking of Jerusalem. 
 
 Ab 
 n 
 
 1 
 9, or 10 if Tisri n 
 be Monday J 
 
 1st of Ab. 
 Fast ; Destruction of the Temple. 
 
 Elul 
 
 1 
 
 1st of Elul. 
 
 TlSRI 
 
 1 New Year 
 2 
 3 ; or 4 if Tisri 1 \ 
 be Thursday J 
 10 Kipur 
 
 JjjlTabernade. 
 21 Hosana Raba 
 
 99 "i 
 
 23Jthday 
 
 1st of Tisri (Yr . . . . begins). 
 Second Day. 
 
 Fast of Guedaliah. 
 
 Fast of Expiation. 
 ( Feast of Tabernacles. 
 \Second Day. 
 Last day of the Festival, 
 f Feast of the 8th day. 
 1 Rejoicing of the Law. 
 
 Hesvan 
 
 I 
 
 1st of Hesvan. 
 
 Kislev 
 
 1 
 25 Hanuca 
 
 1st of Kislev. 
 Dedication of the Temple. 
 
 Tebet 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 &o. 
 
 1st of Tebet. 
 &c. 
 
 
MEASVBES OF TIME. 
 
 195 
 
 Table of HEBREW YEABS. 
 
 
 Num. 
 
 Commencement 
 
 
 Num. 
 
 Commencement 
 
 Jcwiih 
 
 ber of 
 
 (1st Of Tisri). 
 
 Jewish 
 
 ber of 
 
 (UtofTisrlj. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 5COG 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 2 Oct. 1845 
 
 5644 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 2 Oct. 1883 
 
 07 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 21 Sept. 1846 
 
 45 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 20 Sept. 1884 
 
 08 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 11 Sept. 1847 
 
 46 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 Sept. 1885 
 
 09 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 28 Sept. 1848 
 
 47 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 30 Sept. 1886 
 
 10 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 17 Sept. 1849 
 
 48 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 19 Sept. 1887 
 
 11 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 7 Sept. 1850 
 
 49 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 6 Sept. 1888 
 
 12 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 27 Sept. 1851 
 
 50 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 26 Sept. 1889 
 
 13 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 14 Sept. 1852 
 
 51 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 15 Sept. 1890 
 
 ,214 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 3 Oct. 1853 
 
 c;52 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 3 Oct. 1891 
 
 gl6 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 23 Sept. 1854 
 
 U53 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 22 Sept. 1892 
 
 16 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 13 Sept. 1855 
 
 054 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 11 Sept. 1893 
 
 I 1 ? 
 
 354 
 
 Tucs. 
 
 30 Sept. 1856 
 
 55 
 
 353 
 
 Mon, 
 
 1 Oct. 1894 
 
 S 18 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 19 Sept. 1857 
 
 56 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 19 Sept. 1895 
 
 10 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 9 Sept. 1858 
 
 57 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 8 Sept. 1896 
 
 20 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 29 Sept. 1859 
 
 58 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 27 Sept. 1897 
 
 21 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 17 Sept. I860 
 
 59 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 17 Sept. 1898 
 
 22 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 5 Sept. 1861 
 
 60 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 5 Sept. 1899 
 
 23 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 25 Sept. 1862 
 
 61 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 24 Sept. 1900 
 
 24 
 
 383 
 
 Mori. 
 
 14 Sept. 1863 
 
 62 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 14 Sept. 1901 
 
 5625 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 1 Oct. 1864 
 
 5663 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 2 Oct. 1902 
 
 26 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 21 Sept. 1865 
 
 64 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 22 Sept. 1903 
 
 27 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 10 Sept. 1866 
 
 65 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 10 Sept. 1904 
 
 28 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 30 Sept. 1867 
 
 66 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 30 Sept. 1905 
 
 29 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 17 Sept. 1868 
 
 67 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 20 Sept. 1906 
 
 30 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 6 Sept. ] 869 
 
 68 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 9 Sept. 1907 
 
 31 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 26 Sept. 1870 
 
 69 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 26 Sept. 1908 
 
 32 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 16 Sept. 1871 
 
 70 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 16 Sept. 1909 
 
 ^33 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 3 Oct. 1872 
 
 -71 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 4 Oct. 1910 
 
 U34 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 22 Sept. 1873 
 
 72 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 23 Sept. 1911 
 
 ^35 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 12 Sept. 1874 
 
 ^73 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 12 Sept. 1912 
 
 ci30 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 30 Sept. 1875 
 
 3?4 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 2 Oct. 1913 
 
 ^7 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 19 Sept, 1876 
 
 75 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 21 Sept. 1914 
 
 38 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 8 Sept. 1877 
 
 76 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 9 Sept. 1915 
 
 39 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 28 Sept. 1878 
 
 77 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 28 Sept. 1916 
 
 40 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 18 Sept. 1879 
 
 78 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 17 Sept. 1917 
 
 41 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 6 Sept. 1880 
 
 79 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 7 Sept. 1918 
 
 42 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 24 Sept. 1881 
 
 80 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 25 Sept. 1919 
 
 43 383 
 
 Thur. 14 Sept. 1882 
 
 81 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 13 Sept. 1920 
 
 K 2 
 
196 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Table of HEBREW YEAES. 
 
 Jewish 
 Year. 
 
 Num. 
 ber of 
 
 Days. 
 
 Commencement 
 (IstofTisii). 
 
 Jewish 
 Year. 
 
 Num- 
 ber of 
 Days. 
 
 Commencement 
 (Istot Tisri> 
 
 5682 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 3 Oct. 1921 
 
 5720 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 3 Oct. 1959 
 
 83 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 23 Sept. 1922 
 
 21 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 22 Sept. i960 
 
 84 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 11 Sept. 1923 
 
 22 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 11 Sept. 1901 
 
 85 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 29 Sept. 1924 
 
 23 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 29 Sept. 19G2 
 
 8G 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 19 Sept. 1925 
 
 24 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 19 Sept. UJG3 
 
 87 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 9 Sept. 1926 
 
 25 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 7 Sept. 19C4 
 
 8 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 27 Sept. 1927 
 
 26 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 27 Sept. 1905 
 
 89 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 15 Sept. 1928 
 
 27 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 15 Sept. UJ6G 
 
 ^90 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 5 Oct. 1929 
 
 ,228 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 5 Oct. 1<J67 
 
 91 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 23 Sept. 1930 
 
 29 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 23 Sept. 1908 
 
 c 92 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 12 Sept. 1931 
 
 S 30 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 13 Sept. 1969 
 
 g 3 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 1 Oct. 1932 
 
 1 31 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 1 Oct. 1970 
 
 W 94 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 21 Sept. 1933 
 
 "32 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 20 Sept. 1971 
 
 95 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 10 Sept. 1934 
 
 33 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 9 Sept. 1972 
 
 90 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 28 Sept. 1935 
 
 34 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 27 Sept. 1973 
 
 97 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 17 Sept. 1936 
 
 35 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 17 Sept. 1974 
 
 98 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 6 Sept. 1937 
 
 36 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 6 Sept. 1975 
 
 99 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 26 Sept. 1938 
 
 37 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 25 Sept. 1976 
 
 5700 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 14 Sept. 1939 
 
 38 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 13 Sept. 1977 
 
 5701 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 3 Oct. 1940 
 
 5/39 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 2 Oct. 1978 
 
 02 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 22 Sept. 1941 
 
 40 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 22 Sept. 1979 
 
 03 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 12 Sept. 1942 
 
 41 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 11 Sept. 1980 
 
 04 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 30 Sept. 1943 
 
 42 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 29 Sept. 1981 
 
 05 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 18 Sept. 1944 
 
 43 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 18 Sept. 1982 
 
 06 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 8 Sept. 1945 
 
 44 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 8 Sept. 1983 
 
 07 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 26 Sept. 1946 
 
 45 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 27 Sept. 1984 
 
 08 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 15 Sept. 1947 
 
 ^46 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 16 Sept. 1985 
 
 ^09 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 4 Oct. 1948 
 
 47 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 4 Oct. 1986 
 
 |io 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 24 Sept. 1949 
 
 48 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 24 Sept. 1987 
 
 ll 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 12 Sept. 1950 
 
 i 49 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 12 Sept. 1988 
 
 i 12 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 1 Oct. 1951 
 
 W 50 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 30 Sept. 1989 
 
 60 13 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 20 Sept. 1952 
 
 51 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 20 Sept. 1 990 
 
 14 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 Sept. 1953 
 
 52 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 9 Sept. 1991 
 
 15 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 28 Sept. 1954 
 
 53 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 28 Sept. 1992 
 
 16 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 17 Sept. 1955 
 
 54 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 16 Sept. 1993 
 
 17 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 6 Sept. 1956 
 
 55 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 6 Sept, 1994 
 
 18 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 26 Sept. 1957 
 
 56 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 25 Sept. 1995 
 
 191383 
 
 Men. 
 
 15 Sept. 1958 
 
 57 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 14 Sept. 1996 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 197 
 
 Table of HEBREW YEARS. 
 
 Jewish 
 Year. 
 
 her of 
 Days. 
 
 Commencement 
 (IstofTisri). 
 
 1 Jewish 
 Year. 
 
 Num. 
 berof 
 Days. 
 
 (IstofTisri). 
 
 5758 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 2 Oct. 1997 
 
 5796 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 4 Oct. 2035 
 
 59 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 21 Sept. 1998 
 
 97 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 22 Sept. 2036 
 
 CO 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 11 Sept. 1999 
 
 98 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 Sept. 2037 
 
 61 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 30 Sept. 2000 
 
 99 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 30 Sept. 2038 
 
 62 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 18 Sept. 2001 
 
 5800 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 19 Sept. 2039 
 
 63 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 7 Sept. 2002 
 
 01 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 8 Sept. 2040 
 
 64 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 27 Sept. 2003 
 
 02 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 26 Sept. 2041 
 
 65 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 16 Sept. 2004 
 
 03 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 15 Sept. 2042 
 
 ^66 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 4 Oct. 2005 
 
 ^04 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 5 Oct. 2043 
 
 fi7 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 23 Sept. 2006 
 
 05 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 22 Sept. 2044 
 
 ^68 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 13 Sept. 2007 
 
 S 6 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 12 Sept. 2045 
 
 o 69 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 30 Sept. 2008 
 
 |07 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 1 Oct. 2046 
 
 W 70 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 19 Sept. 2009 
 
 "08 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 21 Sept. 2047 
 
 71 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 9 Sept. 2010 
 
 09 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 8 Sept. 2048 
 
 72 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 29 Sept, 2011 
 
 10 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 27 Sept. 2049 
 
 73 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 17 Sept. 2012 
 
 11 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 17 Sept. 2050 
 
 74 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 5 Sept. 2013 
 
 12 
 
 383 
 
 Thur. 
 
 7 Sept. 2051 
 
 75 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 25 Sept. 2014 
 
 13 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 24 Sept. 2052 
 
 76 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 14 Sept. 2015 
 
 14 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 13 Sept. 2053 
 
 5777 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 3 Oct. 2016 
 
 5815 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 3 Oct. 2054 
 
 78 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 21 Sept. 2017 
 
 16 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 23 Sept. 2055 
 
 79 
 
 385 
 
 Mon. 
 
 10 Sept. 2018 
 
 17 
 
 3fl3 
 
 Mon. 
 
 11 Sept. 2056 
 
 80 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 30 Sept. 2019 
 
 18 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 29 Sept, 2057 
 
 81 
 
 353 
 
 Sat. 
 
 19 Sept. 2020 
 
 19 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 19 Sept. 2058 
 
 82 
 
 384 
 
 Tues. 
 
 7 Sept. 2021 
 
 20 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 8 Sept. 2059 
 
 83 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 26 Sept. 2022 
 
 21 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 25 Sept. 2060 
 
 84 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 16 Sept. 2023 
 
 22 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 15 Sept. 2061 
 
 85 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 3 Oct. 2024 
 
 ^23 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 5 Oct. 2062 
 
 5 8G 
 
 354 
 
 Tues. 
 
 23 Sept. 2025 
 
 24 
 
 353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 24 Sept. 2063 
 
 %W 
 
 385 
 
 Sat. 
 
 12 Sept. 2026 
 
 25 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 11 Sept. 2064 
 
 088 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 2 Oct. 2027 
 
 o26 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 1 Oct. 2065 
 
 89 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 21 Sept. 2028 
 
 "27 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 20 Sept. 2066 
 
 flO 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 10 Sept. 2029 
 
 28 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 10 Sept. 2067 
 
 91 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 28 Sept. 2030 
 
 29 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 27 Sept. 2068 
 
 92 
 
 354 
 
 Thur. 
 
 18 Sept. 2031 
 
 30 
 
 355 
 
 Mon. 
 
 16 Sept. 206!) 
 
 93 
 
 383 
 
 Mon. 
 
 6 Sept, 2032 
 
 31 
 
 383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 6 Sept. 2070 
 
 94 
 
 355 
 
 Sat. 
 
 24 Sept. 2033 
 
 32 
 
 355 
 
 Thur. 
 
 24 Sept. 2071 
 
 95 
 
 385 
 
 Thur. 
 
 14 Sept. 2034 
 
 33 
 
 384 
 
 Tues . 
 
 13 Sept. 20/2 
 
198 
 
 MAHOMETAN CALENDAR. 
 
 The Mahometan era, or era of the Hegira, employed in 
 Turkey, Persia, Arabia, &c., is dated from the flight of 
 Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, which was in the night of 
 Thursday the 15th of July, A.D. 622, and it commenced on 
 the day following. The years of the Hegira are purely lunar, 
 and always consist of twelve lunar months commencing with 
 the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to 
 keep them to the same season with respect to the Sun, so 
 that they retrograde through all the seasons in about 32J 
 years. They are also partitioned into cycles of 30 years, 19 
 of which are common years of 354 days each, and the other 
 11 are intercalary years having an additional day appended 
 to the last month. The mean length of the year is there- 
 fore 354|- days or 354 days 8 hours 48 min., which divided 
 by 12 gives 29^| days or 29 days 12 hours 44 min. as the 
 time of a mean lunation, and this differs from the astrono- 
 mical mean lunation by only 3 seconds. This small error 
 will not amount to a day in less than 2300 years. 
 
 To find if a year is intercalary or common, divide it by 30 j 
 the quotient will be the number of completed cycles and the 
 remainder will be the year of the current cycle ; if this last 
 be one of the numbers 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21,24, 26, 29, 
 the year is intercalary and consists of 355 days ; if it be any 
 other number, the year is ordinary. 
 
 Or if Y denote the number of the year, and 
 
 7? - i llY + U \ 
 
 S V 30" A' 
 
 the year is intercalary when It, < 11. 
 
 Also the number of intercalary years from the year 1 up 
 
 to the year J" inclusive = f 11 "t j ; and the same,e 
 
 /ll Y + 
 elusive of the year Y, ( 
 
 \ 60 
 
MEASTJBES OF TIME. 
 
 199, 
 
 To find the day of the week on which any year of the 
 Hegira begins, we observe that the year 1 began on a 
 Friday, and that after every common year of 354 days, or 
 50 weeks and 4 days, the day of the week must necessarily 
 become postponed 4 days, besides the additional day of each 
 intercalary year. 
 
 Hence if w 1 
 indicate Sun. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 5 I 6 
 
 Thur. Frid. 
 
 7 
 Sat. 
 
 the day of the week on which the year Y commences will be 
 w = 2 + 4 V + n + 3 (rejecting sevens) ; 
 
 which admits of being reduced to the more convenient- 
 formula 
 
 w= 7 - (j) r + 3 ( U f Q + \ (rejecting sevens), 
 
 the values of which obviously circulate in a period of 7 times 
 30 or 210 years. 
 
 Let O denote the number of completed cycles, and y the 
 year of the cycle ; then Y= 30 + y, and 
 
 From this formula the following table has been con- 
 structed : 
 
 Year of the 
 Current Cyc 
 
 e 
 
 Number of the Period of Seven Cycles = (~ \ 
 
 (y)' 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 a:n. 
 
 *2 
 
 *10 
 
 *18 
 
 *26 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 *5 
 
 *13 
 
 *2l 
 
 *2J 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 G 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 *7 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 
 *1G 
 
 *24 
 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Frid. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Mon, 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 Tues. 
 
200 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 To find from this table the day of the week on which any 
 year of the Hegira commences, the rule to be observed will 
 be as follows : 
 
 Rule. Divide the year of the Hegira by 30 ; the quotient 
 Is the number of cycles, and the remainder is the year of the 
 current cycle. Next divide the number of cycles by 7, and 
 the second remainder will be the Number of the Period, 
 which being found at the top of the table, and the year of 
 the cycle on the left hand, the required day of the week is 
 immediately shown. 
 
 The intercalary years of the cycle are distinguished by an 
 asterisk. 
 
 For the computation of the Christian date, the ratio of a 
 mean year of the Hegira to a solar year is 
 
 Year of Hegira _ 354 ^ = . 9702 24 
 Mean solar year 365'24222 " 
 
 The year 1 began 16 July, G22, Old Style, or 19 July, G22, 
 according to the New or Gregorian Style. Now the day of 
 the year answering to the 19th of July is 200 which, in parts 
 of the solar year, is 0'5476, and the number of years elapsed 
 = Y 1. Therefore, as the intercalary days are distributed 
 with considerable regularity in both calendars, the date 
 of commencement of the year Y expressed in Gregorian 
 years is 
 
 970224 (Y- 1) + 622*5470, 
 or 0-970224 Y+ 621-5774. 
 
 This formula gives the following rule for calculating the dale 
 of the commencement of any year of the Hegira, according 
 to the Gregorian or New Style. 
 
 Rule. Multiply 970224 by the year of the Hegira, cut 
 off six decimals from the product, and add 621'5774. The 
 
H2AS-JEE3 OF TIME. 
 
 sum will be the year of the Christian era, and the day of the 
 year will be found by multiplying the decimal figures by 
 365. 
 
 The result may sometimes differ a day from the truth 
 as the intercalary days do not occur simultaneously ; but as 
 the day of the week can always be accurately obtained from the 
 foregoing table, the error, if any, can be readily adjusted. 
 
 Example. Required the date on which the year 1362 of 
 the Hegira begins. 
 
 970224 
 1362 
 
 1940443 
 5821344 
 2910672 
 970224 
 
 1321-445088 
 621-5774 
 
 1943-0225 
 365 
 
 1125 
 1350 
 675 
 
 8-2125 
 
 Thus the date is the Sth day, or 8 January, of the year 1943. 
 
 To find, as a test, the accurate day of the week, the pro- 
 posed year of the Hegira divided by 30 gives 45 cycles and 
 remainder 12, the year of the current cycle. 
 
 Also 45 divided by 7 leaves a remainder 3 for the number 
 of the period. 
 
 Therefore, referring to 3 at the top of the table and 12 
 on the left, the required day is Friday. 
 
 The tables, pages 154-5, show that 8 Jan, 1943 is a 
 Friday ; therefore the date is exact. 
 
202 MEASUEES OF TIME. 
 
 For any other date of the Mahometan year it is only re- 
 quisite to know the names of the consecutive months, and 
 the length of each j these are, 
 
 Muharram ... 30 
 
 Saphar .... 29 
 
 Eabial 30 
 
 Eabiall. ... 29 
 
 Jornada I. ... 30 
 
 Jornada II. ... 29 
 
 Bajab . , . . 30 
 
 Shaaban ... 29 
 
 Eamadan ... 30 
 
 Shawall .... 29 
 
 Dulkaada ... 30 
 
 Dulheggia . . . 29^1 
 
 and, in intercalary 
 
 years, 30 days. 
 
 r 
 
 The ninth month, Eamadan, is the month of Abstinence 
 observed by the Turks. 
 
 The Turkish calendar may evidently be carried on in- 
 definitely by successive addition, observing only to allow for 
 the additional day that occurs in the bissextile and inter- 
 calary years ; but for any remote date the computation 
 according to the preceding rules will be most efficient, and 
 such computation may be usefully employed as a check on 
 the accuracy of any considerable extension of the calendar 
 by induction alone. 
 
 The following table shows the dates of commencement of 
 Mahometan years for 1845 up to 2047, or from the 43rd to 
 the 49th cycle inclusive, which form the whole of the seventh 
 period of seven cycles. Throughout the next period of seven 
 cycles, and all other like periods, the days of the week will 
 recur in exactly the same order. 
 
 All the tables hitherto published, of this kind, which 
 extend beyond the year 1900 of the Christian era, are 
 erroneous, not excepting the celebrated Trench work, I? Art 
 de verifier les Dates, so justly regarded as the greatest 
 authority in chronological matters. The errors have pro- 
 bably arisen from a continued excess of 10 in the discrimi- 
 nation of the intercalary years, and they have been faithfully 
 transcribed by other authors. 
 
MEASUilES OE TIME. 
 
 203 
 
 Table of MAHOMETAN YEABS. 
 
 43rd Cycle. 
 
 44th Cycle. 
 
 Year of 
 Hegira. 
 
 Commencement 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 Year of 
 Hegira. 
 
 Commencement 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 1261 
 
 Frid. 
 
 10 Jan. 1845 
 
 1291 
 
 Wed. 
 
 18 Feb. 1874 
 
 1262* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 30 Dec. 1845 
 
 1292* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 7 Feb. 1875 
 
 1203 
 
 Sun. 
 
 20 Dec. 1846 
 
 1293 
 
 Frid. 
 
 28 Jan. 1876 
 
 12G4 
 
 Thur. 
 
 9 Dec. 1847 
 
 1294 
 
 Tues. 
 
 16 Jan. 1877 
 
 1265* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 27 Nov. 1848 
 
 1295* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 5 Jan. 1878 
 
 1266 
 
 Sat. 
 
 17 Nov. 1849 
 
 1296 
 
 Thur. 
 
 26 Dec. 1878 
 
 1267* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 6 Nov. 1850 
 
 1297* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 15 Dec. 1879 
 
 1268 
 
 Mon. 
 
 27 Oct. 1851 
 
 1298 
 
 Sat. 
 
 4 Dec. 1880 
 
 1269 
 
 Frid. 
 
 15 Oct. 1852 
 
 1299 
 
 Wed. 
 
 23 Nov. 1881 
 
 1270* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 4 Oct. 1853 
 
 1300* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 12 Nov. 1882 
 
 1271 
 
 Sun. 
 
 24 Sept. 1854 
 
 1301 
 
 Frid. 
 
 2 Nov. 1883 
 
 1272 
 
 Thur. 
 
 13 Sept. 1855 
 
 1302 
 
 Tues. 
 
 21 Oct. 18H4 
 
 1273* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 1 Sept. 1856 
 
 1303* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 10 Oct. 1885 
 
 1274 
 
 Sat. 
 
 22 Aug. 1857 
 
 1304 
 
 Thur. 
 
 30 Sept. 1886 
 
 1275 
 
 Wed. 
 
 11 Aug. 1858 
 
 1305 
 
 Mon. 
 
 19 Sept. 1887 
 
 1276* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 31 July 1859 
 
 1306* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 7 Sept. 1888 
 
 1277 
 
 Frid. 
 
 20 July 1860 
 
 1307 
 
 Wed. 
 
 28 Aug. 1889 
 
 1278* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 9 July 1861 
 
 1308* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 17 Aug. 1890 
 
 1279 
 
 Sun. 
 
 29 June 1862 
 
 1309 
 
 Frid. 
 
 7 Aug. 1891 
 
 1280 
 
 Thur. 
 
 18 June 18G3 
 
 1310 
 
 Tues. 
 
 26 July 1892 
 
 1281* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 6 June 1864 
 
 1311* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 15 July 1893 
 
 1282 
 
 Sat. 
 
 27 May 1865 
 
 1312 
 
 Thur. 
 
 5 July 1894 
 
 1283 
 
 Wed. 
 
 1C May 1866 
 
 1313 
 
 Mon. 
 
 24 June 1895 
 
 1284* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 5 May 1867 
 
 1314* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 12 June 1896 
 
 1285 
 
 Frid. 
 
 24 April 1868 
 
 1315 
 
 Wed. 
 
 2 June 1897 
 
 1286* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 13 April 1869 
 
 1316* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 22 May 1898 
 
 1287 
 
 Sun. 
 
 3 April 1870 
 
 1317 
 
 Frid. 
 
 12 May 1899 
 
 1288 
 
 Thur. 
 
 23 Mar. 1871 
 
 1318 
 
 Tues. 
 
 1 May 1900 
 
 1289* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 11 Mar. 1872 
 
 1319* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 20 April 1901 
 
 1290 
 
 Sat. 
 
 I Mar. 1873 
 
 1320 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 April 1^2 
 
204 
 
 MEASURES OE TIMB. 
 
 Table of MAHOMETAN YEARS. 
 
 45th Cycle. 
 
 46th Cycle. 
 
 Year of 
 
 Commencement 
 
 Year of 
 
 Commencement 
 
 Hegira. 
 
 (1 st of Muharram). 
 
 Hegira. 
 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 1321 
 
 Mon. 
 
 30 Mar. 1903 
 
 1351 
 
 Sat. 
 
 7 May 1932 
 
 1322* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 18 Mar. 1904 
 
 1352* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 26 April 1933 
 
 1323 
 
 Wed. 
 
 8 Mar. 1905 
 
 1353 
 
 Mon. 
 
 16 April 1934 
 
 1324 
 
 Sun. 
 
 25 Feb. 1906 
 
 1354 
 
 Frid. 
 
 5 April 1935 
 
 1325* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 14 Feb. 1907 
 
 1355* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 24 Mar. 1936 
 
 1326 
 
 Tues. 
 
 4 Feb. 1908 
 
 1356 
 
 Sun. 
 
 14 Mar. 1937 
 
 1327* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 23 Jan. 1909 
 
 1357* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 3 Mar. 1938 
 
 1328 
 
 Thur. 
 
 13 Jan. 1910 
 
 1358 
 
 Tues. 
 
 21 Feb. 1939 
 
 1329 
 
 Mon. 
 
 2 Jan. 1911 
 
 1359 
 
 Sat. 
 
 10 Feb. 1940 
 
 1330* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 22 Dec. 1911 
 
 1300* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 29 Jan. 1941 
 
 1331 
 
 Wed. 
 
 11 Dec. 1912 
 
 1361 
 
 Mon. 
 
 19 Jan. 1942 
 
 1332 
 
 Sun. 
 
 30 Nov. 1913 
 
 1362 
 
 Frid. 
 
 8 Jan. 1943 
 
 1333* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 19 Nov. 1914 
 
 1363* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 28 Dec. 1943 
 
 1334 
 
 Tues. 
 
 9 Nov. 1915 
 
 1364 
 
 Sun. 
 
 17 Dec. 1944 
 
 1335 
 
 Sat. 
 
 28 Oct. 1916 
 
 136*5 
 
 Thur. 
 
 6 Dec. 1945 
 
 1336* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 17 Oct. 1917 
 
 1366* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 25 Nov. 1946 
 
 1337 
 
 Mon. 
 
 7 Oct. 1918 
 
 1367 
 
 Sat. 
 
 15 Nov. 1947 
 
 1338* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 26 Sept. 1919 
 
 1368* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 3 Nov. 1948 
 
 1339 
 
 Wed. 
 
 15 Sept. 1920 
 
 1369 
 
 Mon. 
 
 24 Oct. 1949 
 
 1340 
 
 Sun. 
 
 4 Sept. 1921 
 
 1370 
 
 Frid. 
 
 13 Oct. 1950 
 
 1341* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 24 Aug. 1922 
 
 1371* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 2 Oct. 1951 
 
 1342 
 
 Tues. 
 
 14 Aug. 1923 
 
 1372 
 
 Sun. 
 
 21 Sept. 1952 
 
 1343 
 
 Sat. 
 
 2 Aug. 1924 
 
 1373 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 Sept. 1953 
 
 1344* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 22 July 1925 
 
 1374* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 30 Aug. 1954 
 
 1345 
 
 Mon. 
 
 12 July 1926 
 
 1375 
 
 Sat. 
 
 20 Aug. 1955 
 
 1346* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 1 July 1927 
 
 1376* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 8 Aug. 1956 
 
 1347 
 
 Wed. 
 
 20 June 1928 
 
 1377 
 
 Mon. 
 
 29 July 1957 
 
 1348 
 
 Sun. 
 
 9 June 1929 
 
 1378 
 
 Frid. 
 
 18 July 1958 
 
 1349* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 29 May 1930 
 
 1379* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 7 July 1959 
 
 1360 
 
 Tues. 
 
 19 May 1931 
 
 1380 
 
 Sun. 
 
 26 June I960 
 
MEASTJBE3 OF TIME. 
 
 205 
 
 Table of MAHOMETAN YEARS. 
 
 47th Cycle. 
 
 48th Cycle. 
 
 Year of 
 
 Commencement 
 
 Year of 
 
 Commencement 
 
 Hegira. 
 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 Hegira. 
 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 1381 
 
 Thur. 
 
 15 June 1961 
 
 1411 
 
 Tues. 
 
 24 July 1990 
 
 1382* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 4 June 1962 
 
 1412* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 13 July 1991 
 
 1383 
 
 Sat. 
 
 25 May 1963 
 
 1413 
 
 Thur. 
 
 2 July 1992 
 
 1384 
 
 Wed. 
 
 13 May 1964 
 
 1414 
 
 Mon. 
 
 21 June 1993 
 
 1385* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 2 May 1965 
 
 1415* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 10 June 1994 
 
 1386 
 
 Frid. 
 
 22 April 19S6 
 
 1416 
 
 Wed. 
 
 31 May 1995 
 
 1387* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 11 April 1967 
 
 1417* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 19 May 1996 
 
 1388 
 
 Sun. 
 
 31 Mar. 1968 
 
 1418 
 
 Frid. 
 
 9 May 1997 
 
 1389 
 
 Thur. 
 
 20 Mar. 1969 
 
 1419 
 
 Tues. 
 
 28 April 1998 
 
 1390* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 9 Mar. 1970 
 
 1420* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 17 April 1999 
 
 1391 
 
 Sat. 
 
 27 Feb. 1971 
 
 1421 
 
 Thur. 
 
 6 April 2000 
 
 1392 
 
 Wed. 
 
 16 Feb. 1972 
 
 1422 
 
 Mon. 
 
 26 Mar. 2001 
 
 1393* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 4 Feb. 1973 
 
 1423* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 15 Mar. 2002 
 
 1394 
 
 Frid. 
 
 25 Jan. 1974 
 
 1424 
 
 Wed. 
 
 5 Mar. 2003 
 
 1395 
 
 Tues. 
 
 14 Jan. 1975 
 
 1425 
 
 Sun. 
 
 22 Feb. 2004 
 
 1396* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 3 Jan. 1076 
 
 1426* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 Feb. 2005 
 
 1397 
 
 Thur. 
 
 23 Dec. 1976 
 
 1427 
 
 Tues. 
 
 31 Jan. 2006 
 
 1398* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 12 Dec. 1977 
 
 1428* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 20 Jan. 2007 
 
 1399 
 
 Sat. 
 
 2 Dec. 1978 
 
 1429 
 
 Thur. 
 
 10 Jan. 2008 
 
 1400 
 
 Wed. 
 
 21 Nov. 1^79 
 
 1430 
 
 Mon. 
 
 29 Dec. 2008 
 
 1401* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 9 Nov. 1980 
 
 1431* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 18 Dec. 2009 
 
 1402 
 
 Frid. 
 
 30 Oct. 1981 
 
 1432 
 
 Wed. 
 
 8 Dec. 2010 
 
 1403 
 
 Tues. 
 
 19 Oct. 1982 
 
 1433 
 
 Sun. 
 
 27 Nov. 2011 
 
 1404* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 8 Oct. 1983 
 
 1434* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 15 Nov. 2012 
 
 1405 
 
 Thur. 
 
 27 Sept. 1984 
 
 1435 
 
 Tues. 
 
 5 Nov. 2013 
 
 1406* 
 
 Mon. 
 
 16 Sept. 1985 
 
 1436* 
 
 Sat. 
 
 25 Oct. 2014 
 
 1407 
 
 Sat. 
 
 6 Sept. 1986 
 
 1437 
 
 Thur. 
 
 15 Oct. 2015 
 
 1408 
 
 Wed. 
 
 26 Aug. 1987 
 
 1438 
 
 Mon. 
 
 3 Oct. 2016 
 
 1409* 
 
 Sun. 
 
 14 Aug. 1988 
 
 1439* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 22 Sept. 2017 
 
 1410 
 
 Frid. 
 
 4 Aug. 1989 
 
 1440 
 
 Wed. 
 
 12 Sept. 2018 
 
206 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 Table of MAHOMETAN YEABS. 
 
 49th Cycle. 
 
 Year of 
 Hegira. 
 
 Commencement 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 Year of 
 Hegira. 
 
 Commencement 
 (1st of Muharram). 
 
 1441 
 
 Sun. 
 
 I Sept. 2019 
 
 1456* 
 
 Tues 
 
 21 Mar. 2034 
 
 1442* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 20 Aug. 2020 
 
 1457 
 
 Sun. 
 
 11 Mar. 2035 
 
 1443 
 
 Tues. 
 
 10 Aug. 2021 
 
 1458* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 28 Feb. 2036 
 
 1444 
 
 Sat. 
 
 30 July 2022 
 
 1459 
 
 Tues. 
 
 17 Feb. 2037 
 
 1445* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 19 July 2023 
 
 1460 
 
 Sat. 
 
 6 Feb. 2038 
 
 1446 
 
 Mon. 
 
 8 July 2024 
 
 1461* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 26 Jan. 2039 
 
 1447* 
 
 Frid. 
 
 27 June 2025 
 
 1462 
 
 Mon. 
 
 16 Jan. 2040 
 
 1448 
 
 Wed. 
 
 17 June 2026 
 
 1463 
 
 Frid. 
 
 4 Jan. 2041 
 
 1449 
 
 Sun. 
 
 6 June 2027 
 
 1464* 
 
 Tues. 
 
 24 Dec. 2041 
 
 J450* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 25 May 2028 
 
 1405 
 
 Sun. 
 
 14 Dec. 2042 
 
 1451 
 
 Tues. 
 
 15 May 2029 
 
 14C6* 
 
 Thur. 
 
 3 Dec. 2043 
 
 1452 
 
 Sat. 
 
 4 May 2030 
 
 1467 
 
 Tues. 
 
 22 Nov. 2044 
 
 14;>3* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 23 April 2031 
 
 1468 
 
 Sat. 
 
 1 1 Nov. 2045 
 
 1454 
 
 Mon. 
 
 12 April 2032 
 
 1469* 
 
 Wed. 
 
 31 Oct. 2046 
 
 1455 
 
 Frid. 
 
 1 April 2033 
 
 1470 
 
 Mon. 
 
 21 Oct. 2047 
 
 Table of EPOCHS of the PEINCIPAL ERAS AND PERIODS. 
 
 
 Christian Date of 
 
 
 Christian Date of 
 
 
 Commencement. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Commencement. 
 
 Grecian Mundane 
 
 
 Sidonian era . 
 
 Oct. 110 B.C. 
 
 era .... 
 
 ISept 5698 B.C. 
 
 Ceesarean era of 
 
 
 Civil era of Con- 
 
 
 Antioch . . 
 
 ISept 48 
 
 stantinople 
 
 1 Sept. 5508 
 
 Julian year . . 
 
 Uan. 45 
 
 Alexandrian era . 
 
 29 Aug. 5502 
 
 Spanish era . . 
 
 Uan. 38 
 
 Ecclesiastical era 
 
 
 Actian era . . 
 
 1 Jan. 30 
 
 of Antioch 
 
 1 Sept.5492 
 
 Augustan era 
 
 14 Feb. 27 
 
 Julian Period 
 
 1 Jan. 4713 
 
 Vulgar Christian 
 
 
 Mundane era 
 
 Oct. 4008 
 
 era .... 
 
 1 Jan. 1 A.D. 
 
 Jewish Mundane 
 
 
 Destruction of Je- 
 
 
 era .... 
 
 Oct. 3761 
 
 rusalem . . 
 
 1 Sept. 69 
 
 Era of Abraham 
 
 lOct. 2015 
 
 Era of Maccabees 
 
 24 Nov. 1G6 
 
 Era of the Olym- 
 
 
 ,, ,, Dioclesian 
 
 17 Sept. 284 
 
 piads . . . 
 
 Uuly 776 
 
 ,, ,, Ascension 
 
 12 Nov. 295 
 
 Reman era . . 
 
 24 April 753 
 
 ,, the Arme- 
 
 
 Era of Nabonassar 
 
 26 Feb. 747 
 
 nians 
 
 7 July 652 
 
 Metonic Cycle . 
 
 15 July 432 
 
 Mahometan era of 
 
 
 Grecian or Syro- 
 
 
 the Hegira 
 
 16 July 622 
 
 Macedonian era 
 
 1 Sept. 312 
 
 Persian era of Yez- 
 
 
 Tyrian era . . 
 
 19 Oct. 125 
 
 degird . . . 
 
 16 June 632 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 207 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY TERMS, AFTER 1883; 
 
 Up to the end of the year 1883 the Cambridge Uni- 
 versity Terms were, in substance, determined by the process 
 we briefly formulated on page 178. About that time a new 
 scheme was recommended by the Council of the Senate and 
 ordered to be adopted for all subsequent years. In order 
 to bring this new scheme into the most convenient practical 
 use it is here formulated in like manner, and made to 
 depend on the number of direction : 
 
 Commencement, Tuesday before Midsummer. 
 
 (N= 1 .. 9 
 Lent Term begins Jan. 8, ends J 10 . . 26 
 
 27.. 35 
 
 March (N+18)) 
 
 27 
 
 (N+ 1) 
 
 1 
 
 (N== 1 .. 9 
 
 Easter Term begins J 10 . . 26 
 
 I 27 . . 35 
 
 April (N-f 9)} 
 
 18 } ends June 24. 
 
 Michaelmas Term begins October 1, ends December 19. 
 
 From Lent Term ends 1 , 
 
 to Easter Term begins J ~~ 
 
 An improved Table for finding the date of Easter Day is 
 given overleaf. By its use the Table of Epacts on page 
 164 is not wanted, and the operations require less con- 
 sideration. 
 
208 
 
 MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 EASTER-DAY found from the, GOLDEN 
 
 
 
 
 1900 
 
 2200 
 
 
 2600 
 
 1 
 
 3100 
 
 3400 
 
 
 3800 
 
 
 Epact. 
 
 1500 
 
 1700 
 
 2000 
 
 
 2300 
 
 2700 
 
 2900 
 
 3200 
 
 
 3500 
 
 3900 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1300 
 
 2100 
 
 2400 
 
 2500 
 
 2800 
 
 3000 
 
 3300 
 
 3600 
 
 3700 
 
 4000 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 V 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Directions. Under the century find the golden number ; 
 Dominical Letter the date of Easter Day is shown. 
 
MEASURES OF TIME. 
 
 NUMBER and DOMINICAL LETTER only. 
 
 209 
 
 
 Dominical Letter. 
 (For Leap Years use the second letter). 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 
 Apr. 16 
 
 16 
 
 ,, 16 
 
 Apr. 17 
 17 
 
 ,, 17 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 18 
 
 n 18 
 
 Apr. 19 
 
 19 
 ,, 12 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 ,, 13 
 ii 13 
 
 Apr. 14 
 
 ii 14 
 n 14 
 
 Apr. 15 
 ,, 15 
 
 ,, 15 
 
 
 n 16 
 
 ,, 16 
 
 ,, 9 
 
 ,, 17 
 ,, 10 
 
 ,, 10 
 
 ,, n 
 ii 11 
 
 ii 11 
 
 i, 12 
 
 ,, 12 
 ,, 12 
 
 13 
 
 ,, 13 
 n 13 
 
 ii 14 
 ,, 14 
 ,, 14 
 
 ,, 15 
 15 
 
 ,, 15 
 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 ii 9 
 
 ,, 10 
 
 10 
 ii 10 
 
 ii n 
 n 11 
 >) 1* 
 
 n 12 
 
 ii 12 
 n 12 
 
 n 13 
 
 ,, 13 
 I, 6 
 
 ii 14 
 ,, 7 
 ii 7 
 
 ,, 8 
 ,, 8 
 ,, 8 
 
 
 ,, 9 
 ,, 9 
 i, 9 
 
 ii 10 
 
 ii 10 
 
 ,, 3 
 
 j> I 
 
 n 4 
 4 
 
 ii 5 
 n 5 
 
 ii 5 
 
 ,, 6 
 ,, 6 
 n 6 
 
 5 i 7 
 
 ,, 7 
 n 7 
 
 ii 8 
 n 8 
 
 ,, 8 
 
 
 2 
 n 2 
 ,, 2 
 
 ,, 3 
 ,, 3 
 n 3 
 
 n 4 
 ii 4 
 n 4 
 
 ii 5 
 
 n 5 
 
 ,, 5 
 
 jj 
 " 6 
 
 ,, 7 
 n 7 
 Mar. 31 
 
 n 8 
 ii 1 
 n 1 
 
 
 ,, 2 
 2 
 ,, 2 
 
 ,, 3 
 n 3 
 n 3 
 
 ii 4 
 n 4 
 Mar. 28 
 
 5 
 Mar. 29 
 
 29 
 
 Mar. 30 
 
 n 30 
 n 30 
 
 31 
 
 n 31 
 
 ii 31 
 
 n 1 
 
 ii 1 
 ii 1 
 
 
 2 
 Mar. 26 
 
 n 26 
 
 Mar. 27 
 
 n 27 
 
 n 27 
 
 28 
 
 n 28 
 ii 28 
 
 n 29 
 n 29 
 29 
 
 SO 
 ., 30 
 30 
 
 n 31 
 31 
 n 31 
 
 ii 1 
 n 1 
 Mar. 25 
 
 
 ,, 26 
 ,, 26 
 ii 26 
 
 n 27 
 
 n 27 
 
 ,, 27 
 
 ii 28 
 ii 28 
 n 28 
 
 ii 29 
 ,, 29 
 ,, 22 
 
 n 30 
 
 ii 23 
 ,, 23 
 
 24 
 
 ,, 24 
 ,, 24 
 
 25 
 
 ,, 25 
 n 25 
 
 
 Apr. 23 
 
 ,, 23 
 ,, 23 
 
 Apr. 24 
 
 ii 24 
 ,, 24 
 
 Apr. 25 
 
 ,, 25 
 ii 18 
 
 Apr. 19 
 n 19 
 n 19 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 ,, 20 
 20 
 
 Apr. 21 
 
 ,, 21 
 ii 21 
 
 Apr 22 
 n 22 
 ,, 22 
 
 
 ,, 23 
 n 16 
 ii 16 
 
 n 17 
 ,, 17 
 n 17 
 
 CO OO OO 
 
 co co co 
 
 ii 20 
 n 20 
 ii 20 
 
 ii 21 
 n 21 
 21 
 
 ,, 22 
 ,, 22 
 15 
 
 then on the same horizontal line and under the 
 The Epact is also shown on the left in the first column. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 THE valuable miscellaneous information conveyed in what 
 follows lias for the most part been obtained from the 
 Eeports by the Board of Trade on their proceedings and 
 business under the "Weights and Measures Act, 1878. This 
 is regarded as the principal Act in relation to weights and 
 measures, and its chief enactments have already been 
 briefly stated on pages 26-8, 50 and 53. 
 
 Imperial weights and measures are now legally in force 
 in the following colonies, &c. : 
 
 Antigua. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Barbadoes. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 South Australia. 
 
 Bermuda. 
 
 Natal. 
 
 St. Christopher. 
 
 British Guiana. 
 
 Nevis. 
 
 St. Helena. 
 
 British Honduras. 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 St. Vincent. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Tobago. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Trinidad. 
 
 Cyprus. 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 Vancouver's Island. 
 
 Dominica. 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Grenada. 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 "Western Australia. 
 
 Hong Kong. 
 
 
 
 In Germany, by a law promulgated on llth July, 1884, 
 it was declared that the " meter" was then to be adopted 
 as the basis of all weight and measure, and that the 
 weight of distilled water contained in a cubic decimeter, 
 in a vacuum at the temperature of 4 centigrade, was to 
 be the unit of weight, a " kilogramm." 
 
 On this metric basis the other values of the French 
 metric system (pp. 75-6) were likewise adopted, and under 
 all but identical denominations. The several parts and 
 
212 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 multiples, including the half and quarter, of these metric 
 denominations were also to be used. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES LEGALLY IN USE. 
 
 The subject of the legal use of weights and measures in 
 China is attended with some difficulty, as each shopkeeper 
 recognises no standard but his own, and the Penal Code is 
 only strictly enforced in matters affecting the revenue. To 
 provide against abuses certain to arise, the framers of the 
 various foreign Treaties usually inserted clauses defining 
 the values of the units of length and weight. In the list 
 these Treaty equivalents are given wherever they exist. 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 10 fen (lines) = 1 ts'un ('punto,' or inch) 
 10 ts'un = 1 ch'ih (' covid,' or foot) 
 
 10 ch'ih =1 chang (rod) 
 
 10 chang = 1 yin 
 
 Ch'ih of the Board of Works 
 
 Itinerary Measure. 
 
 5 ch'ih ('covids') = 1 pu* (pace) 
 360 pu = 1 li 
 
 10 li =1 t'ang-hsiin 
 
 250 li = 1 tu (or degree) 
 
 Land Measure. 
 
 5 ch'ih (' covids ') = 1 kung (bow) 
 2 kung = 1 chang 
 
 1 square chang = 1 ching 
 15 ching =s 1 chiio 
 
 4 chiio = mou 
 
 Cubic Measure. 
 100 cubic ch'ih (' covids ') = 1 fang or ma 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 1*4:1 inches 
 14-1 
 141 
 1410 
 12-5 
 
 about 66 inches 
 ,, 660 yards 
 6600 
 ,, 94 miles 
 
 about 66 inches 
 11 feet 
 ,, 121 sq. feet 
 1815 
 7260 
 
 about 113 cubic feet 
 
 * The pu or pace is here estimated to be the distance from right 
 foot-print to right foot-print of a man walking steadily ; sometimes 
 it has half this value, and then it represents the more familiar distance 
 from right foot-print to left foot-print. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 213 
 
 2 yo 
 
 10 ho (gills) 
 10 sheng 
 
 5 ton 
 
 Ca/pacity. 
 
 1 ho (gill) 
 1 sheng (pint) 
 1 ton (peck) 
 1 hu (bushel) 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 about 0-2 pint 
 2 pints 
 20 
 100 
 
 The number of ton in a hu varies. 
 Weight Avoirdupois. 
 
 24 chu 
 
 10 liang ('taels,' or ounces) 
 100 chin ('catties') 
 
 = 1 liang 
 
 = 1 chin (< catty') 
 
 = 1 tan (' picul') 
 
 oz. av. 
 Ibs. 
 
 Silver freight. 
 
 10 ssu = 1 hao (thousandths) 
 10 hao = 1 li (hundredths 'cash') 
 10 li =1 fen (tenth ' candreen') 
 10 fen = 1 ch'ien ('mace') 
 10 ch'ien = 1 liang ('tael') 
 
 00013 oz. av. 
 0013 
 013 
 13 
 1-3 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES LEGALLY IN USE. 
 Artisan's Measure. 
 
 10 
 
 Shi 
 
 
 
 iMo 
 
 
 001 193 inch 
 
 10 
 
 Mo 
 
 = 
 
 1 Em 
 
 
 01193 
 
 10 
 
 Em 
 
 = 
 
 1 Bu 
 
 
 1193 
 
 10 
 
 Bu 
 
 = 
 
 1 Sun 
 
 1 
 
 1931 
 
 10 
 
 Sun 
 
 = 
 
 1 Shaku* 
 
 11 
 
 9305 inches 
 
 10 
 
 Shaku 
 
 = 
 
 1 Jo 
 
 9 
 
 9421 feet 
 
 Dry Goods Measure. 
 (One -fourth more than Artisan's Measure.) 
 
 10 Ein = 1 Bu 
 10 Bu =1 Sun 
 10 Sun = 1 Shaku 
 10 Shaku = 1 Jo 
 
 14913 inch 
 1-4913 ,, 
 14-91 32 inches 
 12-4276 feet 
 
 6 Shaku = 1 Ken 
 60 Ken = 1 Ch6 
 36 CL6 = 1 Ei 
 Kai-Bi, or Sea Mile = 16-975 Cho 
 
 Itinerary Measure. 
 
 5-9653 feet 
 357-9163 
 
 4295 yards, or 2-4403 miles 
 2025 1-1506 , 
 
 * The shaku = metre. 
 
214 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Superficial or Land Measure. 
 
 ENGLISH VALUE. 
 
 3-9538 square yards 
 118-6149 ' ,, 
 39-2115 square poles 
 2-4507 acres 
 
 36 square Shaku = 1 Tsubo 
 30 Tsubo = 1 Se 
 
 10 Se =1 Tan 
 
 10 Tan = 1 Cho 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 10 Kei 
 
 = 1 Sai 
 
 000318 pint. 
 
 10 Sai 
 
 = 1 Sho 
 
 003176 
 
 10 Sho 
 
 = 1 Shaku 
 
 03176 
 
 10 Shaku 
 
 = 1 G5 
 
 3176 
 
 10 Go 
 
 = 1 Sho 
 
 1-5881 quarts. 
 
 10 Sh5 
 
 = 1 To 
 
 3-9703 gallons. 
 
 10 To 
 
 = 1 Koku 
 
 4-9629 bushels. 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 10 Shi 
 
 = 1 Mo 
 
 05797 grain. 
 
 10 Mo 
 
 = 1 Bin 
 
 5797 
 
 10 Bin 
 
 = 1 Fun 
 
 5-7972 grains. 
 
 10 Fun 
 
 = 1 Momme 
 
 57-972 
 
 100 Momme 
 
 = 1 Hyaku-me 
 
 0-8282 Ibs. av. 
 
 1000 Momme 
 
 = 1 Kwam-me 
 
 8-2817 
 
 160 Momme 
 
 = 1 Kin 
 
 1-3251 
 
 100 Kin 
 
 = 1 Hiyak-kin 
 
 132-5073 
 
 The Imperial Standard Yard. An accurate copy ("P. 0. 
 VI."), of the same form and material as the Imperial 
 Standard Yard, has been made, as required by the Act, 
 1878. No two primary standards are really alike, but 
 these two primary standards are as much alike as it is 
 possible to make them. (Standards Office, 10th July, 1886.) 
 
 The Indian Seer. A question having arisen as to the 
 true weight of the Indian seer to be marked on weighing- 
 machines, the information given by the Board of Trade 
 was that the seer of the British Government is equal to 
 80 tolos, or to 32-914 ounces avoirdupois, the tola, the legal 
 weight of the rupee, being equal to 180 grains. 
 
 Illegal Denominations of Weight. There are no Board of 
 Trade standards of 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, or 11 Ibs., and the use 
 in trade of weights of these denominations would appear, 
 therefore, to be illegal, as the inspectors could not stamp 
 them. 
 
APPENDIX. 215 
 
 WIRE AND SHEET GAUGES. 
 
 The wire manufacturer has his special instrument, the 
 wire gauge, for accurately measuring the diameter of the 
 wire he draws. This gauge is generally a rectangular 
 steel plate, having around its edges a series of notches 
 graduated to all the sizes required. Up to a recent date 
 the greatest confusion existed in the free use of wire and 
 metal gauges, the various sizes of which were of a very 
 promiscuous character ; indeed, the gauges most generally 
 used were severally known by the common appellation of 
 the Birmingham "Wire Gauge (B. W. G.). Yet there were 
 many varieties all bearing this name and differing mate- 
 rially from each other, almost every firm, in the absence of 
 a definite standard, being accustomed to employ its own 
 gauge as the correct one. Also wire-drawers as a body 
 were, in consequenca thereof, less careful, knowing that 
 disputes could not be settled by gauges. 
 
 But since the establishment of telegraphy and self-acting 
 machines for working wires into nails, pins, rivets, screws, 
 &c., exactitude both in diameter and " cast " have become 
 indispensable, and the wire manufacturer's ingenuity is 
 being strained to meet the increasing demands for wires 
 having accurate diameters, and, as a check, weighing so 
 much per given length. 
 
 The necessities of some trades require an extended series 
 of sizes with small differences between them ; others a 
 smaller series with greater differences ; while some, again, 
 deal only with the thicker sizes, and others only with the 
 finer. An effective standard gauge should be sufficiently 
 comprehensive to include all these purposes, so that the 
 sizes of any special trade may be obtained from it, although 
 only a portion of such standard be used. The standard 
 gauge should, therefore, have a largo range of sizes from 
 which each trade may select such as may suit it, or it may 
 consist of a more limited series of primary sizes readily 
 
216 APPENDIX. 
 
 divisible into half and quarter sizes, according to the very 
 convenient arrangement adopted in the construction of the 
 gauge patented by Mr. Hughes. 
 
 IMPERIAL STANDARD WIRE GAUGE. 
 
 The serious complications often arising from the use of 
 so many different wire gauges have been effectually reme- 
 died by the recent introduction of a standard wire gauge 
 by the Board of Trade. It is designated the Imperial 
 Standard Wire Gauge, and was legalised by an Order 
 in Council of 23rd August, 1883, and came into opera- 
 tion as the only legal wire gauge on 1st March, 1884. 
 From and after that date it therefore became necessary to 
 use in trade the particular equivalent sizes in parts of an 
 inch, from 0*500 to 0*001 inch, as stated in the Order 
 referred to. 
 
 The Weights and Measures Act of 1878 specially pro- 
 vides that a contract or dealing shall not be invalid or 
 open to objection on the ground that the weights or 
 measures expressed or referred to therein are weights and 
 measures of the metric system. 
 
 The Order in Council, by which, the new gauge is legal- 
 ised, does not alter or amend this law, and contracts for 
 wire, &c., may continue, therefore, to be made in milli- 
 metres, or other metric measures as above provided. 
 
 The following table contains all the measurements repre- 
 sented, or intended to be represented, by the said Imperial 
 Standard Wire Gauge, together with the equivalents ex- 
 pressed in millimetres : 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 217 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 IMPERIAL STANDARD WIRE GAUGE. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Standard 
 Gauge. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Standard 
 Gauge. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 In parts of 
 an inch. 
 
 In 
 
 millimetres. 
 
 In parts of 
 an inch. 
 
 In parts of 
 millimetres. 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Millimetres. 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Millimetre. 
 
 7-0 
 
 0-500 
 
 12-700 
 
 23 
 
 0-024 
 
 0-610 
 
 6-0 
 
 464 
 
 11-785 
 
 24 
 
 022 
 
 559 
 
 5'0 
 
 '432 
 
 10-973 
 
 25 
 
 020 
 
 508 
 
 4-0 
 
 -400 
 
 10-160 
 
 26 
 
 018 
 
 457 
 
 3-0 
 
 372 
 
 9-449 
 
 27 
 
 0164 
 
 4166 
 
 2-0 
 
 348 
 
 8-839 
 
 28 
 
 0148 
 
 3759 
 
 1-0 
 
 324 
 
 8-229 
 
 29 
 
 0136 
 
 3454 
 
 1 
 
 300 
 
 7-620 
 
 30 
 
 0124 
 
 3150 
 
 2 
 
 276 
 
 7-010 
 
 31 
 
 0116 
 
 2946 
 
 3 
 
 252 
 
 6-401 
 
 32 
 
 0108 
 
 2743 
 
 4 
 
 232 
 
 5-893 
 
 33 
 
 0100 
 
 2540 
 
 5 
 
 212 
 
 5-385 
 
 34 
 
 0092 
 
 2337 
 
 6 
 
 192 
 
 4-877 
 
 35 
 
 0084 
 
 2134 
 
 7 
 
 -176 
 
 4-470 
 
 36 
 
 0076 
 
 1930 
 
 8 
 
 160 
 
 4-064 
 
 37 
 
 0068 
 
 1727 
 
 9 
 
 144 
 
 3-658 
 
 38 
 
 0060 
 
 1524 
 
 10 
 
 128 
 
 3-251 
 
 39 
 
 0052 
 
 1321 
 
 11 
 
 116 
 
 2-946 
 
 40 
 
 0048 
 
 1219 
 
 12 
 
 104 
 
 2-642 
 
 41 
 
 0044 
 
 1118 
 
 13 
 
 092 
 
 2-337 
 
 42 
 
 0040 
 
 1016 
 
 14 
 
 080 
 
 2-032 
 
 43 
 
 0036 
 
 0914 
 
 15 
 
 072 
 
 1-829 
 
 44 
 
 0032 
 
 0813 
 
 16 
 
 064 
 
 1-626 
 
 45 
 
 0028 
 
 0711 
 
 17 
 
 056 
 
 1-422 
 
 46 
 
 0024 
 
 0610 
 
 18 
 
 048 
 
 1-219 
 
 47 
 
 0020 
 
 0508 
 
 19 
 
 040 
 
 1-016 
 
 48 
 
 0016 
 
 0406 
 
 20 
 
 036 
 
 0-914 
 
 49 
 
 0012 
 
 0305 
 
 21 
 
 032 
 
 813 
 
 50 
 
 O'OOIO 
 
 0-0254 
 
 22 
 
 028 
 
 711 
 
 
 
 
 To make the standard wire-gauge additionally useful as a plate- 
 gauge, Table II. has been calculated, showing the corresponding 
 weight in pounds avoirdupois of each superficial square foot of metal 
 plate. 
 
218 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing the weight of a superficial square foot of wrought 
 iron for all thicknesses of the IMPEEIAL STANDARD 
 WIRE GAUGE. 
 
 At 62 Fahr. 
 Density 7'8 ; Weight of cubic inch of water =252-458 grains. 
 
 Descriptive 
 Number. 
 
 Weight of 
 Square Foot. 
 
 Descriptive 
 Number. 
 
 Weight of 
 Square Foot. 
 
 No. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 No. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 7-0 
 
 20-254 
 
 23 
 
 0-972 
 
 6-0 
 
 18-796 
 
 24 
 
 891 
 
 5-0 
 
 17-500 
 
 25 
 
 810 
 
 4-0 
 
 16-203 
 
 26 
 
 729 
 
 3-0 
 
 15-069 
 
 27 
 
 664 
 
 2-0 
 
 14-097 
 
 28 
 
 600 
 
 1-0 
 
 13-125 
 
 29 
 
 551 
 
 1 
 
 12-153 
 
 30 
 
 502 
 
 2 
 
 11-180 
 
 31 
 
 470 
 
 3 
 
 10-208 
 
 32 
 
 437 
 
 4 
 
 9-398 
 
 33 
 
 405 
 
 5 
 
 8-588 
 
 34 
 
 373 
 
 6 
 
 7-778 
 
 35 
 
 340 
 
 7 
 
 7-130 
 
 36 
 
 308 
 
 8 
 
 6-481 
 
 37 
 
 275 
 
 9 
 
 5-833 
 
 38 
 
 243 
 
 10 
 
 5-185 
 
 39 
 
 211 
 
 11 
 
 4-699 
 
 40 
 
 194 
 
 12 
 
 4-213 
 
 41 
 
 178 
 
 13 
 
 3-727 
 
 42 
 
 162 
 
 14 
 
 3-241 
 
 43 
 
 146 
 
 15 
 
 2-917 
 
 44 
 
 130 
 
 16 
 
 2-593 
 
 45 
 
 113 
 
 17 
 
 2-268 
 
 46 
 
 097 
 
 18 
 
 1-944 
 
 47 
 
 081 
 
 19 
 
 1-620 
 
 48 
 
 065 
 
 20 
 
 1-458 
 
 49 
 
 049 
 
 21 
 
 1-296 
 
 50 
 
 041 
 
 22 
 
 1-134 
 
 
 
 Tables III. and IV., which also relate to the Imperial Standard 
 Wire Gauge, supply other important values of great practical use to 
 engineers and others. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 219 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 IMPEKIAL STANDARD WIEE GAUGE. 
 
 Table of Sectional Areas, Weights, Lengths, and Break- 
 ing Strains of Iron Wire ; issued by the Iron and 
 Steel Wire Manufacturers' Association. 
 
 Size on 
 
 TTT- ,_ 
 
 Sectional 
 Area 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Length 
 
 Breaking Strains. 
 
 wire 
 Gauge. 
 
 in square 
 inches. 
 
 100 yards. 
 
 Mile. 
 
 of 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Annealed. 
 
 Bright. 
 
 No. 
 
 inch. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 yards. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 7'0 
 
 1963 
 
 193-4 
 
 3404 
 
 58 
 
 10470 
 
 15700 
 
 6-0 
 
 -1691 
 
 166-5 
 
 2930 
 
 67 
 
 9017 
 
 13525 
 
 5-0 
 
 1466 
 
 144-4 
 
 2541 
 
 78 
 
 7814 
 
 11725 
 
 4-0 
 
 1257 
 
 123-8 
 
 2179 
 
 91 
 
 6702 
 
 10052 
 
 3-0 
 
 1087 
 
 107-1 
 
 1885 
 
 105 
 
 5796 
 
 8694 
 
 2-0 
 
 0951 
 
 93-7 
 
 1649 
 
 120 
 
 5072 
 
 7608 
 
 1-0 
 
 0824 
 
 81-2 
 
 1429 
 
 138 
 
 4397 
 
 6595 
 
 1 
 
 0707 
 
 69-6 
 
 1225 
 
 161 
 
 3770 
 
 5655 
 
 2 
 
 0598 
 
 58-9 
 
 1037 
 
 190 
 
 3190 
 
 4785 
 
 3 
 
 0499 
 
 49-1 
 
 864 
 
 228 
 
 2660 
 
 3990 
 
 4 ! '0423 
 
 41-6 
 
 732 
 
 269 
 
 2254 
 
 3381 
 
 5 
 
 0353 
 
 34-8 
 
 612 
 
 322 
 
 1883 
 
 2824 
 
 6 
 
 0290 
 
 28-5 
 
 502 
 
 393 
 
 1544 
 
 2316 
 
 7 
 
 0243 
 
 24-0 
 
 422 
 
 467 
 
 1298 
 
 1946 
 
 8 
 
 0201 
 
 19-8 
 
 348 
 
 566 
 
 1072 
 
 1608 
 
 9 
 
 0163 
 
 16-0 
 
 282 
 
 700 
 
 869 
 
 1303 
 
 10 
 
 0129 
 
 12-7 
 
 223 
 
 882 
 
 687 
 
 1030 
 
 11 
 
 0106 
 
 10-4 
 
 183 
 
 1077 
 
 564 
 
 845 
 
 12 
 
 0085 
 
 8-4 
 
 148 
 
 1333 
 
 454 
 
 680 
 
 13 
 
 0066 
 
 6-5 
 
 114 
 
 1723 
 
 355 
 
 532 
 
 14 
 
 0050 
 
 5-0 
 
 88 
 
 2240 
 
 268 
 
 402 
 
 15 
 
 0041 
 
 4-0 
 
 70 
 
 2800 
 
 218 
 
 326 
 
 16 
 
 0032 
 
 3-2 
 
 56 
 
 3500 
 
 172 
 
 257 
 
 17 
 
 0025 
 
 2-4 
 
 42 
 
 4667 
 
 131 
 
 197 
 
 18 
 
 0018 
 
 1-8 
 
 32 
 
 6222 
 
 97 
 
 145 
 
 19 
 
 0013 
 
 1-2 
 
 21 
 
 9333 
 
 67 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 0010 
 
 1-0 
 
 18 
 
 11200 
 
 55 
 
 82 
 
 L2 
 
TABLE IV. 
 
 Table of WEIGHTS and RESISTANCES of COPPER and IRON WIRE, compiled by Mr. C. 
 H, Barney, Sec. of the National Telephone Exchange Association, New York. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 standard 
 Gauge. 
 
 Pure Copper Wire. 
 
 Gjdvanis'd iron wire. 
 
 ' Weight, sp. gr., 8 90 
 
 Resistance at 59" 9 Fahr. 
 
 Weight, 
 sp. gr., 
 7-74. 
 
 Resistance 
 at 59-9 
 Fahr. 
 
 Ibs. per 
 
 1000 feet. 
 
 Ibs. per 
 mile. 
 
 Ohms per 
 1000 feet. 
 
 Ohms per 
 mile. 
 
 Ibs. per 
 mile. 
 
 Ohms 
 per mile. 
 
 7-0 
 
 756-28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6-0 
 
 651-31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-0 
 
 564-44 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 484-03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3-0 
 
 418-63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 366-36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 317-54 
 
 1676-61 
 
 095774 
 
 50558 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 272-27 
 
 1437-58 
 
 11171 
 
 58982 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 230-44 
 
 1216-72 
 
 13199 
 
 69690 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 192-11 
 
 1014-34 
 
 15832 
 
 83592 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 162-83 
 
 859-74 
 
 18680 
 
 98630 
 
 747-68 
 
 6-6884 
 
 5 
 
 135-96 
 
 717-87 -22370 
 
 1-18113 
 
 624-30 
 
 8-0100 
 
 6 
 
 111-52 
 
 588-82 1 -27273 
 
 1-4400 
 
 572-07 
 
 9-7656 
 
 7 
 
 93-71 
 
 494-78 
 
 32458 
 
 1-7137 
 
 430-29 
 
 11-6222 
 
 8 
 
 77-445 
 
 408-89 
 
 39273 
 
 2-0736 
 
 355-60 
 
 14-0625 
 
 9 
 
 62-730 
 
 331-21 
 
 48486 
 
 2-5600 
 
 279-34 
 
 17-3611 
 
 10 
 
 49-565 
 
 261-70 
 
 61365 
 
 3-2400 
 
 227-59 
 
 21-9726 
 
 11 
 
 40-707 
 
 214-93 
 
 74718 
 
 3-9451 
 
 186-92 
 
 26-7o39 
 
 12 
 
 32-720 
 
 172-76 
 
 92955 
 
 4-9080 
 
 150-24 
 
 33-2840 
 
 13 
 
 25-605 
 
 135-19 
 
 1-1878 
 
 6-2715 
 
 117-57 
 
 42-5331 
 
 14 
 
 19-361 
 
 102-22 
 
 1-5709 
 
 8-2943 
 
 88-90 
 
 56-2500 
 
 15 
 
 15-683 
 
 82-80 
 
 1-9394 
 
 10-2400 
 
 72-01 
 
 69-4444 
 
 16 
 
 12-391 
 
 65-42 
 
 2-4546 
 
 12-9602 
 
 56-89 
 
 87-8906 
 
 17 
 
 9-4869 
 
 
 3-2060 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 6-9700 
 
 
 4-3637 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 4-8403 
 
 
 6-2837 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 3-9206 
 
 
 7-7577 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 3-0978 
 
 
 9-8184 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 2-3708 
 
 
 12-824 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 1-7425 
 
 
 17-455 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1-4642 
 
 
 20-773 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 1-2100 
 
 
 25-135 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 0-98015 
 
 
 31-031 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 81365 
 
 
 37-381 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 66263 
 
 
 45-900 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 55953 
 
 
 54-358 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 46515 
 
 
 65-388 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 40707 
 
 
 74-718 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 35286 
 
 
 86-197 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 30252 
 
 
 100*541 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 25605 
 
 
 118-79 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 21346 
 
 
 142-49 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 17473 
 
 
 174-07 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 13988 
 
 
 216-94 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 10891 
 
 
 279-28 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 08180 
 
 
 371-82 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 06970 
 
 
 436-37 
 
 
 
 
 Resistance ( J^, er ) wire increases about ( Q.^ \ per cent, for each additional 
 degree Fahr. The diameters of wire are already given in Table I. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 221 
 
 Tables V., VI. and VII., which appertain to three other 
 prominent gauges, may be of some use to those interested 
 in the subject. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 STUBS' IRON WIRE GAUGE, 1879. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 4-0 
 
 454 
 
 7 '180 
 
 17 
 
 058 
 
 27 
 
 016 
 
 3-0 
 
 425 
 
 8 i -165 
 
 18 
 
 049 
 
 28 
 
 014 
 
 2-0 
 
 380 
 
 9 
 
 148 
 
 19 
 
 042 
 
 29 
 
 013 
 
 1-0 
 
 340 
 
 10 
 
 134 
 
 20 
 
 035 
 
 30 
 
 012 j 
 
 1 
 
 300 
 
 11 
 
 120 
 
 21 
 
 032 
 
 31 
 
 010 
 
 2 
 
 284 
 
 12 
 
 109 
 
 22 
 
 028 
 
 32 
 
 009 
 
 3 
 
 259 
 
 13 
 
 095 
 
 23 
 
 025 
 
 33 
 
 008 
 
 4 
 
 238 
 
 14 
 
 083 
 
 24 
 
 022 
 
 34 
 
 007 
 
 5 
 
 220 
 
 15 '072 
 
 25 
 
 020 
 
 35 
 
 005 
 
 6 
 
 203 
 
 16 -065 
 
 26 
 
 018 
 
 36 
 
 004 
 
 Stubs' iron wire gauge has been somewhat extensively used in 
 America and elsewhere, under the mistaken name of the Birmingham 
 wire gauge (B.W.G.). 
 
222 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Table VI. is that of the Lancashire gauge for steel wire 
 and pinion wire. It will be observed that the " letter 
 gauge" is a continuation of the steel wire gauge. 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 STEEL WIBE GAUGES. 
 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 z 
 
 413 
 
 1 
 
 227 
 
 28 
 
 139 
 
 55 
 
 050 
 
 Y 
 
 404 
 
 2 
 
 219 
 
 29 
 
 134 
 
 56 
 
 015 
 
 X 
 
 397 
 
 3 
 
 212 
 
 30 
 
 127 
 
 57 
 
 042 
 
 w 
 
 386 
 
 4 
 
 207 
 
 31 
 
 120 
 
 58 
 
 041 
 
 V 
 
 377 
 
 5 
 
 204 
 
 32 
 
 115 
 
 59 
 
 040 
 
 IT 
 
 368 
 
 6 
 
 201 
 
 33 
 
 112 
 
 60 
 
 039 
 
 T 
 
 358 
 
 7 
 
 199 
 
 34 
 
 110 
 
 61 
 
 038 
 
 S 
 
 348 
 
 8 
 
 197 
 
 35 
 
 108 
 
 62 
 
 037 
 
 R 
 
 339 
 
 9 
 
 194 
 
 36 
 
 106 
 
 63 
 
 036 
 
 Q 
 
 332 
 
 10 
 
 191 
 
 37 
 
 103 
 
 64 
 
 035 
 
 P 
 
 323 
 
 11 
 
 188 
 
 38 
 
 101 
 
 65 
 
 033 
 
 
 
 316 
 
 12 
 
 185 
 
 39 
 
 099 
 
 66 
 
 0:32 
 
 N 
 
 302 
 
 13 
 
 182 
 
 40 
 
 097 
 
 67 
 
 031 
 
 M 
 
 295 
 
 14 
 
 180 
 
 41 
 
 095 
 
 68 
 
 030 
 
 T. 
 
 290 
 
 15 
 
 178 
 
 42 
 
 092 
 
 69 
 
 029 
 
 K 
 
 281 
 
 16 
 
 175 
 
 43 
 
 088 
 
 70 
 
 027 
 
 J 
 
 277 
 
 17 
 
 172 
 
 44 
 
 085 
 
 71 
 
 026 
 
 I 
 
 272 
 
 18 
 
 168 
 
 45 
 
 081 
 
 72 
 
 024 
 
 H 
 
 266 
 
 19 
 
 164 
 
 46 
 
 079 
 
 73 
 
 023 
 
 G 
 
 261 
 
 20 
 
 161 
 
 47 
 
 077 
 
 74 
 
 022 
 
 F 
 
 257 
 
 21 
 
 157 
 
 48 
 
 075 
 
 75 
 
 020 
 
 E 
 
 250 
 
 22 
 
 155 
 
 49 
 
 072 
 
 76 
 
 018 
 
 D 
 
 246 
 
 23 
 
 153 
 
 50 
 
 069 
 
 77 
 
 016 
 
 C 
 
 242 
 
 24 
 
 151 
 
 51 
 
 066 
 
 78 
 
 015 
 
 B 
 
 238 
 
 25 
 
 148 
 
 52 
 
 063 
 
 79 
 
 014 
 
 A 
 
 234 
 
 26 
 
 146 
 
 53 
 
 058 
 
 80 
 
 013 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 143 
 
 54 
 
 055 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 223 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 A SHEET AND HOOP IRON GAUGE issued by the South 
 Staffordshire Ironmasters' Association for the use of sheet 
 and hoop iron makers, 1st March, 1884. 
 
 Parts 
 of 
 inch. 
 
 No. on 
 gauge. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Parts 
 of 
 inch. 
 
 No. on 
 gauge. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Parts 
 of 
 inch. 
 
 No. on 
 gauge. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 1-000 
 
 
 7 
 
 1764 
 
 A- 
 
 28 
 
 015625 
 
 
 14 
 
 0-9583 
 
 
 8 
 
 1570 
 
 
 29 
 
 0139 
 
 
 13 
 
 9167 
 
 
 9 
 
 1398 
 
 
 30 
 
 0123 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 0110 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 8750 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1250 
 
 
 32 
 
 0098 
 
 
 11 
 
 8333 
 
 
 11 
 
 1113 
 
 
 33 
 
 0087 
 
 
 10 
 
 '7917 
 
 
 12 
 
 0991 
 
 
 34 
 
 0077 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 0882 
 
 
 35 
 
 0069 
 
 f 
 
 9 
 
 7500 
 
 
 14 
 
 0785 
 
 
 36 
 
 0061 
 
 
 8 
 
 7083 
 
 
 15 
 
 0699 
 
 
 37 
 
 0054 
 
 
 7 
 
 6666 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 0048 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 16 
 
 0625 
 
 
 39 
 
 0043 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6250 
 
 
 17 
 
 0556 
 
 
 40 
 
 00386 
 
 
 5 
 
 5883 
 
 
 18 
 
 0495 
 
 
 41 
 
 00343 
 
 
 4 
 
 5416 
 
 
 19 
 
 0440 
 
 
 42 
 
 00306 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 0392 
 
 
 43 
 
 00272 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 5000 
 
 
 21 
 
 0349 
 
 
 44 
 
 00242 
 
 
 2 
 
 4452 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 00215 
 
 
 1 
 
 3964 
 
 A 
 
 22 
 
 0312 
 
 
 46 
 
 00192 
 
 
 1 
 
 3532 
 
 
 23 
 
 0278 
 
 
 47 
 
 00170 
 
 
 2 
 
 3147 
 
 
 24 
 
 0247 
 
 
 48 
 
 00152 
 
 
 3 
 
 2804 
 
 
 25 
 
 0220 
 
 
 49 
 
 00135 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 0196 
 
 
 50 
 
 00120 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2500 
 
 
 27 
 
 0174 
 
 
 51 
 
 00107 
 
 
 5 
 
 2225 
 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 00095 
 
 
 6 
 
 1981 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
224 APPENDIX. 
 
 By an Order in Council, dated 26th June, 1884, it was 
 provided that in the several places therein named the 
 maximum fee hereafter to be taken by the local inspectors 
 of weights and measures on the verification and stamping 
 of wire-gauge measures should be as follows : 
 
 Measures from 0-500 to 0-001 inch in the form of wire- 
 gauge plates ; for each notch, or for each internal gauge 
 or separate size, from half-an-inch to one-thousandth of an 
 inch, s 0; d . 
 
 In reply to inquiries as to the use of gauges other than 
 the new standard wire gauge, it has been stated by the 
 Board of Trade that, in their view of the matter, a con- 
 tract can only be maintained when made according to 
 denominations of standards duly legalised under the Act. 
 The Board have, however, no power to put an authoritative 
 construction on the Act. 
 
 "With reference to gauges used for flat metals, for sheet 
 and hoop iron, it has been represented that a standard flat 
 metal gauge would be desirable. The Board have, how- 
 ever, no power under the Act to make a standard appli- 
 cable to sheet and hoop iron only. All that the Board 
 could do, if after consideration they should think it ad- 
 visable, would be to cause to be made a standard flat 
 metal gauge applicable to any metal, whether iron, brass, 
 tin, &c. 
 
 A new WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1889 (52 & 53 Viet., 
 cap. 21), came into operation on the 1st January, 1890. 
 In the preamble the Weights and Measures Act, 1878, is 
 referred to as the principal Act. Some of the chief enact- 
 ments are in substance the following : 
 
 1. That every weighing instrument used for trade shall 
 be ^ erified and stamped by an inspector of weights and 
 measures with a stamp of verification under this Act. 
 
 2. Every person who, after twelve months from the com- 
 mencement of this Act, uses, or has in his possession for 
 use for trade, any weighing instrument not stamped as 
 

 APPENDIX. 225 
 
 required by this Act, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding 
 2, or in the case of a second offence 5 ; 
 
 4. And imprisonment in case of fraud. 
 
 6. The Board of Trade shall from time to time cause 
 such new denominations of standards for the measurement 
 of electricity, temperature, pressure, or gravities as appear 
 to them to be required. 
 
 9. Every local authority having power to appoint inspec- 
 tors of weights and measures shall, with the approval of 
 the Board of Trade, make for the guidance of inspectors 
 appointed or employed by that authority or person, and 
 with the like approval, amend or rescind general regula- 
 tions to be observed in the verification, stamping, and the 
 inspection of weights, measures, and weighing and mea- 
 suring instruments. 
 
 1 1 . The Board of Trade shall provide for the holding of 
 examinations for the purpose of ascertaining whether per- 
 sons acting or appointed to act as inspectors of weights 
 and measures possess sufficient practical knowledge for the 
 proper performance of their duties as such, and for the 
 grant of certificates to persons who satisfactorily pass such 
 examinations. 
 
 20. (1) All coal shall be sold by weight only, except 
 where by the written consent of the purchaser it is 
 sold by boat-load, or by waggons or tubs delivered 
 from the colliery into the works of purchaser. 
 
 (2) If any person sells coals otherwise than is re- 
 quired by this section he shall be liable to a fine not 
 exceeding 5 for every such sale. 
 
 21. Weight ticket or note to be given on delivery of 
 coal over 2 cwt. 
 
 24. Penalty, on deficiency in weight of coal on small 
 sales, not exceeding 5. 
 
 25. Weighing instrument to be kept in place where coal 
 is sold by retail. 
 
 27. Any seller or purchaser of coal may require that any 
 L3 
 
226 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 coal, or vehicle used for the carriage of coal in bulk, be 
 weighed or re- weighed by a properly stamped weighing 
 instrument. 
 
 39. This Act may be cited as the "Weights and Measures 
 Act, 1889; and the principal Act and this Act may be 
 cited together as the Weights and Measures Acts, 1878 
 and 1889. 
 
 The Board of Trade, in pursuance of Section 9, have, 
 at the commencement of the new Act, also caused to be 
 issued a book entitled, " Model Regulations with respect 
 to Inspectors and the Inspection of Weights, Measures, 
 and Weighing and Measuring Instruments," which may be 
 purchased, either directly or through any bookseller, from 
 Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode, East Harding Street, E.G. 
 The Board of Trade are prepared to approve of these regu- 
 lations if made by local authorities, or to take into con- 
 sideration any other or additional regulations which a local 
 authority may desire to make for a particular district. 
 
 Every shop or place having weights, measures, or weigh- 
 ing instruments liable to inspection, should be visited by 
 the inspector once at least in every year. 
 
 No weights should be stamped which are found to 
 differ from the inspector's standards by more than the 
 following: 
 
 Avoirdupois weights. 
 
 Allowance in excess only. 
 
 Iron weights. 
 
 Brass weights. 
 
 56 Ibs. 
 28 
 
 50 grains 
 40 
 
 20 grains 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 Ib 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 8 o 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 , 
 2 , 
 
 and under 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 
APPEISTDIX. 
 
 227 
 
 Apothecaries' Weights. 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 
 i only. 
 
 10, 8, or 6 oz. troy 
 
 0'5 grain 
 
 
 4, 2, or 1 oz. ,, 
 
 0-2 
 
 
 4, 2, or 1 drachms 
 
 o-i 
 
 
 2, 1J, 1 or 4 scruples 
 
 0-05 
 
 
 6, 5, 4, or 3 grains 
 
 0-02 
 
 
 2, 1, or J grains 
 
 o-oi 
 
 
 No measures of capacity to be stamped which, differ from 
 the standards by more than the following : 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 Liquid measure. 
 
 Dry measure. 
 
 Bushel of 8 gallons 
 Half bushel of 4 gallons 
 
 5 fluid ounces 
 4 
 
 > 20 cubic inches 
 
 Peck or 2 gallons 
 Gallon 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 } 15 
 
 Half gallon 
 Quart .... 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 } 10 
 
 Pint .... 
 
 4 fluid drachms 
 
 ) 
 
 Half pint . 
 
 3 
 
 j 5 
 
 Gill . 
 
 2 
 
 ) 
 
 Half gill . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Quarter gill 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 fluid ounce = 437 J grains. 
 
 On an ordinary measure of length no larger amount of 
 error should be allowed than the following : 
 
 
 End measures. 
 
 Line measures. 
 
 
 Error in 
 
 Error in 
 
 Error in 
 
 Error in 
 
 
 excess. 
 
 deficiency. 
 
 excess. 
 
 deficiency. 
 
 Wood : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yard or foot . 
 
 A in - 
 
 A in- 
 
 ITS in. 
 
 A in. 
 
 Inch 
 
 _i_ 
 
 32 J> 
 
 * 
 
 A 
 
 "64" 
 
 Metal : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yard or foot . 
 
 0'05 in. 
 
 0-02 in. 
 
 0-02 in. 
 
 0-01 in. 
 
 Inch 
 
 0-02 
 
 o-oi 
 
 0-005 
 
 0-002 
 
 On other measures of length such amounts of error may 
 be allowed as the local authority may approve. 
 
228 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mr. Herbage, in 1886, afforded the Standards Depart- 
 ment an opportunity of weighing some sovereigns of the 
 years 1864, 1865, and 1866, which he had taken from 
 circulation : 
 
 100 sovereigns of the year 1864 weighed only 12,226 grains. 
 1865 ,, 12,232 
 
 1866 12,232 ,, 
 
 Mr. Herbage is of opinion that the " life" of a gold coin 
 should be legally limited to a duration of twenty years. 
 
 Ascertained weights of standards used by some scale- 
 makers for adjusting bankers' weights. 
 
 The 500 sovereigns weight = 61,435 
 300 36,861 
 
 grains. 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 24,574 
 12,287 
 6,143-5 
 3,686-1 
 2,457-4 
 1,228-7 
 614-35 
 368-61 
 245-74 
 122-87 
 61-44 
 
 On pages 27-8 is given a list of standards in the cus- 
 tody of the Board of Trade at the time of the passing of 
 the Act, 1878. They have now the following additional 
 standards : 
 
 Length : Quarter of a yard, eighth of a yard, sixteenth of a yard, 
 and nail. 
 
 Liquid Measures : 2, 3, 4, &c., to 25 gallons. 
 
 Dry Measure : 4 bushels. 
 
 Weight : Cental or 100 Ibs. ; 480 grains or 20 pennyweights. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 (money), 94 
 Abyssinia (Africa), 57 
 Accini (weight), 92 
 Achtel (capacity), 59, 77, 80, 82, 
 
 118 
 
 Achterli (capacity), 109 
 Acker (surface), 83 
 Acre (surface), 51 
 Adarme (weight), 106 
 Adoulies (money), 73 
 Aguirage (capacity), 80 
 Aix-la-Chapelle; see Prussia, 97 
 Aleppo, Syria, 93 
 Alexandria ; see Egypt, 74 
 Algiers ; see France, 75 
 Alicante; see Spain, 106 
 Almud (capacity), 113 
 Almude (capacity), 95, 106 
 Aln (length), 71, 107 
 Alqueire (capacity), 64, 95, 96 
 Altona ; see Denmark, 71 
 America, United States, 115 
 American dollar (money), 65 
 Amole (capacity), 102 
 Amsterdam ; see Holland, 84 
 Ancient attic or Olympic foot, 79 
 Ancient Greek foot, 79 
 Ancient Pythic foot, 79 
 Ancient foot, 99 
 Ancient keramion or metretes 
 
 (capacity), 79 
 
 Ancona; see Roman States, 100 
 Anker (capacity), 64, 71, 80, 82, 
 
 87, 97, 101, 104 
 Anna (money), 72, 74 
 Antwerp ; see Belgium, 62 
 Appendix, 211 
 
 Arabia, 58 
 
 Archangel ; see Russia, 101 
 
 Archimede's foot, 105 
 
 Archine (length), 101 
 
 Ardeb (capacity), 57, 74 
 
 Are (surface), 75 
 
 Arish (length), 94 
 
 Arpent (surface), 66 
 
 Arragon; see Spain, 106 
 
 Arratel or pound, 96 
 
 Arr5ba (weight), 96, 106 
 
 Artuba (capacity), 94 
 
 As (weight), 108 
 
 Ass (weight), 61 
 
 Assay reports, 39 
 
 Assays of gold and silver, 3J 
 
 Athens ; see Greece, 79 
 
 Atomi (length), 93, 102, 116 
 
 Augsburg ; see Bavaria, 61 
 
 Augsburg ell, 61 
 
 Augsburg foot, 61 
 
 Augsburg mark (weight), 62 
 
 Augsburg mass (capacity), 61 
 
 Augsburg muid (capacity), 61 
 
 Augsburg pounds (weights), 62 
 
 Augsburg scheffels (capacities), 
 
 62 
 Aum of hock, &c. (capacity), 
 
 55 
 
 Aune, large ell, 76, 112 
 Austria, 59 
 Azumbre (capacity), 106 
 
 , Germany, 60 
 Bahar (weight), 58, 68 
 Bajocchi (money), 100 
 
230 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bamboo, or dha (length), 63 
 
 Banco (money), 81 
 
 Bankers' weights for sovereigns, 
 228 
 
 Barbadoes; see West Indies, 117 
 
 Barcelona ; see Spain, 106 
 
 Barge (weight), 54 
 
 Barile (capacity), 86, 88, 90, 91, 
 99, 102, 113, 114 
 
 Barleycorn (length), 2 
 
 Barrel (capacity), 52 
 
 Baryd (length), 58 
 
 Basle or Bale, 112 
 
 Bat (weight), 105 
 
 Batavia, 86 
 
 Batman (weight), 93, 94 
 
 Bavaria, 61 
 
 Bavarian eimer (capacity), 61 
 
 Bavarian ell, 61 
 
 Bavarian foot, 61 
 
 Bavarian pound, 62 
 
 Bavarian scheffel (capacity), 62 
 
 Becher (capacity), 59, 61, 67, 
 109, 110, 112 
 
 Belgium, 62 
 
 Benda (weight), 80 
 
 Benda-offa (weight), 80 
 
 Bengal, 72 
 
 Bengal coss or mile, 72 
 
 Bergen ; see Sweden and Nor- 
 way, 107 
 
 Berkowitz (weight), 101 
 
 Berlin ; see Prussia, 97 
 
 Bermudas; see West Indies, 117 
 
 Berne, Switzerland, 109 
 
 Biolca (surface), 90, 93 
 
 Birmingham wire gauge, 215, 221 j 
 
 Bissextile year, 144 
 
 Bissextile year, rule for, 145, 146 
 
 Bit, or threepenny-piece, 56 
 
 Boccale (capacity), 90, 99, 100, 
 103, 114 
 
 Bohemia, 63 
 
 Bologna ; see Roman States, 100 
 
 Bombay, East Indies, 73 
 
 Bonn ; see Prussia, 97 
 
 Bordeaux ; see France, 75 
 
 Boston ; see United States, 115 
 
 Botte (capacity), 91, 99 
 
 Bozze (capacity), 113 
 
 Bra9a, or fathom, 95 
 
 Braccio (length), 90, 99, 100, 
 102, 114, 116 
 
 Braccio di legno (length), 93 
 
 Brasse, small ell, 112 
 
 Brazil, South America, 64 
 
 Brazil, rate of exchange, 64 
 
 Brazilian dollar, 96 
 
 Bremen, Germany, 64 
 
 Brenta (capacity), 103 
 
 British bronze coins, 35 
 
 British coins in use, 56 
 
 British coins not in use, 56 
 
 British gold coins, 35 
 
 British Islands; see Great Bri- 
 tain, 50 
 
 British North America, 65 
 
 British moneys in North America, 
 65 
 
 British money table, 56 
 
 British money values (are named 
 as "sterling"), 56 
 
 British silver coins, 35 
 
 Bronze coins, British, 35 
 
 Brunswick, Germany, 66 
 
 Brussels ; see Belgium, 62 
 
 Bu (length), 213 
 
 Bushel (capacity), 51 
 
 Bussoli (capacity), 115 
 
 Butt (capacity), 52, 55 
 
 Butt of sherry, 55 
 
 QABLE'S length, 51 
 
 Cadiz ; see Spain, 106 
 Caffiso (capacity), 88 
 Cahiz (capacity), 106 
 Cairo ; see Egypt, 74 
 Calcutta, 72 
 
 Calendar, how determined, 171 
 Calendar month, 144 
 Calendar, Gregorian, 145 
 Cambridge University terms, 178, 
 
 207 
 
 Canada ; see British America, 65 
 Canada (liquid measure), 95 
 Canary Islands (Atlantic), 67 
 Candereen "fun" (money), 69 
 Candia (Mediterranean), 68 
 Candy (weight), 63, 68, 73 
 Canna (length), 88, 90, 91, 99. 
 
 102, 105, 114 
 Canne (length), 99 
 Cantar (weight), 113 
 Cantaro (capacity), 95, 106 
 
INDEX. 
 
 231 
 
 Cantaro (weight), 68, 74, 79, 88, 
 
 93, 114 
 
 Canton; see China, 69 
 Cape of Good Hope, 68 
 Cape Verd Islands ; see Portugal, 
 
 95 
 
 Capichas (capacity), 94 
 Caraffi (capacity), 91 
 Carat (weight), 3233, 53 
 Carats -fine, 33 
 Carats (weight), 100, 103 
 Carga (capacity), 68 
 Carlino (money), 92 
 Carro (capacity), 91, 103 
 Cash, "le" (money), 69 
 Cassel ; see Hesse Cassel, 83 
 Castile, Spain, 106 
 Oastilian foot, 67 
 Catena (length), 99 
 Catty (weight), 63, 69, 105 
 Caveer current (money), 58 
 Cavezzo (length), 90 
 Cent (money), 56, 85 
 Centass (weight), 61 
 Centenas (money), 107 
 Centesimi (money), 115, 117 
 Centiare (surface), 75 
 Centigramme (weight), 76 
 Centilitre (capacity), 75 
 Centime (money), 62, 77 
 Centimes, or lepta (money), 79 
 Centimetre (length), 75 
 Centinajo (weight), 86 
 Centner (weight), 12, 67, 98 
 Ceylon ; see East Indies, 72 
 Ceylon, coin in circulation, 68 
 Chain (length), 50, 51 
 Chaldron (weight), 55 
 Chang, "rod" (length), 212 
 Chang (weight), 105 
 Char (capacity), 111 
 Chequee (weight), 114 
 Chenicas (capacity), 94 
 Cheung (length), 69 
 Ch'ien, "mace" (weight), 213 
 Ch'ih ("covid " or foot), 212 
 Chik (length), 69 
 Chilo (capacity), 86 
 China, 69, 212 
 Chinese mile, "li," 69 
 Ching (surface), 212 
 Chittack (weight), 72 
 Cho (length), 213 
 
 Cho (surface), 214 
 Christiana ; see Sweden and Nor- 
 way, 107 
 
 Chu (weight), 213 
 Chunam (capacity), 73 
 Chiio (surface), 212 
 Cohido, or covid (length), 58 
 Coblentz ; see Prussia, 97 
 Coins, particulars relating there- 
 to, 28 
 Coins, computation of values of, 
 
 39 
 
 Cologne, Prussia, 70, 97 
 Cologne mark (weight), 81, 98 
 Columbo, coin in circulation, 68 
 Commassees (money), 58 
 Company's rupee (money), 72 
 Constantinople ; see Turkey, 113 
 Conto of rees (money), 96 
 C >omb (capacity), 51 
 Copas (capacity), 106 
 Copec (money), 101 
 Copello (capacity), 103 
 Copenhagen; see Denmark, 71 
 Coppi (capacity), 116 
 Corba (capacity), 100 
 Corn gallon, 5, 50 
 Corsica ; see France, 75 
 Coss, or mile, 72 
 Coupe, or sack, 111, 112 
 Covada, or cubit (length), 95 
 Covid, orcobido (length), 58, 69, 
 
 73, 212 
 
 Cracow, Poland, 70 
 Cracow foot, 70 
 Cremona ; see Venetian Lombar- 
 
 dy, 116 
 
 Crore (money), 74 
 Crown (money), 56 
 Crusado (money), 96 
 Cuba, West Indies, 117 
 Cubic foot (capacity), 51 
 Cubic foot of water, 19 
 Cubic inch of water, 5, 19 
 Cubic yard (capacity), 51 
 Cubit (length), 2, fii, 72, 74, 79, 
 
 90 
 
 Cucchiari (capacity), 103 
 Cycle of the sun, 155 
 Cycle of the sun, rules for calcu- 
 lating, 155156 
 
232 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 J)AIN (length), 63 
 
 Damascus ; see Ottoman 
 
 Asia, 93 
 
 Danish specie dollar, 72 
 Dantzic ; see Prussia, 97 
 Days of the week, table of, 155 
 Decagramme (weight), 76 
 Decalitre (capacity), 75 
 Decare (surface), 75 
 Decametre (length), 75 
 Decastere (capacity), 75 
 Decigramme (weight), 76 
 Decilitre (capacity), 75 
 Decimal coinage, 36, 56 
 Decimas (money), 78, 107 
 Decime (money), 77 
 Decimetre (length), 75 
 Decimi (length), 99 
 Decistere (capacity), 75 
 Dedo, or finger (length), 95, 106 
 Degree of equator (length), 51 
 Degree of meridian (length), 51 
 Demerara ; see West Indies, 117 
 Denaro (weight), 93, 102, 103, 
 
 114, 115, 116, 117 
 Denmark, 71 
 Derah (length), 74 
 Dernier (weight), 111 
 Dha (length), 63 
 Diamond carats (weight), 53 
 Diamond grains (weight), 53 
 Dicotoli (capacity), 86 
 Difference of style, 148149 
 Digit (length), 2 
 Dinars (money), 94 
 Dinars-bisti (money), 94 
 Dionysian period, 169 
 Dioriysian period, rule for, 169 
 Dirhem (weight), 57, 94 
 Doli (weight), 101 
 Dollar (money), 66, 72, 78, 89, 
 
 . 104, 115, 117 
 Dollar of Mexico, 89 
 Dollar of South America, 89 
 Dollar of Spain, 89 
 Dominical letter, 149 
 Dominical letter, rule for, 153 
 Dominical letters, table of, 1 54 
 Doubloon (money), 78, 117 
 Drachm (weight and capacity), 
 
 53 
 
 Drachma (money), 79 
 Drachma (weight), 74, 108, 110 
 
 Drachme (weight), 60, 92, 98 
 Dracma (weight), 106 
 Dram (weight), 53, 113, 114 
 Dramma (weight), 92, 115 
 Dreah (length), 113 
 Dresden, 103 
 Drittel (capacity), 82 
 Dromt (capacity), 87 
 Ducat (money), 60, 92 
 Ducatoon (money), 85 
 Duim (length), 84 
 Duro (money), 107 
 
 JJAST Indies, 72 
 
 Easter day, rule for, 148, 
 
 164165 
 Easter day, table for finding, 
 
 168, 208 
 
 Easter day, &c., for three centu- 
 ries, 178187 
 
 Easter Sunday ; see Easter day 
 Ecklein (capacity), 118 
 Eggeba (weight), 80 
 Egypt, Africa, 74 
 Eich-mass (capacity), 77 
 Eimer (capacity), 59, 80, 82, 87, 
 
 97, 104," 109, 111, 112, 
 
 118 
 Ell (length), 68, 102, 109, 110, 
 
 l - 111, 112, 113 
 Ell, Scotch, 51 
 Elle (length), 59, 64, 66, 80, 82, 
 
 84, 87, 97, 103, 110 
 Elle, Stuttgard, 118 
 Elsinore ; see Denmark, 71 
 England ; see Great Britain, 50 
 English coins, table of, 32 
 English ell (length), 51 
 Epact, 160 
 
 Epact, formula for, 163 
 Epacts, table of, 164 
 Epochs, Eras and Periods, 206 
 Errors allowed in measures of 
 
 capacity, 227 
 Errors allowed in measures of 
 
 length, 227 
 Errors allowed in measures of 
 
 weight, 226 
 Estadal (length), 106 
 Exchange, principles of, 45 
 Exchange in Brazil, 64 
 
INDEX. 
 
 233 
 
 FALKLAND Islands ; see Great 
 
 Britain, 50 
 Famn (length), 107 
 Fanega (capacity), 106 
 Fang or ma (capacity), 212 
 Fanga (capacity), 96 
 Farsakh (length), 58 
 Farthing (money), 56 
 Fass (capacity), 66, 81, 87, 104 
 Fathom (length), 2, 51, 72, 99 
 Feddan al risach (surface), 74 
 Feld acker (surface), 109 
 Fen (length), 69, 212 
 Fen (weight), 213 
 Ferlini (weight), 90 
 Ferlino (weight), 100 
 Fiasco (capacity), 90, 114 
 Finland; see Russia, 101 
 Firkin (capacity), 52 
 Five-frank piece, 77 
 Five-lire piece, 93 
 Fjerding (capacity), 71, 107 
 Flanders ; see Belgium, 62 
 Florence, 114 
 Florin (money), 56, 60, 62, 85, 
 
 113 
 
 Florin of Batavia, 86 
 Florin of Nuremberg, 62 
 Fluctuations of exchange, 48 
 Fod (length), 71 
 Foglietta (capacity), 99, 100 
 Foot (length), 2,* 50, 100, 111, 
 
 112, 113 
 
 Fortin (capacity), 114 
 Fot (length), 107 
 Fourpenny-piece, or groat, 56 
 Franc (money), 62, 77 
 France, 75 
 
 Frankfort-on-Maine, 77 
 Frank, Swiss, 112 
 Frazil (weight), 58 
 Frederick (money), 98 
 Fuder (capacity), 59, 60, 64, 66, 
 
 77, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 97, 
 
 104, 118 
 
 Fun (weight), 214 
 Funt, or pound, 101 
 Furlong (length), 50 
 Fuss (length), 59, 60, 64, 80, 82, 
 
 83, 87, 97, 103, 109, 110, 
 
 118 
 Futtermassel (capacity), 59 
 
 (BALLON (capacity), 11, 51 
 
 52,53 
 
 Garce (capacity), 73 
 Garnetz (capacity), 101 
 Gasab (length), 74 
 Gauges, wire and sheet, 215 
 Geira (surface), 95 
 Geneva, 111 
 Genoa, 102 
 Germany, 78, 211 
 Gescheid (capacity), 77, 84 
 Gibraltar, 78 
 Gill (capacity), 51, 52 
 Giornata (surface), 103 
 Girth (length), 2 
 Glass (capacity), 60 
 Go (capacity), 214 
 Gold, assays of, 39 
 Gold coins, wear of, 228 
 Gold crown, 96 
 Gold doubloon, 79 
 Gold ducat, 78, 81, 85, 98, 101, 
 
 104, 108, 110, 111 
 Gold eagle, 115 
 Golden number, 157 
 Golden number, rule for, 157 
 Golden numbers, table of, 158 
 
 159 
 
 Gold imperial, 101 
 Gold pistole, 107, 110, 117 
 Gold rosini, 115 
 Gold rupee, 94 
 Gold rusponi, 115 
 Gold ryder, 85 
 
 Gold sequin, 93, 100, 115, 117 
 Gold tical, 105 
 Gombette (capacity), 102 
 Grain (weight), 52, 53 
 Grains (weight), 76, 77, 108, 111, 
 
 112 
 
 Gramme (weight), 76 
 Gran (weight), 60, 92, 98, 104, 
 
 110 
 
 Grani (money), 88, 92, 105 
 Grani (weight), 93, 99, 100, 102, 
 
 115, 116, 117 
 Grano (weight), 103, 106 
 Granotini (weight), 103 
 Grao (length), 95 
 Graos (weight), 96 
 Great Britain, 50 
 Greece, 79 
 Gregorian calendar, 145 
 
234 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gregorian calendar for three 
 
 centuries, 178 187 
 Groat, fourpenny piece, 56 
 Gros (weight), 76, 77, 112 
 Groschen (money), 98 
 Grosso (weight), 116 
 Grot (money), 65 
 Grote (money), 63 
 Gudda (capacity), 58 
 Guerze (length), 94 
 Guilder (money), 85, 113 
 Guinea, Africa, 79 
 Gulden (money), 86 
 Gulden, or florin, 60 
 Guz (length), 58, 73 
 Guz, or yard, 72 
 
 JALF-CKOWN, 56 
 
 Half-pence, an inch in di- 
 ameter, 36 
 
 Half-penny, 56 
 
 Half-sovereign, 56 
 
 Hall mark, &c., 33 
 
 Hamburg, Germany, 80 
 
 Hand (length), 50 
 
 Hand, or moot (length), 72 
 
 Hanover, Germany, 82 
 
 Hao (weight), 213 
 
 Hap, or pecul (weight), 105 
 
 Hath (length), 73 
 
 Haut, or cubit (length), 72 
 
 Havannah, or Havana; seeWest 
 Indies, 117 
 
 Hayti, or Haiti; see West Indies, 
 117 
 
 Hebrew calendar, 187 
 
 Hebrew calendar, principal days 
 of, 194 
 
 Hebrew calendar, table of months, 
 189 
 
 Hebrew years, table of, 195 197 
 
 Hectare (surface), 75 
 
 Hectogramme (weight), 76 
 
 Hectolitre (capacity), 75 
 
 Hectometre (length), 75 
 
 Heller (weight), 67, 78 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, Germany, 83 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, Germany, 83 
 
 Himt (capacity), 67, 81, 82, 83 
 
 Hindoostan; see East Indies, 72 
 
 Ho (gill), 213 
 
 Hogshead (capacity), 62 
 
 Hogshead of claret, &c., 55 
 Holland, 84 
 
 Holstein; see Denmark, 71 
 Hu (bushel), 213 
 Hundredweight, 53 
 Hungary ; see Austria, 59 
 Hwiih (capacity), 69 
 Hyaku-me (weight), 214 
 
 JKJE (length), 86 
 
 Illegal denominations of 
 
 weight, 214 
 Immi (capacity), 109, 110, 111, 
 
 118 
 
 Imperial gallon, 19, 50 
 Imperial gold coin, 101 
 Imperial standard wire gauge, 216, 
 
 217 
 
 Inc (length), 86 
 Inch (length), 50 
 Indian seer (weight), 214 
 Indiction, 169 
 Indiction, rule for, 169 
 Inspectors, examination of, 225 
 Ionian Islands, 86 
 Ireland; see Great Britain, 50 
 Island of Java, 86 
 Italic stadium (length), 2 
 Italy, 86 
 Itinerary or road measures, 140 
 
 142 
 Itinerary pace (length), 51 
 
 JACKTAN (length), 79 
 
 Jamaica; see West Indies, 
 
 117 
 
 Japan, Asia, 86, 213 
 Jewish calendar, 187 
 Jewish calendar, principal days 
 
 of, 194 
 Jewish calendar, table of months, 
 
 189 
 
 Jewish years, table of, 195 197 
 Jo (length), 213 
 Joch, or day's work, 59 
 Jow (length), 72 
 Juchart, or feld acker (surface), 
 
 109 
 
 Julian period, 170 
 Julian period, rule for, 170 
 Jungfrus (capacity), 107 
 
INDEX. 
 
 235 
 
 ]AI-RI (length), 213 
 Kan (capacity), 85 
 Kande (capacity), 71 
 Kanna (capacity), 107 
 Kanne (capacity), 59, 80, 82, 86, 
 
 87, 104 
 
 Kappe (capacity), 107 
 Kasbequis (money), 94 
 Keel (weight), 54 
 Kei (capacity), 214 
 Kellas, or mecmedas (capacity), 
 
 58 
 
 Ken (length), 104, 213 
 Kharouhas (weight), 113 
 Kiel; see Germany, 78 
 Kila (capacity), 79 
 Kilderkin (capacity), 52 
 Killow (capacity), 114 
 Kilogramme (weight), 76 
 Kilolitre (capacity), 75 
 Kilometre (length), 75 
 Kin (weight), 214 
 Kintal (weight), 114 
 Klafter (length), 59, 64, 83, 118 
 Koku (capacity), 214 
 Konigsberg; see Prussia, 97 
 Kop (capacity), 69, 85 
 Kopflein (capacity) 112 
 Kopt (capacity), 111 
 Korrel (weight), 85 
 Kreuzer (money), 1 13 
 Kreuzer piece, 60, 62 
 Kronor (money), 72 
 Kuh (length), '104 
 Kiimpf (capacity), 84 
 Kung (length), 212 
 Kwam-me (weight), 214 
 
 (money), 74 
 Lana (weight), 101 
 Landfass (capacity), 109 
 Last (capacity), 51, 65, 71, 81, 
 
 82,^85, 87, 97 
 Law relating to the sale of coals, 
 
 225 
 
 Law sittings, 176 177 
 Law terms (old), 172 
 Law terms (Tnns of Court), 177 
 League (length), 51 
 Leap year, 144 
 Leap year, rule for, 145 146 
 " Legal tender," 34 
 
 Legal weights of coins, 34 
 
 Leghorn, 114 
 
 Legua (length), 106 
 
 Leipzic, 103 
 
 Lepta, or centimes (money), 79 
 
 Li, Chinese mile, 69, 212 
 
 Li (weight), 213 
 
 Liang (weight), 213 
 
 Libhra (weight), 90, 92, 93, 99, 
 
 100, 102, 103, 105, 115 
 Libbra grossa( weight), 86 
 Libbra metrica (weight), 116 
 Libbra sottile (weight), 86 
 Libra (weight), 67, 96, 106 
 Liespfund (weight), 67, 81, 98 
 "Lieu de poste" (length), 76 
 Ligne (length), 76 
 Lille, or Lisle ; see France, 75 
 Line (length), 50, 59, 64 
 Linea (length), 106 
 Linear measures, table of, 120 
 
 129 
 
 Linha (length), 95 
 Linie (length), 60, 87, 97, 109, 118 
 Linien (length), 71, 82, 83, 103, 
 
 110 
 
 Linies (length), 107 
 Lira (money), 86, 90 
 Lira Austriaca (money), 117 
 Lira nuova (money), 112 
 Lisbon; see Portugal, 95 
 Lispund (weight), 71, 108 
 Liter (weight), 57 
 Lithuania meile (length), 101 
 Litre (capacity), 75 
 Livre (weight), 76 
 Load (capacity), 51 
 Load (weight), 54 
 Locher (capacity), 67 
 Lod (weight), 71, 108 
 London; see Great Britain, 50 
 Lood (weight), 85 
 Loth (weight), 59, 65, 67, 70, 78, 
 
 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 97, 101, 
 
 104, 109, 110, 111 
 Liibeck, Germany, 87 
 Lucca, Italy; see Tuscany, 114 
 Lucerne, 110 
 Lyons ; see France, 75 
 
 J\AATJE (capacity), 85 
 
 Mace, "tseen" (money), 69 
 
236 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Madega (capacity), 57 
 Madeira, Atlantic; see Portugal, 
 
 95 
 
 Madras, East Indies, 73 
 Madrid, 106 
 Mahhub (money), 113 
 Mahometan calendar, 198 
 Mahometan months, table of, 202 
 Mahometan year, rule for, 200, 
 
 201 
 Mahometan years, table of, 203 
 
 206 
 
 Malaga; see Spain, 106 
 Malta, Mediterranean, 88 
 Malter (capacity), 61,77,82, 84, 
 
 97, 104, 110, 111 
 Mamoodi (money), 94 
 Maravedise (money), 107 
 Marc (weight), 109 
 Marcal (capacity), 73 
 Marco (weight), 96, 103, 106, 117 
 Mark (money), 72, 88 
 Mark (weight), 59, 60, 64, 65, 67, 
 
 70, 71, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 
 
 87, 97, 104, 108 
 "Mark banco" (money), 81 
 Mark of Cologne (weight), 60, 61 
 Marseilles; see France, 75 
 Mascais (weight), 94 
 Mass (capacity), 59, 60, 83, 84, 
 
 109, 110, 111, 118 
 Masschen (capacity), 77, 83, 84, 
 
 97, 104 
 
 Masslein (capacity), 61, 118 
 Massli (capacity), 109, 111 
 Maund (weight), 58, 72, 73 
 Mauritius, 89 
 Measure (capacity), 73 
 Measures numerical relations of, 
 
 19 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 89 
 Mecklenburg- Strelitz, 89 
 Mecmedas or kellas (capacity), 58 
 ]\ledia-tabla (weight), 80 
 Medida (capacity), 64 
 Medio (capacity), 106 
 Meile (length), 59, 64, 66, 80, 82, 
 
 109 
 
 Memel, see Prussia, 97 
 Metadella (capacity), 115 
 Metical (weight), 74, 113 
 Metretes (capacity), 79 
 Metric system, 26 
 
 Metrical system, 75 
 
 Metre (length), 75, 76, 77 
 
 Metze (capacity), 59, 83, 97, 104 
 
 Mexico, North America, 90 
 
 Mezzaruola (capacity), 102 
 
 Mezzetta (capacity), 114, 115 
 
 Miglio (length), 91, 102, 114, 116 
 
 Mijle (length), 84 
 
 Mil (lenoth), 107 
 
 Mil (money), 56 
 
 Milan, 116 
 
 Milan foot, 116 
 
 Mile (length), 50 
 
 Military pace (length), 51 
 
 Millet (weight), 12 
 
 Milligramme (weight), 76 
 
 Millimetre (length), 75 
 
 Millitre (capacity), 75 
 
 Milrea (money), 96 
 
 Milrea of Azores (money), 96 
 
 Milrea of Madeira (money), 96 
 
 Milreis (money), 64 
 
 Milyard (length), 11 
 
 Mina (capacity), 93, 102, 103, 115, 
 
 116 
 
 Mingel (capacity), 64 
 Minim (capacity), 53 
 Minot (capacity), 66 
 Mint, remedy of the, 34 
 Minuti (length), 91 
 Mistate (capacity), 68 
 Misure (capacity), 91 
 Misurelle (capacity), 91 
 Mo (length), 213 
 Mo (weight), 214 
 Mocha ; see Arabia, 58 
 Modena, Italy, 90 
 Moeda (money). 96 
 Moggio (surface), 91, 115 
 Mohur, gold coin, 72, 74, 89 
 Moio (capacity), 96 
 Momme (weight), 214 
 Monkelser (length), 94 
 Montpelier ; see France, 75 
 Moon's Age, 170 
 Moot, or hand (length), 72 
 Morgen (surface), 60, 64, 66, 80, 
 
 84, 97, 118 
 
 Morgen of Calenberg (surface), 82 
 Morocco, Africa, 90 
 Moscow ; see Russia, 101 
 Mou (surface), 212 
 Movable Feasts, 170 
 
237 
 
 Movable Feasts, table of, 172-3 
 Mudde or Zak (capacity), 85 
 Muhlmassel (capacity), 59 
 Mill (length), 71 
 Munich ; see Bavaria, 61 
 Munich eimer (capacity), 61 
 Munich pound (weight), 62 
 Munich scheffel (capacity), 62 
 Munster ; see Prussia, 97 
 Mural standards of length, 22 
 Muth (capacity), 59 
 Mutt (capacity), 109, 110, 111, 
 
 112 
 
 Myriagramme (weight), 76 
 Myriametre (length), 75 
 
 (length), 50 
 
 Nantes, the Two Sicilies, 91 
 Naples, 91 
 
 Napoleon (money), 77, 89 
 Netherlands ; see Holland, 84 
 
 S eU ? h if*f el l } '* Switzerland, 109 
 Neufchatel j 
 
 Neufchatel, 113 
 
 Neu groschen (money), 104 
 
 Neu-mass (capacity), 77 
 
 Newfoundland ; see Great Britain, 
 50 
 
 New South Wales ; see Great Bri- 
 tain, 50 
 
 New York ; see United States, 115 
 
 Nice ; see Sardinia, 102 
 
 Nin (capacity), 105 
 
 Nin (length), 104 
 
 Noggin (capacity), 52 
 
 Noustia (capacity), 58 
 
 North America, United States, 1 i 5 
 
 Norway, 107 
 
 Nossel (capacity), 66, 82, 104 
 
 Nova Scotia ; see British North 
 America, 65 
 
 Nufs-orbah (capacit) ), 1 13 
 
 Number of direction, 164 
 
 Number of direction, formulas for, 
 166 
 
 Number of direction, table of, 167 
 
 Numerical relations of measures, 
 19 
 
 Nurnberg J fi ; 2 
 
 Nuremberg | 
 
 Nuremberg eimers (capacity), 61 
 
 Nuremberg ell (length), 61 
 
 Nuremberg foot (length), 61 
 Nuremberg malter (capacity), 62 
 Nuremberg mark (weight), 62 
 Nuremberg pound (weight), 62 
 
 QBOLI (money), 86 
 
 Occa (weight), 68 
 Ochava (weight), 106 
 Ochavillos (capacity), 106 
 Octave, &c. (capacity), 55 
 Odessa ; see Russia, 101 
 Ohm (capacity), 60, 64, 66, 77, 80, 
 
 82, 83,84,87,97,104, 110, 
 
 112 
 
 Oke (weight), 74, 79, 93, 114 
 Okie, oz. (weight), 113 
 Old Ale gallon, 5, 50 
 Old and New Measures, 20 
 Old Irish mile, 51 
 Old Law Terms, table of, 175-6 
 Old Scotch mile, 51 
 Old Wine gallon, 5, 50 
 Olluck (capacity), 73 
 Olympic foot (length), 79 
 One, a (weight), 96 
 Once (weight), 76, 77 
 Oncetta (money), 92 
 Oncia (length)", 91, 93, 99, 102, 
 
 116 
 
 Oncia (money), 105 
 Oncia (weight), 90, 92, 93, 99, 
 
 100, 102, 103, 115, 116,117 
 Ons (weight), 85 
 Onza (weight), 106 
 Oporto ; see Portugal, 95 
 Orbah, (capacity), 113 
 Ore (money), 72, 108 
 Ort (weight), 65, 71, 87 
 Ortchen (weight), 82 
 Orts (capacity), 107 
 Osmin (capacity), 101 
 Ossel (capacity), 80, 97 
 Ostend; see Belgium, 62 
 Ottavo (weight), 100, 103 
 Ottoman Asia, 93 
 Ottoman Empire; see Turkey, 113 
 Ounce (capacity), 53 
 Ounce (weight), 12, 52, 53 
 Outava (weight), 96 
 Oxford University Terms, 177-8 
 Oxhoft (capacity), 64, 66, 80, 82, 
 
 87, 104 
 
238 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 pACE (length), 2 
 
 Pace itinerary, 51 
 Pace military, 51 
 Packen (weight), 101 
 Padua ; see Venetian Lombardy, 
 
 116 
 
 Pagoda (weight), 73 
 Pagoda star, gold coin, 74 
 Pajak (capacity), 101 
 Palermo ; see Sicily, 105 
 Palm (length), 2, 50, 84 
 Palmo (length), 88, 91, 95, 99, 102, 
 
 105, 106, 114, 116 
 Panilla (capacity), 106 
 Paolo (money), 100 
 Paper rouble (money), 101 
 Parah (capacity), 73 
 Paras (money), 68, 74, 113, 114 
 Paris ; see France, 75 
 Parma, Italy, 93 
 Parrah (capacity), 68 
 Pataca (money), 96 
 Pataka (money), 57 
 Paulgaut (length), 63 
 Peck (capacity), 51 
 Pecul (weight), 69, 105 
 Penny (money), 56 
 Pennyweight (weight), 52 
 Perch (length), 2, 50, 51 
 Persia, Asia, 94 
 Pertica or passo (length), 91, 93, 
 
 102 
 
 Peseta (money), 107 
 Pesos (money), 90 
 Petersburg ; see Russia, 101 
 Pezza (money), 88, 89 
 Pfennig (weight), 59, 61, 67, 70, 
 
 78, 81, 84, 87, 104, 109 
 Pfennig (money), 78,81,88, 98,104 
 Pfiff (capacity), 59 
 Pfund, (weight), 59, 60, 61, 65, 
 
 67, 70, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 
 
 87,92,97,98,104,109,110, 
 
 111, 112 
 Philadelphia ; see United States, 
 
 115 
 
 Piastre (money), 68, 74, 114 
 Piastre (money), 58, 107 
 Piastre of Selim (money), 114 
 Pic Turkish (length), 57 
 Pic or ell (length), 68, 74, 90 
 Pic or pike (length), 93, 113 
 Pice (money), 72 
 
 Pice (weight), 73 
 
 Picha (length), 79 
 
 Pie (length), 67, 93, 99, 106 
 
 Pie (money), 72 
 
 "Piedusuel" (length), 76 
 
 Piede (length), 90 
 
 Piede liprando (length), 102 
 
 Piede manuale (length), 102 
 
 Piedmont, 102 
 
 Pignate (capacity), 91 
 
 Pik (length), 113 
 
 Pike or pic (length), 93. 113 
 
 Pint (capacity), 51-2, 53 
 
 Pinta (capacity), 103, 116 
 
 Pinte (capacity), 102 
 
 Pipe (capacity), 52 
 
 Pipe of Port, &c., 55 
 
 Piso (weight), 80 
 
 Pistole, goldcoin, 100,107,110, 117 
 
 Planke (capacity), 87 
 
 Pole (len-th), 50 
 
 Pole (surface), 51 
 
 Pollam (weight), 73 
 
 Pullegada, thumb or inch (length) 
 
 95 
 
 Pond (weight), 85 
 Pondicherry ; see. France, 75 
 Pontos (length), 95 
 Portugal, 95 
 Portuguese mile, 95 
 Post-meile (length), 97 
 Pote (capacity), 95 
 Pots (capacity), 111 
 Pott (capacity), 71, 112 
 Pottle (capacity), 51 
 Pouce (length), 76 
 Pound (weight), 12 
 Pound (weight), 52, 53, 79, 112 
 Pound or Rotl, (weight), 74 
 Pound or sovereign (money), 56 
 Prague, 63 
 Prague foot, 63 
 Presburg ; see Austria, 59 
 P.imas (capacity), 110 
 Prince Edward's Island ; see 
 
 British North America, 65 
 Principles of Exchange, 45 
 Probmetzen (capacity), 59 
 Prussia, 97 
 Pu (pace), 212 
 Pud (weight), 101 
 Puddy (capacity), 73 
 Pulgada (length)* 106 
 
INDEX. 
 
 239 
 
 Puncheon (capacity), 52 
 Puncheon of Whisky, &c., 55 
 Pund (weight), 71 
 Punkte (length), 59, 60, 87, 118 
 Punto (length), 93, 102, 106, 116, 
 212 
 
 QUART (capacity), 512 
 
 ' Quarta (capacity), 99 
 Quartaroli (capacity), 93 
 Quarter (capacity), 51 
 Quarter (money), 74 
 Quarter (weight), 53 
 Quartern (capacity), 52 
 Quarteron (capacity), 111 
 Quarterone (capacity), 100 
 Quarticini (capacity), 100 
 Quartier (capacity), 64, 66, 80, 82, 
 
 87, 97, 104 
 
 Quartiere (capacity), 103 
 Quartilhos (capacity), 95 
 Quartillo (capacity), 106 
 Quartini (capacity), 103 
 Quartli (capacity), 111 
 Quarto (capacity), 91, 102, 115 
 Quartucci (capacity), 99, 114 
 Quartuccio (capacity), 115 
 Quebec ; see Great Britain, 50 
 Quent (weight), 109 
 Quentchen (weight), 59, 65, 67, 
 
 70, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 
 
 97, 110 
 
 Quenten (weight), 111 
 Quentlein (weight), 104 
 Quintal (weight), 96 
 Quintin (weight), 71 
 Quinto (weight), 80 
 Qwarter (capacity), 107 
 Qwintin (weight), 108 
 
 JJACION (capacity), 106 
 
 Rangoon, Asia, 63 
 Rap (money), 112 
 Raso or ell (length), 102 
 Rattel (weight), 94 
 Real Yellon (money), 78, 107 
 Reals of plate (money), 107 
 Rea (money), 74, 96 
 Reich s-mark (money), 78 
 Remedy of the mint, 34 
 Revel ; see Russia, 101 
 Rhenish foot (length), 80 
 
 Ri (length), 213 
 
 Riga; see Russia, 101 
 
 Rigsbank (money), 72 
 
 Riksdaler (money), 108 
 
 Riksdaler banco (money), 108 
 
 Rin (length), 213 
 
 Rin (money), 86 
 
 Rin (weight), 214 
 
 Rio de Janeiro ; see Brazil, 64 
 
 Rix-banco (money), 72 
 
 Rixdollar (money), 60, 62, 65, 68, 
 
 81, 85, 86, 98 
 
 Road or itinerary measures, 140-2 
 Rob (capacity), 74 
 Rochelle ; see France, 75 
 Rod (length), 50 
 Rod (surface), 51 
 Roede (length), 84 
 Roeneng (length), 104 
 Roman scudo (money), 100 
 Roman States, Italy, 99 
 Rome, Italy, 99 
 Rood (surface), 51 
 Room (weight), 54 
 Rotl or pound (weight), 74 
 Rotolo (weight), 92, 114 
 Rottol (weight), 113 
 Rottoli (weight), 68 
 Rottolo (weight), 57, 88, 102, 105 
 i Rotterdam ; see Holland, 84 
 Rouen; see France, 75 
 Rubbio (capacity), 99, 100, 103 
 Rouble (money), 101 
 Runstycken (money), 108 
 Rupee (money), 68, 72, 74, 89 
 Rusponi (money), 115 
 Russia, 101 
 Ruthe (length), 60, 64, 82, 97, 103, 
 
 109, 118 
 
 Ruthen, square, 64 
 Ryder, gold coin, 85 
 
 ftACCO (capacity), 90, 103, 115 
 
 Sachine (length), 101 
 Sack (weight), 54 
 Sai (capacity), 214 
 St. Domingo; see West Indies, 117 
 St. Gallen, 112 
 
 St. Petersburg; see Russia, 101 
 Salma (capacity), 88, 91, 10 , 
 Sardinia, Italy, 102 
 Sarokowaja (capacity), 101 
 
240 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Saum (capacity), 109, 110, 112 
 Saundaung (length), 63 
 Savoy ; see Sardinia, 102 
 Saxony, 103 
 Scheffel (capacity), 65, 67, 81, 83, 
 
 87, 97, 104, 118 
 Scheffel Munich (capacity), 62 
 Schepel (capacity), 85 
 Schiffpfund (weight), 67, 81, 98 
 Schilling (money), 63, 81, 85, 88 
 Schoppen (capacity), 77, 83, 84, 
 
 110, 118 
 
 Schrot (capacity), 77 
 Schuh, shoe or foot (length) ,66,110 
 Schwaren (money), 65 
 Scorzo (capacity), 99 
 Scotch ell (length), 51 
 Scropulo (weight), 96 
 Scrupel (weight), 60, 92, 97, 98, 
 
 108, 110 
 
 Scruple (weight), 53 
 Scrupolo (weight), 92 
 Scudo (money), 88, 100, 105 
 Se (surface), 214 
 Sechszehnerli (capacity), 109 
 Sechter (capacity), 77 
 Secundes (length), 109 
 Seer (capacity), 68 
 Seer (weight), 72, 73, 214 
 Seidel (capacity), 59 
 Sello (money), 96 
 Sen (money), 86 
 Sequin (money), 57 
 Seron (weight), 80 
 Sesma (length), 106 
 Sester (capacity), 61 
 Setter (capacity), 111 
 Seville; see Spain, 106 
 Sextarios (capacity), 94 
 Shaku (capacity), 214 
 Shaku (length), 213 
 Shatree (money), 94 
 Sheet and Hoop Iron Gauge, 223 
 Sheng (pint), 213 
 Shi (length), 213 
 Shi (weight), 214 
 Shilling (money), 56 
 Shing tsong (capacity), 69 
 Shipload (weight), 54 
 Shd (capacity), 214 
 Shoe (money), 66, 70 
 Siberia ; see Russia, 101 
 Sicca or tola (weight), 72 
 
 Sicca rupee (money), 68 
 
 Sicilian dollar (money), 88, 89 
 
 Sicily, 105 
 
 Silver, assays of, 39 
 
 Silver crown, 111, 112 
 
 Silver ducat (money), 117 
 
 Silver rupee (money), 94 
 
 Silver tical (money), 105 
 
 Simmer (capacity), 77, 84 
 
 Simri (capacity), 118 
 
 Sixpence or tester (money), 56 
 
 Skalpund (weight), 108 
 
 Skeppund (weight), 108 
 
 Skieppe (capacity), 71 
 
 Skilling (money), 68, 72, 108 
 
 Skippund (weight), 71 
 
 Smyrna, Turkey, 93, 113 
 
 Sok (length), 104 
 
 Solar cycle, 155 
 
 Solar cycl^, rules for, 155-6 
 
 Solar day, 143 
 
 Solar year, 143 
 
 Soldo (length), 114 
 
 Soldo Austriaca (money), 117 
 
 Soma (capacity),' 100, 114, 116 
 
 Sovereigns, Bankers' weights for, 
 
 228 
 
 Sovereigns, wear of, 228 
 Spain, 106 
 
 Span (length), 2, 51, 72 
 Spanish dollar, 68, 86, 89 
 Spann (capacity), 107 
 Specific gravity of water, 19 
 Spinte (capacity), 65, 81 
 Square foot (surface), 51 
 Square measures, table of, 130-9 
 Square mile (surface), 51 
 Square yard (surface), 51 
 Ssii (weight), 213 
 Stadio (length), 86 
 Stadium Italic (length), 2 
 Stairo (capacity), 99 
 Staja (capacity), 90 
 Stajo (capacity), 91, 93, 100, 103, 
 
 115 
 
 Stajolo (length), 99 
 Standard measures of capacity, 28 
 Standard measures of length, 27 
 Standard weights, 27-8 
 Standard yard, 3, 6, 214 
 Standards of measures and 
 
 weights, 1 
 Standards of Gold and Silver, 39 
 
INDEX. 
 
 241 
 
 Standards of length, mural, 22 
 
 Stang (length), 107 . 
 
 Starello (capacity), 99 
 
 Staro (capacity), 79 
 
 Steel Wire Gauges, 222 
 
 Stein (weight), 98 
 
 Step (length), 2 
 
 Stere (capacity), 75 
 
 Stiver (money), 63, 68, 85 
 
 Stockholm ; see Sweden & Norway, 
 
 107 
 
 Stone (weight), 53 
 Stop (capacity), 107 
 Stotzen (capacity), 111 
 Strasbourg ; see Germany, 78 
 Streep (length), 84 
 Strike (capacity), 51 
 Stubchen (capacity), 64, 66, 71, 
 
 80, 82, 87 
 
 Stubs' wire gauge, 221 
 Stiitze (capacity), 60 
 Style, difference of, 148-9 
 Sun (length), 213 
 Sundays after Epiphany, 171 
 Sundays after Trinity, 171 
 Sweden and Norway, 107 
 Swiss frank (money), 112 
 Switzerland, 109 
 
 TABLE of Assays, &c., of coins, 
 
 44 
 
 Table of Coins, 44 
 Table of Days of the week, 155 
 Table of Dominical Letters, 154 
 Table of Easter, &c., for three 
 
 centuries, 178 187 
 Table of Easter Day, 168, 208 
 Table of English Coins, 32 
 Table of Epacts (measures of time) , 
 
 164 
 Table of Epochs, Eras & Periods, 
 
 206 
 Table of Golden Numbers, 158 
 
 159 
 
 Table of Hebrew Months, 189 
 Table of Hebrew Years, 195197 
 Table of Itinerary or Road Mea- 
 sures, 140142 
 Table of Linear Measures, 120 
 
 129 
 
 Table of Mahometan Months, 202 
 Table of Mahometan Years, 203 
 
 206 
 
 Table of Movable Feasts, &c., 
 
 172173 
 Table of Numbers of Direction, 
 
 167 
 Table of Old Law Terms, 175 
 
 176 
 Table of Square Measures, 130 
 
 139 
 Tables of Wire Gauges, &c., 217 
 
 223 
 
 Tael (weight), 69, 105, 213 
 Tael, "leang" (money), 69 
 Tain (length), 63 
 Tan (weight), 69, 213 
 Tan (surface), 214 
 T'ang-hsiin (length), 212 
 Tank (weight), 73 
 Taro (money), 88, 92, 105 
 Tau (capacity), 69 
 Tavole (surface), 90 
 Teman or tomand (capacity), 58 
 Temen (capacity), 113 
 Ten-franc piece, 77 
 Tester, or sixpence, 56 
 Testoon (money), 96 
 Thaler (money), 98 
 Thaler, or rix dollar (money), 60, 
 
 65 
 
 Thanan (capacity), 105 
 Thangsat or bucket (capacity), 
 
 105 
 
 Threepenny piece or bit, 56 
 Tical (weight), 63, 105 
 Tierce (capacity), 52 
 To (capacity), 214 
 Toise (length), 76 
 Tola or sicca (weight), 72 
 Toman (money), 94 
 Tomand or teman (capacity), 58 
 Tomin (weight), 106 
 Tomme (length), 71 
 Toinolo (capacity), 91 
 Ton (weight), 53, 54 
 Tonne (capacity), 71, 80, 87 
 Tonnen (capacity)* 66 
 Tornatura (surface), 1.16 
 Tou (peck), 213 
 Toulon ; see France, 75 
 Trabucco (length), 102 
 Trapeso (weight), 92 ,* 
 
 Trieste ; see Austria, 59 
 Tripoli, Barbary, 113 
 Troy Weight, 52 
 
242 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Truss (weight), 54 
 Tscharkey (capacity), 101 
 Tschetverik (capacity), 101 
 Tschetverka (capacity), 101 
 Tschetvert (capacity), 101 
 Tsubo (surface), 214 
 Tsun (length), 69, 212 
 Tu (or degree), 212 
 Turn (length), 107 
 Tun (capacity), 52 
 Tunna (capacity), 107 
 Turin and Piedmont, 102 
 Turkey, 113 
 
 Turkish oke (weight), 93 
 Turkish pic (length), 93 
 Tuscany, Italy, 114 
 Tussoo (length), 73 
 Twenty-franc piece, 77 
 Twenty-lire piece, 93 
 Two Sicilies, The, 91 
 
 |JEBA (capacity), 113 
 
 Unglee or finger (length") , 72 
 
 United States, 115 
 
 University Terms, 177 
 
 Untz (weight), 108 
 
 Unze (weight), 59> 60, 65, 70, 71, 
 78, 81, 82, 83, 87, 9 ?, 97, 
 98,104, 109, 110, 111, 112 
 
 Uzan (weight), 80 
 
 yAKIA (capacity), 58 
 
 Valencia ; see Spain, 106 
 Valuation of Coins, 39 
 Vara, or yard (length), 95, 106 
 Vat (capacity), 85 
 Vedro (capacity), 101 
 Venetian Lombardy, 116 
 Venice and Milan, 116 
 Venice foot (length), 116 
 Verona ; see Venetian Lombardy, 
 
 116 
 
 Verst (length)', 101 
 Verschoks (length) ,101 
 Vienna, Austria, 59 
 Vierding (weight), 59 
 Vierfass (capacity), 67, 82 
 
 Vierling (capacity), 111 
 
 Viertel' (capacity), 59, 60, 64, 65, 
 71, 77, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 
 97, 104, 110. Ill, 118 
 
 Viertelein (capacity), 118 
 
 Vierteli (capacity), 109 
 
 Vingerhoed (capacity), 85 
 
 Vintem (money), 96 
 
 Vis (weight), 63, 73 
 
 Vouh (length), 104 
 
 (length), 104 
 Wakea (weight), 57 
 Warsaw ; see Russia, 101. 
 Water, specific gravity of, 19 
 Wear of Sovereigns, 228 
 Week (time), 143 
 Weights of bronze coins, 36 
 Weights and Measures Act, 1878, 
 
 26 
 Weights and Measures Act, 1889, 
 
 224 
 
 West Indies, 117 
 Wey (capacity), 51 
 Wigtje (weight), 85 
 Wire and Sheet Gauges, 215 
 Wire Gauges, tables of, 217 
 Wispel (capacity), 81, 82, 97, 104 
 Wurtemburg, Germany, 118 
 
 YARD (length), 50 
 
 Year, commencement of, 146 
 
 147 
 
 Yen (money), 86 
 Yin (length), 69, 212 
 Yo (capacity), 213 
 
 7AK (capacity), 85 
 
 Zecchino (money), 93, 117 
 Zehnling (weight), 61 
 Zoll (length), 59, 60, 64, 66, 80, 
 82,83,87,97,103,109,110, 
 
 . 118 
 
 Zoll-centner (weight), 78 
 Zolotnic (weight), 101 
 Z uber (capacity), 61 
 Zurich, Switzerland, 110 
 
 PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY BOAD, LONDON. 
 
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 "The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop 
 notes for application in workshop practice, rather than from the theoretical or literary aspect. The 
 volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experi- 
 ence, and is seldom written in books." Engineer. 
 
 "The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers' notes, memoranda, and 
 rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf." Mechanical World. 
 
 "A formidable mass of facts and figures, readily accessible through an elaborate index 
 .... Such a volume will be found absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all sorts 
 of 'works' connected with the metal trades." Ry land's Iron Trades Circular. 
 
 " Brimful of useful information, statfcd in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a press- 
 ing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man 
 possessing a copy." Practical Engineer. 
 
 "T7ie Modernised Templeton." 
 
 THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- 
 PANION. Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulaa 
 in Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calcu- 
 lated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By WILLIAM TEMPLE- 
 TON, Author of "The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c. &c. Fifteenth 
 Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by WALTER S. 
 HUTTON, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The 
 Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with Eight 
 Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative Diagrams, 6s., strongly bound for 
 workshop or pocket wear and tear. 
 
 &**" TEMPLETON'S " MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COMPANION " has been for more 
 than a quarter of a century deservedly popular, and, as the well-worn and thumb- 
 marked vade mecum of several generations of intelligent and aspiring workmen, 
 it has had the reputation of having been the means of raising many of them in their 
 position in life. 
 
 In consequence of the lapse of time since the Author's death, and the great 
 advances in Mechanical Science, the Publishers have thought it advisable to have it 
 entirely Reconstructed and Modernised; and in its present greatly Enlarged and 
 Improved form, they are sure that it will commend itself to the English workmen of 
 the present day all the world over, and become, like its predecessors, their indispens- 
 able friend and referee. 
 
 A smaller type having been adopted, and the page increased in size, while the 
 number of pages has advanced from about 330 to nearly 500, the book practically con- 
 tains double the amount of matter that was comprised in the original work. 
 
 V* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " In its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton ' should have a wide sale, for It contains much 
 valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which 
 he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who 
 have learned to value the original editions of ' Templeton.' " English Mechanic. 
 
 " It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are 
 a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book." Building News. 
 
 " This familiar text-book well known to all mechanics and engineers is of essential service to 
 the everv-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with 
 engineering and building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold." Building 
 News. (Second Notice.) 
 
 " The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable and useful book 
 of Mr. Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found." Iron. 
 
MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 3 
 
 Stone-ivorJeing Machinery. 
 
 STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economi- 
 cal Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management 
 of Stone Works. By M. Powis BALE, M.I.M.E. Crown 8vo, gs. 
 "Should be in the hands of every mason or student of stone-work." Colliery Guardian. 
 "It is in every sense of the word a standard work upon a subject which the author is fully 
 competent to deal exhaustively with." Builder's Weekly Reporter. 
 
 "A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental purposes." 
 Machinery Market. 
 
 X*ump Construction and Management. 
 
 PUMPS AND PUMPING : A Handbook for Pump Users. Being 
 
 Notes on Selection, Construction and Management. By M. Powis BALE, 
 
 M.I.M.E., Author of " Woodworking Machinery, 1 ' " Saw Mills," &c. Crown 
 
 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 "The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather tkan diffuseness 
 
 has been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be 
 
 of use." Journal of Gas Lighting. 
 
 " Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Turning. 
 
 LATHE-WORK : A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, 
 
 and Processes employed in the Art of Turning, By PAUL N, HASLUCK. 
 
 Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 
 " Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how 
 to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable/ 1 
 Engineering, 
 
 " We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the amateur it will simply be 
 Invaluable. To the student it will convey a great deal of useful information." Engineer. 
 
 "A compact, succinct, and handy guide to lathe-work did not exist in our language until Mr. 
 Hasluck, by the publication of this treatise, gave the turner a true vade-mecum." House Decorator, 
 
 Screw-Cutting. 
 
 SCREW THREADS : And Methods of Producing Them. With 
 Numerous Tables, and complete directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. 
 By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of " Lathe- Work," &c. With Fifty Illustra- 
 tions. Second Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, price is. cloth. 
 " Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies and screwing-tools gene- 
 rally are illustrated and their action described." Mechanical World. 
 
 Smith's Tables for Mechanics, etc. 
 
 TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS, 
 FOR MECHANICS, ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, etc. 
 Selected and Arranged by FRANCIS SMITH. Fourth Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged, 250 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. 
 
 " It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae 
 to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat- 
 pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt." Engineer, 
 
 "The best example we have ever seen of 250 pages of useful matter packed into the dimen- 
 sions of a card-case." Building News, "A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge." Iron. 
 
 Engineer's and Machinist's Assistant. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S 
 PRACTICAL ASSISTANT. A collection of Useful Tables, Rules and Data. 
 By WILLIAM TEMPLETON. 7th Edition, with Additions. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth, 
 
 " Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind. A more suitable present to an appren 
 tice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." Building News. 
 
 "A deservedly popular.work.it should be in the 'drawer' of every mechanic." EngZis h 
 Mechanic. 
 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 " IRON AND STEEL " : A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, 
 and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iron- 
 masters and their Stock-takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet 
 Rolling Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; 
 Mecnanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects,Builders, and 
 Draughtsmen. By CHARLES HOARE, Author of " The Slide Rule," &c. Eighth 
 Edition, Revised and considerably Enlarged. 321110, 6s. leather. 
 
 11 One of the best of the pocket books." English Mechanic. 
 
 " We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of all kinds of 
 iron and steel works." Naval Science. 
 
4 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Engineering Construction. 
 
 PATTERN-MAKING : A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main 
 Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and 
 Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, 
 Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in 
 Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the methods of Estimating the 
 weight of Castings; to which is added an Appendix of Tables for Workshop 
 Reference. By a FOREMAN PATTERN MAKER. With upwards of Three 
 Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 11 A well-written technical guide, evident!}' written by a man who understands and has prac- 
 tised what he has written about. We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young 
 journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making." Builder. 
 " Likely to prove a welcome guide to many workmen, especially to draughtsmen who have 
 lacked a training in the shops, pupils pursuing their practical studies in our factories, and to em- 
 ployers and managers in engineering works. Hard-ware Trade Journal. 
 
 "More than 370 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and ex- 
 plicit, thus rendering the work an excellent vade mecum for the apprentice who desires to become 
 master of his trade." English Mechanic. 
 
 Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms. 
 
 LOCKWOOD' 'S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE 
 
 PRA CTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, embracing those current 
 in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and 
 Boiler Shops, &c. &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by 
 A FOREMAN PATTERN-MAKER, Author of " Pattern Making." Crown 8vo, 
 75. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged in mechanical en- 
 gineering. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and 
 every foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy. Building News. 
 
 "After a careful examination of the book, and trying all manner of words, we think that the 
 engineer will here find all he is likely to require. It will be argely used." Practical Engineer. 
 
 "This admirable dictionary, although primarily intended for the use of draughtsmen and other 
 technical craftsmen, is of much larger value as a book of reference, and will find a ready welcome 
 in many libraries." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 "One of the most useful books which can be presented to a mechanic or student." English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 " Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most valuable guide. It strikes us as 
 a happy idea to combine with a definition of the phrase useful information on the subject of which 
 it treats." Machinery Market. 
 
 "This careiully-compiled volume forms a kind of pocket cyclopaedia of the extensive subject 
 to which it is devoted. No word having connection with any branch of constructive engineering 
 seems to be omitted. No more comprehensive work has been, so far, issued." Knowledge. 
 
 " We strongly commend this useful and reliable adviser to our friends in the workshop, and to 
 students everywhere." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Steam Boilers. 
 
 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Their Strength, Con- 
 struction, and Economical Working. By ROBERT WILSON, C.E. Fifth Edition, 
 i2mo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." Engineer. 
 
 "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all em- 
 ploying steam power to possess themselves of the work." Ry land's Iron Trade Circular. 
 
 Boiler Chimneys. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS; Their Draught-Power 
 and Stability. With a Chapter on Lightning Conductors. By ROBERT 
 WILSON, C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, 3$. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "Full of useful information, definite in statement, and thoroughly practical in treatment." 
 The Local Government Chronicle. 
 
 " A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building. . . . The whole subject is 
 very interesting and important one, and it is gratifying to know that it has fallen into such com- 
 petent hands." The Builder. 
 
 Holler Making. 
 
 THE BOILER-MAKERS READY RECKONER. With Ex- 
 amples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, 
 Smiths and Riveters. By JOHN COURTNEY, Edited by D. K. CLARK, M.I. C.E, 
 Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, izmo, 5$. half-bound. 
 " No workman or apprentice should be without this book." Iron Trade Circular. 
 "A reliable guide to the working boiler-maker." Iron. 
 
 " Boiler-makers will readily recognise the value of this volume. . . . The tables are clearly 
 printed, and so arranged that they can be referred to with the greatest facility, so that it cannot be 
 doubted that they will be generally appreciated and much used." Mining Journal, 
 
MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 5 
 
 Steam Engine. 
 
 TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With a Sup- 
 plement on Gas Engines. By T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, 
 Author of "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Tenth Edition, Enlarged. 
 vVith numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. {.Just publislied. 
 
 "Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison 
 with anything- written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher prato6. n Bngitutr. 
 " Professor Goodeve's book is ably and clearly written. It is a sound work." Athenceurn. 
 " Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself." 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 "Essentially practical in its aim. The manner of exposition leaves nothing to be desired." 
 Scotsman. 
 
 Gas Engines. 
 
 ON GAS-ENGINES. Being a Reprint, with some Additions, of 
 the Supplement to the Text-book on the Steam Engine, by T. M. GOODEVE, 
 M.A. Crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " Like all Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present! s no exception in point of general excellence. 
 
 It is a valuable little volume." Mechanical World. 
 
 " This little book will be useful to those who desire to understand how the gas-engine works.' 
 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. Containing Rules for Un- 
 professional Steam-users. By an ENGINEER. Sixth Edition. Sewed, 6d. 
 " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart boiler explosions would become 
 sensations by their rarity." English Mechanic. 
 
 Coal and Speed Tables. 
 
 A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, for 
 Engineers and Steam-users. By NELSON FOLEY, Author of " Boiler Con- 
 struction." Pocket-size, 3*- 6d. cloth ; 45. leather. 
 
 "This is a very useful book, containing very useful tables. The results given are well chosen, 
 and the volume contains evidence that the author really understands his subject. We can recom- 
 mend the work with pleasure." Mechanical World. 
 
 " These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-day use ; they are of sufficient 
 scope for most practical purposes, and may be commended to engineers and users of steam." 
 Iron. 
 
 "This pocket-book well merits the attention of the practical engineer. Mr. Foley has com- 
 piled a very useful set of tables, the information contained in which is frequently required by 
 engineers, coal consumers and users of steam." Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 Fire Engineering. 
 
 FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES. With 
 a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Re- 
 marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; 
 Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; 
 Hints on Fire Brigades, &c. &c. By CHARLES F. T. YOUNG, C.E. With 
 numerous Illustrations, 544 pp., demy 8vo, i 45. cloth. 
 "To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most 
 
 heartily commend this book. It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject." 
 
 Engineering. 
 
 " It displays much evidence of careful research ; and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly 
 
 together. It is evident enough that his acquaintance with the practical details of the construction of 
 
 steam fire engines, old and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, 
 
 is accurate and full." Engineer. 
 
 Gas Lighting. 
 
 .COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS: A Catechism of Gas- 
 Lighting for Householders, Gasfitters, Millowners, Architects, Engineers, etc. 
 By ROBERT WILSON, C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers." 
 Second Edition, with Folding Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 
 price is. in wrapper. 
 
 " All gas-users will decidedly benefit, both in pocket and comfort, if they will avail themselves 
 of Mr. Wilson's counsels." Engineering. 
 
 Dynamo Construction. 
 
 HO W TO MAKE A D YNA MO : A Practical Treatise for A mateurs. 
 Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Construct- 
 ing a Small Dynamo, to Produce the Electric Light. By ALFRED CROFTS. 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. [Just published. 
 "The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to 
 
 enable any amateur mechanic possess id of average skill and the usual tools to be found in an 
 
 amateur's workshop, to build a practical dy namo machine. "Electrician. 
 
6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS 
 
 ("THE ENGINE DRIVER'S FRIEND"). 
 
 Locomotive-Engine Driving. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Member 
 of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. C. R. 
 Eighth Edition. Including a KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illus- 
 trations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. 
 "Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend 
 
 the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance 
 
 of locomotive engines." The Engineer. 
 
 " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical 
 
 treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation." 
 
 Athenceum. 
 
 " Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly."- Rail-way Service Gazette. 
 " Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of 
 
 our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore." Scotsman. 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving. 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Third 
 Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. 
 "The author is thoroughly acquainted wibh his subjects, and his advice on the various points 
 treated is clear and practical. . . . He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful 
 one for the class for whom it is specially intended." Engineering. 
 
 " Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only know 
 something about the stationary engine, but all about it." Engineer. 
 
 "An engineman who has mastered the contents of "Mr.Reynolds's bookwill require but little actual 
 experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them." EnglishMechanic. 
 
 The Engineer 9 Fireman, and Engine-Boy. 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and 
 ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive 
 Engines and their Inventors. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. With numerous Illus- 
 trations and a fine Portrait of George Stephenson. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. 
 "From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more 
 forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a tech- 
 nical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with." English Mechanic. 
 
 " We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has 
 ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." Iron. 
 
 Continuous Hallway Brakes. 
 
 CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES : A Practical Treatise on 
 the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom ; their Construction and 
 Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By MICHAEL 
 REYNOLDS. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public 
 
 opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake." English 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
 " Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the 
 
 various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped." Mechanical World. 
 
 Engine-Driving Life. 
 
 ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE : Stirring Adventures and Incidents 
 in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Second 
 Edition, with Additional Chapters. Crown 8vo. zs. cloth. [Just published. 
 "From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown 
 Into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page." North British Mail. 
 "Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read ' Engine- 
 Driving Life ' for himself ; and if he once take it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm and real 
 love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page. " Saturday Review. 
 
 Pocket Companion for Enginemen. 
 
 THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PR AC- 
 TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS, 
 AND MECHANICS. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. With Forty-five Illustra- 
 tions and numerous Diagrams. Second Edition, Revised. Royal i8mo, 35. 6d., 
 strongly bound for pocket wear. 
 
 "This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship o/ 
 a competent engineer." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 " A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an engine- 
 minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would require." Miller. 
 
 " A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics." Daily Chronicle. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 7 
 
 French-English Glossary for Engineers, ete. 
 
 A POCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH- 
 FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, 
 Engineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions. By JOHN JAMES 
 FLETCHER, Engineer and Surveyor ; 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. t 
 limp leather. 
 
 " It ought certainly to be in the waistcoat-pocket of every professional man. Iron. 
 " It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have 
 so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a liliputian 
 volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers." Architect. 
 
 " The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the tables are new and well arranged. 
 We cordially commend the book.' Mechanical World. 
 
 Portable Engines. 
 
 THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND 
 
 MANAGEMENT. A Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam 
 Engines generally. By WILLIAM DYSON WANSBROUGH. With 90 Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every- 
 one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam engines, and to those who 
 have to do with their construction or use." Timber Trades Journal. 
 
 " Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader 
 should be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine.'' Building News. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 MR, HUMBER'S IMPORTANT ENGINEERING BOOKS, 
 The Water Supply of Cities and Towns. 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY 
 OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., and 
 M. Inst. M.E., Author of " Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," 
 &c. &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured 
 Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of 
 Text. Imp. 4to, 6 6s. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. 
 
 List of Contents. 
 
 I. Historical Sketch of some of the means 
 that have been adopted for the Supply of Water 
 to Cities and Towns. II. Water and the Fo- 
 reign Matter usually associated with it. III. 
 Rainfall and Evaporation. IV. Springs and 
 the water-bearing formations of various dis- 
 tricts. V. Measurement and Estimation of the 
 flow of Water VI. On the Selection of the 
 Source of Supply. VII. Wells. VIII. Reser- 
 voirs. IX. The Purification of Water. X. 
 Pumps. XL Pumping Machinery. XII. 
 
 Conduits. XIII. Distribution of Water. XIV. 
 Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings. 
 XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. 
 XVI; Constant and Intermittent Supply. 
 XVII. Description of Plates. Appendices, 
 __.-_., fables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, 
 
 _c., together with Specifications of several 
 
 Works illustrated, among which will be found : 
 Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, 
 Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and 
 others. 
 
 "The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or 
 In any other language. . . . Mr. Humber s work is characterised almost throughout by art 
 exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." 
 Engineer. 
 
 " We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of Infor- 
 mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in 
 number, are mostly drawings of executed works, and alone would have commanded the attention 
 of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession." Builder. 
 
 Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction. 
 
 A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST 
 AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron 
 Foundations. In Three Parts Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By 
 WILLIAM HUMBER, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, Re- 
 vised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first 
 appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text, In Two Vols., 
 imp. 4to, 6 i6s. 6d. half-bound in morocco, 
 
 "A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to 
 elevations, plans and sections, large scale details are given which very much enhance the instruc- 
 tive worth of those illustrations." Civil Engineer and Architect's Joitrnal. 
 
 "Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued in which the most important bridges erected 
 during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawk- 
 shaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are 
 drawn and specified in great detail." Engineer 
 
CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 MR. H UMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING, 
 
 Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price 12 125., half-morocco. Each 
 Volume sold separately as follows : 
 
 A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER- 
 ING. FIRST SERIES. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, 
 Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, 
 A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, 
 Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious 
 descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., 3 35. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. 
 (8 plates) ; Southport Pier (2 plates) ; Victoria 
 Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. \V. R. (6 
 plates); Roof of Cremor-ne Music Hall; Bridge 
 over G. N. Railway ; Roof of Station, Dutch 
 
 Thames, West London Extension Railway (g 
 plates) ; Armour Plates : Suspension Bridge, 
 Thames (4 plates); The Allen Engine; Sus- 
 pension Bridge, Avon (3 plates) ; Underground 
 Railway (3 plates). 
 
 Rhenish Rail (2 plates) ; Bridge 
 
 " Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve 
 In a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the con- 
 tractors for many important engineering works." Engineer. 
 
 HUMBERTS RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. SECOND 
 SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of Robert 
 Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, 
 Specifications, &c. f "3 35. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 
 plates); Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. 
 Railway (3 plates); Digswell Viaduct, Great 
 Northern Railway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, 
 Great Northern Railway; Iron Permanent 
 Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, 
 
 and Abergavenny Railway ; Ebbw Viaduct, 
 Merthyr, Fredegar, and Abergavenny Rail- 
 way ; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Rail- 
 way ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates) ; 
 Bridge over the Thames, L. C. & D. Railway 
 (6 plates) ; Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). 
 
 " Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples 
 he has here brought before the profession and the public." Practical Mechanic's Journal. 
 
 HUMBERTS RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. THIRD 
 SERIES. Imp. 410, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. R. 
 M'Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- 
 fications, &c., 3 35. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. North 
 
 Side. Map showing Interception of Sewers; 
 
 Middle Level Sewer (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, 
 
 Bridge over River Lea (3 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, 
 
 Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich 
 
 Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junc- 
 tion; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and 
 
 Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall 
 Sewer, Filth Hoist ; Sections of Sewers (North 
 and South Sides). 
 
 THAMES EMBANKMENT. Section of River 
 Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates); 
 Landing Stairs between Charhig Cross and 
 Waterloo Bridges ; York Gate (2 plates) ; Over- 
 flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) ; 
 Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; 
 Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections ; 
 Gullies, Plans and Sections ; Rolling Stock ; 
 Granite and Iron Forts. 
 
 , 
 
 Barking Railway (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder 
 (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ; 
 Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet ; Out- 
 fall Sewer, Penstocks. South. Side. Outfall 
 Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 plates); Outfall 
 
 " The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear repre- 
 sentations of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber's 
 volume." Engineer. 
 
 HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. FOURTH 
 SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of John 
 Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- 
 fications, &c., 3 35. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain 
 
 age, Metropolis U_ plates) ; _Barrow Docks_ (; 
 
 pTates) ; Manquis Viaduct,' Santiago and Val 
 paraiso Railway (2 plates); Adam's Locomo- 
 tive, St. Helen's Canal Railway (2 plates) ; 
 
 Mesopotamia ; Viaduct over the River Wye, 
 Midland Railway (3 plates) ; St. Germans Via- 
 duct, Cornwall Railway (2 plates) ; Wrought- 
 
 Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ; Millwall Docks 
 (6 plates) ; Milroy's Patent Excavator ; Metro- 
 politan District Railway (6 plates); Harbours, 
 Ports, and Breakwaters (3 plates). 
 
 Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross 
 Railway (3 plates) ; Road Bridge over the River 
 Moka (2 plates) ; Telegraphic Apparatus for 
 
 "We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication 
 
 Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its useful- 
 ness in giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as 
 carried out by the most eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly prized." Artizan. 
 
 \ from the able pen ot 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 9 
 
 MR. HUMBER'S ENGINEERING BOOKS continued. 
 Strains, Calculation of. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS 
 IN GIRDERS ANDSIMILARSTRUCTURES,AND THEIR STRENGTH. 
 Consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details 
 for Practical Application, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 75. 6d. cloth, 
 " The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams gcod." Athencsu-m, 
 " We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers." Eng- 
 lish Mechanic. 
 
 Barlow's Strength of Materials, enlarged byllumber 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS; 
 with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension 
 Bridges, Railways, &c. By PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised 
 by his Sons, P. W. BARLOW, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOW, F.R.S. ; to which 
 are added, Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIRBAIRN, and KIRXALDY ; and 
 Formulas for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by W. HUMBER, 
 A-M.Inst.C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous Wood- 
 cuts, 185. cloth. 
 
 " Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank in 
 future, as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject." Engineer. 
 
 " There is no greater authority than Barlow." Building News. 
 
 " As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every 
 civil engineer and practical mechanic." English Mechanic. 
 
 Trigonometrical Surveying. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and 
 Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c., with 
 Useful Problems, Formula, and Tables. By Lieut-General FROME, R.E. 
 Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re- written by Major General Sir CHARLES 
 WARREN, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, i6s. 
 cloth. 
 
 "The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for Is the best testimony to Its merits. 
 No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this 
 work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary 
 to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date." Broad Arrow. 
 
 Oblique ^Bridges. 
 
 A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESS A Y ON OBLIQUE 
 BRIDGES. With 13 large Plates. By the late GEORGE WATSON Bucx, 
 M.I.C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.I.C.E. ; 
 and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Con- 
 struction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. BARLOW, M.I.C.E. Royal 8vo, 12$. 
 cloth. 
 
 " The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it 
 would be impossible to consult a better." Engineer. 
 
 "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the 
 subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and archi- 
 tect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed." Building News. 
 
 Water Storage, Conveyance and Utilisation. 
 
 WA TER ENGINEERING : A Practical Treatise on the Measure- 
 ment, Storage, Conveyance and Utilisation of Water for the Supply of Towns, 
 for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By CHARLES SLAGG, Water and 
 Drainage Engineer, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of " Sanitary Work in the Smaller 
 Towns, and in Villages," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 
 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of 
 
 vvater -power, the work is in many respects exellent." Engineering. 
 
 " The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent 
 
 authorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear 
 
 and detailed explanations. . . . The application of water as a motive power is treated very 
 
 carefully and exhaustively " Builder. 
 
 "For anyone who desires to begin the study of hydraulics with a consideration cf the practical 
 
 applications of the science there is no better guide. ' Architect. 
 
io CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Statics, Graphic and Analytic. 
 
 GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical Appli. 
 cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring 
 and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. 
 By R. HUDSON GRAHAM, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. 
 With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially 
 arranged for Class- work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Re- 
 vised and Enlarged. 8vo, i6s. cloth. 
 
 " Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied." 
 Engineer. 
 
 "The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with 
 much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well- 
 selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman." Athentziim. 
 
 Student's Text-Boole on Surveying. 
 
 PRACTICAL SURVEYING : A Text-Book for Students pre- 
 
 ,ithographic Plates and upwards of 330 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 '' The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of 
 employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his 
 experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student 
 in his inexperience will find most serviceable." Engineer. 
 
 " We have no hesitation in saying that the student will find this treatise a better guide than 
 any of its predecessors. ... It deserves to be recognised as the first book which should be put in 
 the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering, and every gentleman of education who sets out for the 
 Colonies would find it well to have a copy." Architect. 
 
 "A very useful, practical handbook on field practice. Clear, accurate and not too con- 
 densed." Journal of Education. 
 
 Survey Practice. 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Level- 
 ling, Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With 
 Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, A.M.I.C.E., 
 Author of " Hydraulic Manual," " Modern Metrology," &c. Second Edition, 
 Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth. 
 11 Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable -vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend 
 
 this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor." 
 
 Athenceum. 
 
 " As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well the 
 
 matured instructions afforded in its pages." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, 
 
 aided by a dear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one." Builder. 
 
 8urveying 9 Land and Marine. 
 
 LAND AND MARINE S URVEYING, in Reference to the Pre- 
 paration of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water 
 Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying 
 Instruments. By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E., Author of " Bridge and Viaduct Con- 
 struction," &c. Second Edition, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommend- 
 ing it, feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study." Mechanical World. 
 
 " We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well- 
 deserved repute among surveyors." Builder. 
 
 11 This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommended 
 to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors." Mining Journal. 
 
 Tunnelling. 
 
 PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail the Setting, 
 out of the works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and 
 Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction 
 of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the 
 
 .... 
 
 Engravings, 305. cloth. 
 
 "The estimation in which Mr. Simms's book on tunnelling has been held for over thirty years 
 cannot be more truly expressed than in the words of the late Prof. Rankine : ' The best source of in- 
 formation on the subject of tunnels is Mr.F.W. Simms's work on Practical Tunnelling.'" Architect. 
 
 " It has been regarded from the first as a text book of the subject. . . . Mr. Clarke has added 
 immensely to the value of the book." Engineer. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. n 
 
 Levelling. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF 
 LEVELLING. Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil 
 Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr.TELFORD's Rules for the 
 same. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Seventh Edition, with 
 the addition of LAW'S Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and 
 TRAUTWINE'S Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates 
 and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, 8s. 6d. cloth, *** TRAUTWINE on Curves 
 may be had separate, 55. 
 
 " The text-book on levelling- in most of our engineering schools and colleges." Engineer. 
 " The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger 
 members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful viOTfc.." Engineering. 
 
 Heat, Expansion by. 
 
 EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By JOHN 
 KEILY, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Depart- 
 ments, Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Section I. FORMULAS AND DATA, 
 Section II. METAL BARS. 
 Section III. SIMPLE FRAMES. 
 Section IV, COMPLEX FRAMES ] AND 
 
 PLATES. 
 Section V. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY. 
 
 Section VI, MECHANICAL FORCE OF 
 
 HEAT. 
 Section VII. WORK OF EXPANSION 
 
 AND CONTRACTION. 
 Section VIII. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 
 Section IX. MASONRY STRUCTURES. 
 
 " The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and 
 other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physks upon which the engineer or archi- 
 tect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books." Builder. 
 
 " Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as 
 suspension bridges and the like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and handy 
 exposition of the geometrical principles involved in these changes." Scotsman. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. 
 
 MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common- 
 place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use 
 of Civil Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By OLINTHUS GREGORY, 
 LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully 
 Revised by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College. 
 With 13 Plates, 8vp, i 15. cloth. 
 
 " The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathe- 
 matical difficulty that may arise in his practice The rules are in all cases explained by means of 
 examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out." Builder. 
 
 " It is an instructive book for the student, and a text-book for him who, having once mastered 
 the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon them." Building News. 
 
 Hydraulic Tables. 
 
 HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULAE 
 
 for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and 
 Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rainfall, 
 Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill 
 Power. By JOHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, care- 
 fully Revised, with Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 145. cloth. 
 " Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice ; its study will prevent the annoyance of 
 avoidable failures, and assist them to select the readiest means of successfully carrying out any 
 given work connected with hydraulic engineering." Mining- Journal. 
 
 " It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness. . . . From the 
 good arrangement of the matter, the clear explanations, and abundance of formulae, the carefully 
 calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction, 
 which is displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an acquisition." Architect. 
 
 Hydraulics. 
 
 HYDRA ULIC MANUAL. Consisting of Working Tables and 
 
 ogy,' u 
 
 " The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering and has been a careful ob- 
 server of the facts which have come under his notice, and from the great mass of material at his 
 command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this 
 branch of the engineer's profession. We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to 
 be acquainted with the latest development of this important subject." Engineering. 
 
 " The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and its 
 thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text is, in fact, in great part a short account of the 
 great modern experiments." Nature. 
 
ia CROSBY LOCKIVOOD 6* SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS AND BUILD- 
 INGS. By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E., Author of " The Practical Railway En- 
 gineer," &c. Revised, with large Additions on RECENT PRACTICE IN 
 DRAINAGE ENGINEERING, by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. Author ot 
 "Tramways : Their Construction and Working," " A Manual of Rules, Tables, 
 and Data for Mechanical Engineers," &c. &c. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 41 The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey s excellent work is characterised by the comprehen- 
 sive grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher." 
 
 " As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering-, the book is to be commended to all 
 who are making that branch of engineering science their special study." Iron. 
 
 " A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the student." 
 Building News. 
 
 Tramways and their WorJcing. 
 
 TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 
 
 Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive 
 Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam, 
 Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling 
 Stock- and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses: the Progress 
 recently made in Tramway Construction, &c. &c. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, 
 M.Inst.C.E. With over 200 Wood Engravings, and 13 Folding Plates. Two 
 Vols., large crown 8vo, 305. cloth. 
 
 " All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's 
 work ' Railway Machinery.'" Engineer. 
 
 " An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this kind of locomo- 
 tion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found." 
 Building News. 
 
 " The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appliances 
 are so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway 
 will be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will be of most service to him." 
 Athentzum. 
 
 Oblique Arches. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF 
 OBLIQUE ARCHES. By JOHN HART. Third Edition, with Plates. Im- 
 erial 8vo, 85. cloth. 
 
 Curves, Tables for Setting-out. 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES 
 
 for Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By ALEXANDER BEAZELEY, 
 M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, 
 
 waistcoat-pocket size, 35. 6d. 
 
 " Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands 
 free to manipulate the instrument no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work." Engineer. 
 
 "Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which 
 he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." Atlwnceum. 
 
 JSarthivorJc. 
 
 EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic 
 Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an average 
 of 80 feet. By JOSEPH BROADBENT, C.E., and FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. Crown 
 
 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 
 " The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three 
 elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." A thenteu m. 
 
 Tunnel Shafts. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS: A 
 Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.InstC.E., 
 Resident Engineer, London and North- Western Railway. Illustrated with 
 Folding Plates, royal 8vo, 125. cloth. 
 
 " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason ; and the observations 
 
 on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates will be 
 
 found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession." Building News, 
 
 " Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time 
 
 and obviate many mistakes." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Girders, Strength of. 
 
 GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COM PUT A- 
 TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL 
 GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. WATSON 
 BUCK, M.Inst.C.E, On a Sheet, zs.6d. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 1 3 
 
 Hiver Engineering. 
 
 RIVER BARS: The Causes of their Formation, and their Treat- 
 ment by " Induced Tidal Scour; " with a Description of the Successful Re- 
 duction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By A. J. MANN, Assist. Eng. 
 to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal Svo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 "We recommend all interested in harbour works and, indeed, those concerned in the im- 
 provements of rivers generally to read Mr. Mann's interesting work on the treatment of river 
 bars." Engineer. 
 
 Trusses. 
 
 TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of 
 Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, 
 and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By WILLIAM 
 GRIFFITHS, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and 
 Art. Oblong Svo, 45. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of 
 roof trusses, that no student need be ignorant of these matters." Practical Engineer. 
 
 Railway Working. 
 
 SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci- 
 dents: Their Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modern Appliances 
 and Systems. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E., Vice-President and Cons- 
 suiting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus- 
 trations and Coloured Plates, crown Svo, 45. 6d. strongly bound. 
 " A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for informa- 
 tion on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working.' " Railway 
 Review. 
 
 "We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a 
 uniform code and practice is advocated." Herefath's Rail-way Journal. 
 
 "The author maybe congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much 
 valuable information on the principal questious affecting the safe working of railways." Rail- 
 way Engineer. 
 
 Field-Boole for Engineers. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON- 
 TRA CTOR 'S FIELD-BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, 
 Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and 
 Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set 
 Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing 
 Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner ; setting-out 
 Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right 
 and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without 
 Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off- 
 sets : and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in 
 depth. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth 
 Edition, Enlarged. Crown Svo, I2S. cloth. 
 
 "The book is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make 
 
 it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." Athenceum* 
 
 "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a 
 
 work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables 
 
 prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." Rail-way News. 
 
 Earthwork, Measurement of. 
 
 A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. By ALEX. J. S. GRAHAM, 
 
 C.E. With numerous Diagrams. i8mo, as. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, and available for rough 
 estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineer's and contractor's 
 offices. " A rtizan. 
 
 Strains in IronworJc. 
 
 THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with 
 Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. SHEILDS, M.InsLC.E, 
 Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal Svo, 55. cloth. 
 "The student cannot find a better little book on this subject." Engineer. 
 
 Cast Iron and other Metals 9 StrengtJi of. 
 
 A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST 
 IRON AND OTHER METALS. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. Fiftb 
 Edition, including HODGKIN SON'S Experimental Researches, Svo, 12$, clotb. 
 
14 CROSBY LOCKWOOD - SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. 
 
 Construction. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on 
 the Principles of Construction. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with 58 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 "A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." Builder. 
 " No architectural student should be without this handbook of constructional knowledge." 
 Architect. 
 
 Villa Architecture. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE: Being a 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline 
 Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, Author of "The 
 Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, i us. 6d. half-morocco, 
 gilt edges. 
 
 " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and 
 they will prove very valuable and suggestive." Building News. 
 
 Text-Book for Architects. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful 
 Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of 
 Works, &c. &c. By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect, Author of " Specifica- 
 tions for Practical Architecture," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. doth. 
 
 " As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be 
 hard to find a handier or more complete little volume." Standard. 
 
 "A young architect could hardly have a better guide-book." Timber Trades yournal. 
 
 Taylor and Cresy's Monte. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By 
 the late G. L. TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., and EDWARD CRESY, Esq. New 
 
 ay's 
 
 N.B. This is the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision 
 of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient Rome in plan, 
 elevation, and detail. 
 
 "Taylor and Cresy's work has from its first publication been ranked among those professional 
 books which cannot be bettered. ... It would be difficult to find examples of drawings, even 
 among those of the most painstaking students of Gothic, more thoroughly worked out than are the 
 one hundred and thirty plates in this volume." Architect. 
 
 Architectural Drawing. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRA WING, for the Operative Builder 
 and Young Student in Architecture. By GEORGE PYNE. With 14 Plates, 4to, 
 75. 6d. boards. 
 
 Civil Architecture. 
 
 THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 By Sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS, F.R.S. With Illustrations, Notes, and an 
 Examination of Grecian Architecture, by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A, Edited by 
 W. H. LEEDS. 66 Plates, 4to, 2is. cloth. 
 
 House Building and Repairing. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it Cost 
 to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book adapted to the Use of Unpro- 
 fessional People, as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By 
 TAMES D. SIMON, A.R.I. B. A. Edited and Revised by FRANCIS T. W. MILLER, 
 A.R.I.B.A. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 
 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over" Field. 
 " A very handy book." English Mechanic* 
 
ARCHITECTURE. BUILDING, etc. 15 
 
 Designing, Measuring, and Valuing. 
 
 THE STUDENTS GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- 
 ING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS. Containing Directions for 
 taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into 
 Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calcula- 
 tion of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by EDWARD'DOBSON, Architect. 
 Revised, with considerable Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and 
 a New Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contracts, by E. WYNDHAM 
 TARN, M.A. Sixth Edition, including a Complete Form of a Bill of Quantities. 
 With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. clo [Just published. 
 
 " Well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class 
 for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the 
 usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students." Engineering. 
 
 "This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring' and 
 valuing artificers' work that has yet been published." Building News. 
 
 Pocket Estimator and Technical Guide. 
 
 THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER AND 
 ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing Tech- 
 nical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, with a 
 Treatise on the Measurement of Timber and Complete Specifications for 
 Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimating the various 
 parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. BEATON, Author of " Quantities 
 and Measurements," &c. Fifth Edition, carefully Revised and Priced 
 according to the Present Value of Materials and Labour, with 53 Woodcuts, 
 leather, waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. gilt edges. [Just published. 
 
 " No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his ' Beaton."' Building News. 
 
 " Contains an extraordinary amount of information in daily requisition in measuring and 
 estimating. Its presence in the pocket will save valuable time and trouble." Building World. 
 
 Donaldson on Specifications. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical 
 
 Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up 
 Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by 
 Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En- 
 gineers. By Professor T. L. DONALDSON, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition, in 
 One large Vol., 8vo, with upwards of 1,000 pages of Text, and 33 Plates, 
 i us. 5d. cloth 
 
 " In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given, Including the specifica- 
 arts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, a 
 , by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very com 
 
 document. It embodies, to a great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, 'the bill of quantities 
 ' 
 
 , , 
 
 Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkabl 
 It embodi ' 
 
 cription o . . . . , 
 
 cedents. . . . Suffice it to say that Donaldson's ' Handbook of Specifications ' 
 " 
 
 . , , . , 
 
 with the description of the works.' . . . It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a 
 book of precedents. . . . Suffice it to s 
 must be bought by all architects." Builder. 
 
 Bartholomeiv and Xtoyers' Specifications. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay 
 
 on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the 
 
 Work by ALFRED BARTHOLOMEW, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly 
 
 added to by FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. Second Edition, Revised, with 
 
 Additions. With numerous Illustrations, medium 8vo, 155. cloth. 
 
 " The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew's work 
 
 Is too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which every 
 
 young architect must be equipped ; for time has shown that the specifications cannot be set aside 
 
 through any defect in them." Architect. 
 
 " Good forms for specifications are of considerable value, and it was an excellent Idea to com- 
 pile a work on the subject upon the basis of the late Alfred Bartholomew's valuable work. The 
 second edition of Mr. Rogers's book is evidence of the want of a book dealing with modern re- 
 quirements and materials." Building News. 
 
 Building ; Civil and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 A BOOK ON BUILDING, Civil and Ecclesiastical, including 
 Church Restoration ; with the Theory of Domes and the Great Pyramid, &c. 
 By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, Bart., LL.D., F.R.A.S., Author of "Clocks and 
 Watches, and Bells," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 " A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive. The style throughout is in 
 the highest degree condensed and epigrammatic. "Times, 
 
16 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer and 
 Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application oi various 
 Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. TARN, M.A., Architect, 
 Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition. With Appen- 
 dices on Diagrams of Strains and Isometrical Projection. With 172 Illus- 
 trations, demy 8vo, 95. cloth. 
 11 No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the 
 
 rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory." Scotsman. 
 
 "This is a manual for the practical man, whether architect, engineer, or mechanic. . . . The 
 
 object of the author being to avoid all abstruse formulae or complicated methods, and to enable 
 
 persons with but a moderate knowledge of geometry to work out the problems required." English 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
 The Science of Geometry. 
 
 THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved 
 by the mere Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and' 
 Symbols. By OLIVER BYRNE. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 33. 6d. cloth. 
 " The treatise is a good one, and remarkable like all Mr. Byrne's contributions to the science 
 cf geometry for the lucid character of its teaching." Building News. 
 
 DECORATIVE AETS, etc. 
 
 Woods and Marbles (Imitation of). 
 
 SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS 
 AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. VAN DER BURG and P. 
 VAN DER BURG, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, 
 18^ by 12^ in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 plain 
 Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price i us. 6d. 
 
 List of Plates. 
 
 Finished Specimen 19. Mahogany : Specimens 
 of various Grains and Methods of Manipulation 
 20, 2i. Mahogany: Earlier Stages and Finished 
 Specimen 22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble : Varieties 
 of Grain, Preliminary Stages and Finished 
 
 Mer Marble : Varieties of Grain and Methods 
 of Working Unfinished and Finished Speci- 
 menssi. 32. 33. Oak : Varieties of Grain, Tools 
 Employed, and Methods of Manipulation, Pre- 
 liminary Stages and Finished Specimen 34, 35, 
 36. Waulsort Marble: Varieties of Grain, Uu- 
 finished and Finished Specimens. 
 
 T. Various Tools required for Wood Painting 
 ai 3. Walnut: Preliminary Stages of Graining 
 and Finished Specimen 4. Tools used for 
 Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation 
 K.6. St. Remi Marble: Earlier Operations and 
 Finished Specimen 7. Methods of Sketching 
 different Grains, Knots, &c. 8, 9. Ash: Pre- 
 liminary Stages and Finished Specimen 10. 
 Methods of Sketching Marble Grains XL 12. 
 Breche Marble : Preliminary Stages of Working 
 and Finished Specimen 13. Maple : Methods 
 of Producing the different Grains 14, 15. Bird's- 
 eye Maple: Preliminary Stages and Finished 
 Specimen 16. Methods of Sketching the dif- 
 ferent Species of White Marble 17, 18. White 
 Marble: Preliminary Stages of Process and 
 
 V* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage 
 !n consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men 
 the opportunity to study W Builder, 
 
 " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and 
 management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the 
 student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature." Birilding Ne-ws. 
 
 "Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so nolle a 
 work. "A rchitect. 
 
 Souse Decoration. 
 
 ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler 
 Forms of Everyday Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of 
 Dwelling Houses, &c. By JAMES W. FACEY, Jun. With 68 Cuts. i2mo, 2s. 
 cloth limp. 
 
 " As a technical guide-book to the decorative painter it will be found reliable." Building News. 
 
 PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION : A Guide to the Art of 
 Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and the 
 principles of Decorative Design. With some Remarks upon the Nature and 
 Properties of Pigments. By JAMES WILLIAM FACEY, Author of " Elementary 
 Decoration, 1 ' &c. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth limp. 
 N.B.The above Two Works together in One Vol., strongly half-bound, 53. 
 
DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 17 
 
 Colour. 
 
 A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative 
 
 Painting and the Arts. By GEORGE FIELD. New Edition, Revised, Enlarged, 
 and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By ELLIS 
 A. DAVIDSON. With New Coloured Diagrams and Engravings. iamo, 35. 6d. 
 cloth boards. 
 "The book is a most useful resume of the properties of pigments." Builder, 
 
 House Painting, Graining, etc. 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN 
 WRITING, A Practical Manual of. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. Fifth Edition, 
 
 With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. i2mo, 6s. cloth boards. 
 
 " A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 " Simply invaluable to the youngster entering upon this particular calling, and highly service- 
 able to the man who is practising it." Furniture Gazette. 
 
 Decorators, Receipts for. 
 
 THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De- 
 corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing 
 upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Informa- 
 tion for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior 
 Decorations, &c. Third Edition, Revised. 152 pp., crown 8vo, is. in wrapper. 
 " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of 
 larger treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full 
 of varied information on the painter's art." Building News. 
 
 " We recommend the work to all who, whether for pleasure or profit, require a guide to decora- 
 tion." Plumber and Decorator. 
 
 Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 By J. MOYR SMITH. Super-royal 8vo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous 
 
 smaller Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price i8s. 
 
 K5" In "ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS" the designs of more than thirty artist- 
 decorators and architects of high standing have been illustrated. The book may 
 therefore fairly claim to give a good general view of the works of the modern school 
 of decoration, besides giving characteristic examples of earlier decorative arrange- 
 ments. 
 
 "ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS" gives a short account of the styles of Interior 
 Decoration as practised by the A ncients in Egypt, Greece, A ssyria, Rome and Byzan- 
 tium. This part is illustrated by characteristic designs. 
 %* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " The book is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true criticism and a 
 good many good examples of decorative treatment.' The Builder. 
 
 " Well fitted for the dilettante, amateur, and professional designer." Decoration. 
 
 " This is the most elaborate, and beautiful work on the artistic decoration of interiors that we 
 have seen. . . . The scrolls, panels and other designs from the author's own pen are very 
 beautiful and chaste ; but he takes care that the designs of other men shall figure even more than 
 his own." Liverpool Albion. 
 
 " To all who take an interest in elaborate domestic ornament this handsome volume will be 
 welcome. " Graphic. 
 
 " Mr. Moyr Smith deserves the thanks of art workers for having placed within their reach a 
 book that seems eminently adapted to afford, by example and precept, that guidance of which 
 most craftsmen stand in need." Furniture Gazette. 
 
 British and Foreign Marbles. 
 
 MARBLE DECORATION and, the Terminology of British and 
 
 Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By GEORGE H. BLAGROVE, 
 
 Author of " Shoring and its Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown 
 
 Svo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and 
 builder." Building World. 
 
 " It is an excellent manual for students, and interesting to artistic readers generally." Saturday 
 Re-view. 
 
 " A carefully and usefully written eatise ; the work is essentially practical." Scotsman. 
 
 Marble Working, etc. 
 
 MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKERS: A Handbook for 
 Architects, Artists, Masons and Students. By ARTHUR LEE, Author of " A 
 Visit to Carrara," " The Working of Marble," &c. Small crown Svo, 2s. cloth . 
 " A really valuable addition to the technkal literature of archi f ects and masons." Building 
 News. 
 
 c 
 
i8 CROSBY LOCKWQOD & SON'S CATALOG UE. 
 DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. 
 
 A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use oj 
 
 Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for 
 its exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and 
 Colours. By F. DELAMOTTE. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 6s. orna- 
 mental boards. 
 "The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, 
 
 the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, 
 
 as well as taste." Athenaum. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and Medieval, from the 
 Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and 
 small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, 
 Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, 
 Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, 
 Carvers, &c. &c. Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in 
 Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 25. 6d. ornamental 
 boards. 
 
 " For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends ovet 
 shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be use- 
 ful. Athetuzum. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental; 
 
 including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque; 
 with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English 
 Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Sur- 
 veyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. 
 Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. New 
 and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 25. 6rf. ornamental boards. 
 "There Is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and 
 
 numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various 
 
 plain and ornamental letters is wonderful." Standard. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI- 
 NATORS. By G. DELAMOTTE. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated 
 Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by T. WILLIS 
 BROOKS. Fourth and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 45. ornamental boards. 
 " A volume In which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours 
 
 of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled." Sun. 
 
 THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN. Containing 
 Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical 
 Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Col- 
 lected by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, is. 6d. 
 ornamental wrapper. 
 "The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the 
 
 art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work." East Anglian Times. 
 
 Wood Carving. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with 
 Hints on Design. By A LADY. With Ten large Plates, 25. 6d. in emblematic 
 wrapper. 
 
 14 The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can Impart it, may be learnt from ' A 
 Lady's ' publication." Athenaum. 
 
 " The directions given are plain and easily understood.' 'English Mechanic. 
 
 Glass Painting. 
 
 GLASS STAINING AND THE ART OF PAINTING ON 
 GLASS. From the German of Dr. GESSERT and EMANUEL OTTO FROMBERG, 
 With an Appendix on THE ART OF ENAMELLING. i2mo, 25. 6d. cloth limp. 
 
 Letter fainting. 
 
 THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By 
 JAMES GREIG BADENOCH. With 12 full-page Engravings of Examples, is. 6d. 
 cloth limp. 
 
 " The system is a simple one, but quite original, and well worth the careful attention of letter 
 painters. It can be easily mastered and remembered." Building News. 
 
CARPENTRY, TIMBER, etc. 19 
 
 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, etc. 
 
 Tredgold's Carpentry ', Enlarged by Tarn. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resist- 
 ance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, 
 Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay 
 on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds 
 of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Tim- 
 ber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS 
 TREDGOLD, C.E, With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron 
 and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably 
 enlarged by E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Author of "The Science of Build- 
 ing," &c. With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In 
 one large vol., 4to, price i 55. cloth. 
 
 "Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library." Builder. 
 " A work whose monumental excellence must opmmend it wherever skilful carpentry Is con- 
 cerned. The author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional 
 plates are of great intrinsic value." Building News. 
 
 Woodworking Machinery. 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY : Its Rise, Progress, and Con- 
 struction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical 
 Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by 
 leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. Powis BALE, 
 A.M.Inst.C.E.,M.I.M.E. Large crown 8vo, 12*. 6d. cloth. 
 "Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject and he has collected so much information that 
 
 his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber." Architect. 
 "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The 
 
 author is a thorough master of his subject." Building' News. 
 
 "The appearance of this book at the present time will, we should think, give a considerable 
 
 Impetus to the onward march of the machinist engaged in the designing and manufacture of 
 
 wood-working machines. It should be in the office of every wood-working factory." English 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
 Saw Mills. 
 
 SA W MILLS : Their Arrangement and Management, and the 
 Economical Conversion of Timber. (A Companion Volume to " Woodworking 
 Machinery.") By M. Powis BALE. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examined 
 from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and the 
 like are gene into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its 
 delivery in its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise." 
 Builder. 
 
 "We highly recommend Mr. Bale's work to the attention and perusal of all those who are en- 
 gaged in the art of wood conversion, or who are about building or remodelling saw-mills on im- 
 proved principles." Building News. 
 
 Carpentering. 
 
 THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, Book of Lines for Car- 
 penters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a 
 knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER NICHOLSON'S Standard 
 Work. A New Edition, Revised by ARTHUR ASHPITEL, F.S.A. Together 
 with Practical Rules on Drawing, by GEORGE PYNB. With 74 Plates, 
 4to, i is. cloth. 
 
 Handrailing. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING : Showing 
 New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the 
 Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By GEORGE 
 COLLINGS. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, is. 6d. cloth limp. 
 ' ' Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery." Builder. 
 " Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the 
 aid of plates and explanatory letterpress." Furniture Gazette. 
 
 Circular Work. 
 
 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY: A 
 
 Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By 
 GEORGE COLLINGS, Author of " A Practical Treatise on Handrailing." Illus- 
 trated with numerous Diagrams. i2mo, 2S. 6d. cloth limp. 
 
 " An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear In defini- 
 tion and practical in the examples selected." Builder. 
 
20 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON '5 CATALOGUE. 
 
 Timber Merchant's Companion. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S COM- 
 PANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and 
 Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand 
 Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any 
 given Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of 
 Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate 
 Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load 
 of 50 Feet ; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per 
 
 ry t _ _ __ 
 
 " We are glad to see a fourtn edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and 
 simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired." Timber Trades Journal. 
 
 " An exceedingly well-arranged, clear, and concise manual of tables tor the use of all who buy 
 or sell timber." Journal of Forestry. 
 
 Practical Timber Merchant. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. Being a Guide 
 for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising 
 useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of 
 Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, 
 &c. By W. RICHARDSON. Fcap. 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "Contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, builders, foresters, and 
 all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber.' Journal of Forestry. 
 
 Timber Freight BooTc. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANTS, SAW MILLER'S, AND 
 IMPORTER'S FREIGHT BOOK AND ASSISTANT. Comprising Rules, 
 Tables, and Memoranda relating to the Timber Trade. By WILLIAM 
 RICHARDSON, Timber Broker; together with a Chapter on "SPEEDS OF SAW 
 MILL MACHINERY," by M. Powis BALE, M.I.M.E., &c. i2mo, 35. 6d. cl. boards. 
 
 " A very useful manual of rules, tables, and memoranda relating to the timber trade. We re- 
 commend it as a compendium of calculation to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supply- 
 ing a real want in the trade." Building News. 
 
 f aching-Case Makers, Tables for. 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Super- 
 ficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. 
 By W. RICHARDSON, Timber Broker. Second Edition. Oblong 4to, 35. 6d. cl. 
 
 " Invaluable labour-saving tables." Ironmonger. 
 
 "Will save much labour and calculation." Grocer. 
 
 Superficial Measurement. 
 
 THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- 
 SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, by i to 108 
 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber 
 Merchants, Builders, &c. By JAMES HAWKINGS. Third Edition. Fcap., 
 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any 
 surface of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will be 
 found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building operations." Scotsman. 
 
 " These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations in super- 
 ficial measurement." English Mechanic. 
 
 Forestry. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. Designed to afford In- 
 formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or 
 Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B. 
 HOUGH. Large crown 8vo, los. cloth. 
 
 Timber Importer's Guide. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER '5, TIMBER MERCHANTS AND 
 BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By RICHARD E. GRANDY. Compris- 
 ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign with Comparative 
 Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic 
 and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, 
 Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the Retailer and 
 Builder. Third Edition, Revised. i2mo, zs. cloth limp. 
 " Ererything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and 
 
 throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c." English 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, NAVIGATION, etc. 21 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, etc. 
 
 Chain Cables. 
 
 CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and 
 Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and 
 Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, 
 Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, 
 Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, 
 List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c. &c. By THOMAS W. TRAILL, F.E.R.N., 
 M. Inst. C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of 
 Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin- 
 tendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous 
 Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, 2 2S. cloth. 
 ' ' It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it 
 a complete and standard work of reference on the subject." Nautical Magazine. 
 
 Marine Engineering. 
 
 MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise 
 on). By ROBERT MURRAY, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with 
 considerable Additions by the Author and by GEORGE CARLISLE, C.E., 
 Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. 12010, 55. cloth boards. 
 " Well adapted to give the young steamship engineer or marine engine and boiler maker a 
 general introduction into his practical work." Mechanical World. 
 
 "We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue to be as popular in the future 
 as it has been in the past, as for its size, it contains more useful information than any similar 
 treatise. ' ' Industries. 
 
 " The information given is both sound and sensible, arid well qualified to direct young sea- 
 going hands on the straight road to the extra chief's certificate." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 "An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineering." Liverpool Mercury. 
 
 JPocket-BooJcfor Naval Architects and Shipbuilders. 
 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
 POCKET-BOOK of Formula, Rules, and Tables, and MARINE ENGINEER'S 
 AND SURVEYOR'S Handy Book of Reference. By CLEMENT MACKROW, 
 Member of the Institution of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Third 
 Edition, Revised. With numerous Diagrams, &c. Fcap., 125. 6d. leather. 
 "Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . WiH 
 
 be found to contain the most useful tables and formulas required by shipbuilders, carefully collected 
 
 from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form." Engineer. 
 
 " The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for 
 
 solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." Iron. 
 "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require to refresh 
 
 his memory which wil Inot be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's book." English Mechanic, 
 
 Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR- 
 MULAE FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By FRANK PROCTOR, A.I.N.A. 
 Third Edition. Royal 32010, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 45. 
 
 "We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want." Naval Science. 
 
 "A most useful companion to all marine engineers." United Service Gazette. 
 
 Introduction to Marine Engineering. 
 
 ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING: A Manual for Young Marine 
 Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers on 
 Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of 
 Marine Engines, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By J. S. 
 BREWER, Government Marine Surveyor, Hongkong. Small crown 8vo, 
 zs. 6d. cloth. tfust published. 
 
 " Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in the 
 chapters on the management of boilers and engines." Nautical Magazine. 
 4i A useful introduction to the more elaborate text books." Scotsman. 
 
 " To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attain a thorough knowledge, Mr. 
 Brewer offers decidedly useful help." Alhenceum. 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of THE SAILOR'S 
 SEA-BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. ROSSER ; together with the 
 requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems. 
 By HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor J. R. YOUNG. Illustrated, i2mo, 75. 
 strongly half-bound. 
 
22 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 MINING AND MINING INDUSTRIES. 
 
 Metalliferous Milling. 
 
 BRITISH MINING : A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical 
 Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United King- 
 dom. By ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records; Editor of 
 " Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," &c. Upwards of 950 
 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, 
 2 25. cloth. 
 
 11 One of the most valuable works of reference of modern times. Mr. Hunt, as keeper of mining 
 records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else, 
 and has evidently made the most of them. . . . The language and style adopted are good, and 
 the treatment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific." Engineering. 
 
 "The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical information on mining- subjects, and we 
 know of no other work embodying- so great a mass of matter of ihis kind. Were this the only 
 merit f Mr. Hunt s volume, it would be sufficient to render it indispensable in the library of 
 everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical industries of the country." 
 A thenceu m. 
 
 "A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may 
 be interested in our great mineral industries." Engineer. 
 
 "A sound, business-like collection of interesting facts. . . . The amount of information 
 Mr. Hunt has brought together is enormous. . . . The volume appears likely to convey more 
 instruction upon the subject than any vrork hitherto published." Mining Journal, 
 
 "The work will be for the mining industry what Dr. Percy's celebrated treatise has been for the 
 metallurgical a book that cannot with advantage be omitted from the library." Iron and Coal 
 Trades Review. 
 
 " The volume is massive and exhaustive, and the h'gh intellectual powers and patient, persist- 
 ent application which characterise the author have evidently been brought into play in its produc- 
 tion. Its contents are invaluable." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Coal and Iron. 
 
 THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED 
 KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, with Returns ot 
 their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also 
 an Account of the occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of 
 each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture 
 since the year 1740. By RICHARD MEADE, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. 
 With Maps of the Coal Fields and Ironstone Deposits of the United Kingdom, 
 8vo, i 8s. cloth. 
 " The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all interested in coal and iron 
 
 production, and in the iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries." Engineer. 
 
 " Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. 
 
 ... A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his 
 
 library." Iron and Coal Trades Review . 
 
 "An exhaustive treatise and a valuable work of reference." Mining Journal. 
 
 Prospecting for Gold and other Metals. 
 
 THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro- 
 spector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. 
 By J. W. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New 
 Caledonia." Fourth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Small 
 crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 "Will supply a much felt want, especially among Colonists, n whose way are so often thrown 
 many mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult for anyone, not a specialist, to 
 determine. The author has placed his instructions before his readers in the plainest possible 
 terms, and his book is the best of its kind." Engines.*: 
 
 "How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the 
 
 leading points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical 
 
 detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size." Mining Journal. 
 
 " Those toilers who explore the trodden or untrodden tracks on the face of the globe will find 
 
 much that is useful to them in this book." Athenaum. 
 
 Mining Notes and Formulce. 
 
 NOTES AND FORMULA FOR MINING STUDENTS. By 
 JOHN HERMAN MERIVALE, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of 
 Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Second 
 Edition, carefully Revised. Small crown 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. 
 "Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects." Coal and 
 Iron Trades Review. 
 
 "The author has done h's work in an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book 
 that will be of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations." 
 Engineer 
 
 " A vast amount of technical matter of the utmost value to mining engineers, and of consider- 
 able interest to students." Schoolmaster. 
 
MINING AND MINING INDUSTRIES. 23 
 
 Gold, Metallurgy of. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF GOLD: A Practical Treatise on the 
 Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processes of 
 Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting and Refining of 
 Gold. By M. EISSLER, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, formerly 
 Assistant Assayer of the U. S. Mint, San Francisco. Second Edition, Revised 
 and much Enlarged. With 132 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 95. cloth. 
 
 [Just published. 
 
 " This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ' Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold 
 milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and 
 orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail." Saturday Review. 
 
 " The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend k to 
 all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry." Mining- Journal. 
 
 "Anyone who wishes to have an intelligent acquaintance with the characteristics of gold and 
 gold ores, the methods of extracting the metal, concentrating and chlorinating it, and further on 
 of refining and assaying it, will find all he wants in Mr. Eissler's book." Financial News. 
 
 Silver, Metallurgy of. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF SILVER : A Practical Treatise on i 
 
 Amalgamation, Roasting and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including the 
 Assaying, Melting and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. EISSLER, Author 
 of "The Metallurgy of Gold ' With 124 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, los. 6d. 
 cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt want 
 
 amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected 
 
 with the industries." Mining Journal. 
 
 " From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable." Colliery Guardian, 
 
 " For chemists, practical miners, assay ers and investors alike, we do not know of any work 
 
 on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Mineral Surveying and Valuing. 
 
 THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE 
 
 GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua- 
 tion of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By WM. LINTERN, 
 Mining and Civil Engineer. Third Edition, with an Appendix on " Magnetic 
 and Angular Surveying," With Four Plates. i2mo, 45. cloth. 
 " An enormous fund of information of great value." Mining- Journal. 
 
 " Mr. Lintern's book forms a valuable and thoroughly trustworthy guide." Iron and Coal 
 Trades Review. 
 
 " This new edition must be of the highest value to colliery surveyors, proprietors and mana- 
 gers," Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. 
 
 TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of "A 
 Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying." Illustrated with numerous Wood 
 Engravings. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised. Crown 8vo, 12$. 6d. cloth. 
 "Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested in mines can have a better book 
 
 for his companion and his guide." Mining Joitrnal. 
 
 "The volume is one which no student of mineralogy should be without." Colliery Guardian, 
 " A book that will not only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist, 
 
 but also very interesting to the general public." Iron. 
 
 "As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, 
 
 and it supplies an actual want, for no such information has hitherto been brought together within 
 
 such limited space." Athenaum. 
 
 Earthy Minerals and Mining. 
 
 TREATISE ON EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S. Uniform with, and forming a Com- 
 panion Volume to, the same Author's " Metalliferous Minerals and Mining." 
 With 76 Wood Engravings. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth, 
 " It is essentially a practical work, Intended primarily for the use of practical men. . . . We 
 do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same 
 amount of information packed in equally convenient form." Academy. 
 
 " The book is clearly the result of many years' careful work and thought, and we should be 
 inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades manuals which have 
 recently appeared." British Quarterly Review. 
 
 " The volume contains a great mass of practical information carefully methodised and pre- 
 sented in a very intelligible shape." Scotsman. 
 
 "The subject matter of the volume will be found of high value by all and they are a numer- 
 ous class who trade in earthy minerals." Athenoeutn. 
 
24 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Underground Pumping MacJiinery. 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Treatise 
 on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip- 
 tion of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and 
 the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
 their merits compared with other forms of Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
 MICHELL. 8vo, 155. cloth. 
 "Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining 1 engineers, and students 
 
 generally who require to be acquainted with the best means of securing the drainage of mines. It 
 
 Is a most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of steam pumping machinery." 
 
 Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " Much valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive 
 
 circulation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery." Mining Journal. 
 
 Mining Tools. 
 
 A MANUAL OF MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Mine 
 Managers, Agents, Students, &c. By WILLIAM MORGANS, Lecturer on Prac- 
 tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines, izmo, zs. 6d. cloth limp. 
 ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above, contain- 
 ing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to scale. 4to, 45. 6d. cloth. 
 " Students in the science of mining, and overmen, captains, managers, and viewers may gain 
 
 practical cnowledge and useful hints by the study "of Mr. Morgans' manual." Colliery Guardian. 
 "A valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our mining literature." Mining 
 
 Journal. 
 
 Coal Mining. 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on. By 
 Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of 
 the Crown. New Edition, Revised and Corrected. With numerous Illus- 
 trations, izmo, 45. cloth boards. 
 "As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the 
 
 principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers." 
 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 Granite Quarrying. 
 
 GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By 
 GEORGE F. HARRIS, F.G.S., Membre de la Societe Beige de Geologic, Lec- 
 turer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " A clearly and well-written manual for persons engaged or interested in the granite industry." 
 
 Scotsman. 
 
 " An interesting work, which will be deservedly esteemed. We advise the author to write 
 
 again." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " An exceedingly interesting and valuable monograph, on a subject which has hitherto received 
 
 unaccountably little attention in the shape of systematic literary treatment." Sc ottish Leader. 
 
 NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 
 
 Text Book of Electricity. 
 
 THE STUDENTS TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By 
 
 HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. 
 With an Introduction and Additional Chapters, by W. H. PREECE, M.I.C.E., 
 Vice- President of the Societv of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 12*. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "The original plan of this book has been carefully adhered to so as to make it a reflex of the 
 existing state of electrical science, adapted for students. . . . Discovery seems to have pro- 
 gressed with marvellous strides ; nevertheless it has now apparently ceased, and practical applica- 
 tions have commenced their career ; and it is to give a faithful account of these that this fresh 
 edition of Dr. Noad's valuable text-book is launched forth." Extract/row, Introduction by IV. H. 
 Preece, Esq. 
 
 "We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index 
 and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indispensable." Atheuezutn. 
 
 " An admirable text book for every student beginner or advanced of electricity." 
 Engineering. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY: Including Galvanism, Mag- 
 netism, Dia-Magnetism, Electro- Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric 
 Telegraph. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Fourth Edition. 
 With 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i 45. cloth. 
 "It is worthy of a place in the library of every public institution." Mining Journal. 
 
NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 25 
 
 Electric Light. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use. Embodying Plain 
 Directions for the Treatment of Voltaic Batteries, Electric Lamps, and 
 Dynamo-Electric Machines. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author of " Electro- 
 plating : A Practical Handbook." Edited by F. C. WEBB, M.I.C.E., M.S.T.E. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with large Additions and 128 Illusts. 75. 64. cloth. 
 " The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject." Athenceunt. 
 "It is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part 
 
 to the ordinary reader, a general but concise history of the means which have been adopted up to 
 
 the present time in producing the electric light." Metropolitan. 
 
 ' ' The book contains a general account of the means adopted in producing the electric light 
 
 not only as obtained from voltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length of the dynamo-electric 
 
 machine in several of its forms." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Electric Lighting. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 ING. By ALAN A. CAMPBELL SWINTON, Associate I.E.E. Second Edition, 
 Enlarged and Revised. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, is. 6d. cloth. 
 ' ' Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles of 
 electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little work." Bradford Observer, 
 
 Dr. Lardner's School Handbooks. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. LARDNER. 
 
 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convey, 
 in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science." 
 British Quarterly Review. 
 
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. LARDNER. 
 
 With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 35. 6d. cloth. 
 "Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." Gardener's Chronicle. 
 
 Dr. Lardner's Electric Telegraph. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. LARDNER. Re- 
 vised and Re-written by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S, 140 Illustrations. Small 
 8vo, 2S. 6d. cloth. 
 " One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph." English Mechanic. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., F.R.S., 
 formerly Radcliffe Observer at Oxford. Third Edition, Revised and Cor- 
 rected to the present time, by WILLIAM THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S., 
 formerly of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. i2mo, zs. cloth limp. 
 
 "A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners." 
 Knowledge. \tienal Times. 
 
 "Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr. Lynn." Educa* 
 
 The ^Blowpipe. 
 
 THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND 
 
 GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many 
 
 Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- 
 
 Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations. Second Edition, 
 
 Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 "The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down 
 
 will gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had ' got up ' any of 
 
 the best text-books ot the day, and p'assed any number of examinations in their contents." CAetn* 
 
 cat Ngws. 
 
 The Military Sciences. 
 
 AIDE-MEMOIRE TQ THE MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed 
 from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the different Ser- 
 vices. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. 
 Second Edition, jmost carefully Revised by an Officer ofithe Corps, with many 
 Additions; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts, 
 Three Vols., royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, and lettered, 4 IDS. 
 "A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly indebted." 
 
 Edinburgh Review, 
 
 " The most comprehensive book of reference to the military and collateral sciences." 
 
 Volunteer Service Gazette. 
 
 Field Fortification. 
 
 A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK 
 OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By 
 Colonel I. S. MACAULAY, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wool- 
 wich, Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, 125. 
 
26 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Temperaments. 
 
 OUR TEMPERAMENTS, THEIR STUDY AND THEIR 
 
 TEACHING. A Popular Outline. By ALEXANDER STEWART, F.R.C.S. 
 
 Edin. In one large 8vo volume, with 30 Illustrations, including A Selection 
 
 from Lodge's " Historical Portraits," showing the Chief Forms of Faces. 
 
 Price 155. cloth, gilt top. 
 
 "The book is exceedingly interesting, even for those who are not systematic students of an- 
 thropology. . . . To those who think the proper study of mankind is man, it will be full of attrac- 
 tion;*' Daily Telegraph. 
 
 "The author's object is to enable a student to read a man's temperament in his aspect. The 
 work is well adapted to its end. It is worthy of the attention of students of human nature." 
 Scotsman. 
 
 " The volume is heavy to hold, but light to read. Though the author has treated his subject 
 exhaustively, he writes in a popular and pleasant manner that renders it attractive to the general 
 reader." Punch. 
 
 Antiseptic Nursing. 
 
 ANTISEPTICS ; A Handbook for Nurses. Being an Epitome of 
 Antiseptic Treatment. With Notes on Antiseptic Substances, Disinfection, 
 Monthly Nursing, &c. By Mrs. ANNIE HEWER, late Hospital Sister, Diplpmee 
 Obs. Soc. Lond. Crown 8vo, is. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " This excellent little work ... is very readable and contains much information. We can 
 
 strongly recommend it to those who are undergoing training at the various hospitals, and also to 
 
 those who are engaged in the practice of nursing, as they cannot fail to obtain practical hints from 
 
 its perusal." Lancet. 
 
 " The student or the busy practitioner would do well to look through its pages, offering as they 
 
 do a suggestive and faithful picture of antiseptic methods." Hospital Gazette. 
 "A clear, concise, and excellent little handbook." The Hospital. 
 
 Pneumatics and Acoustics. 
 
 PNEUMATICS : including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind 
 Currents, for the Use of Beginners. By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S., 
 F.C.S., &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. 
 I2mo, is. 6d. cloth. 
 4 ' Beginners in the study of this important application of science could not have a better manual. ' ' 
 
 Scotsman. 
 
 " A valuable and suitable text-book for students of Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind 
 
 Currents. " Schoolmaster, 
 
 Conchology. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSC A : Being a Treatise on Recent 
 and Fossil Shells. By S. P. WOODWARD, A.L.S., F.G.S., late Assistant 
 Palaeontologist in the British Museum. Fifth Edition. With an Appendix 
 on Recent and Fossil Conchological Discoveries, by RALPH TATE, A.L.S., 
 F.G.S. Illustrated by A. N. WATERHOUSE and JOSEPH WILSON LOWRY. 
 With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth 
 boards. 
 " A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological information." Science Gossip. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL 
 AND HISTORICAL, Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth 
 the leading Principles of the Science ; and " Historical Geology," which 
 treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive 
 epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By 
 RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c., &c. With 250 Illustrations. i2mo, 55. 
 cloth boards. 
 
 " The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information Is exhaustive 
 and well arranged." -School Board Chronicle. 
 
 Qeology and Genesis. 
 
 THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION ; or, Geology and 
 
 Genesis : their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By GEORGE W. 
 
 VICTOR LE VAUX. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 
 " A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the 
 arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is shirked, 
 and no sophistry is left unexposed." The Rock. 
 
 " The remarkable peculiarity of this author is that he combines an unbounded admiration of 
 science with an unbounded admiration of the Written record. The two impulses are balanced to 
 a nicety ; and the consequence is that difficulties, which to minds less evenly poised would be seri- 
 ous, find immediate solutions of the happiest kinds." London Review. 
 
NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 27 
 
 DR, LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- 
 written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 
 6s. cloth. 
 
 "The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete 
 have been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout are 
 studiously popular, and care has been taken to show the application of the various branches of 
 physics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of lite." Mining Journal. 
 
 "Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements." 
 Nature. 
 
 " Natural philosophy has had few exponents more able or better skilled in the art of popu- 
 larising the subject than Dr. Lardner ; and Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this treatise, 
 and the others of the series, for use at the present time." Scotsman. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. 
 
 New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 
 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 
 "For those 'who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the pro- 
 found methods of mathematical investigation, ' this work is not merely intended, but well adapted. 1 ' 
 -Chemical News. 
 
 " The volume before us has been carefully edited, augmented to nearly twice the bulk of the 
 former edition, and all the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book." 
 Nature. 
 
 " Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements.' 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re- 
 written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s, 
 cloth. 
 
 " The style Is always clear and precise, and conveys Instruction without leaving any cloudiness 
 Or lurking doubts behind." Engineering. 
 
 "A most exhaustive book on the subject on which it treats, and is so arranged that it can be 
 
 understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science Mr. 
 
 Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and effects of heat." Standard. 
 
 "A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general readers." English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. ByDiONYSius LARDNER, D.C.L,, 
 
 formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University 
 College, London. New Edition. Edited by T. OLVER HARDING, B.A. Lond., 
 of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 
 pages, 55. cloth. 
 
 "Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated." 
 Mechanic's Magazine. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND 
 ACOUSTICS. By Dr. LARDNER. Ninth Thousand. Edit, by GEORGE CAREY 
 FOSTER, B.A., F.C.S. V/ith 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 " The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and 
 lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of 
 scientific knowledge." Popular Science Review. 
 
 \* The above Five Volumes, though each is Complete in itself, form A COM- 
 PLETE COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Dr. Lardner's Handbook of Astronomy. 
 
 THE HA NDBOOK OF A STRONOMY. Forming a Companion 
 to the " Handbook of Natural Philosophy.'' By DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., 
 formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University 
 College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by EDWIN DUNKIN, 
 F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 
 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, gs. 6d. cloth. 
 " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well- 
 arranged a form certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public." Athenceum. 
 
 1 ' We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we 
 strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general but at the same time correct acquaint- 
 ance with this sublime science." Quarterly Journal of Science. 
 
 "One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject . . . We would recommend not 
 only the student of the elementary principles of the science, but he who aims at mastering the 
 higher and mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him." Practi- 
 cal Magazine, 
 
28 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 DR, LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
 THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by 
 DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor ol Natural Philosophy and 
 Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engrav- 
 ings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, i is., in a new and elegant cloth bind- 
 ing ; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 315. 6d. 
 
 Contents : 
 
 The Planets: Are they Inhabited Worlds ? 
 Weather Prognostics Popular Fallacies in 
 Questions of Physical Science Latitudes and 
 Longitudes Lunar Influences Meteeric 
 Stones and Shooting Stars Railway Accidents 
 Light Common Things : Air Locomotion 
 in the United States Cometary Influences- 
 Common Things: Water The Potter's Art- 
 Common Things: Fire Locomotion and 
 Transport, their Influence and Progress The 
 Moon Common Things: The Earth The 
 Electric Telegraph Terrestrial Heat The 
 Sun Earthquakes and Volcanoes Barometer, 
 Safety Lamp, and Whitworth's Micrometric 
 Apparatus Steam The Steam Engine The 
 Eye The Atmosphere Time Common 
 
 motive Thermometer New Planets : Le- 
 verrier and Adams's Planet Magnitude and 
 Minuteness Common Things : The Almanack 
 Optical Images How to observe the Heavens 
 Common Things : The Looking-glass 
 Stellar Universe The Tides Colour Com- 
 mon Things: Man Magnifying Glasses In- 
 stinct and Intelligence The Solar Microscope 
 The Camera Lucida The Magic Lantern 
 The Camera Obscura The Microscope The 
 White Ants : Their Manners and Habits The 
 Surface of the Earth, or First Notions of 
 Geography Science and Poetry The Bee 
 Steam Navigation Electro-Motive Power 
 Thunder, Lightning, and the Aurora Borealis 
 The Printing Press The Crust of the Earth 
 
 Comets The Stereoscope The Pre- Adam- 
 ite Earth Eclipses Sound. 
 
 Things : Pumps Common Things : Spectacles, 
 the Kaleidoscope Clocks and Watches 
 Microscopic Drawing and Engraving Loco- 
 
 %* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 "This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which 
 the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ' Com- 
 mon Things ' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of 
 this serviceable publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for instruction 
 and improvement widely prevails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith will meet with 
 disappointment." Times. 
 
 " A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine 
 subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a 
 popular style of treatment." Spectator. 
 
 "The 'Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been 
 made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." Sir DAVID BREWSTER, in the 
 North British Review. 
 
 " Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm 01 the writing, 
 or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found 
 among the new books one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a 
 valuable present." Examiner. 
 
 *** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, 
 Science Classes, etc. 
 
 Common Things Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, 
 Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illus- 
 trations, cloth gilt, 55. 
 
 The Microscope. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin 
 and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Micro- 
 scope, Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth 
 gilt, as. 
 
 Popular Geology. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust of 
 the Earth, &c. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 25. 6d. 
 
 Popular Physics. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmo- 
 sphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the 
 Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 25. 6d. 
 
 Steam and its Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and 
 Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 25, 
 
 Popular Astronomy. Containing How to observe the Heavens The 
 Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influ- 
 ences, &c, 182 Illustrations, 45. 6d. 
 
 The See and White Ants : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustra- 
 tions of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 25. 
 
 The Electric Telegraph Popularized. To render intelligible to all who 
 can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various 
 forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 
 15. 6d. 
 
COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, CALCULATORS, etc. 29 
 
 COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. 
 
 Accounts for Manufacturers. 
 
 FACTORY ACCOUNTS: Their Principles and Practice. A 
 Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No- 
 menclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Fac- 
 tories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., 
 including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. 
 By EMILE GARCKE and ]. M. FELLS. Third Edition. Demy 8vo, 250 pages, 
 price 6s. strongly bound. [.Just published. 
 
 " A very interesting- description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . the principle 
 
 of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly 
 
 agree with." Accountants' Journal. 
 
 "Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of Factories who would 
 
 not derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." Local Government 
 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Foreign Commercial Correspondence. 
 
 THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT: Being 
 
 Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages English, French, 
 
 German, Italian and Spanish. By CONRAD E. BAKER. Second Edition, 
 
 Revised. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better 
 
 than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They con- 
 
 sist not of entire specimen letters, but what are far more useful short passages, sentences, or 
 
 phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms." Athenceum. 
 
 "A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and 
 reliable. The book is a thoroughly good one." Schoolmaster. 
 
 Intuitive Calculations. 
 
 THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR; or, Easy and Con- 
 cise Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in 
 Commercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By 
 DANIEL O'GORMAN. Corrected arid Extended by J. R. YOUNG, formerly 
 Professor of Mathematics at Belfast College, Twenty-seventh Edition, care- 
 fully Revised by C. NORRIS. Fcap. 8vo, 35. 6d. strongly half-bound in leather. 
 " It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book like this to everyone engaged in 
 
 commerce or manufacturing industry. It is crammed full of rules and formulae for shortening and 
 
 employing calculations." Knowledge. 
 
 11 Supplies special and rapid methods for all kinds of calculations. Of great utility to persons 
 
 engaged in any kind of commercial transactions." Scotsman. 
 
 Modern Metrical Units and Systems. 
 
 MODERN METROLOGY: A Manual of the Metrical Units 
 and Systems of the Present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed 
 English System. By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of " Aid 
 to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, 125. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "The author has brought together much valuable and interesting information. . . . We 
 cannot but recommend the work to the consideration of all interested in the practical reform of our 
 weights and measures." Nature. 
 
 "For exhaustive tables of equivalent weights and measures of all sorts, and for clear demonstra- 
 tions of the effects of the various systems that have been proposed or adopted, Mr. Jackson's 
 treatise is without a rival." Academy. 
 
 The Metric System and the British Standards. 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand- 
 ard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present 
 in Use on the Continent. By C. H. DOWLING, C.E. 8vo, IDS. 6d. strongly bound. 
 
 "Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal." Builder. 
 
 "Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one 
 system into the other." Athenceum. 
 
 Iron and Metal Trades 9 Calculator. 
 
 THE IRON AND METAL TRADES 1 COMPANION. For 
 expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, 
 from is. per cwt. to 1125. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one 
 shilling per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to 100 tons. To 
 which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration 
 of Superficies and Solids, &c. ; Tables of Weights of Materials, and other 
 Useful Memoranda. By THOS. DOWNIE. 396 pp., 95. Strongly bound in leather. 
 "A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before existed." 
 
 Building News. 
 
 " Although specially adapted to the Iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful in 
 
 every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight." Railway News. 
 
30 CROSBY LOCK WOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined. 
 
 THE NUMBER AND WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Contain- 
 ing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a glance the value 
 at 421 different rates, ranging from ^th of a Penny to 2os. each, or per cwt., 
 and 20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from i to 470. 
 Any number of cwts., qrs., and Ibs., from i cwt. to 470 cwts. Any number ol 
 tons, cwts., qrs., and Ibs., from i to 23^ tons. By WILLIAM CHADWICK, Public 
 Accountant. Second Edition, Revised and Improved, and specially adapted 
 for the Apportionment of Mileage Charges for Railway Traffic. 8vo, price 
 i8s., strongly bound for Office wear and tear. [Just published. 
 
 IS" This comprehensive and entirely unique and original Calculator is adapted 
 for the use of A ccountants and A uditors, Railway Companies, Canal Companies t 
 Shippers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc. Ironfounders, Brassfounders t 
 Metal Merchants, Iron Manufacturers, Ironmongers, Engineers, Machinists, Boiler 
 Makers, Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery Proprietors, etc. 
 Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors^ Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneers^ 
 Valuers, Brokers, Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants and 
 General Wholesale Tradesmen. 
 
 V* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 The book contains the answers to questions, and not simply a set of Ingenious puzzle 
 methods of arriving at results. It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers 
 as a dictionary, and the references are even more quickly made. For making up accounts or esti- 
 mates, the book must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations 
 involving price and measure in any combination to do." Engineer. 
 
 " The most complete and practical ready reckoner which it has been our fortune yet to see. 
 
 It is difficult to imagine a trade or occupation in which it could not be of the greatest use, either 
 
 In saving human labour or in checking work. The Publishers have placed within the reach ol 
 
 every commercial man an invaluable and unfailing assistant." The Miller. 
 
 " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Comprehensive Weight Calculator. 
 
 THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables 
 upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact 
 Value of any Weight from i Ib. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. 
 to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their 
 Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at 
 sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calcu- 
 lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By HENRY 
 HARBEN, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vo, 
 strongly half-bound, i 5s. 
 
 " A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of the 
 kind we have seen." Ironmonger. 
 
 " Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in all mercantile offices." Shef- 
 field Independent. 
 
 Comprehensive Discount Guide. 
 
 THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of 
 Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, 
 by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using 
 Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either 
 Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one 
 operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or 
 more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from i to 
 go per cent., Tables of Discount from ij to g8| per cent., and Tables of Com- 
 mission, &c., from to 10 per cent. By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant, Author 
 of " The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrected. 
 Demy 8vo, 544 pp. half-bound, i 55. 
 
 " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time 
 means saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables 
 throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work is a model 
 of typographical clearness, and must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and 
 general traders." British Trade Journal. 
 
 Iron Shipbuilders 9 and Merchants' Weight Tables. 
 
 IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shipbuilders, 
 Engineers and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of up- 
 wards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from i foot by 6 in. by J in. to 
 10 feet by 5 feet by i in. Worked out on the basis of 40 Ibs. to the square 
 foot of Iron of i inch in thickness. Carefully compiled and thoroughly Re 
 vised by H. BURLINSON and W. H. SIMPSON. Oblong 4to, 255. halt-bound. 
 "This work will be found of great utility. The authors have had much practical experience 
 
 of what is wanting in making estimates; and the use of the book will save much time iu making 
 
 elaborate calculations. English Mechanic. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 31 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 
 Soap-making. 
 
 THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING: A Practical Handbook of tfo 
 Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc. Including many New 
 Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. 
 By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of " Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated," 
 &c. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 
 75. 6d. cloth. 
 "The work wiM prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical 
 
 soap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." Chemical Ne-ws. 
 
 "Really an excellent example of a technical manual, entering, as it does, thoroughly and 
 
 exhaustively both into the theory and practice of soap manufacture. The book is well and honestly 
 
 done, and deserves the considerable circulation with which it will doubtless meet." Knowledge. 
 "Mr. Watt's book is a thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in 
 
 our language. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English 
 
 technical literature." Nature. 
 
 Paper Making. 
 
 THE ART OF PAPER MANUFACTURE: A Practical Hand- 
 book of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Wood and other Fibres. 
 By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of "The Art of Soap-Making," ''The Art of 
 Leather Manufacture," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Cr, 8vo. [In thepress, 
 
 Leather Manufacture. 
 
 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a 
 Practical Handbook, in which the Operations ot Tanning, Currying, and 
 Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Ex- 
 plained, and many Recent Processes introduced; as also Methods for the 
 Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut 
 Dressing, &c. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of " Soap-Making," " Electro- 
 Metallurgy," &c, With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, Crown 
 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessprles. . . An eminently valuable 
 production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers." Chemical Review. 
 
 "This volume is technical without being tedious, comprehensive and complete without being 
 prosy, and it bears on every page the impress of a master hand. We have never come across a 
 better trade treatise, nor one that so thoroughly supplied an absolute want" Shoe and Leather 
 Trades' Chronicle. 
 
 Boot and Shoe Making, 
 
 THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING. A Practical 
 
 Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and 
 Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. 
 By JOHN B. LENO, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe- Maker. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, i2mo, 25. cloth limp. 
 "This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written on the subject. A new work, 
 embracing all modern improvements, was much wanted. This want is now satisfied. The chapter 
 on clicking, which shows how waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book." 
 Scottish Leather Trader. 
 
 " This volume is replete with matter well worthy the perusal of boot and shoe manufacturers 
 and experienced craftsmen, and instructive and valuable in the highest degree to all young 
 beginners and craftsmen in the trade of which it treats." Leather Trades' Circular. 
 
 Dentistry. 
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY : A Practical Treatise on the 
 Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use- 
 ful Formulae, Tables and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c, 
 By CHARLES HUNTER. Third Edition, Revised, With upwards of 100 
 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 "The work is very practical." Monthly Review of Dental Surgery. 
 "We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students preparing for the profession 
 
 of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dentist." Dublin Journal of Medical Science. 
 
 " A work in a concise form that few could read without gaining information horn" British 
 
 Journal of Dental Science. 
 
 Wood Engraving. 
 
 A PRACTICAL MANUAL OF WOOD ENGRAVING. With 
 a Brief Account of the History of the Art. Bv WILLIAM NORMAN BROWN, 
 With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. 
 
 " The author deals with the subject in a thoroughly practical and easy series of representative 
 lessons." Paper a nd Printing Trades Journal* 
 
 "The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone wanting to understand the first 
 elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving." Grap hie. 
 
32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS, By PAUL N, HASLUCK, 
 
 K3* These Handybooks are written to supply Handicraftsmen with informa- 
 tion on workshop practice, and are intended to convey, in plain language, technical 
 knowledge of the several crafts. Workshop terms are used, and workshop practice 
 described, the text being freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances 
 and processes. 
 
 N.B. The following Volumes are already published, and others are in preparation. 
 
 Metal Turning. 
 
 THE MET A L TURNER'S HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 for Workers at the Foot-Lathe : Embracing Information on the Tools, 
 Appliances and Processes employed in Metal Turning. By PAUL N. HAS- 
 LUCK, Author of " Lathe-Work." With upwards of One Hundred Illustra- 
 tions. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 25. cloth. 
 
 " Altogether admirably adapted to initiate students into the art of turning." Leicester Post. 
 " Clearly and concisely written, excellent in every way, we heartily commend it to all interested 
 In metal turning." Mechanical World. 
 
 Wood Turning. 
 
 THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 for Workers at the Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances 
 and Processes Employed in Wood Turning. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. With 
 upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. 
 "We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have 
 hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry." Mechanical World. 
 
 Watch Repairing. 
 
 THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, 
 Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Watchwork. By PAUL N, 
 HASLUCK. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 2S. cloth, 
 " All young persons connected with the trade should acquire and study this excellent, and at 
 the same time, inexpensive vtor]x."Clerken-well Chronicle. 
 
 Pattern Making. 
 
 THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical 
 
 Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Appliances em- 
 ployed in Constructing Patterns for Founders. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. 
 With One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 " We commend it to all who are interested in the counsels it so ably gives." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 "This handy volume contains sound information of considerable value to students and 
 artificers." Hard-ware Trades yournal. 
 
 MecJianical Manipulation. 
 
 THE ME CHA NICS WORKSHOP HA ND YBOOK. A Practical 
 Manual on Mechanical Manipulation. Embracing Information on various 
 Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. 
 By PAUL N. HASLUCK. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 " It is a book which should be found in every workshop, as it is one which will be continually 
 referred to for a very great amount of standard information." Saturday Review. 
 
 Model Engineering. 
 
 THE MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK: A Practical 
 Manual on Model Steam Engines. Embracing Information on the Tools. 
 Materials and Processes Employed in their Construction. By PAUL N. 
 HASLUCK. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, zs. cloth. 
 " Mr. Hasluck's latest volume is of greater importance than would at first appear ; and indeed 
 he has produced a very good little book."J5uiMer. 
 
 " By carefully going through the work, amateurs may pick up an excellent notion of the con- 
 struction of full-sized steam engines." Telegraphic Journal. 
 
 Clock Repairing. 
 
 THE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK: A Practical Manual 
 on Cle&ning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, 
 Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Clockwork. By PAUL N. 
 HASLUCK. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo.2s. cloth. {.Just ready. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 33 
 
 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc. 
 
 ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis 
 of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descrip- 
 tions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric Machines, i her- 
 mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of 
 the Art, and several Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By ALEXANDER 
 WATT, Author of " Electro-Metallurgy," &c. With numerous Illustrations. 
 Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains minute and 
 practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in the 
 workshop. Mr. Watt's book recommends itself to all interested in its subjects." Engineer, 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy. 
 
 ELECTRO -METALLURGY '; Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER 
 WATT, Author of " Electro-Deposition," &c. Ninth Edition, including the 
 most recent Processes. i2mo, 45. cloth boards. 
 
 "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful 
 prosecution of electroplating." Iron, 
 
 Electroplating. 
 
 ELECTROPLATING : A Practical Handbook on the Deposi- 
 tion of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c. &c. 
 With Descriptions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries and Dynamo 
 Machines used in the Art. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author of " Electric 
 Light," &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Nnmerous Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 " An excellent practical manual." Engineering, 
 
 " This book will show any person how to become an expert in electro-deposition." Builder, 
 " An excellent work, giving the newest information." Horological Journal. 
 
 Electrotyping. 
 
 ELECT ROTY PING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print- 
 ing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. 
 URQUHART, C.E. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 1 ' The book is thoroughly practical. The reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading 
 
 laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing 
 
 processes, up to the final preparation of the work." Art Journal. 
 
 Goldsmiths' Work. 
 
 THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By GEORGE E. GEE, 
 Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged. i2mo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 "A good, sound, technical educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority." Horo- 
 logical Journal. 
 
 "A standard book which few will care to be without." Jeweller ant Metalworker. 
 
 Silversmiths' Work. 
 
 THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By GZORGE E. GEE, 
 Jeweller, &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Illustrations. i2mo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 "The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . . The workers in the trade will 
 speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." English Mechanic. 
 
 *** The above two works together, strongly half-bound, price 75. 
 
 Bread and Biscuit Baking. 
 
 THE BREAD AND BISCUIT BAKER'S AND SUGAR- 
 BOILER'S ASSISTANT. Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. 
 With Remarks on the Art of Bread-making. By ROBERT WELLS, Practical 
 Baker. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker." Saturday Review. 
 
 " A book of instruction for learners and for daily reference in the bakehouse." Bakers' Times 
 
 Confectionery. 
 
 THE PASTRYCOOK AND CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. 
 For Hotels, Restaurants and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family 
 Use. By ROBERT WELLS, Author of " The Bread and Biscuit Baker's and 
 Sugar Boiler's Assistant." CrownSvo, 2s. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition 
 
 our readers cannot do better than purchase this book." Bakers' Times. 
 
 " Will be found as serviceable by private families as by restaurant chefs and victuallers in 
 
 general. " Miller. 
 
 Laundry Wor7c. 
 
 A HANDBOOK OF LAUNDRY MANAGEMENT. For Use 
 in Steam and Hand-Power Laundries and Private Houses. By the Editor 
 of THE LAUNDRY JOURNAL. Crown 8vo, 2$. 6d. cloth. [Just published . 
 
 D 
 
34 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Horology. 
 
 A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac- 
 tice. Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, ex-Director of the 
 School of Horology at Macon, by JULIEN TRIPPLIN, F.R.A.S., Besancon, 
 Watch Manufacturer, and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. 
 With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. 
 Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, 2 zs. cloth ; 2 IDS. half-calf. 
 " There is no horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this produc- 
 tion of M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and 
 as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman." Horological Journal. 
 
 " The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which 
 continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren 
 in fact, the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's ' Treatise." 1 Watchmaker, Jeweller and Silversmith. 
 
 Watchmaking. 
 
 THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. Translated from the 
 French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, and considerably Enlarged by JULIEN TRIPP- 
 LIN, F.R.A.S., Vice-President of the Horological Institute, and EDWARD RIGG, 
 M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Numerous Woodcuts and Fourteen 
 Copper Plates. Second Edition, Revised. With Appendix. Cr. 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 " Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and 
 concise. It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker." Engineering. 
 
 " It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fulfils every requirement in a hand- 
 book intended for the use of a workman. Should be found in every workshop." Watch and 
 Clockmaker. 
 
 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES & COMMERCE. 
 
 Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, etc. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the 
 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. 
 By JOHN LOMAS, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. 
 With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages of 
 Text. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, i IDS. cloth. 
 "This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most 
 approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood en- 
 gravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufac- 
 ture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained." Athen&um. 
 
 " We find here not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the 
 trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful 
 conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological 
 authors." Chemical Review. 
 
 brewing. 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By HERBERT 
 
 EDWARDS WRIGHT, B.A. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " This little volume, containing such a large amount of good sense In so small a compass, ought 
 to recommend itself to every brewery pupil, and many who have passed that k stage." Brewers' 
 Guardian. 
 
 " The book is very clearly written, and the author has successfully brought his scientific know 
 ledge to bear upon the various processes and details of brewing." Brewer. 
 
 Commercial Chemical Analysis. 
 
 THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANA- 
 LYSIS; or, Practical Instructions tor the determination of the Intrinsic or 
 Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the 
 Arts. By A. NORMANDY, Editor of Rose's "Treatise on Chemical Analysis." 
 New Edition, to a great extent Re-written by HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., 
 F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 125. 6d. cloth. 
 "We strongly recommend this book to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the house- 
 wife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." Medical Times. 
 
 ' ' Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, 
 and the work is well edited and carefully written." Nature. 
 
 Explosives. 
 
 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a 
 Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun- 
 Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine, and other Explosive Compounds. By M. EISSLER, 
 Mining Engineer , Author of " The Metallurgy of Gold," " The Metallurgy 
 of Silver," &c. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. [In the press. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 35 
 
 Dye-Wares and Colours. 
 
 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE- WARES : Their 
 Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the 
 use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. SLATER. Second 
 Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 "A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each 
 
 article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so 
 
 liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable." Chemist 
 
 and Druggist. 
 
 " There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing 
 
 for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful." Chemical News. 
 
 Pigments. 
 
 THE ARTIST'S MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Showing 
 their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non- Permanency, and Adul- 
 terations ; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; and 
 the most Reliable Tests of Purity. Together with the Science and Arts 
 Department's Examination Questions on Painting. By H. C. STANDAGE, 
 Second Edition, Revised. Small crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " This work is indeed multum-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to 
 all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users." Chemical Review. 
 "This manual cannot fail to be a very valuable aid to all painters who wish their work to 
 endure and be of a sound character ; it is complete and comprehensive." Spectator. 
 
 "The author supplies a great deal of very valuable information and memoranda as to the 
 chemical qualities and artistic effect of the principal pigments used by painters." Builder. 
 
 Gauging. Tables ana Rules for Revenue Officers, 
 
 Bretvers, etc. 
 
 A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING : 
 Containing Tables, Rules and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, 
 Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. MANT (Inland Revenue). Oblong i8mo, 45. 
 leather, with elastic band. 
 
 " This handy and useful book is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Depart- 
 ment, and will be a favourite book of reference. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and the 
 arrangement simple and clear." Civilian. 
 
 " A most useful book. It should be in the hands of every practical brewer." Brewers' 
 Journal. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 
 
 Agricultural Facts and Figures. 
 
 NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES 
 FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, 
 Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society ; late Professor of Agricul- 
 ture, Glasgow Veterinary College. Third Edition. Royal samo, full roan, 
 gilt edges, with elastic band, 45. 
 " The most complete and comprehensive Note-book for Farmers and Farm Students that we 
 
 have seen. It literally teems with information, and we can cordially recommend it to all connected 
 
 with agrcuilture." North British Agriculturist. 
 
 Youatt and Burn's Complete Grazier. 
 
 THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- 
 BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry; especially in 
 the departments connected with the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General 
 Management of Stock ; the Management of the Dairy, &c. With Directions 
 for the Culture and Management of Grass Land, of Grain and Root Crops, 
 the Arrangement of Farm Offices, the use of Implements and Machines, and 
 on Draining, Irrigation, Warping, &c. ; and the Application and Relative 
 
 "Syste 
 
 Illustrations, i is. half-bound. 
 
 " The standard and text-book with the farmer and grazier." Farmer's Magazine. 
 
 " A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture 
 endures." Mark Lane Express (First Notice). 
 
 " The book deals with all departments of agriculture, and contains an Immense amount of 
 valuable information. It is, in fact, an encyclopaedia of agriculture put into readable form, and it 
 Is the only work equally comprehensive brought down to present date. It is excellently printed on 
 thick paper, and strongly bound, and deserves a place in the library of every agriculturist." Mark 
 Lane Express (Second Notice). 
 
 "This esteemed work is well worthy of a place in the libraries of agriculturists." North 
 British Agriculturist. 
 
36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 jFlour Manufacture 9 Milling, etc. 
 
 FLOUR MANUFACTURE: A Treatise on Milling Science 
 and Practice. By FRIEDRICH KICK, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of 
 Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, 
 Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with 
 Supplement. By H. H. P. POWLES, A.M.I.C.E. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated 
 with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, 255. cloth. 
 " This valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. , . 
 The miller v/ho has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a suc- 
 cessful career ; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to 
 apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text -book of modern milling in good , 
 sound English, which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom." The Miller. 
 
 " The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers 
 will, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages." Matters' Gazette. 
 
 Small Farming. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING; or, The Lessons of my 
 
 Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers. 
 
 By ROBERT SCOTT BURN, Author of " Outlines of Modern Farming." With 
 
 numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 "This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer 
 will read with pleasure and accept as a guide." Field. 
 
 "The volume contains a vast amount of useful information. No branch of fanning is left 
 untouched, from the labour to be done to the results achieved. It may be safely recommended to 
 all who think they will be in paradise when they buy or rent a three-acre farm." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Modern Farming. 
 
 OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. SCOTT BURN. 
 Soils, Manures, and Crops Farming and Farming Economy Cattle, Sheep, 
 and Horses Management of Dairy, Pigs and Poultry Utilisation of 
 Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half- 
 bound, profusely Illustrated, 125. 
 
 The aim of the author has been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy, 
 and in this aim he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit." Morning 
 Advertiser. " No farmer should be without this book." Banbury Guardian. 
 
 Agricultural Engineering. 
 
 FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF. 
 
 Comprising Draining and Embanking ; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm 
 Roads, Fences, and Gates ; Farm Buildings, their Arrangement and Con- 
 struction, with Plans and Estimates; Barn Implements and Machines; Field 
 Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, Levelling, &c. By Prof. 
 JOHN SCOTT, Professor of Agriculture at the Royal Agricultural College, 
 Cirencester, &c. In One Vol., 1,150 pages, half-bound, 600 Illustrations, 12$. 
 "Written with great care, as well as, with knowledge and ability. The author has done his 
 
 work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. 
 
 The volume will be of great value to agricultural students," Mark Lane Express. 
 
 4 ' For a young agriculturist we know of no handy volume so likely to be more usefully studied. 
 
 Bell's Weekly Messenger. 
 
 English Agriculture. 
 
 THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN : A Text-Book of 
 Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. 
 For Elementary and Advanced Students. By HUGH CLEMENTS (Board of 
 Trade). Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. i8mo, zs. 6d. cloth. 
 "A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information." Agricultural Economist. 
 4 'It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or wMch contains 
 such a vast and useful fund of knowledge." Educational Times. 
 
 New Pocket Book for Farmers. 
 
 TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS 
 
 for Farmers, Graziers, Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents Auc- 
 tioneers, etc. With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. Selected and 
 Arranged by SIDNEY FRANCIS. Second Edition, Revised. 272 pp., waist- 
 coat-pocket size, is. 6d., limp leather. [Just published. 
 " Weighing less than i oz., and occupying no more space than a match box, it contains a mass 
 of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. . Every 
 operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, having been 
 revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it." Bell's Weekly Messenger. 
 
 " A marvellous little book. . . . The agriculturist who possesses himself of it will not be 
 disappointed with his investment." The Farm. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 37 
 
 Farm and Estate Roofo-Jteeping. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS & ESTATE OWNERS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted to all 
 Classes of Farms. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. Second 
 Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth boards ; or 2s. 6d. cloth limp. 
 " The volume is a capital study of a most important subject." Agricultural Gazette. 
 "Will be found of great assistance by those who intend to commence a system of book-keep- 
 ing, the author's examples being clear and explicit, and his explanations, while full and accurate, 
 being to a large extent free from technicalities." Z-zz/tf Stock jfournai. 
 
 Farm Account Boofc. 
 
 WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK. Giving 
 a Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expen- 
 diture under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With 
 Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of the 
 Year, and an Appendix of Forms. Ruled and Headed for Entering a Com- 
 plete Record of the Farming Operations. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, 
 Chartered Accountant, Author of "Book-keeping for Farmers." Folio, 
 75. 6d. half bound. {.culture. 
 
 "Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately." ^r 
 
 Early Fruits, Floivers and Vegetables. 
 
 THE FORCING GARDEN ; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, 
 Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans and Estimates for Building Glass- 
 houses, Pits and Frames. Containing also Original Plans for Double Glazing, 
 a New Method of Growing the Gooseberry under Glass, &c. &c., and on Venti- 
 lation, &c. With Illustrations. By SAMUEL WOOD. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 " A good book, and fairly fills a place that was in some degree vacant. The book is written with 
 
 great care, and contains a great deal of valuable teaching." Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 " Mr. Wood's book is an original and exhaustive answer to the question ' How to Grow Early 
 
 Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables ? ' " Land and Water, 
 
 Good Gardening. 
 
 A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or, How to Grow 
 
 Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on Soils, Manures, 
 
 Seeds, Planting, Laying-out of Gardens and Grounds, &c. By S. WOOD. 
 
 Third Edition, with considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 
 "A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical 
 directions are excellent." Atheneeum. 
 
 " May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers and amateurs, for the plain and trust- 
 worthy information it gives on common matters too often neglected." Gardeners' Chronicle. 
 
 Gainful Gardening. 
 
 MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING', cr, How to make One 
 Acre of Land produce 620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; 
 also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise 176 per 
 annum clear Profit. By SAMUEL WOOD, Author of " Good Gardening," &c. 
 Fourth and cheaper Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, is. sewed. 
 "We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's 
 gardener, but to the market grower." Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 Gardening for Ladies. 
 
 THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN, 
 
 and Amateurs' Complete Guide. By S. WOOD. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 " This volume contains a good deal of sound, common sense instruction." Florist, 
 " Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a lifetime of experience." Scotsman. 
 
 Receipts for Gardeners. 
 
 GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited by CHARLES W. QUIN. i2mo, 
 is. 6d. cloth limp. 
 "A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable information." Athenaum, 
 
 Market Gardening. 
 
 MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING. By Contributors 
 to " The Garden." Compiled by C. W. SHAW, late Editor of "Gardening 
 Illustrated." lamo, 35. 6d. cloth boards. [Just published. 
 
 " Tke most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published." Farmer. 
 
 Cottage Gardening. 
 
 COTTAGE GARDENING; or, Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for 
 Small Gardens. By E. HOBDAY. i2mo, is. 6d: cloth limp. 
 "Contains much useful information at a small charge." Glasgow Herald. 
 
38 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ESTATE MANAGEMENT, AUCTIONEERING, LAW, etc. 
 
 Hudson's Land Valuer's Pocket-Book. 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: Being Tables 
 
 With 
 
 elastic band, 45. ' 
 
 "This new edition includes tables or ascertaining the value of leases for any term of years; 
 and for showing how to lay out plots of ground of certain acres in forms, square, round, &c., witn 
 valuable rules for ascertaining the probable worth of standing timber to any amount ; and is of 
 incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man." Farmers Journal. 
 
 Ewart's Land Improver's PocJcet-Book. 
 
 THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULM, 
 TABLES and MEMORANDA required in any Computation relating to the 
 Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By JOHN EWART, Land Surveyor 
 and Agricultural Engineer. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 331110, oblong, 
 leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 45. 
 "A compendious and handy little volume." Spectator. 
 
 Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book. 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- 
 PLETE POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of the above Two Works bound to- 
 gether. Leather, gilt edges, with strap, 75. 6d. 
 
 " Hudson's book is the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and 
 crops, and its combination with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the 
 latter-mentioned. . . . It is most useful as a manual for reference." North of England Farmer. 
 
 Auctioneer's Assistant. 
 
 THE APPRAISER, A UCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND 
 ESTATE AGENT AND VALUER'S POCKET ASSISTANT, for the Valua- 
 tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and 
 of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By JOHN WHEELER, 
 Valuer, &c. Fifth Edition, re-written and greatly extended by C. N ORRIS, 
 Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32010, 55. cloth. 
 
 " A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of 
 
 prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c." Standard. 
 
 " Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase, 
 
 sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices for 
 
 Inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other effects." Builder. 
 
 Auctioneering. 
 
 AUCTIONEERS: Their Duties and Liabilities. By ROBERT 
 SQUIBBS, Auctioneer. Demy 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "The position and duties of auctioneers treated compendiously and clearly." Builder. 
 "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent work." Ironmonger. 
 " Of great value to the profession. . . . We readily welcoms this book from the fact that it 
 treats the subject in a manner somewhat new to the profession." Estates Gazette- 
 
 "Legal Guide for Pawnbrokers, 
 
 THE PAWNBROKERS', FACTORS' AND MERCHANTS' 
 
 GUIDE TO THE LAW OF LOANS AND PLEDGES. With the 
 
 Statutes and a Digest of Cases on Rights and Liabilities, Civil and Criminal, 
 
 as to Loans : ' ~' 
 
 curities. 
 
 of Slander 
 
 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " This work contains simply everything that requires to be known concerning the department 
 of the law of which it treats. We can safely commend the book as unique and very nearly perfect." 
 Iron. 
 
 " The task undertaken by Mr. Folkard has been very satisfactorily performed. . . . Such ex- 
 planations as are needful have been supplied with great clearness and with due regard to brevity." 
 City Press. 
 
ESTATE MANAGEMENT, AUCTIONEERING, LAW, etc. 39 
 
 How to Invest. 
 
 HINTS FOR INVESTORS : Being an Explanation of the Mode 
 of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange. To which are added Com- 
 ments on the Fluctuations and Table of Quarterly Average prices of Consols 
 since 1759. Also a Copy of the London Daily Stock and Share List, By 
 WALTER M. PLAYFORD, Sworn Broker. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. 
 "An invaluable guide to investors and speculators." Bullionist 
 
 Metropolitan Hating Appeals. 
 
 REPORTS OF APPEALS HEARD BEFORE THE COURT 
 OF GENERAL ASSESSMENT SESSIONS, from the Year 1871 to 1885. 
 By EDWARD RYDE and ARTHUR LYON RYDE. Fourth Edition, brought down 
 to the Present Date, with an Introduction to the Valuation (Metropolis) Act, 
 1869, and an Appendix by WALTER C. RYDE, of the Inner Temple, Barrister- 
 at-Law. 8vo, i6s. cloth. 
 
 " A useful work, occupying a place mid-way between a handbook for a lawyer and a guide to 
 the surveyor. It is compiled by a gentleman eminent in his profession as a land agent, whose spe- 
 cialty, it is acknowledged, lies in the direction of assessing property for rating purposes." Land 
 Agents' Record. 
 
 Souse Property. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY. A Popular and Practical 
 Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and 
 Land, including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures ; with Examples of 
 all kinds of Valuations, Useful Information on Buildings, and Suggestive 
 Elucidations of Fine Art. By E. L. TARBUCK, Architect and Surveyor. 
 Fourth Edition, Enlarged. i2mo, 55. cloth. 
 
 "The advice is thoroughly practical." Law Journal. 
 
 "For all who have dealings with house property, this is an indispensable guide." Decoration. 
 
 "Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on fine art. 
 
 " A well -written and thoughtful work." Land Agents Record. 
 
 Inwood's Estate Tables. 
 
 TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold, 
 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, etc., and for the Renewing of 
 Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate bodies, 
 for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary 
 Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. ; together with SMART'S 
 Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower 
 and Intermediate Rates. By W. INWOOD. 23rd Edition, with considerable 
 Additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult 
 Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c. , by M. FEDOR 
 THOMAN, of the Societe Credit Mobilier of Paris. Crown 8vo, 8s. cloth. 
 "Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation 
 
 cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of 
 
 eminent service." Engineering. 
 
 " ' Inwood's Tables ' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched 
 
 by large additional contributions by M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot 
 
 fail to be of the utmost utility." Mining Journal. 
 
 Agricultural and Tenant-Right Valuation. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL AND TENANT-RIGHT-VALUER'S 
 ASSISTANT. A Practical Handbook on Measuring and Estimating the 
 Contents, Weights and Values of Agricultural Produce and Timber, the 
 Values of Estates and Agricultural Labour, Forms of Tenant-Right-Valua- 
 tions, Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1883, 
 &c. &c. By TOM BRIGHT, Agricultural Surveyor. Crown 8yo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 " Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, labour. 
 
 contents, and weights of timber, and farm produce of all kinds." Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 " An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and 
 
 value to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations ot all kinds." Farmer. 
 
 Plantations and Underwoods. 
 
 POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODS: A Practical 
 
 Handbook on Estimating the Cost of Forming, Renovating, Improving and 
 Grubbing Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuation for Purposes of 
 Transfer, Rental, Sale or Assessment. By TOM BRIGHT, F.S.Sc., Author ot 
 " The Agricultural and Tenant-Right-Valuer's Assistant," &c. Crown 8vo, 
 35. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " Very useful to those actually engaged in managing wood." Bell's Weekly Messenger. 
 
 " To valuers, foresters and agents it will be a welcome aid." North British Agriculturist. 
 
 "Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his duties, and of undoubted interest 
 and use both to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds. 'Kent Herald. 
 
40 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country. 
 
 EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER: A Handy -Book of the 
 Principles of Law and Equity. By A BARRISTER. Twenty-sixth Edition. 
 Reconstructed, Thoroughly Revised, and much Enlarged. Including the 
 Legislation of the Two Sessions of 1888, and including careful digests of The 
 Local Government Act, 1888; County Electors Act, 1888; County Courts Act, 
 1888; Glebe Lands Act, 1888; Law of Libel Amendment Act, 1888; Patents, 
 Designs and Trade Marks Act, 1888; Solicitors Act, 1888; Preferential Pay- 
 ments in BanKruptcy Act, 1888 ; Land Charges Registration and Searches Act, 
 1888 ; Trustees Act, 1888, &c. Crown 8vo, 688 pp., price 6s. 8d. (saved at every 
 consultation ! ), strongly bound in cloth. [Just published. 
 
 **.* THE BOOK WILL BE FOUND TO COMPRISE (AMONGST 
 OTHER MATTER) 
 
 THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS MERCANTILE AND COMMERCIAL LAW 
 PARTNERSHIPS, CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS GUARANTEES, PRINCIPALS AND 
 AGENTS CRIMINAL LAW PARISH LAW COUNTY COURT LAW GAME AND FISHERY 
 LAWS POOR MEN'S LAWSUITS LAWS OF BANKRUPTCY WAGERS CHEQUES, BILLS 
 AND NOTES COPYRIGHT ELECTIONS AND REGISTRATION INSURANCE LIBEL AND 
 SLANDER MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE MERCHANT SHIPPING MORTGAGES SETTLE- 
 MENTS STOCK EXCHANGE PRACTICE TRADE MARKS AND PATENTS TRESPASS NUI- 
 SANCES TRANSFER OF LAND WILLS, &c. &c. Also LAW FOR LANDLORD AND TENANT 
 MASTER AND SERVANT HEIRS DEVISEES AND LEGATEES HUSBAND AND WIFE- 
 EXECUTORS AND TRUSTEES GUARDIAN AND WARD MARRIED WOMEN AND INFANTS 
 LENDER, BORROWER AND SURETIES DEBTOR AND CREDITOR PURCHASER AND 
 VENDOR COMPANIES FRIENDLY SOCIETIES CLERGYMEN CHURCHWARDENS MEDI- 
 CAL PRACTITIONERS BANKERS FARMERS CONTRACTORS STOCK BROKERS SPORTS- 
 MEN GAMEKEEPERS FARRIERS HORSE DEALERS AUCTIONEERS HOUSE AGENTS- 
 INNKEEPERSBAKERSMILLERSPAWNBROKERSSURVEYORSRAILWAYS AND CAR- 
 RIERS CONSTABLES SEAMEN SOLDIERS, &c. &c. 
 
 K& The following subjects may be mentioned as amongst those which have re- 
 ceived special attention during the revision in question: Marriage of British Subjects 
 Abroad ; Police Constables ; Pawnbrokers ; Intoxicating Liquors ; Licensing ; 
 Domestic Servants; Landlord and Tenant; Vendors and Purchasers; Muni- 
 cipal Elections ; Local Elections ; Corrupt Practices at Elections ; Public Health 
 and Nuisances ; Highways ; Churchwardens ; Legal and Illegal Ritual ; Vestry 
 Meetings ; Rates. 
 
 It is believed that the extensions and amplifications of the present edition, 
 while intended to meet the requirements of the ordinary Englishman, will also 
 have the effect of rendering the book useful to the legal practitioner in the 
 country. 
 
 One result of the reconstruction and revision, with the extensive additions 
 thereby necessitated, has been the enlargement of the book by nearly a hundred and 
 fifty pages, while the price remains as before. 
 
 The PUBLISHERS feel every confidence, therefore, that this standard work 
 will continue to be regarded, as hitherto, as an absolute necessity FOR EVERY 
 MAN OF BUSINESS AS WELL AS EVERY HEAD OF A FAMILY. 
 
 *** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " It is a complete code of English Law, written in plain language, which all can understand. 
 . . . Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills." 
 Weekly Times. 
 
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