PHYSIOLOGY 
 FOR PRACTICAL USE.
 
 PHYSIOLOGY 
 FOR PRACTICA 
 
 BY VAEIOUS WRITERS 
 
 EDITED BY JAMES HINTON, 
 
 Author of " Thoughts on Health, and some of its Conditions." 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 HENRY S. KING & Co., 
 65, COENHILL; AND 12, PATEENOSTEE Row, LONDON. 
 
 1874.
 
 [All Rights Reserved^]
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 IN collecting these papers for republication, most of 
 them have been submitted to careful revision, and I 
 believe they are all fairly on a level with the present 
 state of knowledge. 
 
 The chapter on the use of alcohol is entirely new, and 
 will be found, I think, one of the best practical ex- 
 positions of the subject to be met with. 
 
 My own. part in the volume has been small. But 
 I am happy to have this opportunity of again returning 
 my thanks to its authors, all of them eminent in their 
 profession, for the kind way in which they re- 
 sponded to the requests for assistance in this work 
 which were conveyed to them through me. 
 
 Thinking that the recent experiments of Professor 
 Ferrier on the functions of different parts of the brain 
 would be interesting and instructive, I have availed 
 myself, in an Appendix, of an account of them given 
 by him in the recent number of the Journal of Anatomy 
 
 and Physiology. 
 
 JAMBS HINTOK 
 
 LONDON, January, 1874. 
 
 -i -f o-f <> *
 
 CONTENTS OF THE FIEST VOLUME. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PAGE 
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING 33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT 61 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL 102 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE 127 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 DIGESTION 151
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. PAGE 
 
 THE SKIS. CORPULENCE 1"? 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OP TOUCH 207 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 NOTES ON PAIN 225 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 RESPIRATION 
 
 244
 
 PHYSIOLOGY 
 FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 
 
 IN the course of this volume we shall have a great deal 
 to say about the Nerves ; and as these are the means 
 through which all our organs perform their part, it is 
 perhaps, advisable, first of all, to devote a little space to 
 them, and to the great centre of them all, the Brain. 
 
 The likeness of the brain and nerves to a telegraph, 
 with its lines of wire, and the central office to which 
 all lead and from which all depart, has been often 
 noticed; and it has been supposed by some persons 
 that these organs are really a kind of electric machine, 
 in which currents are generated, and supplied wher- 
 ever they are needed. But- it is not truly so. The 
 living body, indeed, like all things in which active 
 changes are going on, is constantly pervaded by elec- 
 tricity ; and in some animals (as the torpedo, or the 
 electric eel) electricity is specially generated, in pecu- 
 liar organs, to serve as the creature's offensive and 
 
 VOL. I. B
 
 2 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 defensive weapon. In these animals there are large 
 nerves which serve to bring the electric organs into 
 action at the right moment. But these organs are 
 quite separate from and unlike the brain, and the cur- 
 rents which circulate in the nerves are of a more 
 delicate and subtle kind. They are such as are gene- 
 rated in living beings alone, and can traverse no other 
 substances than the nerves. 
 
 But still they are so much like electricity that we 
 can best understand them by comparing the nerves 
 with electric wires, and the living actions which pro- 
 duce nervous power with the means which set electric 
 and galvanic currents in motion. And, first, the nerves 
 are like electric wires in this, that impulses travel along 
 them without any permanent change in themselves. In 
 each case, there seems to be a sort of thrill passing 
 from one end to the other, which may be best conceived 
 by being likened to a motion transmitted along a row 
 of balls lying in contact with one another. If the first 
 of the series be sharply and yet gently struck, it 
 passes on the impulse, without changing its own 
 place, to the next, and that to the following one, and 
 so on, until the last is reached, and it alone moves 
 from its position. So, probably, it is with the 
 minute particles which make up a wire when electricity 
 passes along it ; and somewhat in the same way, we
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 3 
 
 may best conceive, it is with the minute particles which 
 form the active portion of a nerve. 
 
 And again, as the impulse which starts a galvanic 
 current is derived from chemical changes between 
 an acid and a metal, from the union of the minute 
 particles of these with one another, so the force 
 which starts a thrill along a nerve comes, in all 
 probability, from unions of minute particles in the 
 brain, or around the other terminations of the 
 nerves in the ear, the eye, the skin. And if we 
 are content (as in respect to subjects such as these 
 we are obliged to be content at present, though 
 we daily strive to make our knowledge more com- 
 plete and truthful) with general thoughts, and 
 keep always in mind how very imperfect all such 
 views must be, it is not difficult to understand how 
 the Creator has endowed us with so wonderful and 
 perfect an instrument for perceiving and for acting, 
 as our nervous system is. For all over the living 
 body minute particles are every moment changing 
 their place, uniting with one another, and disuniting. 
 
 There is no life without such constant interaction of 
 the elements of which the body consists. And thus 
 in these miruite actions we may well understand there 
 is an ever-ready source' cf nerve-power. The nerves 
 take up and turn to account, as it were, power that
 
 4 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 would otherwise be wasted. The wonder is, that amid 
 the innumerable multitude of actions within and in- 
 fluences without, so perfect an order is maintained 
 that there is no excess and no lack on any hand, 
 and no confusion ; every organ of sense making its own 
 distinct report, and every muscle receiving its own 
 exact supply. 
 
 It is no wonder that the organs destined to be 
 the channels and centres of this incessant and 
 widely interwoven activity should be (as we shall 
 see they are) highly complicated, and elaborately 
 interconnected, each part being placed in due sub- 
 ordination to the whole. Nor is it any wonder that 
 an organization so delicately subtle, so open to 
 impression, and yet needing an adjustment so exact, 
 should be so often liable to disorder, especially if the 
 laws of its healthy working are unknown or disre- 
 garded. 
 
 One of the most striking points about the nervous 
 system is that it has two quite distinct and even 
 opposite parts to play. On the one hand, it is a 
 stimulator ; it excites to their proper actions all the 
 organs; on the other, it is a controller of action, 
 and perpetually restrains activities that would otherwise 
 come into play. Of this we have plenty of evidence 
 in our own will, which operates through the nerves.
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 5 
 
 Not very much, less often do we exert it to repress 
 an action which tends to its own performance, than 
 to perform one which requires our effort. How hard 
 it often is to refrain from laughter, or from tears ! 
 how impossible entirely to repress the manifestations 
 of our feelings ! We cannot but tremble when we are 
 in fear; we cannot long stop our breath. And this 
 twofold character pervades all the operations of the 
 nervous system; its function everywhere is partly to 
 excite and partly to control. For these two purposes 
 there exist distinct sets of nerves, which, however, 
 are but a portion of the many varieties of nerves found 
 in the human body. There is a set of nerves, for 
 example, which, keeps the heart beating; another set 
 which controls and regulates its action, and these, 
 when too violently excited, bring it to a sudden stand. 
 But one of the chief ways in which this control of 
 activity through the nerves is exercised, is by means 
 of a special set of nerves distributed to the blood- 
 vessels in every part of the body, and through which, 
 the vessels are made to contract or expand, so increas- 
 ing or reducing the power of any organ. All the 
 operations of the body are carried on under control ; 
 its activity is a regulated activity. Hence its perfect- 
 ness its harmony with nature. And the lesson is 
 not hard to read ; that is truly natural which is strictly
 
 6 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 regulated. If we would recognise in the moral world 
 the features of life, we must find it in passions spon- 
 taneously bending to the Creator's laws. 
 
 So, too, in the brain itself: its activities are balanced 
 one against the other, and its harmonious action comes 
 out of the operation of each in its turn under the 
 regulating influence of a power operating in the con- 
 trary direction. But of this we may speak more by- 
 and-by. 
 
 A general outline of the nervous system is presented 
 in Fig. 1. It consists of three great divisions the 
 brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves. 
 
 Of these the brain is the instrument by which we 
 feel and think, and put into action the dictates of our 
 will. The spinal cord stands, as it were, between the 
 brain and the rest of the body ; through it most of the 
 actions we perform unconsciously are done; and be- 
 sides this, it receives impressions and transmits them 
 to the brain on the one hand, and on the other, in its 
 influence on the body, the brain acts through it. The 
 nerves connect these central parts, the brain and cord, 
 with all the other organs. We shall speak first of the 
 nerves. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents two nerves uniting with one another 
 as they continually do. It will be seen that each nerve 
 consists of a bundle of fibres. These are in the larger
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 7 
 
 trunks extremely numerous, about 3000 occupying 
 an inch. Each of these fibres consists of three parts 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 DIAGRAM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 an outer covering, a roll of a white material, and a small 
 central darker substance. We shall have a good idea 
 of them if we liken them, on a small scale, to a very
 
 8 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL 
 
 long wax taper rolled up in a piece of linen. The linen 
 will be the external sheath, which, is firm and strong, 
 and serves as a protection ; the wax will answer to the 
 white material, and the wick may stand for the central 
 substance. But this is not strong and fibrous : it is 
 very fine and soft, and through it alone, we believe, the 
 nervous currents pass. It seems, indeed, highly pro- 
 bable that this central substance answers strictly to 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 the metallic wire in the electric cable, and that the 
 white material, which does not reach, to the extreme 
 end of the nerve, answers the purpose of insulating 
 the nervous current, being like the gutta-percha coating. 
 If it be so, this is another striking instance of man's 
 unconscious imitation of Nature. When we speak of 
 a nerve, we mean a bundle of the nervous fibres 
 described above, enclosed in a common sheath of mem- 
 brane.
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 9 
 
 Among these wires of our nervous telegraph, one set 
 carry the messages inward to the spinal cord, and a 
 different set convey outward the response. The 
 first are the nerves of sensation, and pass chiefly to 
 the skin; the latter the nerves of motion, and are 
 given to the muscles. Besides these, there are ano- 
 ther set of nerves, a little different in their form, 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 a. 
 
 NERVE CELLS AND FIBRES. 
 
 a. A blood-vessel. 
 
 which go to the small vessels, as before said, to make 
 them contract or expand, in conformity with the con- 
 dition of the nervous system. We see their action 
 in the blush of modesty or the paleness of fear. 
 
 In all the organs of sense, these fibres end in special 
 structures, adapted to receive each peculiar impression,
 
 io PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 as of sound, or light, or taste ; in the muscles the inmost 
 axis subdivides into still minuter twigs, which spread 
 themselves over all the fibres, and thus bring every por- 
 tion under the influence of the controlling will. At the 
 centre, the nerves end in a different way. Here each 
 nerve-fibre is connected with a peculiar rounded body 
 termed a cell. These cells are exhibited in Figs. 3 and 4. 
 Fig. 3 shows a small group of nerve-cells, with the 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 A NEETE-CELL WITH TWO FIBRES. 
 
 nerve-fibres intermingled ; and Fig. 4 represents a single 
 cell with two nerve-fibres issuing from it ; or, rather, as 
 one must believe, with one issuing from it, one passing 
 into it. Of the use of these cells something is known. 
 The impression received through a nerve filament, say 
 from the eye or ear, is in the cell " reflected," as it is said, 
 into another nerve-fibre which conveys an influence to a 
 muscle ; as, for example, to the muscle which contracts 
 the pupil, or adjusts the tension of the membrane of the
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. u 
 
 drum. This is the simplest form of nervous action, and 
 in it the mind has no part. Thus are performed the 
 actions which we do involuntarily, as breathing ; or quite 
 unconsciously, as winking. Thus, the heart beats and 
 the stomach secretes the digestive fluid. These little 
 cells are small storehouses of nervous force, which the 
 impulses produced in the nerve-fibres by light, or sound, 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 SECTION OF THE SPINAL COED. 
 
 a. 6. Nerves, c. Ganglion of cells on the posterior root, which is the 
 nerve of sensation, d. Origin of the motor root. e. Origin of the sensi- 
 tive root. The dark part in the centre represents the cells of the cord. 
 
 or touch, set free, and cause to flow along the nerve- 
 fibres to any muscle with which the cell is connected. 
 
 Now the spinal cord (see Fig. 1) is made up of cells of 
 this kind, with bundles of fibres round them, which 
 fibres connect the cells and the nerves to each other, and 
 all with the brain. Fig. 5 is a section of the cord, show-
 
 12 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 ing how the nerves come to it and pass off from it. 
 Through the branch with the swelling on it (which is a 
 small cluster of nerve-cells) the impressions are trans- 
 mitted to the cells in the cord, and through the other 
 branch the impulses pass outwards to the muscles. These 
 two branches are called the roots of the nerve ; they are 
 soon united indistinguishably together, and separate 
 again only at the other end of the nerve, where one set 
 of fibres goes to the muscles, the other to the part that 
 feels: the greatest number, by far, of all these fibres 
 goes to the skin. 
 
 It is through the spinal cord, thus constructed, that 
 almost all our involuntary actions are carried on. By 
 the same means it is that insects will act, after their 
 heads are removed, precisely as if they still felt and 
 designed. Such actions are carried on by the nervous 
 system, by virtue of its own structure and powers, with 
 no mind in them. And it is well it is so. If our will 
 were necessary to their performance, they would often be 
 sadly neglected. How long should we keep on breath- 
 ing if it required a special effort of ours for every breath ? 
 How long would it be before our heart stopped beating, 
 if each pulse waited for our will to start it ? At the very 
 least we could never sleep ; or, even if we could live on 
 such conditions, what would our life be worth, consumed 
 as it would be in the mere process of existing ? Nothing
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 13 
 
 in our whole structure is more wonderful or more beau- 
 tiful than this office of the spinal cord, whereby all the 
 constant processes of life are withdrawn from our con- 
 cern, and carried on without our thought. Thus the 
 nobler part of us is set free to attend to worthy objects, 
 and the truly human life is erected, as on a pedestal, 
 upon the animal life which serves it, and which should 
 ever be held as its servant. 
 
 Of this higher life of thought and feeling the brain is 
 the instrument. But though the office is different, the 
 principle on which it is carried out is the same, and the 
 same structures are made use of. Cells and fibres con- 
 stitute the spinal cord ; precisely similar cells and fibres 
 constitute the brain. By impulses received from with- 
 out through the fibres, and actions thus evoked in the 
 various 'groups of cells, the lower functions of the body 
 are maintained ; by similar impulses, evoking corres- 
 ponding actions in the brain-cells, the functions of the 
 intellectual and moral life, so far as they depend upon a 
 material instrument, are carried on. 
 
 But as we advance to the brain, the arrangement of 
 cell and fibre becomes more complex, though in principle 
 it is the same. Fig. 6 very roughly represents its struc- 
 ture. Tracing it upward from the spinal cord, the fibres 
 of the latter are seen to expand in all directions, and 
 among them various groups of cells are situated, while
 
 14 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 they are covered in by a layer of similar cells. This 
 layer is folded up into " convolutions/' so that though, 
 if spread out, it would cover a surface of many feet, 
 it is packed conveniently within the skull. If I might 
 take a very homely illustration, I would suppose it was 
 desired to spread as large a layer of sugar as 'possible 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 DIAGRAM OF A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE BKAIN. 
 
 a. Centre for smell, b. Centre for motion, c. Centre for sensation. 
 d. Centre for sight. /. The little brain, or cerebellum. The black indented 
 line represents the cells of the convolutions. 
 
 upon a cake. The way to do it would be to indent the 
 surface of the cake into deep close folds, and to arrange 
 these in waving forms. These would be an image of 
 the "convolutions" of the brain. And we cannot 
 wonder that they are so extensive, when we consider 
 that it is through the cells which cover them that the
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 15 
 
 mind acts. The convolutions of the brain are the por- 
 tion of the body through which the mental life, with 
 all its immense variety of powers, is manifested. And, 
 speaking in general terms, it is found that the extent 
 of the mental faculties is in proportion to the number 
 and variety of these convolutions. Here, then, we arrive 
 at the very crown and summit of the human body 
 that for which all other parts exist. Not that the soul 
 dwells here, or depends in any way upon this, more 
 than on any other portion of the material frame that 
 it controls; but it is when impressions from without 
 reach this portion of the nervous system that they excite, 
 not actions only, but thoughts and feelings. It is on 
 reaching this part that mere nervous impulses awake 
 ideas, arouse passions, start trains of reasoning, call 
 forth exertions of the will. 
 
 It seems a poor and simple mechanism for so great 
 a result, and doubtless, till we have penetrated its secret, 
 we cannot but think it so. Yet it is not quite so 
 simple as it might appear. This chief of all the ner- 
 vous centres is an expanse of small grey-coloured cells ; 
 altogether it is but about the tenth of an inch in 
 thickness ; yet, on minute examination, it has been 
 found to consist of at least seven distinct layers ; and 
 though no decided difference between its various parts 
 has been detected, there is proof that different portions
 
 16 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 of it serve different offices. Perhaps the best-established 
 distinction of this kind is the dependence of speech upon 
 a convolution situated in the region of the left temple. 
 But upon points of this kind our knowledge, though 
 very limited as yet, is growing fast. 
 
 It may be as well here to say, that the groups of 
 nerve-cells are called ganglia (from ganglion, a knot) 
 and that the cells are grey, while the nerves are white. 
 
 As I have said, the fibres of the spinal cord, as we 
 trace them upwards into the brain, expand outwards and 
 end in the convolutions, thus connecting every part of 
 the body with the mind. But this connection is not 
 direct and simple. Between the cord and the convolu- 
 tions there are interposed two other large ganglia (see 
 Figs. 6 and 7), which are connected, the lower with the 
 nerves of sensation, and the higher with those of motion. 
 In the former of these the impressions sent up to the 
 brain from all parts are first received, and probably the 
 multitude of them reduced into more distinct and simpler 
 form, before they are transmitted onward. To the supe- 
 rior ganglion the impulses to motion arising from the 
 will are first transmitted, probably as a simple or single 
 mandate ; and in the ganglion this mandate is distri- 
 buted, we may perhaps say, to the various nerve-fibres, 
 which set in operation the many muscles which must co- 
 operate for every action. Besides thus ministering to
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 17 
 
 the operations of tlie mind, these ganglia also possess 
 a certain power of action in themselves. They also 
 "reflect" impulses to the muscles or to the vessels, 
 or the secreting glands, as well as pass them up- 
 wards to affect the mind. And they may do one or 
 other of these in varying proportion, as the mind is 
 more or less intent upon surrounding objects. Pro- 
 bably in "attending" to anything, what we chiefly 
 do, so far as the brain is concerned, is to maintain 
 the connection between the convolutions and these 
 inferior groups of cells in a very free and active state ; 
 so that every impression, not only evokes an uncon- 
 scious nervous response, but excites distinct ideas. 
 The very quietness of a person who is earnestly at- 
 tending may be taken as a proof of this. He exercises 
 an active control over the unconscious reactions which 
 would otherwise ensue in response to the impressions 
 from without, which are affecting him on every side. 
 This control is one of the actions which we perform 
 through the convolutions. 
 
 The part of which we have been speaking is called 
 the cerebrum; it is the brain properly so called, and 
 consists of two hemispheres, which are shown in Fig. 7 
 (see also Fig. 1). These two hemispheres are inti- 
 mately connected with one another by several sets 
 of fibres, which pass in various directions from one 
 VOL. i. c
 
 i8 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 to the other. What precise relations they bear to 
 each other, and how far they are distinct in their 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 THE COURSE OF THE NERVE FIBRES IN THE BRAIN. 
 
 a. The hemispheres. 5. The central ganglia of sensation and 
 motion, c. The cerebellum, or little brain, d. The crossing of the 
 fibres in the spinal cord. e. The nerve of smell. /. The nerve of 
 sight. (This figure shows the inferior surface of the brain, part of 
 which is cut away.) 
 
 use, is not yet fully known. But there is evidence 
 that they have to some extent separate offices. The
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 19 
 
 most striking instance as yet known of this is the 
 fact, only recently discovered, that disease of a certain 
 part of the left side destroys the power of speech, 
 which disease of the right side has not been observed 
 to do. Each half of the brain is connected by its 
 nerves with the opposite side of the body; the fibres 
 crossing in the spinal cord, as seen in Fig. 7. 
 
 Besides this brain proper, or cerebrum, there is also 
 contained within the skull a lesser brain, or cerebellum 
 (Fig. 6, /; Fig. 7, c). This lies at the posterior and 
 inferior part of the cerebrum, and is connected in the 
 same way with the- fibres of the spinal cord, and the 
 two brains are intimately connected together. In 
 structure the cerebellum corresponds very closely to 
 the cerebrum. It also contains a group of cells in 
 the centre, and is covered with a layer of cells ex- 
 ternally, also arranged in convolutions ; but these 
 are very closely arranged, so as to represent on section 
 an appearance like a tree (hence fancifully called the 
 Arbor Vitce, or "Tree of Life:" see Fig. 7, c). So far 
 as is yet known, the office of this lesser brain is to 
 regulate and harmonise the movements of the muscles. 
 
 As the brain-fibres spread out into the hemispheres 
 of the great and little brain, they diverge from each 
 other towards either side, and are again folded over 
 upon themselves, so as to leave in the centre a series
 
 20 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 of small cavities, which are called the "ventricles of 
 the brain." Through these spaces blood-vessels pass 
 in and out, and these internal cavities, as well as a nar- 
 row space around the brain and cord, are filled with 
 a watery fluid, which gives these organs the most equal 
 and gentle support in all directions, and does very much 
 to guard them from shocks and jars. This watery 
 fluid is included in a firm bag of membrane folded 
 all around the brain, and this bag is lined on the 
 inside by a very delicate membrane full of blood- 
 vessels, which dips down between all the convolu- 
 tions, and feeds all the cells with a rich supply of 
 blood. Outside of it, and binding it to the skull, 
 there is another membrane, tough and strong. 
 
 We have thus given a very brief outline of the ner- 
 vous system as it exists in man, and have seen that 
 it consists of several distinct systems united into one. 
 We may shortly sum it up by imagining and the 
 imagination strictly represents the truth that there 
 are in ourselves four distinct kinds of lives. First, 
 there is a life which has to do with the mere growth 
 and support of the bodily structure which digests 
 food, and circulates blood, and removes the products of 
 decay. This life is carried on by a set of nerves and 
 ganglia of its own, called the sympathetic, which has 
 its chief seat around the stomach. Secondly, there
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 21 
 
 is a life of movement, prompted by external impres- 
 sions alone,, without consciousness a life of reflex 
 action, as it is called; this has its seat in the spinal 
 cord. Thirdly, there is a life similar to the last/ but 
 of a higher kind, such as we see manifested, for 
 example, in the instincts of the bee; the seat of this 
 is, probably, in the central ganglia of the brain. And, 
 fourthly, there is the life of reason and of will, of 
 which the convolutions are the instrument. 
 
 In the three lower forms of nerve-life, we have seen, 
 the rule of action is that of simple reflection of im- 
 pressions, with more or less of directness or of com- 
 bination. In the highest form the law is modified, 
 and instead of a mere reflection of force according to 
 the nature of the impression, processes of thought and 
 feeling are elicited, and results are varied according 
 to the character of the man. But though the law is 
 modified, it is not done away, and in the highest 
 sphere of life instances are still met with of simple 
 reflex action. This is exhibited in the most striking 
 and interesting way in the form of habits. 
 
 As the child's powers advance with advancing age, 
 more and more actions, which at first required thought 
 and an effort of the will, become drawn within the 
 sphere of the unconscious and involuntary activity. 
 Almost every action indeed even the most compli-
 
 22 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 cated and difficult which is habitually practised, be- 
 comes thus more or less independent of the will, and 
 makes less and less demand on thought. In this 
 consists, in part, the skill of the artist or artisan (who 
 should always be truly an artist also). His hands 
 pass almost unconsciously over his work, which is the 
 better done, in truth, for this unconsciousness. We 
 may convince ourselves of this by a trivial example. 
 How easily we tie a bow, while we are thinking all 
 the while of something entirely different ! But let us 
 direct our attention to the bow we are tying, and think 
 of each step in the process, and the chances are we 
 get puzzled, and bungle over it. It is the same in the 
 execution of music, which would seem to require an 
 attention so exact and unremitting. Instances have 
 certainly occurred in which performers have lost their 
 consciousness for a few moments, and have yet con- 
 tinued playing in perfect time. And in those almost 
 more wonderful performances, which yet attract no 
 wonder because they are universal such as the func- 
 tion of speech, the act of walking, or the maintenance 
 of the erect position the working of the same law is 
 seen. Our words almost form themselves; the mind 
 is occupied exclusively with the matter. In walking, 
 we take no thought to secure the movement of our 
 limbs; nay, they may even take us where we would
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 23 
 
 not. Often it has happened that a man absorbed in 
 thought has walked, not where he meant, but where 
 he has been used, to go. And that unceasing muscu- 
 lar play, whereby alone the body can be kept duly 
 poised upon the feet in standing, though it takes the 
 infant long to acquire it, entirely escapes the conscious- 
 ness of the adult. All these and innumerable other 
 actions essential to our well-being, the reflex nervous 
 system takes by degrees upon itself, and thus ensures 
 for us (at least until decay begins) a continual ex- 
 tension of our powers, and an ever-increasing possi- 
 bility of concentrating them on moral and intellectual 
 ends. 
 
 And thus, again, the study of our bodily structure 
 enforces the highest moral lessons. The enlargement 
 of the intellectual and moral nature, as it is one of 
 our deepest religious duties, so it is also the road to 
 the highest physical development. That is the most 
 perfect condition of the nervous system in which its 
 various parts are most thoroughly united in their 
 operation, so that it acts completely as a whole. And 
 this is only when the powers of each part are fully 
 brought out, the subordinate portions discharging every 
 function within their power, and the higher freely exer- 
 cised on its appropriate objects. For thus only is it 
 that each portion of the complex system transmits its
 
 24 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 full influence to the rest an influence which is of 
 the utmost importance to each. Of the importance of 
 the healthy influence of the lower nervous system 
 upon the higher, we have ample evidence in the im- 
 paired activity of mind, and the disordered and morbid 
 state of the emotions, which accompany derangements 
 of the digestive or circulating organs; and that the in- 
 fluence of the higher ganglia of the brain is not less 
 important for the inferior nervous centres is proved by 
 the effect on all the processes of life of prolonged or 
 violent mental disturbance. How easily ill-news de- 
 stroys the appetite, or the mere idea of a disgusting 
 object excites nausea ! The very thought of food in- 
 creases the saliva and the gastric juice, while violent 
 distress of mind will so derange the secretion of a 
 mother's milk as to make it poisonous to her babe. 
 
 We see evidence, again, of the beneficial physical 
 influence of a due exercise of the moral and intellectual 
 faculties, in the improvement which ensues even in the 
 bodily conformation of a race under the influence of 
 good mental culture continued through a few genera- 
 tions. Not only does the contour of the skull and 
 features become more noble, but the organs univer- 
 sally respond to the stimulus, and the whole frame 
 gains in elegance, delicacy, and even in comparative 
 vigour. Nor is the cause of this benefit arising from
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 25 
 
 high mental exercise hard to discover. All action 
 within the body is attended with the production of 
 force, and no action more abundantly than that of 
 the convolutions of the brain. This force radiates 
 from the convolutions to the nerves throughout the 
 body, supplying them with the healthiest of all 
 stimuli, and one which the very structure of the ner- 
 vous system proves that they were designed to re- 
 ceive. It cannot be withheld from them as it is by 
 indolent or grovelling thought but to their detriment. 
 
 It is no argument against this statement that over- 
 taxing of the brain, or a life passed in sedentary 
 study, injures the health. Rather these are confirma- 
 tory facts ; for the first proves the influence of brain - 
 action over the whole body, and the second, while it 
 shows indeed that exercise of other organs besides 
 the brain is needed, proves at the same time that 
 brain-exercise is good. For, however much a seden- 
 tary life of study may tend to debilitate (and, with 
 good management, this is less than is often supposed), 
 a sedentary life of mental indolence tends to debilitate 
 much more. Mental indolence is bad even when 
 combined with bodily exertion, but with bodily indo- 
 lence as well, it is ten times worse. No constitutions 
 are so morbid as those by which no work is done. 
 
 At the same time, mental work is apt to be over-
 
 26 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 strained, especially by those who most intensely feel 
 its charms. One of the most frequent signs- of this, 
 when carried to a great extreme, is a morbid desire 
 for suicide, which perhaps is really, at bottom, an un- 
 appeasable craving for rest. Some melancholy cases 
 of self-destruction, which have exoited the liveliest 
 public regret, are clearly traceable to their cause in 
 mental overwork. It is enough to mention Hugh 
 Miller, and the great meteorologist Admiral Fitzroy. 
 The first indications of any such temptation should be 
 carefully observed, and rest taken in time. But rest 
 for an overtaxed brain is not always easy to procure, 
 even when no external circumstances render it diffi- 
 cult. An excited and over-stimulated mind will not 
 rest, and to insist on resting it is often as futile as 
 trying to go to sleep when we are not sleepy. A 
 merely passive condition cannot at once be substituted 
 for one of nervous restlessness. The true rest for a 
 wearied brain is change to some unexciting yet useful 
 occupation, with as much of the nature of service in it 
 as possible, that the thoughts may be taken from 
 ourselves ; and the nearer it approaches to manual 
 labour the better. Often a strong effort and a great 
 sacrifice are required to achieve the change, but 
 they are well rewarded. But, of course, in such 
 cases medical advice should be taken.
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 27 
 
 One caution, in respect to mental exertion, it is 
 well to remember and that is, that it cannot be 
 safely carried on, in any very great degree, at the 
 same time with very severe bodily exertion. At least 
 this is true of many persons, if not of all. The 
 double tax upon the system is too great. And this 
 should be remembered in respect to the condition of 
 the labouring people. It is a doubly cruel wrong to 
 inflict upon them an overtask; it condemns their 
 minds, their hearts, to loss. 
 
 But much less injury to health is done by over- 
 exertion of the nervous system in any legitimate oc- 
 cupation, than by the waste of nerve-power in the 
 form of worry and useless vexation. All feelings of 
 this kind consume force, and in addition propagate a 
 deteriorating influence wherever a nerve-fibre goes. 
 But here Physiology can but proclaim the want : it 
 is Eeligion must supply the remedy. Contentment 
 must be learnt from other pages than those which 
 prove to us that the indulgence of vain desire is 
 hurtful to our bodies. Yet even this lesson may not 
 be in vain if it adds to our assurance that He who 
 has thus made us incapable of too great a weight of 
 care, makes no vain promise when He bids us cast 
 our care on Him. 
 
 But there are also physiological reliefs to worry.
 
 28 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 One is a full absorption of the mind on objects of 
 wholesome interest. There is a case on record of a 
 gentleman affected with signs of incipient insanity 
 after great anxiety in business, who freed himself 
 entirely from them by resolutely studying mathe- 
 matics. And if we cannot all be students, helping 
 others in their troubles is a resource always at hand, 
 and never ineffective in aiding us to forget our own. 
 Another relief lies in an improvement of the bodily 
 conditions, which may often be brought about by very 
 simple means, such as a better ventilation of our rooms, 
 or a little more exercise in the open air. One of 
 the most important laws to remember respecting the 
 nervous system is, that its activity is prompted and 
 regulated by external impressions, its object being 
 emphatically to bring us into relation with the ex- 
 ternal world. Its health accordingly demands that 
 these impressions should be transmitted to it in due 
 abundance and of the right kind; and two of the 
 chief sources from which they arise are the skin and the 
 lungs. Hence, besides the primary necessity of fresh 
 air to breathe, and pure water to wash in, for the 
 needful purification of the blood, these have another 
 use, only second in importance to the first that of 
 feeding, by the influx of pleasurable sensations, the 
 very life of the brain. Hence the immediate exhila-
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 29 
 
 ration felt on drawing a deep breath of purer air, 
 and the keen sense of enjoyment which follows a 
 bath. It is not long before the blood, and through 
 it the whole body, feels the influence of these bene- 
 ficial agents; but the brain, through its quicker 
 messengers,, responds at once. 
 
 It is in all probability chiefly on a healthful supply 
 of impressions through the skin and lungs that the 
 pleasurable condition which we call a good " tone " 
 consists. By these the brain is kept, as it were, girt 
 up, and the man is possessed with a delicious half- 
 consciousness of latent power. 
 
 The very opposite condition to this is that most 
 wretched one in which every organ of the body seems 
 to send to the brain its own special sensation of dis- 
 tress, and life becomes little else than a morbid feeling 
 of the body. Sometimes this kind of suffering depends 
 on deep-seated disease, and requires, even if it does 
 not baffle, the utmost skill of the physician ; but at 
 others it is greatly the result of an unwise direction of 
 the thoughts, and can be greatly amended by a resolute 
 effort to divert them into more natural channels. 
 The fact is, that thought directed to our own bodily 
 organs is a violation of one of the main laws of our 
 nervous system, which provides that all the vital pro- 
 cesses shall be carried on by an unconscious me-
 
 30 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 chanism. We cannot bring the brain to bear upon 
 those parts of our bodily life which are committed to 
 the inferior portions of the nervous system, without 
 deranging brain and body alike. The nervous power 
 thus sent in excess to organs already amply supplied,, 
 acts as a disturbing agent upon them; while, at the 
 same time, abnormal channels, as it were, are opened 
 from the lower ganglia to the convolutions, through 
 which useless impressions, all of them painful, gain 
 access to our consciousness. It is most important to 
 avoid anything like a concentration of our thoughts 
 upon any of the vital processes. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to refer again to the in- 
 fluence which the emotions exert over the body, of 
 which we are conscious every hour, alike in love or 
 anger, hope or fear. Yet it may not be amiss to 
 remark that the morally good emotions are more 
 healthful than the contrary ones. Selfishness, cruelty, 
 jealousy, rage, are slow poisons to the blood ; all that 
 produce happiness are cordials. But it did not need the 
 advance of modern science to teach us how "a, cheerful 
 countenance doeth good like a medicine." 
 
 But one thing we have come to understand better 
 in modern times, and that is, why too stern a control 
 of the expression of emotion preys upon health ; why con- 
 cealment acts especially the part of the worm in the bud.
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS SERVANTS. 31 
 
 All emotions are attended with changes in the convolu- 
 tions of the brain, and these changes generate a force 
 which must operate in some way. The natural actions by 
 which the passions express themselves are the channels 
 provided by nature for this force, which thus contri- 
 butes to the grace and dignity and joy of life ; or at 
 least provides signals of danger. But there is risk 
 alike in the too free indulgence of these natural ex- 
 pressions, and in their absolute repression ; the former 
 tends to give passion too great a mastery over us, the 
 latter forces the power which would thus innocently 
 expend itself into hurtful channels. Thrown back ab- 
 solutely upon the internal organs, the force which 
 emotion generates deranges the operation of the other 
 nervous centres, and may be the starting-point of lung 
 disease. On similar grounds exercise is found a 
 remedy for many forms of nerve distress. The over- 
 excited brain is relieved by muscular exertions which 
 tend to draw off its force. 
 
 But to attempt to point out all the relations which 
 the nervous system bears to the other bodily powers 
 would be an endless task. They intermingle at all 
 points. It is happy for us that amid so much evidence 
 of the subjection of the mind to the demands of its 
 material servant, we can point to so much evidence of 
 its freedom. The cases are not few in which the
 
 32 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 soul has soared in the highest regions while the body 
 has been sinking under the most dire disease. Much 
 of man's noblest work has been done with fainting 
 hands, and amid pangs of agony; and, thank God, 
 much more will be.
 
 II. 
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 
 
 How low down in the animal creation the sense of 
 hearing extends, it is not possible positively to say. It 
 seems probable, however, that some at least of the insect 
 tribe possess it. But it is first in animals like the 
 lobster that an ear, though of the simplest construction, 
 can be distinctly shown to exist. By careful looking, 
 this ear may be found at the upper part of the second 
 pair of feelers, in the lobster or the crab, and it con- 
 sists of a very small bag, filled with a watery fluid, 
 and covered in externally by a strong membrane. On 
 the internal surface of this bag a nerve spreads itself 
 out, which nerve carries the effect of the motions of 
 the fluid to the brain such brain as the creature has. 
 A nerve and a little bag of water, accessible to the 
 vibrations of the air, constitute an ear; and however 
 complicated the ear may become in the higher animals 
 and ourselves, as we shall see that it does, it always 
 retains this character : it is, at the bottom, a bag of 
 watery fluid and a nerve. 
 
 The next step towards making the ear more per- 
 
 VOL. I. D
 
 34 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 feet is one that might well seem to be the 'way to 
 destroy it altogether : it is putting stones into 
 it; and these stones once put in are never again 
 left out. They are present, though in the form of 
 a very fine powder, in the innermost part of our 
 own ears. But they are not always a fine powder; 
 sometimes they are large bony masses, especi- 
 ally in the less perfect ears, such as those of 
 fishes. The ear-stones (otoliths) may be easily found 
 in a cod's head, lying a short distance behind the eye 
 and within the skull ; they are dense white bodies, often 
 nearly an inch long, of a flattened oval form, and grooved 
 upon their surface. Their object is to make the vibra- 
 tions of the fluid contained in the bag more powerful. 
 If we fill a bladder with water and give it a gentle tap 
 we may feel a tremulous motion run to and fro within 
 it. But if we put into it a few marbles, and then tap 
 it, these will give a much more distinct sensation. But 
 by examining a cod's or salmon's head (which may be 
 cooked), not only may the ear-stones be discovered, 
 but also the ear-bag. And it will be noticed to have 
 a very remarkable form. It is no longer, as in the 
 lobster, a mere roundish bladder ; at first sight it might 
 almost be said to resemble a large white spider. It has 
 a body and limbs, but the limbs are peculiar. Fig. 1 
 will explain its form. From the central sac, which
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 
 
 35 
 
 consists of two portions, there pass off three tubes, 
 which return to the sac again, near the point from 
 which they start. At one end each tube has an en- 
 largement; it seems to swell out into a bulb, and here 
 as well as in the central sac the nerve is distributed. 
 Now because these tubes pass from the sac and return 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 EAB OF THE SALMON. 
 
 a. Membranous sac in which the nerve is spread out. 6. 6. 6. Semicir- 
 cular canals, c. c. c. Enlargements at the commencement of the canals, 
 in which the nerve is also spread out. Above are the ear-stones con- 
 tained in the sac of the Salmon's ear. 
 
 to it again, the sac is called the " vestibule " or common 
 hall; and the tubes are called the semi-circular canals 
 (though they are not exactly semi-circular) ; and this 
 with another superadded part continues to be the form 
 of the nervous portion of the ear in all animals and in 
 ourselves. The superadded part is like a shell (see 
 Fig. 2 g; and Fig. 4). It consists, like a common snail-
 
 36 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 shell, of a tube winding around a central axis, and 
 growing larger as it winds. The reason for this form 
 we shall see hereafter. Birds and mammals and man 
 possess it, though birds have it in a less perfect form. 
 In them it is a curved tube something like a small boat, 
 and not spirally arranged. Because, however, it is for 
 the most part in the form of a spiral shell, it is 
 called " the cochlea." 
 
 The sac, the three tubes, the spiral canal, then, make 
 up the nervous part of the ear vestibule, semi-circular 
 canals, and cochlea. A wonderful structure, undoubt- 
 edly; and so the anatomists who first discovered it 
 thought ; for they called it the labyrinth. We will 
 speak more of it by-and-by; for the present we will 
 return to our codfish. 
 
 Though he, in common with the rest of his kind, 
 hears very well, there is no external sign of his having 
 any ear at all. The sac and its canals, with the audi- 
 tory nerve expanded within them, constitute his whole 
 organ of hearing, and they simply lie in contact with 
 the inner surface of the skull. There is no membrane 
 to receive vibrations from without, and pass them 
 onwards. The reason of this is that water transmits 
 vibrations so powerfully much more powerfully than 
 air to solid bodies, that the bones of the fish's head 
 suffice to convey sounds to the nerve. Except the
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 37 
 
 whale, and the other water-inhabiting mammals (which 
 have ears like their air-breathing fellows, though some- 
 what modified), animals which live habitually in water 
 hear through the bones of the skull ; and their ear con- 
 sists only of the nerve and the fluid-containing mem- 
 branous bag on which it is spread out. But for air- 
 breathing animals this would not suffice. The air passes 
 on its vibrations to the skull far too feebly to serve the 
 purposes for which hearing is needed, and accordingly an 
 apparatus is required for conveying the vibrations of 
 the atmosphere, which constitute sound, to the nerve 
 appointed to receive them. This apparatus answers to 
 the transparent parts of the eye, which afford a free 
 passage to the light, and constitutes the second or outer 
 portion of the ear. It has many forms in various classes 
 of animals, but all are framed upon one plan, and it 
 will suffice if we describe it briefly as it is met with in 
 ourselves. 
 
 The outer ear, though probably not without a certain 
 amount of use, appears to exist in man chiefly for 
 beauty's sake. In many animals, however, it is of 
 great importance, being, in fact, a natural hearing- 
 trumpet. Humboldt relates that, in South America, 
 the troops of wild horses that traverse the country 
 divide themselves, as regards the direction given to 
 their ears, into three sets. Those which lead the van
 
 38 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 direct them forward, those in the centre turn them to 
 the side, and the hindmost set them to the rear; so that 
 the whole troop is made aware, in the acutest way, of 
 danger threatening from any quarter. 
 
 The passage which leads inwards from the outer ear 
 is slightly curved, and in adults is about an inch and 
 a half in length ; in children, however, it is much shal- 
 lower, having a depth in the infant of scarcely half an 
 inch. It is of oval form, and about its centre is fur- 
 nished with a broadish ring of small glands which 
 secrete the light brown semi-solid substance known as 
 the ear-wax. At the bottom of this passage is fixed 
 the membrane (Fig. 2, a) commonly called the "drum 
 of the ear;" but not correctly; a drum being, not a 
 membrane, but a hollow space closed on one or more 
 sides by membrane. The membrane to which the ex- 
 ternal passage leads constitutes the outer side of a cavity 
 hollowed in the bone (Fig. 2, I), which cavity is the 
 drum of the ear, and contains several important parts. 
 
 First, there is the membrane itself, a beautiful struc- 
 ture, made up of fine fibres, some radiating from the 
 central part to the circumference, others arranged in 
 concentric rings; and it is lined on the outer side by 
 a very fine layer of skin, and on the inner by an equally 
 fine layer of cellular membrane. It is almost trans- 
 parent, and though moderately strong, is little thicker
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 
 
 39 
 
 than gold-beaters' skin. Being kept gently on the 
 stretch, it thrills to every whisper, and two small mus- 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 VIEW OF THE HU1IAN EAR, AS SEEN ON A SECTION FKOH ABOVE DOWNWARDS. 
 
 a. The membrane of the drum. b. The cavity of the drum. c. The 
 chain of bones, d. The tube leading into the throat (the Eustachian 
 tube), e. The vestibule. /. /. Openings of two of the canals into the 
 vestibule. The thin membranous parts in which the nerve is contained 
 are supposed to be removed ; see Fig. 4. g. The cochlea, h. Nerve of 
 hearing. 
 
 cles keep it in the most delicate adjustment to each 
 varying impulse with which the air comes laden. One
 
 40 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 of these muscles draws it tighter, the other loosens it, 
 by acting upon a chain of very small bones (Fig. 2, c), 
 which pass, suspended as it were in mid air, and 
 swinging with every breath, across the drum, from 
 the membrane to the nerve. This chain of bones an- 
 swers two purposes : First, it receives vibrations from 
 the membrane, and conveys them to the labyrinth; 
 and secondly, it adjusts both the membrane, and the 
 fluid which surrounds the nerve, to the various kinds 
 and pitches of sound by which they are affected. 
 Besides the membrane already described, there is a 
 second smaller membrane opposite to it; that is, 
 on the inner wall of the drum, which closes in the 
 spiral canal before mentioned, in which one part of the 
 nerve is spread out. The use of this second membrane 
 is not yet fully determined. 
 
 Lastly, a tube about two inches long leads from the 
 drum into the throat, called, from its discoverer, 
 Eustachius, the "Eustachian tube" (Fig. 2, d}. The use 
 of this tube is twofold. First, it supplies the drum 
 with air, and keeps the membrane exactly balanced, 
 and free to move, with equal air-pressure on each side ; 
 and, secondly, it carries off any fluid which may be 
 in the drum, and prevents it from being choked by 
 its own moisture. It is not always open, however, 
 but is opened during the act of swallowing, by a little
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING, 41 
 
 muscle which is attached to it just as it reaches the 
 throat. Most persons can distinctly feel that this is 
 the case, by gently closing the nose and swallowing; 
 when a distinct sensation is felt in the ears. This 
 sensation is due to a little air being drawn out of the 
 ears through the open tube during swallowing ; and it 
 lasts for a few minutes, unless the air is again restored 
 by swallowing with the nose unclosed, which allows 
 for the moment a free communication between the ear 
 and the throat. We thus see a reason for the tube 
 being closed. If it were always open, all the sounds 
 produced in the throat would pass directly into the 
 drum of the ear and totally confuse us. We should hear 
 every breath, and live in a constant bewilderment of 
 internal sounds. At the same time the closure, being 
 but a light contact of the walls of the tube, easily allows 
 a slight escape of air from the drum, and thus not only 
 facilitates and regulates the oscillations of the air before 
 the vibrating membrane, but provides a safety-valve, 
 to a certain extent, against the injurious influence of 
 loud sounds. 
 
 The chief nse of the Eustachian tube is to allow a 
 free interchange of air between the ear and the throat, 
 and this is exceedingly important; and it is very im- 
 portant also that its use in this respect should be under- 
 stood. Persons who go down in diving-bells soon begin
 
 42 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 to feel a great pressure in the ears, and if the depth 
 is great, the feeling becomes extremely painful. This 
 arises from the fact, that in the diving-bell the pressure 
 of the air is very much increased, in order to balance 
 the weight of the water above ; and thus it presses with 
 great force upon the membrane of the drum, which, 
 if the Eustachian tube has been kept closed, has only 
 the ordinary uncompressed air on the inner side to sus- 
 tain it. It is therefore forced inwards and put upon 
 the stretch, and might be even broken. Many cases, 
 indeed, have occurred of injury to the ear, producing 
 permanent deafness, from descents in diving-bells, under- 
 taken by persons ignorant of the way in which the 
 ear is made ; though the simple precaution of frequent 
 swallowing suffices to ward off all mischief. For if 
 the Eustachian tube is thus opened, again and again, 
 as the pressure of the outside air increases, the same 
 compressed air that exists outside passes also into the 
 insido of the drum, and the membrane is equally pressed 
 upon from both sides by the air, and so is free from 
 strain. The same precaution is necessary in ascending 
 mountains that are lofty, for then there is the same 
 effect of stretching produced upon the membrane, though 
 in the opposite way. The outside air becoming less 
 and less condensed as a greater height is gained, the 
 ordinary air contained within the drum presses upon
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 43 
 
 the membrane, which is thus insufficiently supported on 
 the outside, and a similar feeling of weight and stretch- 
 ing is produced. The conjuror's trick of breaking a 
 vase by a word rests on the same principle. The air 
 is exhausted from within, and the thin though massive 
 looking sides of the vase collapse by the pressure of 
 the air outside ; and just as ever so small a hole made 
 at the right moment in the side of the vase, would pre- 
 vent the whole effect, so does swallowing, which makes 
 a little hole, as it were, for the moment in the drum 
 of the ear, prevent the in-pressing or out-pressing of 
 the membrane. Mr. Tyndall, in his interesting book 
 on Sound, tells us how he employed this precaution of 
 swallowing, and with entire success, when, in one of his 
 mountain excursions, the pressure on his ears became 
 severely painful. 
 
 Deafness during colds arises very often, though 
 not always, from a .similar cause. For when, owing 
 to swelling of the throat, the Eustachian tube cannot be 
 opened by its muscle, and so the air in the drum is 
 not renewed, the air that is contained in it soon 
 diminishes, and the outer air presses the membrane in, 
 so that it cannot vibrate as it should. This is what 
 has been sometimes called " throat-deafness." 
 
 The two little muscles that stretch and relax the 
 membrane of the drum are shown in Fig. 3, which
 
 44 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE, 
 
 represents a horizontal section of the ear. Each of 
 them passes through a little pulley of bone, and that 
 which relaxes the membrane is shut up in bone alto- 
 gether except its tendon. One moves the bone that 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 MrSCLES OF THE DRUM. 
 
 a. The meatus. 6. The membrane of the drum. c. The bone 
 attached to the membrane (called from its form the malleus or "ham- 
 mer"), d. The bone which is in contact with the labyrinth (called the 
 stapes, or " stirrup"). The bone which lies between these (see Fig. 2) 
 is omitted; it is called the incus or " anvil." e. The muscle which 
 stretches the membrane ; its tendon passes round a little hook of bone, 
 and then crosses the drum to be attached to the malleus. /. The muscle 
 which relaxes the membrane (the bone being cut away to show it). It 
 is attached to the stapes, which it turns slightly on its axis and draws 
 outwards, g.g. The two membranous sacs which makeup the vestibule, 
 and which are on the same plan as in the salmon (see Fig. 1). h. The 
 cochlea, i. The plate which winds around the central axis of the 
 "cochlea, and on which the nerve is spread out. This plate divides at its 
 outer part into two layers, forming another very minute canal, ft. The 
 nerve, which is seen divided into its three branches. 
 
 is attached to the membrane, drawing it inwards when it 
 contracts ; the other moves the bone which touches the 
 fluid that surrounds the nerve, drawing it outwards,
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 45 
 
 and letting the membrane fall back again. It will be 
 noticed that the membrane is not placed straight at 
 the bottom of the passage, but slants inwards, and is 
 besides drawn a little inwards at the centre, through 
 being attached to a small rod of bone, about a third of 
 an inch long, which keeps it in its position. (See a, 
 Fig. 2.) This little rod is part of the movable chain of 
 bones, and upon it the muscle which stretches the 
 membrane acts. The membrane is held slightly on 
 the stretch by a small firm band which passes with the 
 tendon of this muscle across the drum. Thus it is kept 
 in tune for ordinary sounds, without needing a constant 
 action of the muscle. 
 
 We may now leave the outer part of the ear, designed 
 for conducting sound to the nerve, and turn again, 
 for a minute, to the labyrinth in which the nerve comes 
 out to meet the sound. (See Fig. 4.) The central 
 sac or vestibule, and the three canals with their ex- 
 pansions, we have already described. Besides the fine 
 powder these parts contain, which is seen under the 
 microscope to consist of little oval crystals scattered 
 among the minute fibres of the nerve, they are pro- 
 vided also in some cases, with a number of delicate 
 hairs, by means of which the motions of the small 
 crystals are no doubt rendered still more sensible. 
 All these parts are hollowed in the solid bone the
 
 46 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 hardest bone in the body ; it is called by anatomists 
 the rockbone.* The delicate membrane in which the 
 nerve is expanded lies in smooth rocky channels, floating 
 in a limpid fluid, which at once surrounds and fills it. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 THE LABYRINTH. 
 
 a. Nerve passing to the cochlea, b. Nerve passing to the vestibule. 
 c. The bone surrounding the vestibule and the semicircular canals, d. 
 The sac of the vestibule, e. The membranous canals. /. /. The 
 enlargements on the canals, in which, and in the vestibule, the nerve is 
 expanded. 
 
 This is separated from the drum by a thin wall of bone, 
 and in this wall the chain of small bones that passes 
 across the drum ends. The chain terminates in a little 
 oval plate, moving lightly to and fro, like a minute 
 
 * The " petrous " portion of the temple bone. The -word is the same 
 as that from -which the Apostle Peter the Eock received his name.
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 47 
 
 piston in a very shallow cylinder. (See Fig. 3, d.) If 
 this little piston will not move (which again may be a 
 result of " colds "), there is another cause of deafness. 
 
 One word we must still devote to the second part of 
 the labyrinth the shell-like spiral canal (or cochlea) 
 Fig. 4. This, too, is hollowed in the bone, and its very 
 form tells the story of its use. For as the canal, from 
 being exceedingly minute, becomes larger and larger,, 
 it gives space for the arrangement of a series of little 
 vibratile chords or fibres, of gradually increasing length 
 (such as the wires of a pianoforte may roughly represent) . 
 
 These little fibres respond, each of them, to a certain 
 pitch of sound, and are connected each with its own 
 nervous twig. And as in the two turns and a half 
 which the cochlea makes, there are many thousands 
 of these vibratile fibres, ample provision is made for all 
 the immense variety of notes and modulations which 
 our ears are called on to receive. By means of the 
 sac and the canals we are made conscious of mere noises, 
 such as the tick of a watch or the rumbling of a waggon ; 
 by means of the cochlea we appreciate music and under- 
 stand the voice.* 
 
 * This is the view of the cochlea which Helmholtz has done so much 
 to render probable. It is supported, not only by the minute anatomy of 
 the organ, but by many curious peculiarities of hearing. There are per- 
 sons living who can carry on conversation without much difficulty, but
 
 48 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 Thus, according to the number of the fibres in the 
 cochlea, and the pitch to which, we may say, they are 
 timed, will be the number and the pitch of the different 
 sounds which we can distinguish; and this differs in 
 different persons, especially in respect to the higher 
 notes. There are many persons who hear well enough, 
 yet who never heard the high shrill note of the cricket. 
 And when a sound is made to rise gradually higher 
 and higher, different persons cease to hear it at different 
 times. 
 
 This is but a poor and partial account of a wonderful 
 organ, of which those who know most have still very 
 much indeed to learn. There is much in it to excite our 
 wonder; but, above all, we cannot but stand in amaze- 
 ment before the question : How is it that the motion of 
 the air, the vibration of the membrane, the trembling of 
 the fluid, should impress us with the feeling of a sound ; 
 should hold us rapt as music does, or thrill us with 
 ecstasy in the tones of a voice we love ? That is the 
 great mystery of all the senses. We cannot penetrate 
 it yet; but we can feel, and ought to feel, how won- 
 derful it makes the world. That which seems mere 
 motion in the ear, and in the nerve, turns into joy or 
 
 who cannot hear sounds of a high pitch, not even a railway whistle ; and 
 others who can hear a watch tick well, but can scarcely hear music or 
 spoken words.
 
 7 HE FACULTY OF HEARING. 49 
 
 Sorrow in the soul : it is the source and instrument of 
 aspiration, the vehicle of prayer. If it is all this to us, 
 what must it be to God, who made it, and knows it 
 perfectly ? 
 
 All the structures that have been described are means 
 used to bring sound from the outer air to our brains, 
 in order that we may hear. Every condition is fulfilled ; 
 every step fully prepared for. Nothing is slurred over, 
 nothing omitted, or half done. And it is so all through 
 the world. There is no slovenliness in Nature's work ; 
 no grasping at quick ends, and grudging of the means ; 
 for every result the full equivalent is given. This is 
 God's choice; the mode He takes of working. And 
 he who tries or wishes to do otherwise, to take short 
 cuts, or get results without full work performed, thinks 
 himself wiser than his Maker. 
 
 There are several things very commonly done which 
 are extremely injurious to the ear, and ought to be 
 carefully avoided. Those who have followed the pre- 
 vious description will easily understand the reason. 
 
 And first, children's ears ought never to be boxed. 
 We have seen that the passage of the ear is closed by 
 a thin membrane, especially adapted to be influenced by 
 every impulse of the air, and with nothing but the air 
 to support it internally. What, then, can be more 
 likely to injure this membrane than a sudden and 
 
 VOL. I. K
 
 50 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 forcible compression of the air in front of it ? If any 
 one designed to break or overstretch the membrane, 
 he could scarcely devise a more effective means than 
 to bring the hand suddenly and forcibly down upoi 
 the passage of the ear, thus driving the air violent!} 
 before it, with no possibility for its escape but by the 
 membrane giving way. And far too often it does give 
 way, especially if, from any previous disease, it has been 
 weakened. Many children are made deaf by boxes 
 on the ear in this way. 
 
 Nor is this the only way in which injury follows : if 
 there is one thing which does the nerve of hearing more 
 harm than almost any other, it is a sudden jar or shock. 
 Children and grown persons alike may be entirely 
 deafened by falls or heavy blows upon the head. And 
 boxing the ears produces a similar effect, though more 
 slowly and in less degree. It tends to dull the sensibility 
 of the nerve, even if it does not hurt the membrane. 
 I knew a pitiful case, once, of a poor youth who died 
 from a disease of the ear. He had had a dis- 
 charge from it since he was a child. Of course his 
 hearing had been dull; and what had happened was 
 that his father had often boxed his ear for inattention ! 
 Most likely that boxing on the ear, diseased as it was, 
 had much to do with his dying. 
 
 And this brings me to the second point. Children
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 51 
 
 should never be blamed for being inattentive, until 
 it has been found out whether they are not a little 
 deaf. This is easily done by placing them at a few 
 yards' distance, and trying whether they can under- 
 stand what is said to them in a rather low tone of 
 voice. Each ear should be tried, while the other is 
 stopped by the finger. I do not say that children are 
 never guilty of inattention, especially to that which they 
 do not particularly wish to hear ; but I do say that very 
 many children are blamed and punished for inattention 
 when they really do not hear. And there is nothing at 
 once more cruel and more hurtful to the character of 
 children than to be found fault with for what is really 
 their misfortune. Three things should be remembered 
 here : 1. That slight degrees of deafness, often lasting 
 only for a time, are very common among children, 
 especially during or after colds. 2. That a slight deaf- 
 ness, which does not prevent a person from hearing 
 when he is expecting to be spoken to, will make him 
 very dull to what he is not expecting : and 3. That 
 there is a kind of deafness in which a person can hear 
 pretty well while listening, but is really very hard of 
 hearing when not Listening. 
 
 The chief avoidable cause of deafness is catching cold, 
 and whatever keeps us from colds helps us to preserve 
 our hearing. We should do, therefore, those things
 
 52 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 that help to keep colds away: of which the first is 
 taking plenty of fresh air; the second using enough, 
 but not too much, cold water all over us, taking especial 
 care to rub ourselves thoroughly dry, and never to let it 
 chill us; and the third is to avoid draughts and wet, 
 especially sitting in wet clothes, or being in close or very 
 heated rooms. But there are some kinds of colds 
 especially hurtful to the ear. One is sitting with the 
 ear exposed to a side wind, as too many people do now 
 on the roofs of omnibuses, and so on. We should always 
 face the wind ; then, if we are not chilled, it is hard to 
 have too much of it. Another hurtful thing is letting 
 rain or sleet drive into the ear, against which, if it were 
 not that people do sometimes suffer from this cause, it 
 would seem as if it could hardly be necessary to caution 
 them. 
 
 Another source of danger to the ear, however, arises 
 from the very precautions which are sometimes taken 
 against those last mentioned. Nothing is more 
 natural than to protect the ear against cold by covering 
 it with a piece of cotton wool ; and this is most useful if 
 it is done only on occasions of special exposure, as when 
 a person is compelled to encounter a driving storm, or 
 v has to receive on one side of the head the force of a 
 cutting wind. But it is astonishing in how many cases 
 the cotton wool thus used, instead of being removed
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING, 53 
 
 from the ear when the need for it has passed, is pushed 
 down into the passage, and remains there, forming itself 
 an obstruction to hearing, and becoming the cause of 
 other mischiefs. Three separate pieces have sometimes 
 been found thus pushed down, one upon the other. 
 Paper rolled up, which is also used for protecting the 
 ear when cotton wool is not at hand, is still more 
 irritating when it is thus left unremoved. The way to 
 avoid this accident, besides being careful not to forget, 
 is to use a large piece of the wool, and to place it over, 
 rather than in, the passage. 
 
 It should be remembered that constantly covering up 
 the ear is adapted to injure it. On the whole, men, in 
 whom the ear is habitually exposed, suffer if anything 
 less from ear- disease than women, in whom it is so 
 often covered. Nor can the " hat " be held an unsafe 
 head-dress in this respect for the latter sex. But it is 
 important that there should not be frequent changes, 
 especially in cold weather, from a head-dress which 
 covers to one which exposes the ear. It is better that 
 the air should always have free access to it ; but if this 
 has not been the case, the summer should be chosen to 
 make the change. 
 
 All sorts of substances are sometimes put into the ear 
 by children, who do it to themselves or to each other in 
 ignorant play. If every parent and teacher warned his
 
 54 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 children against doing this it would not be a useless 
 precaution. When the accident happens, the chief 
 danger is that of undue haste and violence. Such 
 bodies should be removed by syringing with warm water 
 alone, and no attempt should be made to lay hold of 
 them or move them in any other way. It is enough to 
 reflect, again, that the passage of the ear is closed 
 by a delicate membrane to show the reason for this 
 rule. When no severe pain follows, no alarm need be 
 felt. It is important that the substance should be 
 removed as speedily as is quite safe, but there need 
 never be impatience; nor should disappointment be felt 
 if syringing needs to be repeated on many days before 
 it effects its end. Hr will almost invariably succeed at 
 last in the hands of a medical man, and is most effective 
 if the ear is turned downwards, and syringed from below. 
 
 Now and then an insect gets into the ear and causes 
 great pain : the way to get rid of it is to pour oil into 
 the ear. This suffocates the insect. 
 
 There is another danger arising from boyish sports. 
 Snowballs sometimes strike the ear, and the snow 
 remaining in it sets up inflammation. This danger is 
 increased by a practice which should be inadmissible, 
 that of mixing small stones with the snow, which thus 
 effect a lodgment in the ear. Care should be taken 
 that no water remains in the passage.
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 55 
 
 Among the causes of injury to the ear must un- 
 fortunately be reckoned bathing. Not that this most 
 healthful and important pleasure need therefore be in 
 the least discouraged ; but it should be wisely regulated. 
 Staying too long in the water certainly tends to produce 
 deafness as well as other evils ; and it is a practice 
 against which young persons of both sexes should be 
 carefully on their guard. But independently of this, 
 swimming and floating are attended with a certain 
 danger from the difficulty of preventing the entrance of 
 water into the ear in those positions. Now no cold fluid 
 should ever enter the ear ; cold water is always more or 
 less irritating, and if used for syringing rapidly produces 
 extreme giddiness. In the case of warm water its 
 entrance into the ear is less objectionable, but even this 
 is not free from disadvantage. Often the water lodges 
 in the ears and produces an uncomfortable sensation till 
 it is removed: this should always be taken as a sign 
 of danger. That the risk to hearing from unwise 
 bathing is not a fancy, is proved by the fact, well known 
 to lovers of dogs, that those animals, if in the habit of 
 jumping or being thrown into the water, so that their 
 heads are covered, frequently become deaf. A know- 
 ledge of the danger is a sufficient guard. To be safe it 
 is only necessary to keep the water from entering the 
 ear. If this cannot be accomplished otherwise, the head
 
 56 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 may be covered. It should be added, however, that wet 
 hair, whether from bathing or washing, may be a cause 
 of deafness if it be suffered to dry by itself. Whenever 
 wetted, the hair should be wiped till it is fairly dry. 
 Nor ought the practice of moistening the hair with water 
 to make it curl to pass without remonstrance. To leave 
 wet hair about the ears is to run great risk of injuring 
 them. In the washing of children, too, care should be 
 taken that all the little folds of the outer ear are carefully 
 dried, and gently, with a soft towel. 
 
 But I come now to what is probably the most fre- 
 quent way in which the ears are injured : that is, by 
 the attempt to clean them. It ought to be understood 
 that the passage of the ear does not require cleaning by 
 us. Nature undertakes that task, and in the healthy 
 state fulfils it perfectly. Her means for cleansing the 
 ear is the wax. Perhaps the reader has never wondered 
 what becomes of the ear-wax. I will tell him. It dries 
 up into thin fine scales, and these peel off one by one 
 from the surface of the passage, and fall out impercep- 
 tibly, leaving behind them a perfectly clean smooth 
 surface. In health the passage of the ear is never 
 dirty ; but if we attempt to clean it, we infallibly make 
 it so. Here by a strange lack of justice, as it would 
 seem, which, however, has no doubt a deep justice at the 
 bottom the best people, and those who love cleanliness,
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 57 
 
 suffer most, and good and careful nurses do a mischief 
 negligent ones avoid. Washing the ear out with soap and 
 water is bad ; it keeps the wax moist when it ought to 
 become dry and scaly, increases its quantity unduly, and 
 makes it absorb the dust with which the air always 
 abounds. But the most hurtful thing is introducing the 
 corner of the towel screwed up, and twisting it round. 
 This does more harm to ears than all other mistakes 
 together. It drives down the wax upon the membrane 
 much more than it gets it out. Let any one who doubts 
 this make a tube like the passage, especially with the 
 curves which it possesses ; let him put a thin membrane 
 at one end, smear its inner surface with a substance like 
 the ear-wax, and then try to get it out so by a towel ! 
 But this plan does much more mischief than merely 
 pressing down the wax. It irritates the passage, and 
 makes it cast off small flakes of skin, which dry up, and 
 become extremely hard, and these also are pressed down 
 upon the membrane. Often it is not only deafness which 
 ensues, but pain and inflammation, and then matter is 
 formed which the hard mass prevents from escaping, and 
 the membrane becomes diseased, and worse may follow. 
 The ear should never be cleaned out with the screwed-up 
 corner of a towel. "Washing should extend only to the 
 outer surface, as far as the finger can reach. 
 
 Ear-picks, again, are bad. If there is any desire to
 
 58 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 use them it shows that the ear is unhealthy; and it 
 wants soothing, not picking. And there is another dan- 
 ger from introducing any solid thing into the ear. The 
 hand may get a push, and it may go to far. Many is 
 the membrane that has thus been broken by a bodkin. 
 Sportsmen sometimes have their membrane pierced by 
 turning suddenly while getting through a hedge. And 
 it even happens that a boy at school may put a pen 
 close to another's ear, in play, and call . to him to make 
 him turn his head ; and the pen pierces the membrane. 
 Very loud sounds may cause deafness, too. Artillery- 
 men, and also eager sportsmen, and very zealous volun- 
 teers, incur a danger from this cause. It is well to stop 
 the ears when exposed to loud sounds, if possible ; also 
 to avoid belfries when the bells are about to ring. A 
 man who was once shut up in one, became stone deaf 
 before the peal was done. The sound of guns is more 
 injurious to those who are in a confined space with them, 
 and also if the mouth be open. Injury from loud 
 sounds, also, is much more likely to occur if they are 
 unexpected; for if they are anticipated, the membrane 
 is prepared for them, without our knowledge, by its 
 muscles. At certain points on the Rhine, it is, or was, 
 the custom of the captain of the steamboat to fire a 
 small cannon, to exhibit the echo. When this has been 
 done without due warning, it has proved more than
 
 THE FACULTY OF HEARING. 59 
 
 once a cause of lasting deafness. Sometimes these loud 
 sounds rupture the membrane; sometimes they deaden 
 ,the nerve : the former is the least evil. 
 
 It is a bad practice, also, to put cotton-wool soaked 
 in laudanum or chloroform into the ear for the relief of 
 toothache. It may be sometimes effectual, for the ner- 
 vous connection between the teeth and the ear is very 
 close. But the ear is far too delicate and valuable an 
 organ to be used as a medium for the application of 
 strong remedies for disorders of other and less important 
 parts; and laudanum, and more especially chloroform, 
 are powerful irritants. The teeth should be looked after 
 in and for themselves, and if toothache spreads to the 
 ear, that is the more reason for taking them thoroughly 
 in hand; for prolonged pain in the head, arising from 
 the teeth, may itself injure the hearing. 
 
 When a child's ear becomes painful, as it so often 
 does, everything should be done to soothe it, and 
 all strong irritating applications should be avoided. 
 Pieces of hot fig or onion should not be put in; but 
 dry flannels as hot as can be borne should be applied, 
 with poppy fomentation if the pain does not soon 
 subside. How much children suffer from their ears, 
 unpitied because unknown, it would probably wring 
 the hearts of those who love them suddenly to discover. 
 It is often very hard, even for medical men, to ascertain
 
 60 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 that the cause of a young child's distress is seated in 
 the ear, and frequently a sudden discharge from it, with 
 a cessation of pain, first reveals the secret of a mysterious 
 attack, which has really been an inflammation of the 
 drum. The watchfulness of a parent, however, would 
 probably suffice to detect the cause of suffering if directed 
 to this point, as well as to others. If children cry 
 habitually when their ears are washed, that should not 
 be neglected ; there is, most likely, some cause of pain. 
 Many membranes are destroyed from discharges which 
 take place during "" teething." Whenever there is a 
 discharge of matter from the ear, it would be right to 
 pour in warm water night and morning, and so at least 
 to try and to keep it clean. But into the treatment of 
 diseases of the ear it would not be suitable to enter 
 here.
 
 III. 
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 
 
 SIGHT is perhaps, taken singly, the most valuable of our 
 natural faculties. To the lower animals and to uncivil- 
 ized man it is of an importance which it is not easy to 
 exaggerate; but it has become to ourselves, through the 
 introduction of writing and of the printing press, of 
 shall I say? tenfold worth. The high value set upon 
 the eye is indicated by many figurative expressions in 
 daily use; and every one must have noticed the instinctive 
 pride we all feel in the possession of good sight. People 
 will boast of their sight who are beyond boasting of 
 anything else ; and those who unfortunately are obliged 
 to admit that now the faculty is failing, will still find 
 comfort in assuring you that in early life they were 
 " remarkable for strong sight." Those whose sight has 
 failed, almost always date the commencement of their 
 defect quite recently, often long since the time at which 
 it must have begun. Whilst this instinctive sense of 
 its value renders some people painfully apprehensive as 
 to very slight symptoms, it renders others and the 
 majority absolutely unable to admit, even to them-
 
 62 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 selves, that there is anything the matter. Surgeons 
 who practise in diseases of the eye often meet with 
 curious illustrations of this, and often have difficulty in 
 convincing those who have in reality lost half of what 
 they ought to possess, that they are not rich. 
 
 Observing the immensely increased value of sight to 
 civilized men, it is a matter of congratulation that 
 blindness is far less frequent among them than among 
 savages. With a little allowance for the effects of climate 
 and of occupations, it may be asserted that the higher 
 the civilization, the smaller the proportion of those who 
 are blind, or who suffer from irremediable defects of 
 sight. In England, perhaps, it is smaller than in any 
 other part of the world. In Egypt, India, China, and 
 Japan, the number is very large indeed ; and one of the 
 most valuable qualifications of the medical missionary 
 is a knowledge of this part of surgery. The way in 
 which civilization brings about this splendid result 
 one for which we can never be too thankful is partly 
 by improving the general sanitary state, diet, clothing, 
 etc., but chiefly by the increased care of the organs and 
 the scientific treatment of their diseases. 
 
 Even in England there is still much that might be 
 done towards the preservation of this valuable faculty, 
 were the true nature of its disorders better understood ; 
 and it is not only amongst medical men that a wider
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 63 
 
 diffusion of knowledge in this matter is to be desired, 
 but also amongst the public at large. 
 
 In the following article the endeavour will be made, 
 not only to exhibit the eye and its endowments as an 
 interesting lesson in physiology, but also to supply 
 information as to some of the common causes of its 
 failure, and the best means for their prevention or 
 remedy. 
 
 We will speak first of the parts which are seen on 
 looking at the front of the eye. In order to better 
 understand and remember what is described, the reader 
 will do well to borrow a friend's face for a few minutes' 
 close examination. 
 
 First we have THE EYELIDS. These are two movable 
 folds of skin intended to protect the eye. In order to 
 stiffen them and make them fit well, there is placed in 
 each a narrow strip of gristle (or cartilage). You will 
 observe that the upper lid covers the eye rather more 
 than the lower ; that the edge of the lower lid is nearly 
 straight that of the upper arched; and, lastly, that 
 the upper lid moves more freely than the lower one. 
 The upper lid can be lifted at will considerably; but 
 the lower one can be but very little drawn down. 
 Both can be moved freely in the act of closing the eye. 
 The upper lid has a special muscle by which it is lifted. 
 The muscle by which we close the lids is common to
 
 6 4 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE, 
 
 both. Under each lid there is a sort of pouch, or 
 hollow, which may be easily seen in the case of the 
 lower lid by drawing it down. Into these pouches 
 little particles of dirt, insects' wings, bits of chaff, straw, 
 etc., sometimes get, and there lie hid, causing much 
 irritation to the eye. From such positions they are 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 THE EYELIDS WITH LASHES, ETC. 
 
 often difficult to dislodge. They lie out of sight, and 
 it is necessary to turn the lid over to expose and re- 
 move them. This should be done by a surgeon. If 
 surgical aid be not at hand, it is sometimes possible, 
 by taking a hair and doubling it, and then pushing the 
 noose up under the lid, to draw them out.* 
 
 * These remarks apply only when the intruding body is under the lid, 
 not when it is simply on the front of the eye. From the latter situation
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 65 
 
 At their outer corner the two lids meet and join at 
 a sharp angle, but at the inner corner they do not 
 quite meet, but leave a little round space between them. 
 In this inner corner you will observe a red, fleshy- 
 looking mass, about the size of a pea; this is a gland, 
 which is of much larger size in some of the lower animals 
 than it is in man. It is in the little pond, or hollow, 
 which exists at the inner corner of the lids, that the 
 tears collect before they escape away into the nose. 
 When a person cries, the tears are so freely poured 
 forth, that they cannot all escape by the channels to 
 which I refer, and, in consequence, run over the cheeks. 
 In a certain sense we may be said, however, to be 
 always crying quietly. Tears are constantly being 
 formed, and having passed over the surface of the eye, 
 escape without observation into little channels which 
 lead into the nose. A sharp-sighted person may easily 
 find the opening (close to the inner corner of the lower 
 eyelid) into which the tears enter. The lid must be 
 held down, and it will then be seen as a round dot, 
 about large enough to admit a pin. There is another 
 
 the best way to remove it is to oil the end of a finger, and then carefully 
 touch the eye ; this is easily borne, if gently done. The finger end may 
 be covered with a soft handkerchief ; its front surface, not its tip, should 
 be used. Olive oil or castor oil will do ; the latter is the better for the 
 purpose. 
 
 VOL. I. F
 
 66 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 in the upper lid, but it is not so easy to find. If a 
 pin were pressed into this little hole, it might, if dex- 
 terously managed, be made to find its way inwards 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 THE EYELIDS WITHOUT LASHES, ETC. 
 
 (From Quain's Plates.) 
 
 a, a. The openings of the tubes for the escape of tears. 6. The little 
 pond at the angle of the lids in which is placed the body known as the 
 "caruncle." 
 
 and downwards into the nose, for there is an open tube 
 or channel the whole way. Many troublesome diseases 
 result from the stopping up or narrowing of these 
 delicate canals., the chief symptom of which is the over- 
 flow of tears on any slight irritation such, for instance, 
 as exposure to wind.
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 67 
 
 As regards the formation of tears, it is necessary to 
 remark that, although formed in part by a sort of 
 oozing from the whole surface of the eye, they are 
 chiefly poured out by a large gland provided for that 
 special purpose, and placed deeply above and to the 
 outer side of the eyeball. From its position, the water 
 it forms must pass over the surface of the eye before 
 it can escape at the inner corner. By this arrangement 
 the eye is better washed, and any particles of dust, etc., 
 are carried away. 
 
 At the margins of the lids we have THE LASHES ; 
 certain rows of stout hairs which grow in beautiful 
 curves, and which serve both to adorn the features 
 and to protect the eye. Close to the roots of the 
 lashes there are, as is the case with all hairs, certain 
 little glands, which form a sort of oil, and allow it to 
 escape upon the hair,, so as to keep it from drying and 
 cracking. Near to the roots of the lashes, but not 
 actually opening upon them, are also other and larger 
 glands, which form a kind of wax; this being poured 
 out at the edge of the lid keeps it always coated, and 
 thus prevents the tears from running over it. You 
 may see these glands by drawing the lower lid down. 
 They look like little yellow streaks about a quarter of 
 an inch long, and appear to be somewhat knotted. 
 In the woodcut we have shown, first, an inner row of
 
 68 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 small holes, the openings of the glands, and, secondly, 
 a number of yet smaller holes outside these, and ar- 
 ranged rather irregularly in two or three rows; these 
 are the openings from which the hairs have been pulled 
 out. At the inner corner of both upper and lower lid, 
 a large black dot marks the opening of the canal for 
 the escape of the tears towards the nose. All these 
 glands are liable in certain states of the health, and 
 especially after measles in delicate children, to inflame, 
 and a sore-looking red edge to the lid is then produced. 
 To cure this, in bad cases, surgeons often pull out all 
 the lashes, and sometimes repeat the process several 
 times. The lashes always grow again, and usually 
 better than before. About six weeks is long enough 
 for them to be reproduced in full perfection. 
 
 Now look at THE FRONT OP THE EYE ITSELF. You 
 
 will notice a round part like a watch-glass, about the 
 size of a sixpence, and set in a white structure which 
 surrounds it. This white structure extends backwards 
 out of sight completely round the eyeball, and is its 
 chief coat or wall. It is called the sclerotic, from a 
 Greek word, signifying that it is dense and strong. 
 The clear part, which I have compared to a watch-glass, 
 is called the " cornea." Through this clear cornea you 
 look into the eye, and we now have to observe two 
 parts, the black part in the middle, called the " pupil,"
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 69 
 
 and the coloured part which surrounds it, called the 
 "iris." The cornea is convex, like a watch-glass; the 
 iris is flat, like the watch-face. Between the cornea 
 and the iris a few drops of clear water are placed. 
 Now let us try the effect of light upon the iris and 
 pupil. Close one eye altogether; shade the other with 
 the hand for half a minute; and then suddenly expose 
 it to a bright light. You will find that the pupil 
 enlarges very much when shaded, and closes when 
 exposed to light. This is effected by the iris, which 
 is a sort of screen, attached only at its rim, and with 
 a hole (the pupil) punched through its middle. In 
 noticing its contraction on exposure to light, you have 
 learnt the chief use of the iris; it is a shade intended 
 to shut off glare, and to regulate the quantity of light 
 admitted. Look at the pupil of a young child, and 
 compare it with that of an adult, and then with that 
 of an old person. You will find the child's large, that 
 of the adult smaller, and that of the old man very 
 small, perhaps little larger than a pin's head. Th& 
 size and brilliant blackness of the pupil have much 
 more to do with the expression of the eye than has 
 the colour of the iris. Hence the comparative want 
 of expression and of lustre in the eyes of old persons, 
 and much of the sparkling beauty of the eyes of the 
 young. An unusually large pupil generally implies
 
 70 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 delicacy of constitution. The fact that it gives ex- 
 pression to the eye has, however, been so fully recog- 
 nised, that, in Italy, ladies are reported to employ a 
 drug for the purpose of obtaining it. This drug has 
 from that circumstance received the name of "bella- 
 donna," or "the beautiful lady." It is needless to say, 
 
 
 however, that its use confuses the sight, and that such 
 
 fancied beauty is very unwisely purchased. 
 
 Now let us look closely at the IRIS, and admire the 
 beauty of its structure. That the colour of the iris 
 may vary in different persons, every one knows; for 
 it is this structure which gives what is called the 
 colour of the eye. You will see, on minute inspection, 
 that its colour varies at different parts in the same 
 person, and also that it presents various lines and 
 markings of great complexity and beauty. The iris, 
 although a great aid to distinct vision, is not essential; 
 and now and then persons are born without it, who 
 still enjoy tolerable sight. The iris is about as thick 
 as stout blotting-paper ; and, whatever may be its colour 
 in front, it is always of a deep brown, almost black, 
 behind. 
 
 I have already said that the pupil (the black round 
 part in the middle) is merely a hole through the iris. 
 It looks black, just as a hole into a dark room would 
 do; but the structures behind it are quite clear and
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 71 
 
 colourless. It is through this hole, the pupil of the 
 eye, that the rays of light enter. 
 
 With this brief description of the pupil and iris, 
 ends what I have to say as to the structures which 
 can be seen on looking into another person's eye. 
 Before proceeding to explain the yet more important 
 ones which lie out of view, I must ask attention to a 
 few other points. 
 
 The eye, as every one knows, is "a very sensitive 
 organ." Why is this ? Because it is richly supplied 
 with nerves. Every movement of the eyelids, every 
 alteration in the size of the pupil, is accomplished 
 through the means of these nerves, which, like so 
 many microscopic telegraph-wires, connect the various 
 parts, and send messages between them with vast 
 rapidity. Is there too much light, the iris is ordered 
 to contract; is the glare extreme, the lids also are 
 made to close. The influence of the nerves does not, 
 however, end here. Through their power the flow of 
 tears may be increased or lessened. If a particle of 
 dust is lodged in the eye, pain is the result ; and this 
 pain, quite apart from any effort of the will, makes the 
 eye water, causes an overflow of tears, by which probably 
 the offending body is washed off. Most persons are 
 aware that one of the best ways of dealing with a 
 gnat in the eye is to close the lids for a minute or
 
 72 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 two. A large accumulation of tears is the result, and 
 on suddenly opening the lids the offending midge is 
 carried away in the deluge. 
 
 In Fig. 3 we see exposed some of the nerve-trunks 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 AN EYEBALL PARTIALLY DISSECTED. 
 
 (From Holden's " Anatomy.") 
 
 The thick white outer coat, sclerotic (a), has been cut away in most 
 parts. In front the iris and pupil are seen (b, the iris). External to 
 the iris is a ring of whitish structure, the ciliary muscle (c). At the back 
 of the eyeball the great nerve of sight, the optic nerve, is seen entering 
 the globe, and around it are twigs (d) of small nerves, which run forwards 
 to supply the iris, ciliary muscle, etc. These nerves (e and e) are seen 
 again after they have pierced the sclerotic. Under the nerve-trunks 
 are seen the beautifully branching vessels which compose one of the 
 inner coats of the eye (the choroid). 
 
 which supply the eye. Each one of these, although 
 not thicker than a hair, would be found, on inspection
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 73 
 
 with a microscope, to consist of a bundle of very 
 minute tubes, each isolated from its companion by a 
 sheath, much as telegraph wires are cased in gutta- 
 percha and then put together in one rope. These 
 nerve-tubes have different duties to perform some 
 carry to the brain the sense of pain or other feelings 
 (nerves of sensation), others carry from the brain orders 
 to act, either to muscles or to glands. It is by these 
 latter or motor nerves that the pupil is altered in 
 size, and that we are able to fit the eye at one moment 
 for looking at a distant prospect, at another for reading 
 the smallest print. It is by the nerves which act on 
 the glands that we regulate the flow of tears in crying, 
 and by the irritation of which the eye "waters" when 
 anything has got into it. If a certain branch of nerve 
 were paralysed, the power of shedding tears on that 
 side would cease, and the patient would be placed 
 in the ludicrous position of being able to cry only 
 with one eye. Such cases occur now and then. 
 
 I have omitted to say anything as to what may 
 be called the skin of the eye. The lids are lined, 
 and the front of the eyeball covered, by a very delicate, 
 almost transparent membrane, which differs chiefly from 
 skin in that it is constantly kept moist. It is con- 
 tinuous with the skin of the eyelids at their edges. 
 On the front of the cornea it is quite transparent and
 
 74 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 invisible ; but it is still there, as is proved in the case 
 of serpents, which shed their skins once a year, and 
 with it a perfect and unbroken membrane from the 
 front of the eye. It is this membrane which chiefly 
 carries the blood-vessels, and which becomes red in cases 
 of inflammation. It is also well supplied with nerves. 
 This membrane is technically called the conjunctiva, 
 because it connects and covers in all the other struc- 
 tures. 
 
 Every one must have noticed how readily, even in 
 persons in good health, the eyes sympathize with any 
 slight disturbance. A bad night, or any temporary 
 nervous exhaustion, will make the eyes feel heavy and 
 "gritty," and will cause the lids to look swollen and 
 red at the edges. The " lack-lustre eye " is proverbial ; 
 and to the general expression of " seediness " which 
 follows a night of dissipation, the eye contributes 
 perhaps more than any other part of the physiognomy. 
 All these little changes are brought about by the 
 influence of the nerves on the blood-vessels and other 
 structures of the parts. 
 
 In almost every village there is some Lady Bountiful 
 to whom the poor resort for " eye-water," when they 
 need it. It is related of a French quack doctor, that 
 having realised a large fortune by the sale of a secret 
 remedy for ophthalmia, he was on his death-bed the
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 75 
 
 subject of much compunction on the score that his 
 specific had been, as he then explained, only river- 
 water coloured. His surgeon told him to quiet his 
 qualms, and assured him that it would be well for 
 the public if all nostrums for this purpose were equally 
 harmless. I think the surgeon was too severe. The 
 household remedies in vogue usually consist of some 
 weak mineral solution alum, sulphate of zinc, and the 
 like ; and these remedies are very suitable to a large 
 proportion of slight inflammations of the eye. Their 
 chief evil is, not that they do actual harm, but that 
 they often prevent those who ought to obtain proper 
 and well- skilled advice from doing so sufficiently early. 
 For slight colds in the eye, weak astringents such as 
 those mentioned, or such as cold tea (a very popular 
 remedy), are quite suitable; but let me enforce the 
 rule, that on no account should they be trusted to 
 when there is much pain or redness in the eye, nor 
 in the inflammations which occur in infants. 
 
 Here I may suitably explain the real meaning of 
 some expressions in popular use as regards diseases 
 of the eye. 
 
 A " blood-shot eye " is an eye in which the minute 
 blood-vessels are much enlarged, and thus parts which 
 should have been white become more or less red. 
 This condition generally implies inflammation.
 
 76 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 A " watery eye/' or what is sometimes synonymous 
 a weak eye, means the condition produced when, 
 owing to the stoppage of the minute channels for the 
 tears, the latter find their way over the cheek. The 
 term "weak eye" is often applied to states of long 
 persisting inflammation of the roots of the eyelashes. 
 
 "White specks on the eyes" are produced whenever 
 ulcers on the cornea, which ought to be perfectly clear, 
 hav^ healed and left scars. Such white specks are 
 the natural result of the healing process, and are 
 quite inevitable after many inflammations. As the 
 ulcer heals, it becomes whiter and whiter ; and then, 
 after a long time, the film slowly clears away, and, 
 in the course of years, may almost disappear. No 
 surgical art can take these specks away, though certain 
 operations may sometimes be performed for obviating 
 their effect on sight. 
 
 A ' ' cast " or " squint " is said to exist whenever 
 the direction of one eye does not correspond with that 
 of the other. In a state of health, the two eyes move 
 together with admirable and instantaneous precision. 
 If they did not do so, we should see two objects in- 
 stead of one. A squint may occur either inwards or 
 outwards. When inwards, which is by far the more 
 common, the person becomes " cross-eyed," and obtains 
 a peculiar sly expression, as if he were anxious to look
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 77 
 
 in two places at once. When the squint is outwards, 
 the defect in expression is greater, for it makes the 
 countenance look somewhat silly and vacant. The move- 
 ments of the eyeballs are accomplished by little slender 
 muscles which adhere to its sides, and pull it, now 
 in one direction, now in another. These muscles are 
 
 FiG.'4. 
 
 THE FOUR STEAIGHT MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 
 
 (From Holden's "Anatomy.") 
 
 The muscles are here shown lifted up from the ball, to exhibit their 
 attachment on its front surface, not far behind the edge of the cornea 
 and iris. 
 
 chiefly four (see Fig. 4), one above, one below, and 
 one on each side. The reader must not suppose that 
 they stand off from the eye, as shown in the woodcut ; 
 on the contrary, they fit closely to its sides, like narrow 
 strips of india-rubber on the sides of a marble. If any 
 one of these muscles becomes either stronger or weaker
 
 78 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 than its antagonist on the other side, a squint is pro- 
 duced. Surgeons cure squints by simply cutting the 
 stronger muscle through, and thus weakening its hold 
 on the eye. The operation is, to a dexterous hand, 
 quite a simple one, and of course does not involve, 
 as some fancy, "taking the eye out and turning it." 
 Most persons who squint require spectacles, and many 
 squints might be prevented by their timely use. 
 
 As I have said that unless the two eyes move accu- 
 rately together, we see objects double, it will perhaps 
 occur as a difficulty to some who may have experience 
 of squinting, that these persons are not usually troubled 
 with double vision. The explanation is this : When 
 a squint first occurs, all objects are seen double. This 
 is extremely perplexing and tiresome, and, to get rid 
 of it, one eye learns not to see, or, to speak in pro- 
 fessional language, one image is suppressed. Thus 
 squinters use only one eye at a time. A very curious 
 and instructive result follows on this disuse. Tbe eye 
 which is intentionally made to remain idle becomes 
 almost blind. Now, if an eye had been disused in 
 consequence of a large speck in front of it, or a cataract, 
 it might have remained so for twenty years, and not 
 have become blind; so great is the difference in result 
 from enforced and from voluntary disuse ! A sermon 
 might be preached on this text. What a warning
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 79 
 
 for the idle, and also for the ascetic ! that we cannot 
 voluntarily decline to use any of the faculties with 
 which we are endowed, without risk of entire loss of 
 that which we thus neglect ! 
 
 We will proceed to try a few easy experiments. 
 
 1st Exp. Look through the window, standing within 
 a foot of the pane, and fix your sight on the particles 
 of dust on the latter. By an effort, you can see them 
 definitely and sharply. Now look out into the street or 
 garden, but exactly in the same direction. You will find 
 that when doing so you lose sight of the specks on the 
 pane, and that to see them again you have to alter your 
 eye, so that you do not see the distant objects. It is 
 clear that your eye when looking at a near object and 
 at a distant one is in different conditions. Now take an 
 opera-glass or a child's telescope, and having adjusted 
 it accurately for some object at a great distance, try to 
 use it for a near one. You will find that the same 
 adjustment will not do, and that you must alter the 
 screw. Surely there is something in your eye which 
 has the same effect as the screw of the opera-glass, and 
 by altering its adjustment gives you the power of see- 
 ing accurately at one time the most distant objects, at 
 others the nearest. We have said the nearest ; but no, 
 there is a limit here. It does not matter how far 
 objects are off, provided they are large enough; the
 
 8o PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 stars, the moon, etc., you can see them clearly, but not 
 so with near objects. Try this page. Nearer than eight 
 inches (if you have properly formed eyes) you cannot 
 without a sense of straining effort read the type, and 
 nearer than five all is blurred and indistinct. The 
 same occurs with the opera-glass. You cannot by its 
 screw adapt it for very near objects. With it, as with 
 your eye, there is a limit to "adjustment" or "accom- 
 modation." We have found, then, that it is in looking 
 at near objects that an effort has to be made, and hence 
 the reason why small objects near to one are so trying to 
 the eyes, whilst a distant prospect rests and strengthens 
 them. Before we_ examine how accommodation is 
 effected we must try another experiment. 
 
 2nd Exp. Take any strong magnifying glass, and 
 hold it at a little distance from a wall in front of a well- 
 lighted window. You will find that it depicts upon the 
 wall a much reduced picture of the window, and that 
 this picture becomes bright or blurred according to your 
 care in holding the glass at the correct distance. You 
 cannot move it ever so little, either forwards or back- 
 wards, without disturbing the brightness of the image. 
 Notice that the image is wrong side up, or inverted. 
 Now the eye consists essentially of a magnifying glass 
 thus used, and it paints pictures within itself exactly in 
 the same manner. Certain parts are of course added to
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 
 
 81 
 
 it, which much facilitate the performance, but the lens 
 power is the essential. The lens is inclosed in a dark 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 A SECTION OF THE EYEBALL FROM ABOVE DOWNWARDS. 
 
 a. The anterior chamber bounded in front by the cornea, ft. The 
 posterior chamber, c. The canal of Petit at the edge of the lens. d. The 
 iris. e. The ciliary processes. /. The ciliary canal, g. The ciliary 
 muscle (muscle of accommodation), k. The sclerotic, i.j. The two 
 layers of the choroid. ft. The retina. 1. The optic nerve. N.B. The 
 lines in the vitreous humour represent its framework, but it must not be 
 supposed that it is crossed by dark lines, as here shown ; on the contrary, 
 this framework, like the substance it incloses, is perfectly transparent. 
 
 chamber, so that the brilliancy of the picture may not 
 be damped by rays of light coming sideways ; the iris is 
 provided in front to regulate the quantity of light ad- 
 mitted; and lastly, we have a nerve-surface to receive 
 
 VOL. I. G
 
 82 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 the picture, and nerve-trunks to convey the impression 
 to the brain. The lens power of the eye is produced in 
 part by the cornea and its contents, in part by the 
 "lens" itself, and in part by the vitreous humour be- 
 hind it. Their combined power is about equal to a 
 magnifying glass of one inch focus. You will see in 
 Fig. 5 how they are arranged. 
 
 Now let us try to explain how " accommodation " is 
 effected. In the case of the opera-glass it is done by the 
 screw, which increases or lessens the distance of the 
 
 Fia. 6. 
 
 glasses from each other. In the eye we have no screw, 
 nor is it possible to materially alter the distance of the 
 parts from each other. The result is gained by making 
 the lens itself more powerful at one time than at another. 
 This lens is placed just behind the pupil, and is about 
 the size and shape of a small " acid-drop." It is of firm 
 structure, but not hard, and is capable of being squeezed 
 so as to become more convex. Fig. 6 shows its shape 
 and size after removal from the eye. In Fig. 5 it is seen 
 in place in the eye. Accommodation is, then, effected
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 83 
 
 by making this structure more or less convex, and this 
 is done by a muscle which exists within the eye and 
 surrounds the margin of the lens (see Figs. 3 and 5). 
 Why accommodation should be necessary, we will next 
 try to explain. 
 
 Every object that you can see becomes visible by the 
 rays of light which it either gives off or reflects. Lu- 
 minous objects, the sun, a candle, etc., originate their 
 own rays ; all others reflect those which they have re- 
 ceived. If an object reflected no light, it would be 
 black, and invisible. The type which you are now read- 
 ing is in a strict sense invisible ; it is the white spaces 
 between the letters which reflect the light, and which are 
 really seen. Now, rays of light always proceed in 
 straight lines ; they are capable, as we have seen, of 
 being reflected or thrown back by any surface on which 
 they strike ; they are capable, also, let us now assert, of 
 being refracted or bent out of their usual course by any 
 transparent substance through which they pass. Trans- 
 parent substances refract light in differing degrees 
 according to their degree of density, and according to 
 their external form. Our next assertion shall be, 
 that all rays of light radiate, or, in other words, 
 proceed from a point forwards in all possible directions. 
 Make a dot near the edge of a sheet of paper, and then 
 with a ruler draw as many straight lines from it as you
 
 84 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 possibly can, none of them quite touching anywhere but 
 at the point of starting. This will give a good idea of 
 how rays of light diverge, and how a pencil of light is 
 formed. You will easily see that in no position could the 
 pupil of the eye possibly receive all the rays of light, and 
 that the farther off it was carried, the fewer it would get. 
 
 You may notice, also, in the diagram which you have 
 i 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 DIAGEAM OF AN EYEBALL OF EXACTLY NATURAL LENGTH. 
 
 (From Danders.) 
 
 Parallel rays are brought to a focus (0") by the lens, etc., at the bottom 
 of the eye, precisely on the retina. 
 
 constructed, that the lines nearest the middle are those 
 most nearly parallel to each other. The rest diverge 
 more strongly. 
 
 Now, imagine that these lines were prolonged not only 
 across your sheet of paper, but across a wide room, or 
 across a field. .Under such circumstances, only those 
 rays which were in the middle, and nearly parallel with 
 each other, could possibly enter an observer's eye; all 
 the rest would have diverged and passed away to the sides. 
 
 Two things have, it is hoped, been made clear by
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 
 
 these statements. First, we have shown why it is so 
 difficult to see distant objects, unless they are of large 
 
 size, or very well lighted ; and, second, that we see dis- 
 tant objects by means of rays of light which are parallel, 
 and near ones by the aid of rays which are divergent.
 
 86 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 Now, since both the divergent and the parallel rays 
 must be focussed at the same place (the bottom of the 
 eye), it is clear that the apparatus must, in order to 
 effect this, be accommodated. In order to deal with 
 divergent rays (those from near objects), the lens must 
 be made stronger, or, in other words, more convex. We 
 have already stated that this is effected by a muscle 
 which exists within the eye. When this muscle is at 
 rest, the eye is adapted to receive and focus parallel 
 rays from distant objects ; when in action, it can focus 
 divergent ones. Hence the feeling of effort and fatigue 
 which often results from long looking at small objects. 
 It may possibly have occurred to some unusually atten- 
 tentive and intelligent reader, that we are involved in 
 a little difficulty, in asserting that effort is needed for 
 near objects. Do not, it may be asked, the parallel rays 
 from a near object gain access to the pupil as well as the 
 divergent ones; and if so, why cannot we use them 
 without effort, just as we use them when at a distance, 
 and when we receive them only ? The explanation is, 
 that the divergent rays which are received with them 
 confuse the image. If they could be excluded, then the 
 eye could use the parallel rays as well close as miles 
 away. To be certain of this, try another simple experi- 
 ment. With a fine needle prick the smallest possible 
 hole in a card, and then try to read, looking through
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 87 
 
 this hole, and putting the card and the page close to the 
 eye. You will find that you can see letters through such 
 a hole which are all blurred and indistinct without it ; 
 you can, in fact, read at an inch distance from your eye, 
 whereas without it you cannot read at a shorter distance 
 than eight inches. 
 
 The eye may be imperfect as an organ of vision with- 
 out there being any actual disease, and merely on account 
 of some peculiarity in its form, or peculiarity in its 
 apparatus for accommodation. A great many persons 
 are born with their eyeballs a little too long or too short, 
 and hence great inconvenience in using them. It is only 
 when the eyeball is exactly the proper length, that its 
 use as an optical instrument its adjustment, etc. can 
 be perfect. When it is of proper length, then the sharp- 
 ness of sight will be found to be almost exactly the same 
 in all persons. There are limits as to the size of objects 
 which can be seen both in the distance and near, 
 and these limits are about the same for all persons 
 whilst the eye is in a state of health. We will now ex- 
 plain some of the common defects. 
 
 OVER-WORKED EYES. WEAK SIGHT. We have proved 
 that muscular effort is necessary to see near objects ; 
 the smaller and nearer, the greater the effort. Now the 
 muscle of accommodation, although accustomed to long 
 work, may yet under unusual stress tire and fail. When
 
 88 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 it does so, the eye becomes unable to see near at hand, 
 and is compelled to rest. It is just as if you had been 
 long standing on tip-toe to look over a wall; there 
 conies a time when you can do it no longer. This 
 over- fatigue is very common in some occupations : 
 needle-women, engravers, printers, press-correctors, and 
 the like, very frequently suffer from it. Indeed, the 
 last-mentioned occupation, when pursued as it is by 
 some, for twelve or sixteen hours a day regularly, almost 
 always wears the eyes out sooner or later. In many 
 cases the eyes will, however, bear without detriment 
 an extraordinary amount of work. 
 
 We have compared the effort of looking long at small 
 print, etc., to the effort of standing tip-toe; and, to 
 follow the comparison, it is clear that the shorter the 
 individual, the more fatiguing would be the effort of 
 looking over a wall. Just so in the case of the eye : 
 the shorter the eyeball, the greater the muscular effort 
 necessary. Now, a very large number of persons have 
 the eye from birth a little below its proper length. 
 Such persons are obliged to employ the muscle of ac- 
 commodation much more than others, and are very 
 liable to suffer from its over-fatigue. They complain 
 that they can see well for a little while, but cannot go 
 on long. This symptom indicates the need for spec- 
 tacles. It is only quite lately that it has been found
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 89 
 
 out that this kind of weak sight results simply from 
 the shortness of the eyeball. We owe the discovery 
 to Professor Bonders, of Utrecht, and, thanks to him, 
 thousands now enjoy by the use of spectacles perfect 
 sight, who formerly would have had to go through life 
 with a constant and great deficiency. The prejudice 
 against spectacles for young persons used to be very 
 strong, but it is now happily disappearing. Now and 
 then, even young children discover that they can see 
 much better in their grandmothers' glasses ; and when 
 such is the case, spectacles ought always to be supplied. 
 If they are not, the symptoms of weak sight and of over- 
 worked eyes are almost certain to be developed. For 
 this condition, convex-glasses, "old sight," are needed. 
 It is the opposite to short sight, and depends on the op- 
 posite condition of the eyeball. 
 
 SHORT SIGHT occurs when the eyeball is too long 
 egg-shaped instead of round. It is very common, and 
 runs in families. The eyeball is usually too long from 
 the time of birth, but it often increases in length sub- 
 sequently. A person who is the subject of short sight, 
 enjoys excellent vision for near objects ; he has, in fact, 
 a microscopic eye, and can " inspect a mite " in much 
 more detail than another. He pays for this gain in one 
 direction by a loss in another. He cannot see objects 
 in the distance cannot "comprehend the heavens."
 
 90 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 Often, however, he will go through a large part of life 
 rejoicing in his advantage, and quite unaware of his 
 
 "< a 
 >> 
 
 i .a s 
 
 to 
 
 U3 fl 
 
 IB .a 
 
 ^ -t> 
 
 g 
 
 a 1 
 
 loss. Having no standard of comparison, he believes
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 91 
 
 that the manner in which he sees into the distance is 
 the best attainable. An adult myope* who has never 
 tried glasses is amazed, on using them for the first 
 time, at the clearness with which he sees that which 
 always before had been hazy and indefinite. 
 
 The reason that a long eyeball disables for distant 
 vision is, that the lens of the eye being too forward, 
 its focus is in front of the bottom of the eye, instead 
 of exactly upon it. Thus, the eye can use divergent 
 rays more easily than one of proper length, but cannot 
 focus parallel ones at the proper place. This may be 
 corrected by the use of a concave glass, which will 
 make parallel rays diverge. Thus, myopes use spec- 
 tacles of an opposite kind to those required by old 
 persons, or by the weak sight which results from a 
 too short globe. 
 
 Short-sighted persons acquire certain peculiarities 
 of appearance. In the first place, their eyes often 
 look full and prominent, and frequently have large 
 pupils ; next, from constantly trying to see better in 
 the distance, they are apt to acquire a habit of 
 " screwing " the eyelids ; and, lastly, from the ne- 
 cessity of bringing the head near to the object 
 
 * The learned term for short sight is myopia. Myopic means short- 
 sighted ; and a myope, a short-sighted person.
 
 92 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 ob served, a certain degree of stoop is apt to be 
 developed. These bad habits may, in many cases, 
 be prevented by the use of proper spectacles. It is 
 said that myopia even induces peculiarities of charac- 
 ter, and that myopes are usually unsuspicious and 
 easily pleased; being unable to observe many little 
 matters in the demeanour or expression of those 
 with whom they converse, which, being noticed by 
 those of quicker sight, might induce feelings of dis- 
 trust or annoyance. 
 
 There is an opinion widely prevalent, that short- 
 sighted eyes are strong eyes, and wear well. Un- 
 fortunately, this is a mistake; for, in not a few cases, 
 this condition is progressive, and ends in very serious 
 failure of sight. It is quite true that, as a set-off for 
 the fact that throughout life he has never been able 
 to see clearly in the distance, the myope may in old 
 age still retain his power of reading without glasses. 
 In this sense, his eyes may last longer than those of 
 his friends, but in no other. 
 
 Those who are short-sighted ought to observe a 
 few simple rules in order to preserve their eyes. 
 They should be careful to prefer large type for read- 
 ing, and to hold the book up to the eyes, not bring 
 the eyes down to the book. In writing, they should 
 use a high desk, and on no account bend over a flat
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 93 
 
 ible. They should avoid, as far as may be, all close 
 rork, and relieve the eyes by frequent rests. Those 
 who are short-sighted in but slight degrees may use 
 spectacles or not, according to inclination ; those 
 who are so in a considerable degree will find safety 
 as well as present advantage in their use; whilst 
 those who have the defect in very high degrees must 
 be cautious, and use glasses only under skilled advice. 
 In all forms, if too strong glasses are used, they will 
 increase the defect and irreparably damage the eyes. 
 We have no wish to make a large class of myopes 
 unduly anxious about the durability of their eyes. It 
 is only in cases in which the sight gets shorter and 
 shorter from year to year that alarm need be felt; 
 then the necessity for rest is urgent. 
 
 Unfortunately, short sight occurs very frequently in 
 those who are of a studious turn, and who are con- 
 sequently very likely to increase it by their habits. 
 It is an exception to what we said in the beginning 
 as to the influence of civilization upon the prevalence 
 of eye diseases. It is a defect to a large extent due 
 to the pursuits introduced by the inventions of civil- 
 ized life. It is rare amongst those who cannot read, 
 and amongst those who follow out-of-door pursuits; 
 and is believed to be more common amongst the 
 studious Germans than amongst any other nation.
 
 94 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 Although undoubtedly induced by occupation, it may be 
 transmitted hereditarily. 
 
 OLD SIGHT (presbyopia). It is often thought that 
 old sight is "long sight," and that it is in some 
 sense opposite to short sight; but this is a mistake. 
 Old people have no advantage over the young as re- 
 gards sight in the distance; they have simply lost the 
 power of seeing near objects well. It would be strange 
 indeed if advancing age, which slowly but surely robs 
 us of our various faculties, added anything to that of 
 sight. It certainly does not. The impairment which 
 ensues from age is the gradual loss of the power of 
 accommodation. We have compared that power to 
 the screw in an opera-glass, or to the movement of 
 the tubes of a telescope one within the other. "We 
 might extend the comparison, and suppose that by 
 constant use the screw has got worn, and will no 
 longer act. Very gradual indeed is the commence- 
 ment of old sight. About the age of thirty-five, with- 
 out our noticing it, we begin to be less able to see 
 small things near to us, and by the age of forty-five 
 we have learned instinctively to keep the book an 
 inch or two farther off than we did in youth. From 
 this period onward to old age, the faculty fails steadily 
 until we become quite unable to bring a book near 
 enough to read from it. This loss occurs to all persons
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 95 
 
 whose eyes were originally of proper length, and it 
 is far more exactly proportionate to our years than is 
 generally supposed. 
 
 Even when no longer able to read at all without 
 glasses, the power of distant vision may be perfect. 
 For this, no accommodation is wanted, and it is that 
 power which alone has failed. The eye is itself per- 
 fectly healthy, but the lens substance has got harder 
 and harder, and can no longer be altered in form, and 
 thus made stronger when requisite. In some cases, 
 however, the lens not only gets harder, but also 
 somewhat flatter, and then its possessor will require 
 spectacles both for distant and near objects, though 
 he will be able to see distant objects with much 
 weaker glasses than those which he uses for reading. 
 
 Old sight can always be remedied by spectacles, 
 and it is most desirable that they should be used; they 
 save the eye from fatigue, as well as improve its use- 
 fulness. The risk of using them too strong is not 
 great, and the subject may be allowed to select for 
 himself those that suit him best for reading. They 
 ought to enable him to read easily at twelve inches' 
 distance. It is a natural result from the slowly pro- 
 gressive character of the failure, that stronger and 
 stronger glasses will be necessary as age advances. 
 If the progress is rapid, and especially if glasses do
 
 96 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 not relieve it so much after a while as they did at 
 first, then advice is needed. 
 
 You sometimes notice at church an old man with 
 his spectacles on the tip of his nose, and his prayer- 
 book held as far off as possible. These are sure 
 signs that he wants stronger glasses. The effect of 
 putting the spectacles farther from the eyes is to in- 
 crease their power. The glasses used ought, how- 
 ever, to be strong enough to allow of their being 
 kept close to the eyes, and it ought not to be neces- 
 sary to hold the book more than a foot away. 
 
 CATAEACT. We now have to - explain another very 
 important and curious defect, which occurs chiefly in 
 the aged. "We have said, that as years advance, the 
 lens gets harder; sometimes not only does it harden, 
 but it changes from a state of transparency, like 
 glass, to one of yellow haze, like amber or bees-wax, 
 or even to a dense white, like spermaceti. When the 
 lens has thus become opaque, a cataract is said to 
 have formed. If you look at Fig. 5, you will easily 
 see, from the position of the lens, exactly behind the 
 pupil and in the centre of the eye, that it must, when 
 opaque, prevent light from entering. Cataracts usually 
 form slowly and without pain, and often take several 
 years before they quite exclude the light. They are very 
 common in the aged, as a mere result of age, and
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 97 
 
 without any disease, and now and then they occur 
 also in infants and in young persons. 
 
 The art of removing cataracts is one of the greatest 
 triumphs of surgery, and is now the means of restor- 
 ing sight to thousands who would otherwise be com- 
 pelled to end their lives in darkness. In certain cases, 
 in which the cataracts are said to be soft, the sur- 
 geon is content to stir them up with a needle, and 
 leave them to dissolve ; but in others, and the ma- 
 jority, he makes an incision in the eye, and takes 
 the lens bodily out. After successful operations for 
 cataract, the use of spectacles is always necessary, 
 for one of the most important parts of the refracting 
 apparatus has been removed, and must be replaced 
 by a lens in front of the eye. 
 
 Formerly, surgeons used to "couch" for cataract; 
 that is, instead of extracting the lens from the eye, 
 they would, with a needle, displace it from the axis 
 of vision, and leave it in the deeper parts of the eye. 
 By looking again at Fig. 5, you will understand how 
 this was practicable. It is a clumsy and imperfect 
 procedure, and is now never thought of by scientific 
 surgeons. I mention it chiefly in order to remark 
 that now and then a cataract is displaced or couched, 
 by accident a blow or a violent shake, for example 
 or even without any assignable cause. In such cases 
 
 VOL. i. H
 
 98 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 the astonished subject is suddenly restored to sight. 
 It is very possible that some of the supposed miracles 
 of the middle ages may have been cases of this 
 kind. 
 
 Surgeons meet with, after operations for cataract, 
 very curious illustrations of the differences in human 
 temper. Often the most grateful triumph will be 
 displayed at the restoration of even a very limited 
 share of sight ; and now and then an old woman 
 will grumble, after a brilliant success, because she 
 " can't see well without spectacles." 
 
 In addition to the common defects which I have 
 described, and which are of great interest to the non- 
 professional reader as well as to the surgeon, the eye 
 is liable to a great number of special diseases. A 
 large group of these are seated in the deep parts of 
 the organ, and cause more or less complete blindness 
 without anything being visible externally. Such was 
 the condition of Milton : 
 
 " These eyes, though clear 
 To outward view of blemish or of spot, 
 Bereft of light, their seeing have forgot." 
 
 To this group the term AMAUROSIS used to be given ; 
 and a witty writer defined it to mean cases in which 
 the patient was blind and his surgeon could see no- 
 thing. The discoveries of modern science have, how-
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 99 
 
 ever, rendered this description no longer applicable. 
 The surgeon can now examine the deep parts of the 
 eye just as easily as those on the surface. This is 
 done by a little instrument named the Ophthalmo- 
 scope. By its aid, and with artificial light properly 
 arranged, the interior of the eyeball, its blood-vessels, 
 the optic nerve, etc., can be readily seen, and any 
 disease which may be present easily appreciated. It 
 is not practicable here to describe either its use or 
 its revelations. We may remark, however, that many 
 of the details of the eye as seen by the ophthalmo- 
 scope are exceedingly beautiful and interesting, and 
 that there is no reason why doctors should keep them 
 to themselves. The instrument is as easily used as 
 the microscope; and it is to be hoped that, before 
 long, opportunities will be afforded to amateur physi- 
 ologists, as well as to professionals, for enjoying the 
 marvels which it displays. A countryman of our own, 
 Mr. Gumming, made the earliest observations on the 
 possibility of seeing into the living eye; but it was 
 reserved for Helmholtz, Coccius, and Reute, of Ger- 
 many, to invent and perfect the instrument which 
 has, in a double sense, thrown such a flood of light 
 on the obscure diseases of the eye. Their successful 
 labours entitle them to high rank amongst the bene- 
 factors of mankind.
 
 ioo PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 In reference to the diseases of the deep parts, we 
 must say a few words respecting the ANATOMY OP THE 
 RETINA, etc. By referring again to Fig. 5, the reader 
 will see that the optic nerve enters the back of the 
 eyeball, or rather it passes backwards out of the eye, 
 and thence into the skull, to be joined to the brain. 
 Phis nerve begins in the eye as a delicate outspread 
 membrane, which lines the back of its cavity, and is 
 in contact with the vitreous humour, which latter 
 supports it, and holds it in place. The retina is indi- 
 cated in Fig. 5 by a broken line. This retina is the 
 structure which receives impressions. On it, as on 
 a photographer's plate, images of objects seen are 
 focussed by the lens apparatus in front. By means 
 of the optic nerve (a bundle of nerve-fibres, or tele- 
 graph wires), the retina is made continuous with the 
 brain; indeed, it may, in a certain sense, be regarded 
 as a part of the brain drawn out of the skull, and 
 packed within the eyeball to serve a special purpose. 
 In structure, the retina consists of nerve fibres, and 
 of a very delicate and complicated arrangement of 
 minute nerve-cells. Close behind the retina is THE 
 CHOEOID, a membrane which supplies the back of the 
 retina with blood, and which also, being loaded with 
 black pigment, .serves to absorb any superfluous 
 light. In white rabbits, in albinoes, etc., there is no
 
 THE EYE AND SIGHT. 101 
 
 pigment in the choroid, and hence the red glare of 
 their eyes, and hence, also, an inability to bear 
 strong light. Outside the choroid we come to THE 
 SCLEROTIC, the thick, strong, white membrane which 
 gives form to the eyeball, and supports the whole of 
 its marvellous internal mechanism.
 
 IV. 
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 IN our previous chapters we have been treating of 
 those of our senses which minister specially to the 
 mind. We come now to those which are connected 
 more closely with the body; and we see at once a 
 great distinction. For hearing and for seeing at 
 least, as we see and hear we require not only nerves 
 capable of being affected by the minute vibrations of 
 light and the larger ones of sound, but also very 
 intricate and complicated organs to receive these vi- 
 brations, and convey them to a not less complicated 
 aervous structure. But the remaining senses are more 
 simple. Wonderful as is the power of appreciating 
 the variety of odours and of tastes that are presented 
 to us, and vast as are the pleasure and advantage 
 thence arising, we shall see that they are conferred 
 by very simple means ; and so may note that in 
 .Nature, as there is no grudging of resources, so also 
 there is no waste. Nothing is done for show. The 
 perfect beauty of the human form is the expression of 
 work most perfectly, and in the simplest way, adapted 
 for its end.
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL, 103 
 
 We will take first the faculty of smell. The place 
 which this sense occupies is determined by its nature. 
 It must be situated in the channel through which we 
 breathe, inasmuch as the perception of odours is very 
 largely dependent upon the passage of air over the 
 nerve which is to be affected by them. We can 
 imagine that the eyes, or at least the ears, might 
 have been placed elsewhere without losing much of 
 their usefulness, indeed, if Professor Huxley is to be 
 believed, some creatures have them in their tails, but 
 smelling must be seated in the nose. How tantaliz- 
 ing a delicious odour would be, if we could not sniff 
 it up. This action is the equivalent of " looking/' 
 or " listening ; " and, indeed, it may explain to us, 
 by an easy example, what the real nature of looking 
 or listening, or, in a wider sense, of attending, is. 
 Besides the action of the mind, trying to perceive, 
 there is, in all cases of attending to our bodily im- 
 pressions, a bodily action also an action of the 
 muscles. We "sniff up" a faint sound by adjusting 
 the tension of the drum, and in examining a minute 
 object the eye "sniffs up" by contraction of the 
 pupil and adjustment of the lens. In this respect, 
 as in others, one law goes through all the senses. 
 
 Even if we did not smell at all, we must still have 
 a nose to breathe through. For it may not be amiss
 
 T04 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 to remark being upon noses that the habit of 
 breathing through the mouth instead is a very bad 
 one, and one that should never be tolerated, especially 
 in children. Not that it should be combated by 
 command or argument alone, though these are need- 
 ful, still less by punishment. It never exists unless 
 there is an impediment to the natural way of breath- 
 ing, in the form, generally, of swelling of the lining 
 of the nose or throat, and that impediment should of 
 course be cured. 
 
 We ought to breathe, not through our mouths, 
 but through our noses, not only because it is by this 
 means alone that we can duly receive and enjoy the 
 odours (when enjoyable) which accompany every 
 breath, or take warning by them if the contrary, but 
 because the nose is itself a natural respirator. It 
 contains a special provision for warming and moisten- 
 ing the air inspired. Fig. 1, which represents a 
 section of the nose from, above downwards, illustrates 
 this point. The reader is supposed to be looking from 
 behind, and the section to be made about half-way 
 between the tip of the nose and the ear. It will be 
 seen that instead of being a simple channel, through 
 which the air might pass unimpeded, it is cut up 
 into a number of small and winding passages. It is, 
 in fact, subdivided by various curved plates of bone,
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 105 
 
 which project from each side towards the central par- 
 tition, and leave at no part more than a comparatively 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 SECTION THKOUGH THE NOSE FROM ABOVE DOWNWARDS. 
 
 a. Bone of forehead. 1). The frontal cells, c. Central partition, or 
 septum, of the nose. d. The middle spongy bone. e. The inferior 
 spongy bone. /. Cavity in the cheek bone. g. Communication of this 
 cavity with the nose. 
 
 narrow space. Besides this, the nose communicates 
 with large free spaces on each side and above, which 
 are all of them filled with air. The spaces at the 
 sides lie behind the projections called the "cheek 
 bones/' and the spaces above constitute the promi- 
 nence, much larger in some persons than in others, 
 just above the nose and between the eyes. Now
 
 io6 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 these spaces have nothing to do with smell, neither 
 indeed has all the lower part much the larger part 
 of the nose itself. The large, curved, projecting 
 bone (Fig. 1, d), called the lower spongy lone, and all 
 the portion of the nose on a level with and below 
 it, receive none of the nerves of smell. These are 
 confined to the upper part of the cavity (see Fig 2). 
 The lower two-thirds, nearly, of the nose, and all 
 the adjoining cavities, serve to prepare the air for 
 the purposes of breathing, and at the same time fit 
 it to act more powerfully in exciting the sense of 
 smell. 
 
 For this purpose these parts are covered with a 
 thick layer of membrane which, especially in the 
 neighbourhood of the spongy bone, receives a very 
 large supply of blood. (Thus it is that the nose 
 bleeds so freely and so frequently.) This membrane 
 secretes the mucus with which the nose is moistened, 
 and it thus serves at once to warm and to moisten 
 the air which is inhaled, and which must pass over 
 this surface before it can reach either the lungs or 
 the upper portion of the nose appropriated to the 
 sense of smell. The tears, also, which are continually 
 washing the surface of the eye (see page 65), pass 
 down into this portion of the nose, and so help to 
 maintain its moisture. During " colds " these secre-
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 107 
 
 tions are sometimes enormously increased. The cells 
 which line the lower part of the nose as in many 
 other parts of the body are provided with what are 
 termed cilia minute hair-like processes, which during 
 life, and indeed for a short time after death, are in 
 a state of rapid motion to and fro. Thus regular 
 currents are maintained in any fluids that may be 
 present. In the upper part of the nose, where smell 
 is performed, the cells do not posses cilia, and the 
 membrane is still softer and thicker, affording a bed 
 for a special nervous structure. 
 
 This nervous structure is represented in Fig. 2, 
 which shows the olfactory nerve (as the nerve of 
 smell is termed) as it is distributed on the outer 
 side of each nostril. It is distributed also in a 
 similar way upon each side of the central partition. 
 These nerves come off on each side, from a bulb of 
 nervous matter (Fig. 2, &), which consists of small 
 cells like the grey matter of the brain, and which is 
 connected with the brain by a short stem. The 
 bulbs lie within the skull, immediately above the 
 nose, and the nerves pass into the nostrils through 
 some twenty or more small orifices in the bone ; 
 which accordingly, when it is dry, looks somewhat 
 like a sieve at this part, and is called the " sieve-like 
 plate." Passing through the perforated plate of bone,
 
 loS PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 the nerves form a close network on both sides, and 
 on the roof of the narrow upper portion of the nose 
 (see Fig. 1). Besides these special nerves of smell, 
 the interior of the nose is supplied with nerves which 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 THE DISTKIBTJTION OF THE NEETE OF SMELL IN THE OUTEK WALL OF THE 
 
 NOSE. 
 
 a. The bulb of the olfactory nerve, b. Its branches, c. and d. 
 Branches of a nerve of ordinary sensation, e. Distribution of these on 
 the lower spongy bone. Below are seen the upper and part of the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 give it ordinary sensation, and which are parts of 
 the same nerve that gives sensation to the face, the 
 eyes, the teeth. 
 
 The nerve of smell is different in its character from
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 109 
 
 the other nerves, being very soft, and not having a 
 distinct outer part, or sheath, and internal " axis." * 
 It is unlike any other nerve also so far as is yet 
 known in this, that it passes to the very surface of 
 the body, its fibres at their termination being entirely 
 uncovered. The cells which clothe the mucous mem- 
 brane on which it is distributed are of what is called 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 TWO OF THE CELLS WHICH COVER THE MEMBRANE OF THE NOSE, WITH 
 ONE OF THE TERMINATIONS OF THE NERVE OF SMELL. 
 
 a. nerve. &. cells. Magnified 500 diameters. (After Schultzc.) 
 
 the columnar form (see Fig. 3, a). And lying side 
 by side with them are found minute rods or cylin- 
 
 * It has been doubted by some whether this nerve really is the organ 
 of smell, but into this controversy we need not enter. One of the 
 strongest arguments for its being so is, that it is more developed in 
 animals in proportion as their sense of smell is strong.
 
 no PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 ders, with, cell-like expansions about midway in their 
 length, which there is good reason for believing to 
 be the ends of the olfactory nerves (see Fig. 3, &). 
 These nervous rods or cylinders are very numerous, 
 so as to surround the cells of the mucous membrane 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 SURFACE OF THE MEMBRANE OF THE NOSE (MAGNIFIED 500 DIAMETERS). 
 
 The large spaces are the ends of the cells. The ends of the nerves are 
 the small white points around them. From the horse. (After Schultze.) 
 
 (see Fig. 4), and they terminate on the same level 
 with them, so that they come into direct contact 
 with the air and whatever odorous substance it may 
 convey, except in so far as they are guarded by the 
 mucous fluid that bathes the whole surface. This 
 fluid it is the function of numerous small glands 
 (little bags lined with small cells), embedded in the 
 soft and pulpy membrane, to secrete (see Fig. 5, d). 
 
 This is the simple arrangement of parts on which the 
 sense of smell depends. 
 
 The external form of the organ which contains them is
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 too well known to need description. But it may be 
 mentioned that the outward nose is made up of two 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 C J ^ = ~- 
 
 SECTION OF THE MEMBRANE LINING THE NOSE. 
 
 a. Layer of cells. &. Boundary between the cells and the membrane 
 beneath, c. The nerve of smell, d. Small glands. Magnified 200 
 diameters. (After Schultze.) 
 
 portions : an upper, rigid, and consisting of thin plates of 
 bone; and a lower, movable, and composed of several 
 distinct portions of cartilage or gristle, which are acted 
 on by four small muscles on each side. Thus the nose
 
 112 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 is able, by its motions, not only to take its due part in 
 the expression of the countenance, but also to assist in 
 respiration, as we may well see in the flushed face of a 
 child who has run himself out of breath, and often but 
 too often on sad sick-beds, in the pale and livid counte- 
 nance of suffocating men. The opening of the nostrils is 
 lined with small hairs, which serve as some protection 
 against the intrusion of foreign bodies floating in the air, 
 and they lead into the upper and back part of the throat 
 by three partially distinct passages, called the upper, 
 middle, and lower meatus of the nose, which are 
 separated from each other by the lower and middle 
 spongy bones (see Fig. 2). 
 
 The sense of smell is very widely distributed among 
 animals, in many of which the olfactory nerves are much 
 larger than in man ; and even when no olfactory nerve 
 can be found, the possession of smell is often proved by 
 actions. Its chief use appears to be to aid in the choice 
 and discovery of food, and it might be expected, there- 
 fore, to be more acute in many classes of animals, such 
 as the beasts of prey, than in ourselves, who are in this 
 respect less dependent on it. The development of this 
 sense in dogs is very remarkable ; and not less so is the 
 peculiar direction it appears to receive in different 
 species, which is probably not wholly due to training, 
 each having as it were its own natural prey. And the
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 113 
 
 chemist, who has to trace out the poisoner, often, like 
 the bloodhound, hunts him down by smell; in many 
 cases distinguishing by their odours the different 
 forms of poison better than by any other means. But 
 perhaps the most remarkable development of the sense 
 of smell is found in the insect tribe; and Dr. Hicks 
 has recently shown that a large nerve, which goes to 
 the posterior pair of wings in four-winged insects, 
 or the corresponding nerve in those that have only 
 two (as the house-fly), is the nerve of smell. In many 
 classes of insects this nerve is larger or smaller, as 
 the eyes are less or more perfect : it is very small, for 
 instance, in those which pursue their prey by sight, 
 as the dragon-flies, the eyes of which are so conspicu- 
 ously large. In moths, like the silk-worm moth, the 
 sense of smell appears to be carried to the highest pitch, 
 and to have its chief use in match-making. 
 
 But even in man, the sense of smell is sometimes very 
 acute. There are persons who can distinguish the 
 presence of a cat through several doors. And, like all 
 our senses, it is susceptible of great development by 
 exercise. The savage smells almost like the dog ; and 
 persons unhappily deprived of other senses have some- 
 times found in this lowly faculty no inconsiderable com- 
 pensation. It is recorded of James Mitchell, who was 
 born blind and deaf, that he could distinguish persons 
 
 VOL. I. I
 
 ii4 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 and recognise strangers by the sense of smell. Hum- 
 boldt states that the Peruvian Indians can distinguish by 
 it, in the dark, persons of different races. 
 
 A distinction must be made between odours, properly 
 so called, and other sensations which the nose shares in 
 common with the rest of the surface, such as that of the 
 heat of mustard or the pungency of hartshorn. These 
 we do not smell, but feel, and we feel them with peculiar 
 acuteness in the nose, because there the sensitive nerve 
 has a very thin covering. This feeling of hot or pungent 
 bodies may remain when the sense of smell is entirely 
 lost, a loss which not very unfrequently occurs, either 
 from the effect of often-repeated "colds," or from 
 disorder of the nerves. It is happily not a very serious 
 inconvenience, the chief disadvantage being the absence 
 of protection against hurtful vapours, which often betray 
 themselves by their fetor. In some cases, in which the 
 sense of smell has been lost, the presence of ill odours 
 could still be recognised by a tendency to increased 
 secretion of saliva which they produced. On the other 
 hand, persons who have never possessed this sense at all 
 (and some are born without it) may pass a long life and 
 never discover its absence. If, however, it has been 
 once possessed, its loss is felt as a great privation. One 
 of our most gifted authors thus afflicted, describes in 
 touching language, the exquisite delight which the
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 115 
 
 sudden perception, though but for a moment, of the 
 odour of a field of beans in full bloom afforded. 
 
 Nor, indeed, should we be at all in the right if we 
 despised the sense of smell as a trifling possession, 
 or even if we estimated its value however highly we 
 might place it on these grounds by the mere bodily 
 advantages or pleasures it secures. Though ranking 
 behind sight and hearing, smell also is a faculty with 
 spiritual relations. These are manifested in various 
 ways. Perhaps one of the most interesting is the 
 strange power which sensations of odour have of 
 awakening memory, and recalling with extraordinary 
 vividness long past and forgotten scenes. Tennyson 
 refers to this power in his " Dream of Fair Women " : 
 
 " The smell of violets, hidden in the green, 
 
 Poured back into my empty soul and frame 
 The times when I remember to have been 
 Joyful and free from blame." 
 
 And very many of us, who are not poets, have had the 
 days of childhood in all their innocence flashed back 
 upon us with the freshness of reality by some sudden 
 odour, which has brought at once tears to our eyes and 
 purer thoughts to our hearts. 
 
 Whether it was from associations of this kind, or 
 from some feelings connected with odours that the 
 distractions of later days have lost us, perhaps we cannot
 
 u6 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 now discover, but that the early world felt a sacredness 
 in odours of which we have lost the consciousness, 
 seems beyond question. Through all antiquity not a 
 temple was erected to any god that did not smoke with 
 continual offerings of frankincense and all sweet per- 
 fumes. The same feeling, that fragrance was the best 
 and highest of all gifts, extended itself into private life ; 
 and if any man would receive a guest with special 
 honour, or testify the utterest grief and love for a 
 departed friend, he lavished upon him the richest spices 
 and the costliest perfumes. And though much of pride 
 and luxury in private life, and much of gross superstition 
 in religion, mingled with and defiled these usages, yet 
 that they were not devoid of a genuine foundation many 
 passages of Scripture may teach us. The Jews were 
 commanded to offer sacrifices of sweet smells, and a 
 special altar to burn incense upon was directed to be 
 made of shittim-wood, overlaid with gold. Nor is the 
 meaning of these sweet-smelling sacrifices left doubtful. 
 They were the types of praise and prayer ; the ascending 
 smoke represented the sighs, the songs, of the assembled 
 congregation ; it wafted visibly to heaven the groanings 
 that could not be uttered, the gratitude too deep for 
 words. What passionate longings, crushed into the 
 deepest recesses of the heart, where no human eye could 
 see them ; what secret bursts of exultation and delight,
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 117 
 
 have poured themselves out, have found themselves 
 written large and full yet unbetrayed in those fra- 
 grant wreaths that filled the Temple, acceptable to Him 
 who filleth heaven and earth : crowned by the passion 
 of that heart which broke in fragrance on the Saviour's 
 feet ! And still, in highest heaven, the prayers of the 
 saints are as vials full of odour; these prayers, wrung 
 from our hearts by fierce sorrows, by terrible temptations, 
 by consciousness of weakness, by sense of sin; these 
 are the sweet odours unto Him. They are made sweet 
 by sympathy, by knowledge of the triumph they foretell. 
 To us in this aspect odours are as nothing. They 
 have sunk, even, almost into an undeserved contempt, 
 as the very types of luxury. It is interesting to in- 
 quire why this should be. The difference has been 
 ascribed to a greater sensitiveness to odours on the 
 part of the early and Eastern nations, together with 
 the greater abundance of perfumes in the warmer 
 climates they inhabited, and the need they felt for 
 bathing, with subsequent anointing. But we do not 
 think these are the true reasons, though they may 
 have had some share in bringing about the change. 
 To us it appears that a truer and more powerful cause 
 is to be found in the gradual development of music. 
 The ear, in short, has supplanted the nose. It is in 
 sound, and not in scent, that the emotions of the modern
 
 ir8 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 world find their expression. Though musical instru- 
 ments were in use from the earliest periods, the ancients 
 could hardly be said to have had, in our sense of the 
 word, any music; and when we consider what that is 
 to us and does for us, we can hardly fail to see that, 
 if our fathers really were of like passions with ourselves, 
 they must have needed something to supply its place. 
 This their use of odours evidently did. They employed 
 them in public places, bestowed them on their friends 
 at their entertainments, made them part of every 
 public ceremonial ; all which we do with music. Above 
 all, they made perfumes a chief element in their religious 
 services; but with us music has emphatically taken 
 this place. It weeps and exults and aspires for us ; 
 it teaches oar languid hearts to feel; and while it 
 lifts our very souls to heaven, we cannot miss the 
 wreaths of odorous smoke that performed the same ser- 
 vice for the men of old. 
 
 It is no argument against this view that some 
 earnest religious bodies repudiate music except in its 
 simplest forms, and that those churches which make 
 most use of music, as the Greek and Roman, also 
 still use incense to a slight extent. More than one 
 cause, doubtless, has been at work, but the fact of 
 the substitution of sound for odour is manifest, and 
 indeed the change is a natural one ; the affinity
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 119 
 
 of the two senses is especially close, and the 
 sweet scents prepared by nature may well have been 
 the forerunners to untutored man of the sweet sounds 
 the cunning brain and fingers of his maturer days 
 should develop for himself. In "Twelfth Night," 
 Shakspeare makes the duke say of music, 
 
 " That strain again: it had a dying fall; 
 Oh it came o'er my ear like the sweet south, 
 That breathes upon a bank of violets, 
 Stealing and giving odour." 
 
 So, again, Lord Bacon, in his essay " Of Gardens," 
 says, " The breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air 
 ii'here it comes and goes like the warbling of music 
 than in the hand." These two passages alone might 
 suffice to make us feel that in its deeper meaning per- 
 fume is one with music. 
 
 In substituting the latter for the former, doubtless, 
 we are largely gainers on the whole. The ear is an 
 organ of far greater capacity for spiritual purposes 
 than the nose ; but the gain may not be altogether on 
 our side. We may concede that we have lost some- 
 thing through that more frigid temperament and less 
 genial clime which have degraded the sense of smell 
 into a mere matter of bodily pleasure, and sanitary or 
 scientific use. But on the whole it is a gain. If the 
 musical faculty could only be fully developed at
 
 120 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 the expense of the sense of smell, it was well the latter 
 should be sacrificed; well, too, that in these days, 
 when there is so much work for it to perform in 
 making and keeping our cities wholsome, the nose 
 should not be diverted from its proper work, in which 
 it is unsurpassable, to romantic enterprises and toils 
 of imagination, for which it is less fitted. The nose 
 is a working organ after all, and loses no real dignity 
 in resigning to the ear the function of rousing and ex- 
 pressing feeling. 
 
 On this point the late and much-to-be-lamented 
 George Wilson has some remarks so excellent, that 
 we cannot forbear quoting them. 
 
 " I have not seen it anywhere laid down as a general 
 rule, but I believe it might be affirmed, that we are 
 intended to be impressed only sparingly and transiently 
 by odour. There is a provision for this in the fact 
 that all odours are vapours or gases, or otherwise 
 volatile substances, so that they touch but the inside 
 of the nostril and then pass away. 
 
 "In conformity with this fleeting character of odorous 
 bodies, it is a law in reference to ourselves, to which 
 as far as I know, there is no exception, that there is 
 not any substance having a powerful smell of which 
 it is safe to take much internally. The most familiar 
 poisonous vegetables, such as the poppy, hemlock,
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 121 
 
 henbane, monk's-hood, and the plants containing 
 prussic acid, have all a strong and peculiar smell. 
 Nitric, muriatic, acetic, and other corrosive acids, have 
 characteristic potent odours, and all are poisons. Even 
 bodies with agreeable odours, like oil of roses, or 
 cinnamon, or lavender, are wholesome only in very 
 small quantities ; and when the odour is repulsive, only 
 iii the smallest quantities. Without accordingly en- 
 larging on a topic which might be unwelcome to many, 
 it may be sufficient to say here, that, so far as health 
 is concerned, the nostrils should be but sparingly 
 gratified with pleasing odours, or distressed by un- 
 grateful ones. No greater mistake can be made in 
 sick rooms than dealing largely in aromatic vinegar, 
 eau de cologne, lavender water, and other perfumes. 
 This hiding of one odour by another, is like trying to 
 put away the taste of bitter aloes by that of Epsom 
 salts. Physical comfort is best secured by rarely per- 
 mitting an infraction of the rule, that the condition of 
 health is no odour at all. 
 
 " Turning from this lowest and least attractive aspect 
 of the sense of smell to one which acquires a higher 
 importance from the moral considerations which, in 
 some respects, it involves, it is of interest to notice how 
 much longer we tolerate a forbidding odour than we 
 continue to relish a grateful one.
 
 122 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 "Perfumes quickly pall upon us, and we loathe the 
 concentrated essences of even the sweetest flowers. 
 But, in their daily calling, men submit without murmur 
 to the most repulsive effluvia, and work even cheerfully 
 amidst noisome gases. In the one case we seek pleasure, 
 and are disappointed, because the nerves of smell, 
 dulled by the first impression upon them, cannot with 
 equal sensitiveness respond to a second. In the other, 
 for the same reason, we can suffer without discomfort 
 the diminished sharpness of the irritation, whose sharp- 
 est provocations are its first. There is thus a physical rea- 
 son why we should tire of a smell once pleasant, and grow 
 indifferent to a smell once unwelcome. There is a moral 
 reason also. For in the one case we think of pleasure, 
 and in the other of duty. The palled perfume tells us 
 that but little of our lives may be spent in merely pleasing 
 our senses. The tolerated infection bids us sit by the 
 sick man's side, and set the preciousness of his life over 
 against a little discomfort to ourselves. And so it is 
 that, while the listless voluptuary flings away the 
 rose which has become scentless to him, the metal- 
 worker labours heartily among the vapours from his 
 crucibles and refining vessels, and the bleacher inhales 
 without a murmur the fumes of his chlorine ; while, 
 most tried of all, the busy anatomist asks no one for 
 pity, but forgets the noisome odours about him, in
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 123 
 
 delight at the exquisite structures which he is tracing, 
 and the heroic physician thinks only of the lives he 
 can save."* 
 
 Nothing is more wonderful in respect to the sense 
 of smell than the minuteness of the substances which 
 are capable of affecting it. One part of musk in 
 thirteen millions of air can be detected. Whether 
 odorous substances give off minute particles which 
 reach the nostrils, or whether smell may be excited 
 by a motion caused by them, like that of heat or 
 light, is not certainly decided; but probably both 
 occur. Many odorous bodies, such as camphor, per- 
 form peculiar motions when small portions are placed 
 on water ; and Professor Tomlinson found that these 
 were due to the rapid giving off of minute particles 
 which form a film on the water. But the most in- 
 teresting experiments on odorous bodies are those 
 described by Professor Tyndall, in his recent volume on 
 " Heat considered as a Mode of Motion." He finds 
 that the minute atoms of which all gases consist, must 
 be regarded as being in a state of motion, each one 
 tending to fly off from the rest in a straight line; an 
 odorous vapour fills a room so rapidly by virtue of this 
 tendency of all its atoms, and it would fill it much more 
 
 * The Five Gateways of Knowledge, p. 61.
 
 124 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 quickly except that these atoms as they fly strike against 
 and are hindered by the atoms of the air. But again, 
 he finds, that odorous exhalations absorb a vast amount 
 of heat. "No chemist/' he says, "ever weighed the 
 perfume of a rose; but in radiant heat we have a test 
 more refined than the chemist's balance. The quantity 
 of hartshorn removed from a bottle by a single act of 
 smelling, exercises more action on radiant heat than 
 all the air contained in a large room. By testing 
 various perfumes, Professor Tyndall found that that 
 of the geranium absorbed thirty-three times as much 
 heat as air, while that of aniseed absorbed three hun- 
 dred and seventy-two times as much. 
 
 This fact indicates that odorous substances are in 
 a state highly prone to active change ; and Professor 
 Graham has pointed out that, generally speaking, 
 they are substances which are prone to unite with 
 oxygen. Nor can we smell unless the odorous body 
 is accompanied by a stream of air. 
 
 We may be sure of one thing : that if the nose had 
 not sunk down into a very degraded rank, it would never 
 have been made a snuff-box. But however much a 
 naturally refined and delicate organ may be thus 
 perverted, perhaps it can hardly be affirmed that the 
 moderate use of snuff does any special harm. It is, 
 however, a matter worth considering, now that there is
 
 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 125 
 
 so much evidence that excessive smoking injures the 
 sight, whether the application of tobacco to a region so 
 closely connected with the eyes may not tend to injure 
 them. But besides snuff-taking, which may itself be 
 considered a disease, the nose is not subject to many 
 morbid conditions. The small glands which cover it 
 sometimes become obstructed with their own secretion, 
 and give it a spotted appearance. Of this condition we 
 shall speak when we treat of the skin. It becomes red 
 from over-living, and from under-living likewise ; be- 
 cause in each case the circulation of the blood is dis- 
 ordered. 
 
 When the nose is very prone to bleed, and cannot 
 be arrested by door-keys down the back, or by cold 
 water freely applied, the best plan is to let the child 
 stand with his arms raised. He should be well sup- 
 ported, and should be kept in this position until the 
 bleeding ceases, which it does when he becomes faint. 
 But nose-bleeding is in some cases so serious an affair, 
 as to demand for its treatment the utmost surgical 
 skill. When the nostrils are obstructed by thickening 
 of their lining membrane, which is indicated by the 
 mouth being kept partly open, by snoring, by a choky 
 sound of voice, or when the breath coming from the 
 nostrils is offensive, general medical treatment is re- 
 quired, including plenty of air, exercise, and good food,
 
 126 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 and guarding from draughts and damp; but, in the 
 meantime, it is a most useful plan to draw up, quite 
 through the nose into the throat, a little water, to half-a- 
 pint of which a teaspoonful of salt has been added, and 
 thus to wash the passage. In not a few cases, however, 
 obstruction to the breathing through the nostrils arises 
 from soft pulpy growths, which are the better for prompt 
 attention.
 
 V. 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 TASTE appears to stand midway between the sense of 
 smell and that of touch. It is closely allied in its use, 
 and in the nature of the sensations it gives, to smell; 
 from which it is, indeed, sometimes almost indistinguish- 
 able. But in the character of the organs on which it 
 depends it more resembles touch, and this in two 
 respects : first, that we can only taste substances which 
 are in contact with our own body ; and, secondly, that 
 the nerves by which we taste are not, like those of 
 sight, of hearing, and of smell, capable of that one 
 office alone, but are ordinary nerves which can discern 
 general sensations as those of pleasure or pain, or 
 heat or cold, or touch, besides. 
 
 Thus, as we descend in the rank of the senses, we 
 find less and less that is special. In the eye and ear 
 we have a special nerve and a special mechanism to 
 receive the impression as well; in smell there is no 
 special mechanism, a part of the general mucous surface 
 of the body suffices to receive the impression of odours, 
 but there is a special nerve; in taste, there is neither 
 a special nerve nor special mechanism.
 
 128 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 For though the tongue is the chief organ of taste, 
 we must not think of it as being the only organ, or as 
 existing even chiefly for that end. As the nose exists 
 rather for breathing than for smelling, so the tongue is, 
 in truth, more an organ of touch than of taste ; it exists 
 rather as a means of grasping than of enjoying food, and 
 might, perhaps, best be regarded as a kind of third or 
 subsidiary hand ; as we see when we look at its use in 
 many of the lower animals. 
 
 In the shell-fish and the like to begin with the lowest 
 creatures that have tongues this organ bears their teeth, 
 and serves, not to taste, but to masticate. In many 
 fishes, too, the tongue bears teeth, whereby they grasp 
 their prey ; some others having no tongue at all. 
 
 Among reptiles, the frog catches flies between the two 
 portions into which the tongue is divided, as between the 
 limbs of a forceps ; and the chameleon uses its tongue in 
 the same way, darting it out to a length exceeding that 
 of its whole body, and entangling insects by means of a 
 viscid secretion with which its club-shaped extremity is 
 covered. 
 
 In birds, the tongue is usually horny at the tip, though 
 there are some exceptions, of which the parrot is one. 
 Its hand-use is seen in many instances ; in the humming- 
 bird it is rolled into a sucking-tube, and terminates in 
 hair-like filaments for retaining the nectar of flowers ,- in
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 129 
 
 the toucan (a bird of the parrot tribe) it is fringed with 
 bristly processes for trying the ripeness of fruit ; and in 
 the woodpeckers it is barbed with sharp spines for 
 seizing insects. 
 
 Among mammalia, we may mention the tongue of the 
 anteater, which resembles somewhat that of the chame- 
 leon, and in seizing its natural food is protruded sixteen 
 or eighteen inches. Some bats, again, possess in their 
 tongue a perfect sucking organ ; and who has not noticed 
 how the horse lays hold of the grass with his tongue ? 
 In the flesh-eaters (the Carnivora), that organ is armed 
 with horny recurved spines, which aid in grasping their 
 food, or in rasping the flesh from the bones, not to speak 
 of its use in cleaning their own coats. Of those four- 
 handed creatures, the monkeys, we will not speak; no 
 doubt they making, as they do, a fifth hand of their 
 tails find little need for a hand-function in their 
 tongues. But even in ourselves, it is noteworthy, that, 
 so far as regards delicacy of sensation, the tongue is still 
 the most highly endowed organ of touch, and can dis- 
 tinguish many minute forms with greater exactitude 
 than the be%fc trained fingers. 
 
 In short, taste is a secondary function of the tongue, 
 and is by no means exclusively confined to that organ. 
 The upper and back part of the mouth is also endowed 
 with this sense, and so, it would appear, from some 
 
 VOL. i. K
 
 130 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 recent experiments of Professor Syme, is the upper 
 portion of the throat, still more highly. Having had 
 occasion to remove the whole tongue of a man, Mr. 
 Syme found that his patient could still distinguish 
 different articles by their taste, but only when they 
 passed into the pharynx in the process of swallowing. 
 From this it would appear that the act of swallowing is 
 essential to a full perception of taste. And the Pro- 
 fessor well remarks, " If the pleasure of taste could be 
 perfectly gratified by mastication without deglutition, 
 there would be no limit to the consumption of food ; 
 but the instinctive desire to swallow an agreeable morsel, 
 affords a check to any such abuse." 
 
 "We may add, that, although no doubt very naughty, 
 children are perhaps not quite so unreasonable as is 
 supposed in refusing to swallow nasty medicines, when 
 they have taken them into their mouths. 
 
 Still taste resides chiefly in the tongue, both by virtue 
 of the fuller distribution there of the nerves of taste, and 
 also because the tongue is able, by its motions, to roll 
 sapid bodies between itself and the walls of the mouth, 
 by which means their flavour is greatly inoreased. For 
 he sense of taste appears to depend upon the substance 
 tasted being dissolved, and its solution penetrating 
 through the minute cells which cover the tongue (as they 
 cover all the rest of the internal surfaces of the body) ,
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 and coming into contact with the nerves which lie 
 beneath them. This, of course, is greatly aided by the 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 SURFACE OF THE TONGUE, SHOWING THE P1PILL.E. 
 
 A little more than half is given. 
 
 a. The circumvallate papillae. 6. A larger papilla, situated in the 
 centre and back part, and called the foramen ccecum. c. Fungiform 
 papillje. d. Filiform and conical papillae. /. Glands of the fauces. 
 g. Tonsil.
 
 132 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 motions of the tongue, and by the pressure which it 
 applies. 
 
 The appearance of the surface of the tongue is re- 
 presented in Fig. 1. It will be seen that it is covered 
 with small elevations, and that these are of various kinds. 
 In fact, the tongue bears on its surface no less than four 
 different kinds of organs, if we may give them that 
 name, of which one kind serves chiefly the sense of 
 touch, another renders it more useful as a means of 
 grasping objects, and two kinds serve the sense of taste. 
 These organs are all termed papillae, because they con- 
 sist in more or less pointed elevations of the covering 
 membrane, into which there pass minute blood-vessels 
 and nerves. 
 
 The first kind of papillae, those which make the tongue 
 so sensitive an organ of touch, are the smallest and most 
 
 THE SMALL PAPILLA ON THE SURFACE OF ONE OF THE (FUNGIFORM) 
 PAPILLA OF TASTE. 
 
 numerous. They are minute, sharp processes, very much 
 like the papillas which are found in the skin, and are 
 closely studded all over the tongue, and even upon the
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. % 133 
 
 surface of the larger papillae : Figs. 2 and 4 exhibit them 
 covering the papillae of taste. 
 
 The second kind of papillae, those which enable the 
 tongue to grasp, are less developed in man than in many 
 other animals; they are called filiform (or thread-like), 
 and are seen very much magnified in Fig. 3. The layer 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 OKE OF THE FILIFORM PAPILLA. 
 
 a. The papilla terminating in small secondary papillae. &. The hair- 
 like processes covering the papilla. 
 
 of cells which covers them (as it covers all the other 
 papillae) is prolonged into thin processes somewhat re- 
 sembling hairs. They are set, for the most part, with 
 a slight inclination backwards. In the carnivora these 
 papillae are very large, and the hair- like processes are 
 often of a horny consistence. These are closely set over 
 the anterior three-fourths of the tongue, especially along 
 the central part. They become shorter at the sides 
 and tip, and are arranged in slanting ridges, which 
 gradually disappear as they reach the edge.
 
 134 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 The papillae which serve taste are the largest, but 
 one kind much larger than the other. The smaller 
 of the two are called fungiform, because they are larger 
 at the upper part than at the base like a small mush- 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 SECTION OF A FUNGIFOKM PAP/LLA. 
 
 Showing the blood-vessels entering it ; at the sides are shown the 
 single loops of vessels which pass into the small papillae around. 
 
 room or fungus (see Figs. 2 and 4). They are less 
 numerous than the thread-like papillse of which we have 
 spoken, but still are scattered in large numbers over 
 the tongue, being more numerous at the sides than 
 about the centre. They are of a deep-red colour, from 
 their large supply of blood, and the layer of cells that 
 covers them is thin and soft. 
 
 The largest kind of papillae are found only at the 
 back of the tongue (see Figs. 1 and 5) . They are called 
 circumvallate (" walled-around ") because they consist 
 of a central elevation surrounded by a depression,
 
 THE SENSE OF 'TASTE. 135 
 
 around which, again, there runs a slight elevated rim. 
 Thus they resemble somewhat a citadel surrounded 
 by a trench and by an external mound, both citadel 
 and mound receiving blood-vessels and nerves. These 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 VERTICAL SECTION OF A CIBCUJIVALLATE PAPILLA. 
 
 a. The papilla. &. The surrounding wall. c. Layer of cells covering 
 them. d. Nerves, e. The smaller papillae, which, when found upon the 
 larger or taste-papillae, are called secondary. 
 
 circumvallate papillas are only from ten to fifteen in 
 number, and are arranged quite at the back ,part of 
 the tongue, in a form resembling the letter V, but with 
 a less sharp angle (see Fig. 1, a). In these papillae 
 the nerves are especially large. 
 
 It thus appears that there are two modes, slightly 
 differing, in which the nerves of taste are, as it were, 
 " housed " at the surface of the tongue. Curiously 
 enough, there are also two distinct nerves, which are 
 distributed at least in chief part one to the fungiform 
 papilla3 at the front and sides, and the other to the
 
 136 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 circumvallate papillee at the back. These two nerves 
 are seen in Fig. 6, at cj and i. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 A SIDE VIEW OF THE TONGUE. 
 
 Showing its nerves and some of its muscles. 
 
 a. The cellular covering of the tongue partially raised, b. The papillae 
 exposed, c. The circumvallate papilla, d. A muscle passing from the 
 throat to the tongue, e. The muscle which radiates from the inside of 
 the chin to the tongue. /. The artery of the tongue, g. Nerve of the 
 anterior part of the tongue, g'. Its distribution, h. Nerve passing to 
 join it through the ear. i. Nerve of the posterior part of the tongue. 
 i'. Its distribution, k. Motor nerve of the tongue, supplying its mus- 
 cles.
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 Still more curiously, it seems also to be the case tliat 
 different kinds of flavours are perceived by these two 
 nerves respectively; salt and acid substances being 
 tasted chiefly at the fore part of the tongue, and bitter 
 ones chiefly at the back. Experiments on animals also, 
 have confirmed this fact : a dog in which the nerve of 
 the posterior part of the tongue has been divided, will 
 take quinine mixed with its food, but will not take 
 acids; one in which the nerve of the anterior part has 
 been divided, will take acids, but not quinine. 
 
 And as pressure on the eye produces a sensation of 
 light, and pressure on the ear one of sound, so also in 
 the tongue various influences call forth its special sen- 
 sation of taste, and this taste differs according to the 
 part which is affected. Thus touching the tongue near 
 its root with a glass rod, or placing a drop of water 
 there, produces, at least in some persons, a distinct 
 bitter taste. 
 
 On the other hand, a current of air or a stream of 
 electricity directed to the front part causes a salt taste. 
 It was, indeed, by means of this salt taste generated in 
 the tongue by an electric current, that Yolta's attention 
 was directed to the production of electricity by the con- 
 tact of metals, and hence the whole science of gal- 
 vanism arose; showing, as Mr. Lewes well says, that 
 "nothing is trivial except to trivial minds, and to
 
 138 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 trivial minds nothing is important unless it directly 
 concerns their interests." 
 
 Professor Graham has lately pointed out a distinction 
 between substances, which consists in their being 
 capable or not capable of passing, when in solution, 
 through thin membranes.* Soluble bodies which are 
 crystalline, for the most part pass readily ; those which 
 are of a jelly-like consistence do not pass. Hence, a 
 division is made into crystalloids and colloids crystal- 
 like and jelly-like bodies. 
 
 Now, as might be expected, it is the crystalloid class 
 of bodies, those which readily pass through membranes, 
 that possess taste. And of these, acids and bitters 
 appear to be most readily detected by the tongue, then 
 saline substances, and lastly sweet ones. Of quinine 
 one part can be tasted in 33,000 of water, of sulphuric 
 acid one part in 10,000, of common salt one part in 200, 
 and of sugar there is needed one part in 80. If the 
 tongue be immersed for a short time in water made 
 cold by being mixed with ice, or at a temperature as 
 high as 125, the sense of taste is in a great measure 
 lost. 
 
 There is one exception to the necessity of a moist 
 state of the tongue for the perception of tastes, and that 
 
 * To this process he gives the name of dialysis.
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 139 
 
 is in the case of gases, which, are only tasted when 
 it is dry. Thus carbonic acid, which in water is taste- 
 less, gives a sweetish acid flavour if directed in a stream 
 upon the tongue after it has been dried. 
 
 Taste is, perhaps, almost the soonest exhausted of 
 the senses, as it is reasonable that it should be, having 
 no purpose to serve when appetite is satisfied. It is also 
 though capable of great cultivation, as in the case of 
 tea-tasters one of the least discriminating. If port 
 and sherry be alternately tasted by a man whose eyes 
 are kept shut, he soon becomes unable to distinguish 
 one from the other. This is probably due in some 
 degree to the particles of each remaining a certain time 
 in contact with the nerves. Besides, just as secondary 
 colours are seen of a contrary kind, after the vivid im- 
 pression of a very bright one, so there are secondary 
 tastes, or " after-tastes " as they are called ; some bitter 
 substances, such as tannin, being followed by a sensa- 
 tion of sweetness. And one taste also may destroy 
 another, or at least may dull the perception of a hot 
 and pungent body. If it is masticated with a large 
 quantity of salt, the pod of the red pepper may be eaten 
 without burning the tongue. 
 
 Thus we may see that the art of the cook demands no 
 contemptible skill so to mingle flavours as to bring out 
 the full power of each, and so to cause them to sue-
 
 140 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 ceed each other as that each may add a relish to the 
 next.* And though nothing is more contemptible, and 
 few things more degrading, than to be a slave to the 
 pleasures of the table, it yet behoves us gratefully to 
 recognise the goodness that has surrounded the neces- 
 sary act of taking food with enjoyments which, if 
 moderately used and made the means of cultivating the 
 social affections, are not without their elevating in- 
 fluences. And it should never be forgotten, especially 
 by those who have the management of children, that 
 the pleasantness of the taste of food is a very important 
 element in its value. No mistake could be greater than 
 to suppose that our pleasures are squandered are 
 wasted on us with no other result, though that is no 
 mean one, than our enjoyment. Every one of them, 
 in its due place, is a potent influence for good, even 
 on our bodily frames. The thrill of natural delight 
 that runs through a sensitive nerve imparts a fresh 
 vigour to every function. But the delight must be 
 a natural one ; the over-stimulation of the sense of 
 pleasure exhausts as much as its natural gratification 
 refreshes. 
 
 * In Eussia, dinners sometimes begin with toasted cheese, and 
 apparently with good effect. Perhaps, acting as a strong stimulus to 
 the papilla, it increases their sensibility.
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 141 
 
 And this law of the usefulness of natural pleasure is 
 strikingly exemplified in the sense of taste. The food 
 that is enjoyed is the food that is digested. The 
 pleasure of eating is an essential factor in the due ap- 
 propriation of the meal. In the first place, the savour 
 of the food is the natural stimulus to the glands which 
 secrete the saliva, and causes this fluid, which plays a 
 very important part in digestion, to be poured forth in 
 due quantity.* And there can be little doubt that the 
 pleasurable sensations of taste have a similar influence 
 upon the stomach, besides the general improvement of 
 digestive tone which they induce. 
 
 It is important for health that the food should be 
 enjoyed, and therefore that within the bounds of strict 
 moderation it should be such as can be enjoyed. This 
 should be especially remembered in the case of invalids, 
 the whole course of whose diseases may depend upon 
 their food being such as excites and pleases their 
 appetite. Nor should too strict a regard be paid, in 
 many cases of sickness, to what is, however justly, con- 
 sidered " wholesome." Medicines are not exactly 
 " wholesome," yet they are necessary for some persons ; 
 and foods not of very wholesome kinds are sometimes 
 
 * That the saliva may be well mixed with the food, is one reason for 
 the importance of perfect mastication.
 
 142 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 of use when the sick man's, or sick child's, appetite 
 demands them. Care should be taken to distinguish 
 between a genuine craving of nature, and a merely 
 acquired taste, or a desire, such as that for slate pencil, 
 which is a symptom of disease requiring a proper treat- 
 ment. But with due prudence here, a very humble 
 deference to the demands of appetite is the fitting mode 
 of feeding the sick. 
 
 On this subject Sir Henry Holland remarks that " we 
 are authorized to give greatest heed to the stomach 
 when it suggests some seeming extravagance of diet. 
 It may be that this is a mere depravation of the sense 
 of taste ; but frequently it expresses a real need of the 
 stomach, either in aid of its own functions, or indirectly 
 for the effecting of changes in the whole mass of blood. 
 It is a good practical rule in such cases to withhold 
 assent till we find, after a certain lapse of time, that the 
 same desire continues or strongly recurs; in which 
 case it may generally be taken as the index of the fit- 
 ness of the thing desired for the actual state of the 
 organs. In the early stage of recovery from long 
 gastric fevers, I recollect many curious instances of 
 such contrariety to all rule being acquiesced in, with 
 manifest good to the patient. Dietetics must become 
 a much more exact branch of knowledge, before we 
 can be justified in opposing its maxims to the natural
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 143 
 
 and repeated suggestions of the stomach, in the state 
 either of health or disease.* 
 
 A surgeon of our acquaintance, in the case of a child 
 apparently sinking from a lung disease, found out that 
 anchovy paste pleased the palate, and, ordering it to be 
 given freely, from that time appetite, and with it 
 strength, returned. In another case, pickles were given 
 with manifest advantage. It would be well if those who 
 attend on any sick person should quietly notice any 
 desires of this kind, and report them to the physician. 
 Judgment is necessary, of course, and in health the 
 ordinary rules of wholesomeness are less likely to be 
 naturally departed from. So many articles of food also, 
 such as pastry, are now made artificially nice with sugar 
 and condiments, that the appetite becomes very liable to 
 be led astray. In the fact, however, of the usefulness of 
 pleasant tastes lies the explanation of the use of spices 
 and other condiments, which are all good in their place ; 
 and the thought that it is not for pleasure only, but as a 
 guide, and as a positive advantage in digestion, that the 
 enjoyment of food is given us, might well make us 
 doubly careful to preserve the sensibility unimpaired by 
 pampering or excess. 
 
 * The reader may find this subject philosophically treated in a volume 
 by the late Joseph Catlow, of Manchester, entitled Principles of ^Esthetic 
 Medicine.
 
 144 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 That in disease taste is often perverted, or for the 
 time quite destroyed, is easily explained, at least in part, 
 by the alteration of the fluids of the mouth and the thick 
 layer of unhealthy secretion, or " fur," which covers the 
 tongue, and cuts off the nerve from contact with the 
 food. In fevers, and many other severe diseases, the 
 tongue becomes also quite dry another condition, as 
 we have seen, incompatible with taste and this may 
 always be regarded as a serious symptom. But, on the 
 other hand, the tongue should not be too "clean," 
 especially after middle life ; a certain amount of secretion 
 on its surface is natural, and anything like a fleshy 
 redness of appearance is an indication of disorder of 
 digestion. 
 
 Taste is intimately connected with smell, as is well 
 known to nurses : the common plan of holding the nose 
 in administering physic being founded on a thoroughly 
 scientific basis. In fact, as pointed out by Mr. Paget, 
 not a few tastes may be strictly defined as odours per- 
 ceived in expiration instead of inspiration. This may 
 easily be tested by breathing out slowly through the 
 mouth, immediately after swallowing a mouthful of tea. 
 Taste seems to be, indeed, not only in the manner in 
 which it is most naturally indulged, but even in itself, 
 an eminently social sense; and this may fairly go to 
 raise it from the low rank in which, on some grounds, we
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 145 
 
 cannot but place it. Not only are the most delicate fla- 
 vours but half-enjoyable unless in refined and affectionate 
 society, for 
 
 " What is a table richly spread, 
 Without a woman at its head ? " 
 
 but the faculty of taste itself refuses to put forth its full 
 powers except in association with other senses. 
 
 In this it is in pleasant contrast with some sensibilities 
 of higher pretensions. When we are listening to music, 
 for example, our eyes are no help to us : the dim 
 religious light of the cathedral suits best the highest 
 strains; even darkness might add sometimes to its 
 sweetness and its power; all sensations but itself are 
 intruders. But it is not so with taste. This genial 
 faculty calls in both nose and eye to keep it company 
 for it is well known that in the dark the daintiest viands 
 lose half their relish. 
 
 And there is no doubt a reason for this sociability, 
 so to speak, of the sense of taste, in the fact that it 
 is not dependent upon a single nerve, or a nerve dis- 
 charging but a single function. Its two nerves, branches 
 of some of the most widely-connected and highly- 
 endowed nerve-trunks in the body, associate it inti- 
 mately on the one hand with the remaining senses, and 
 on the other with the chief internal organs. Thus the 
 taste-nerve of the anterior part of the tongue is a branch 
 
 VOL. i. L
 
 146 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 of the nerve which supplies the whole face with its 
 sensibility, including the eye, the nose, the teeth; and 
 it is besides joined by a branch of another nerve 
 which passes to it through the ear, and which 
 certainly has a share in taste, besides helping to 
 regulate the secretion of saliva. In this way the 
 sense of taste, so far as it is seated in the front part 
 of the tongue, is related to all the other senses, and to 
 the great instrument of expression, the face ; and accord- 
 ingly we see how a strong acid (a taste which has its 
 seat in the front of the tongue) throws all the muscles of 
 the face into contortions, and will even bring tears into 
 the eyes. But an acid taste, however strong, will never 
 make us sick. This is a function of the nerve which 
 gives the power of taste to the posterior part of the 
 tongue : an entirely different one, which is connected 
 very closely with those of the stomach, lungs, and heart. 
 The tastes that make us sick produce their impression 
 on this nerve, having through it an effect upon the 
 throat and stomach precisely corresponding to that 
 which an acid has upon the muscles of the face. Even 
 a touch upon the parts supplied by this nerve, as by 
 tickling the back of the throat, as is well known, will 
 produce the sensation of nausea. 
 
 Perhaps it is not going too far to believe that it is for 
 the sake of these wide-spread connections with other
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 147 
 
 organs that the sense of taste special and peculiar as it 
 is is not assigned to a special nerve, but is distributed 
 between two nerves of general sensation. These wide 
 relations are not matters of curious interest alone, but of 
 most serious necessity. The very keystone and centre of 
 our bodily life lies in this poor and menial faculty, that, 
 uninstructed, teaches the whole world the things that 
 are and are not good for food. The functions which 
 taste discharges, therefore, demand its close and im- 
 mediate intercourse with every part. In it, not so much 
 one organ as the whole body acts ; what the taste affirms 
 or denies is the affirmation or denial of the whole frame. 
 The sustenance and guardianship of the body are in the 
 keeping of the tongue; but the tongue is bridled 
 nature has known how to tame it. 
 
 If it were not for these wide connections of the sense 
 of taste, this wondrous gift of instinct would be even 
 more mysterious than it is. Taken as the reaction of 
 the whole frame upon the various substances that 
 surround it, the power of choosing by taste the whole- 
 some from the unwholesome, is just sufficiently intelli- 
 gible to excite our highest interest. The body thus 
 pronounces on the congenial and the uncongenial, con- 
 centrating itself into the point finer than that of the 
 finest needle of a single nervous fibril ; but being none 
 the less the whole body acting there.
 
 H8 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 We cannot but compare and with a boundless won- 
 der our own most delicate and varied choice with the 
 simple and passive affinities and attractions, of which 
 nothing is so low in nature as to be wholly destitute, 
 and whereby all things seek one element and refuse 
 another. And this universal power we trace upward 
 from mineral to plant, which, without consciousness, but 
 with an instinct as sure as, or surer than, our own, 
 absorbs the nourishment and leaves the poison; and 
 from plant to lowest animal, which mere lump of jelly 
 as it appears folds itself closely round its fitting morsel 
 and repudiates all else : wondering the while where 
 consciousness begins and " attraction " is converted into 
 taste ; wondering, indeed, over more things than these, 
 over many things, but chiefly this : what kind of perspect- 
 ive it is that rules our eyes as we look at nature, and 
 makes things look so small as they recede from us, and 
 how large they truly are. 
 
 If the sense of taste truly has a specially universal 
 character, and more than the rest expresses the affinities 
 of our whole bodily organization, then we can well 
 understand why this faculty rather than any other has 
 given its name to that finer sense to which art appeals, 
 and which, when happily trained, enables men to recog- 
 nise and delight in the truly beautiful alone. In taste, 
 not only the body but the soul expresses its affinities,
 
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 149 
 
 discerns and craves for the congenial, and seeks the 
 sources of its development. Nor perhaps should the 
 analogy ever be forgotten. A palate which the flavour 
 of a poison does not repel has lost its guardianship of 
 life; and so a man whom grossness does not shock, to 
 whom refinement, purity, gentleness, heroism, have no 
 charms, abandons his soul to death. 
 
 Before we leave the tongue, we must just glance at its 
 movements. In this respect it is probably the most 
 wonderful organ of the body; and, as might be sup- 
 posed, a great many muscles co-operate to give it its 
 various motions. A partial view of these is given in 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 In the first place, the tongue itself is muscular, being 
 chiefly composed of four distinct sets of fibres : of these, 
 two sets run along its length, one above and one below ; 
 the third set pass, in a curved direction, from above 
 downwards ; and the fourth pass from side to side, also 
 curved, like a shallow saucer. These last are attached to 
 a dense partition in the centre, from which they radiate 
 on either side. By these various muscles the tongue is 
 expanded or contracted, and is bent upwards or down- 
 wards, or to the sides. 
 
 But, besides being thus itself a group of muscles, the 
 tongue is moved by various other muscles which connect 
 it with all the surrounding parts, some of which are
 
 ISO PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 shown in the cut. The chief of them is a large muscle 
 which radiates like a fan from the inside of the chin to 
 the under surface of the tongue, and serves to protrude 
 it from the mouth (Fig. 6, e) . 
 
 The motions of the tongue are also rendered more free 
 by its being attached to a small bone situated in the 
 throat, just above the projecting cartilage known as 
 Adam's apple, and which bone is itself movable. But on 
 this subject we may have more to say when we come to 
 treat of the part the tongue plays in speech. It has a 
 special nerve of motion, which is seen in Fig. 6, fc, and 
 which has numerous connections with the motor nerves 
 of the surrounding parts, whereby they are brought into 
 conjoint and harmonious action.
 
 VI. 
 
 DIGESTION. 
 
 WE are apt to forget that there are two meanings 
 belonging to the phrase inside the body. A. morsel of 
 bread placed in the mouth is in one sense inside the 
 body, but a needle run into the arm is inside the body in 
 another and quite different sense. There is just the 
 same difference here as between driving a coach and 
 horses through the low and narrow gateway of the court- 
 yard of an old-fashioned inn, and stepping from the 
 uncovered yard into one of the many cosy chambers 
 which surround it. The guest who stayed all night in 
 the courtyard would gather but little hospitable comfort, 
 and the food which we take would do us but little good, 
 unless from being inside the body in one sense it came to 
 be inside the body in the other sense. Digestion is, 
 broadly, the passing of food from the general courtyard 
 of the body into the many- chambered abode we call our 
 flesh and blood. The doors that lead from the court are 
 very narrow, so narrow that they can be hardly seen 
 even when examined with powerful microscopes; and 
 hence all the food we eat must be broken up, and divided
 
 152 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 into the smallest possible pieces, before it really gets 
 within us. 
 
 In order to effect this, the whole of the alimentary 
 canal is a busy scene of minute division. The moment 
 any food passes into our mouth, it begins to be acted 
 upon by forces which do their best to break it up into 
 the finest possible particles, and the work begun there is 
 carried on along the whole of the digestive track, until 
 all the goodness that is in the food has been strained 
 out of it. The forces are many, and of various kinds. 
 Some are mechanical ; by them the food is cut and 
 ground, chopped and minced, rubbed and churned, until 
 its smallest particles are worn down to the smallest size. 
 Others are chemical ; by them the solid food is reduced 
 into the liquid state ; that is, the molecules making up 
 the solid particles are changed in form and nature, in 
 order that they may pass almost anywhere. Digestion, 
 strictly speaking, is a process of solution and of fine 
 division. 
 
 These various forces, moreover, are brought to bear 
 upon the food in succeeding districts ; the food has to 
 run the gauntlet of them all. What the mouth does not 
 digest, the stomach attacks; and what the stomach 
 leaves, becomes a prey to the intestine. We have thus 
 digestion in the mouth, digestion in the stomach, and 
 digestion in the intestine, each differing from the others,
 
 DIGESTION. 153 
 
 but all having this object in view that the solid food 
 should be converted into liquid material, capable of 
 passing through the invisible pores of the membranous 
 lining of the alimentary canal into the real flesh and 
 blood, or be broken up into particles so small that they 
 may squeeze themselves one by one through the minute 
 openings which exist in certain parts of the intestinal 
 wall. 
 
 The digestive process begins in the mouth; among 
 civilized people it begins in the plate, or even before. 
 Since the food will, if it be digested at all, be broken up, 
 as we have said, into particles smaller than can be seen 
 with the naked eye, the practice of cooking or softening 
 and rendering friable the meat and vegetables of the 
 meal, and of cutting them into small pieces before 
 placing them in the mouth, may be considered as just an 
 artificial and highly praiseworthy lightening of the 
 labours of the frame. But it may lead to incidental 
 errors. Undoubtedly mastication is the natural method 
 of mincing meat, and not the least of its value lies in the 
 fact that it takes time. A man who is eating a tough 
 and therefore not very digestible chop will be slow in 
 eating, if he is careful to masticate it well. There will 
 be a long interval between each mouthful, and the 
 stomach will run no risk of being hastily loaded. 
 
 Now, a hastily loaded stomach is as bad almost as, or
 
 154 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 rather is the same thing as, an overloaded stomach ; and 
 there can be no doubt that artificial mastication becomes 
 a snare when it leads any one to introduce a large 
 quantity of finely-minced meat suddenly and rapidly 
 into an unprepared stomach, especially into the feeble 
 stomach of an invalid, under the idea that, because the 
 meat is so nicely minced and so very tender, it can be no 
 possible burden to that sorely-tried organ. 
 
 Natural mastication has, besides, another advantage 
 over the artificial process, which is perhaps not always 
 recognised. Whenever food enters the mouth, it gives 
 rise to what is called a flow of saliva. This saliva is 
 secreted by certain glands, which pour into the mouth 
 the fluid they strain off from the blood, and which are 
 excited or stimulated to action by the presence of food in 
 the mouth, as well as by other causes. 
 
 Now, putting aside for the present the action of this 
 saliva on the food, either in the mouth or elsewhere, 
 there can be no doubt, as we shall presently show, that 
 it is itself a gentle and natural and yet most po- 
 tent and useful stimulus to the stomach, urging that 
 organ to pour forth a peculiar digestive secretion called 
 gastric juice. Food itself is, of course, also a stimulus 
 to the stomach, but it is at the best a rather rough 
 and rude stimulus. The saliva, on the other hand, acts 
 uniformly and softly; and most stomachs, like their
 
 DIGESTION. 155 
 
 owners, are more effectually led by gentle persuasion 
 than by abrupt solicitation. 
 
 Moreover, the saliva is what is called an alkaline 
 fluid. Throughout the whole of the animal economy 
 there is constant play between acids and alkalies. By 
 alkali, we mean such things as potash and soda, 
 which turn red litmus paper blue, and whose properties 
 are destroyed or suspended when they are mixed with 
 acids. By acids we mean such things, whether ordin- 
 arily solid or liquid, as vinegar, vitriol, citric acid, 
 etc., which turn blue litmus red, and whose properties 
 are in turn destroyed, suspended, or neutralised, as 
 the phrase is, by alkalies. 
 
 It is perfectly impossible to understand the chem- 
 
 m 
 
 istry of digestion, or the chemistry of any of the pro- 
 cesses of the animal economy, without duly appreciat- 
 ing these characters of acids and alkalies. Upon 
 them half the battle of life may be said to depend. 
 
 Well; the saliva is an alkaline fluid, and it is pro- 
 bably because it is alkaline that it serves so admir- 
 ably as a stimulus to the stomach. The rationale of 
 this we shall see by-and-by. 
 
 Meanwhile, we may remember this, that in masti- 
 cation food is both finely minced and ground down, 
 and also thoroughly mixed with saliva. By this 
 means it is not only moistened, in order that it may
 
 156 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 easily and smoothly pass down the throat (and in 
 this it is greatly assisted by the glairiness of the 
 saliva), but also that, having descended, not too 
 rapidly and in not too large mouthfuls, it may be in 
 the best condition to call effectually upon the sto- 
 mach to do its duty in bringing about the further 
 changes that are necessary. 
 
 In many animals, especially in those which live on 
 meat only, and probably even in many that live on 
 grain, this is the whole of the digestive process that 
 belongs to the mouth. In these creatures the food is 
 simply masticated, softened, moistened with saliva, 
 and rolled up into balls, preparatory to the act of 
 deglutition. But, in ourselves at least, another very 
 important chemical action is superadded to these 
 mechanical ones. 
 
 A great part of our food consists of the material 
 called starch. People who live sensibly because they 
 are not rich enough to do otherwise, and people 
 who, for other reasons, eat wisely, make starch, in 
 one form or other, a very considerable element of 
 their ordinary diet. When we call to mind that 
 bread, potatoes, all farinaceous foods, and a great 
 part even of green vegetables, consist very largely of 
 starch, the truth of the statement we have just made 
 becomes evident enough.
 
 DIGESTION. 
 
 157 
 
 Now starch is stored up by the forces of vegetable 
 life in the tissues of plants, not, for the most part, 
 at least, as a formless powder, which can easily be 
 ground finer, or perhaps still more easily dissolved, 
 but in the shape of little grains of a very peculiar 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 SLICE OF EAW POTATO, MAGNIFIED 200 DIAMETERS. 
 
 Showing a vegetable cell, filled with a confused heap of starch cor- 
 puscles of all sizes. One of the starch corpuscles is seen free at A. 
 
 appearance when seen under the microscope, as is 
 shown in Fig. 1. 
 
 Various plants build up their starch granules or 
 starch corpuscles in various ways, and an experienced
 
 158 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 microscopist, by examining a specimen of starch, can 
 tell whether it came from potatoes or wheat or rice. 
 But in every case the starch exists in the form of 
 these corpuscles, which are little masses with a stout 
 elastic exterior; and from what we said at the begin- 
 ning of this paper, it will be at once evident that 
 these corpuscles must be broken up before they can 
 pass into the real inside of the body. Generally they 
 are broken up during the process of cooking. 
 
 Under the action of boiling water, the envelopes 
 of these corpuscles burst, and their contents become 
 a sort of fluid. Every one knows that fresh unboiled 
 starch, such as exists in arrowroot, stirred up with 
 cold water, forms a milky fluid, from which, when it 
 is left to rest, the starch settles down. The milkiness 
 is due to the little starch corpuscles reflecting light. 
 When the arrowroot is boiled, it becomes clear and 
 transparent, because then the corpuscles burst, and 
 their contents become a sort of fluid a sort of fluid, 
 but not a perfect fluid. That stickiness which is the 
 great characteristic of boiled starch, and one of its 
 most useful properties, is just an evidence that the 
 material of the starch corpuscle has not been com- 
 pletely dissolved has not been converted into a per- 
 fect fluid, capable like other fluids of passing through 
 the walls of the alimentary canal into the blood.
 
 DIGESTION. 159 
 
 Unboiled starch, therefore, would, if let alone in 
 the alimentary canal, be of no use as food the cor- 
 puscles could not pass into the body. Nor would 
 simple boiled starch be much better, because of its 
 not being a perfect fluid. The destruction of the 
 corpuscles as corpuscles we bring about by the art 
 of cooking, and they who neglect this preparatory 
 digestion, and eat large quantities of uncooked starch 
 in the form of half-cooked potatoes and raw veget- 
 ables, suffer for it by not digesting half of what 
 they eat. 
 
 But boiled starch is converted almost instantaneously 
 (and unboiled starch too, though much more slowly, 
 and with much greater labour) into a perfect fluid by 
 the action of the saliva. Any one can satisfy himself 
 of this by taking a mouthful of the thickest possible 
 arrowroot. After rolling it once or twice round the 
 mouth, it will at once be felt that it has become 
 perfectly thin and limpid. This cannot be due to the 
 mere warmth of the body, as arrowroot is thickened, 
 or " made " as is said, by means of heat. An ab- 
 solute change has taken place in it it is no longer 
 starch, but sugar, and it is because it has become a 
 mere solution of sugar that it is so thin and limpid. 
 Saliva rapidly changes starch into sugar, and sugar is 
 pre-eminently a soluble body, passing with the
 
 160 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 greatest ease from the alimentary canal into the 
 blood. 
 
 There can be no doubt, that unless we eat with 
 more than American rapidity, a great deal of the 
 starch we consume is converted into sugar is di- 
 gested, in fact, before it leaves the mouth, and is 
 therefore ready to be absorbed, as it is said that is, 
 to pass from the courtyard into the inner chambers 
 of the inn without any further change. 
 
 So far as we know, the food suffers no other 
 treatment in the mouth than the kinds we have 
 spoken of, and we will therefore next proceed to 
 consider the changes which take place in the sto- 
 mach. 
 
 Many persons do not exactly know where their 
 stomach is, and a still larger number are apt to for- 
 get that it lies very close underneath the heart. So 
 close to the heart is it, that it may, or rather very 
 often does, when unduly distended with food or with 
 gas, press upon or embarrass that important organ. 
 This trouble is, of course, all the more likely to 
 occur when the heart is enlarged; and if, as often is 
 the case, that enlargement be accompanied by weak- 
 ness, it becomes a matter of anxious care not to load 
 the stomach with too much at one time. 
 
 The outline of the stomach is pictured in Fig. 2.
 
 DIGESTION. 161 
 
 We may roughly indicate its position in the body by 
 saying that while the broad end lies underneath the 
 left-hand waistcoat pocket, the narrow end stretches 
 into the middle line beneath the lower end of the 
 breast-bone, in the region popularly called the pit of 
 the stomach. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 d 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE HUMAN STOMACH, ONE-FIFTH THE NATURAL SIZE. 
 
 a. The entrance of the oesophagus. &. The pyloric orifice leading to 
 the intestines, c. The lesser curvature, d. The greater curvature, e. The 
 cardiac end. f. Intestinal end. 
 
 It will not escape notice that the food in passing 
 down from the mouth by the oesophagus, or gullet, 
 would fall upon the lower surface of the stomach. 
 If left entirely to the force of its own gravity, the 
 food would have a tendency to remain and gather 
 together in a heap there instead of passing on to 
 
 VOL. i. M
 
 1 62 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE, 
 
 the further portions of the alimentary canal. In 
 order to prevent this, and at the same time to pro- 
 duce other salutary effects, the stomach is gifted 
 with a remarkable structure. Its general form is 
 that of an elongated sac with two openings, but it 
 is essentially a double sac is made up of an outer 
 sac lined by an inner sac. The outer sac is a mus- 
 cular sac, and has a mechanical duty to perform ; 
 the inner sac is a glandular sac, and its office is a 
 chemical one. Both sacs are joined loosely to- 
 gether; and there is yet a third sac a sort of 
 smooth coat covering the muscular one; but this 
 is really an internal skin, and bears about the same 
 relation to the muscular walls of the stomach as 
 our skin, properly so called, does to the muscles of 
 our limbs and body; and we need not pay much 
 attention to it. 
 
 The muscular sac is represented with this skin 
 taken off in Fig. 3. It is composed of a number of 
 muscular fibres, not exactly identical with the mus- 
 cular fibres which make up the mass of the flesh of 
 our bodies either in structure or function, but still 
 similar to them. These fibres are arranged in bands 
 and layers, which pass over the stomach in various 
 directions, as is shown in Fig. 3. Like all muscular 
 fibres, they have the power of shortening or con-
 
 DIGESTION. 
 
 163 
 
 tracting from time to time; and they shorten or con- 
 tract, not, like the muscles of the limbs, sharply and 
 spasmodically, but slowly and deliberately. 
 
 Their action might be imitated by slowly squeezing 
 a bladder or india-rubber ball half-filled with water, 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT 07 THE MUSCULAR FIBRES OF THE STOMACH. 
 
 The regions marked A, B, c represent fibres as seen at different depths. 
 
 gradually tightening and rela^ig the grasp while the 
 hand is shifted from one part of the bladder to 
 another. The effect of this would be to cause a 
 movement of the contents of the bladder. By help 
 of the particular arrangement of the fibres, this 
 movement takes place in an orderly fashion, and the
 
 164 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 food courses regularly round and round the stomach. 
 In fact, the mechanical sac churns the food within 
 it. 
 
 While the food is thus being continually moved 
 about, it is at the same time subjected to the action 
 of the chemical sac. This is, as we hare said, a 
 glandular sac. It is of some thickness, and is made 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 TJPPEE POETIONS OF THKEE GASTKIC GLANDS, MAGNIFIED. 
 
 a. The mouth of the gland. 6. The inert cells lining the mouth. 
 c. The active peptic cells. 
 
 of little glands bound up together with that stringy 
 fibrous packing material which is found in all parts 
 of the body, and which anatomists call connective tissue. 
 
 If we were to imagine many gross of small india- 
 rubber phials all placed side by side, and bound to- 
 gether with hay or straw into a great mat, and the
 
 DIGESTION. 165 
 
 mat rolled up into a sac, with all the mouths of the 
 phials turned inwards, we should have a large and 
 coarse, but tolerably fair image of the glandular coat 
 of the stomach. Each phial would then represent one 
 of the glands of this coat, one of the gastric or peptic 
 glands, as they are called. Each gland, however, is 
 not always a simple tube, but is often branched at 
 the bottom end, and all of them are lined, except just 
 at their mouths, with large rounded bodies, which not 
 unfrequently almost choke up their cavity. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents the mouths of three of these gastric 
 glands; Fig. 5, the other ends of three others; and 
 Fig. 6, a branched gland. The rounded masses, or cells 
 as they are called, in the interior of each gland, form 
 the really active part of the apparatus. Each cell is 
 a little laboratory, which concocts out of the material 
 brought to it or near it by the blood a certain potent, 
 biting fluid, and is hence called a peptic or digestive 
 cell. Each cell is born at the bottom of the tube, 
 and in process of time travels upwards towards the 
 mouth. When it reaches the mouth, it bursts, and 
 pours into the stomach the fluid it has elaborated, or 
 perhaps may give it out without bursting, while it is 
 still within its tube. 
 
 In those cases in which it has been possible to look 
 in upon the stomach while at work (as in the famous
 
 1 66 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 case of the Canadian who received a wound in the 
 side, penetrating the stomach, which never thoroughly 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 LOWER POETIONS OF THEEE GASTRIC GLANDS, MAGNIFIED. 
 
 One is filled with peptic cells ; another is nearly empty ; the third is 
 simply a membranous tube, which has lost all its cells. At b are seen 
 several of the peptic cells more highly magnified. 
 
 healed, and thus left a hole from the outside into that 
 organ), and where the orifices of the tiny glands (for,
 
 DIGESTION. 
 
 167 
 
 though we have compared them to bottles, they are 
 exceedingly small) appear like little dots, tears were 
 seen to start at the mouths of the glands, gather into 
 drops, and finally trickle down into the lowest part of 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 ..I 
 
 BEANCHED GASTRIC GLAND. 
 
 a. The peptic cells. 6. The inert cells. 
 
 the stomach. The stomach, as it were, weeps; and 
 indeed the weeping of tears is just such another effect 
 of glandular activity only ordinary tears form a mild
 
 168 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 and, chemically speaking, impotent fluid; while the 
 fluid which the tears of the stomach form the gastric 
 juice, as it is called is a sharp piercing water of ex- 
 cessive chemical power. It is by the solvent action 
 of this gastric juice, very materially assisted by the 
 churning action of the muscular coat, that the food 
 suffers those changes which make up what is called 
 gastric digestion. 
 
 We have spoken of the gastric juice (which, when 
 obtained in a pure state, is a clear or nearly clear 
 watery-looking fluid, often, however, mixed with thick 
 viscid mucus) as a sharp fluid. It is not only sharp 
 and somewhat bitter to the taste, but also most dis- 
 tinctly acid, and in this point differs most decidedly 
 from saliva. Its action, too, is very different from that 
 of saliva. We have seen that saliva dissolves starch; 
 gastric juice not only has no action on starch, but 
 actually prevents saliva from so acting, so that the 
 change of starch into sugar, which began in the mouth, 
 is arrested as soon as the food reaches the stomach. 
 
 But gastric juice has an intense effect on other ele- 
 ments of food, against which saliva is powerless. Every 
 joint of meat is made up of fat, bone, gristle, and the 
 material which forms the great mass of the meat or 
 flesh properly so called. Now this meaty material is 
 met with, under the names of nitrogenous or albuminoid
 
 DIGESTION. 169 
 
 or proteid substances, not only in meat and eggs and 
 other articles of animal food, but also in almost all 
 vegetable foods. The gluten of wheat is such a sub- 
 stance. Potatoes, rice, and greens, all contain some of 
 it. The curd of milk is a proteid body, so is the basis 
 of cheese, some of it even clings to butter. In fact, 
 in nearly every article of food, certainly in every meal, 
 it is a prime factor. 
 
 Now, in its natural state, either in the solid form of 
 meat and muscular fibre, or in the more liquid glairy 
 form of unboiled white of egg (in which latter it exists 
 naturally in almost its purest form), proteid matter has 
 a great objection to being soluble, a very great repug- 
 nance to passing through the walls of the alimentary 
 canal into the real interior of the body. In order to 
 make it pass, it has to be thoroughly dissolved, and 
 this thorough solution is very easily effected by gastric 
 juice. Even out of the body it will readily reduce first 
 into a pulpy mass, and then into a limpid fluid, pieces 
 of meat or boiled egg, especially when the mixture is 
 warmed up to the temperature of the body, and fre- 
 quently shaken. And inside the body the change is 
 effected with much greater rapidity. 
 
 It may be urged that unboiled white of egg is itself 
 a fluid, but its ropiness is a distinct evidence of its 
 want of perfect fluidity, and, as every one knows, it
 
 1 70 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL -USE. 
 
 becomes a perfect solid when boiled. Very different 
 from ordinary white of egg is the fluid which is pro- 
 duced when either boiled or unboiled white of egg has 
 been for some time digested. This fluid does not be- 
 come solid, does not coagulate, as is said, even when 
 boiled ever so long. Moreover, if unboiled white of 
 egg is put into a bladder, and the bladder, after being 
 tightly tied up, sunk in water, little or none of the 
 albuminous part of the white of egg will pass through 
 the walls of the bladder into the water. But digested 
 white of egg similarly treated will pass with the great- 
 est ease. So much more fluid, so much more movable 
 and slippery in its atoms and molecules, is the digested 
 proteid. 
 
 This is briefly the whole duty of gastric juice, the 
 sole work of the glandular coat of the stomach. By 
 it starch and fat are very little if at all affected, but 
 it pounces on all proteids, and, assisted by the churn- 
 ing action of its muscular coating, bites and gnaws 
 away at them as they are careering round the stomach. 
 Under its action, the fragments broken by the teeth 
 are softened, and break up into still smaller pieces. 
 The small pieces melt away into a perfect fluid, and 
 thus become capable of passing through the fine in- 
 visible pores both of the delicate membranes which 
 form the framework of the glandular tubes, and of
 
 DIGESTION. 171 
 
 the equally delicate walls of the blood-vessels, which 
 wrap round those tubes like a network of fine threads 
 round an india-rubber bottle. In this way the digested 
 matters are drawn off into the blood, and become part 
 and parcel of the fluid stuffs of the body proper. 
 
 The bones and gristle are broken up and dissolved in 
 some such way as the proteids; but the starch and 
 fat, and such fragments of meat, skin, and other mat- 
 ters, as escape the action of the juice, are ready to 
 be passed on, by the grasping, pushing squeeze of the 
 muscular coat, to the other districts of the digestive 
 tract, where further ordeals and other changes await 
 them. 
 
 Such is the process of digestion in the stomach ; but, 
 unfortunately, it is often accompanied by another pro- 
 cess called indigestion. The causes and kinds of in- 
 digestion are legion, but they may be thrown into two 
 classes. 
 
 In the first place, the secreting glands may be seri- 
 ously damaged and permanently impaired. Under 
 rough treatment, they get worn out. They wither up 
 their rounded cells shrink and waste ; their mouths get 
 blocked up with adventitious material, or tightened 
 and closed with bands of misplaced tissue. In these 
 cases there is little help, save by artificial digestion 
 and by careful economy of the waning powers of the
 
 i;2 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 organ; and their occurrence is a warning against the 
 cruel and careless treatment of such tender structures. 
 
 When it is remembered that the tears which flow 
 into the eyes when dust or any foreign matter gets 
 into them, are but an image of the tears of a sensitive 
 stomach, which weeps gastric juice whenever it is 
 touched, it will be readily understood what havoc is 
 played when neat brandy, hot peppers, and a host of 
 stinging, biting, and cutting condiments are recklessly 
 poured into its exquisitely sensitive cavity. 
 
 All these things act, and are used because they act, 
 as so many goads or stimuli to the gastric glands, and 
 for that reason the wisdom of using them lies entirely 
 in the measure in which they are used. No organ in 
 the body will work unless it is called upon to work; 
 but no organ will stand being exercised beyond the 
 limit of work which is natural to it. A horse may 
 go all the better for a little whip, but the best horse 
 in the world would soon break down under continued 
 and laboured thrashing. Unhappily, we flog our sto- 
 machs even more than we do our horses, not because we 
 want them to go, but because we find we can't get 
 them to go; and, for the sake of temporary success, 
 sow the seeds of future permanent failure. 
 
 The other and more common forms of dyspepsia 
 are of a more temporary nature, and, at the present
 
 DIGESTION. 173 
 
 day, come about, for the most part, in an indirect 
 way. 
 
 These gastric glands, for instance, like all other parts 
 of the frame, require themselves to be nourished; and 
 when the body wastes, either from complete or partial 
 starvation, or from some enemy, in the shape of disease, 
 robbing the tissues of all the goodness of the food that 
 is brought to them by the stomach, they, in common 
 with all other parts and organs, grow weak. They 
 flag in their work, the juice they prepare is thin and 
 powerless, and, the more they want nourishment, the 
 less are they able to digest and accumulate nutritious 
 material for themselves or for the body at large. Hence, 
 to a starving seamstress, or to a patient recovering 
 from fever much as they need food food is a burden, 
 and must be doled out to them little by little and 
 in the most digestible form. 
 
 The glands, also, like other parts of the body, are 
 subject to the influence of the nervous system; and, 
 by means of that system, are placed en rapport and 
 sympathise with other parts of the body. A subtle 
 influence, carried along certain nerves, may paralyse 
 these glands, stop their work, and dry up the stomach, 
 just as similar influences dry up the mouth through 
 stoppage of the flow of saliva. Every one knows how 
 fear, anxiety, or pain, so check all saliva, that the tongue
 
 174 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 cleaves to the roof of the mouth; in such cases, starch 
 may be held in the mouth without undergoing any 
 change into sugar. No digestion in the mouth goes 
 on. And just the same takes place in the stomach. 
 A man goes to dinner with his mind full of fears, 
 anxieties, and troubling thoughts. His stomach is dry 
 his gastric glands are stopped in their work, as by 
 fright and the meal lies a heavy, unchanged, undi- 
 gested lump, in a powerless cavity. 
 
 Or, on the other hand, something indigestible some- 
 thing unsuitable is eaten, and the glands resent the 
 insult. They strike work. They are made and con- 
 structed to digest certain things; and, if they are 
 solicited to undertake duties not in their business, they 
 refuse. 
 
 In all these cases of temporary indigestion, the means 
 of remedy are threefold. 
 
 The first is, especially in cases of indigestion from 
 want of power, or from ill-directed and ill-timed nervous 
 action, to give the stomach as light and as digestible 
 food as possible. The more frequently it is given, the 
 sooner will the frame, if it receives the nourishment 
 kindly, recover its power; but it must not be given 
 too frequently, for these glands require times of rest 
 like every other part of the body. 
 
 Secondly, one may administer to the body food already
 
 DIGESTION. 175 
 
 digested artificially digested. This is a means of 
 treatment which as yet has hardly received any great 
 practical extension; but it seems to promise a great 
 deal. It is very easy to digest artificially a large 
 quantity of meat; and by this means a quantity of 
 palatable fluid capable of passing at once as digested 
 nourishment into the blood without troubling the gastric 
 glands at all, might be prepared. Probably in a few 
 years this will be largely done. 
 
 Lastly, we may create a sort of artificial gastric juice. 
 We said that gastric juice was a biting, sharp liquid. 
 It owes its power, partly to its being acid, and partly 
 to its containing a peculiar active matter called pepsin, 
 which is really a sort of ferment. Acids alone will not 
 dissolve meat, or dissolve it very very slowly. Pepsin, 
 by itself, does not act on meat at all; but pepsin and 
 acid together will, sooner or later, dissolve up all the 
 proteids that are presented to them. 
 
 Hence, if we give a flagging stomach both acid and 
 pepsin, we give it the means of carrying on digestion 
 without having recourse to its own capital of strength. 
 Under the idea that there is always enough acid in the 
 stomach, pepsin (or a mixture of various things, con- 
 taining actual pepsin among others, and sold under 
 the name of pepsin) is frequently given as a medicine. 
 And under the idea (which is much nearer the truth)
 
 1 76 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 that in ordinary stomachs the great want is not pepsin, 
 but proper acid, this latter is frequently given alone, 
 with great benefit. 
 
 But in giving these things, we must remember how 
 sensitive and touchy the stomach is. Very frequently 
 when we offer a stomach additional acid it is offended, 
 and ceases to secrete even the small quantity it was 
 pouring out before. On the other hand, by the com- 
 mon physiological law that things act as stimuli because 
 they are unlike, strange, and foreign to the bodies to 
 which they are presented, the presence of an alkali 
 spurs the stomach on to pour out more acid, and hence, 
 even for the production of acid, a little gentle alkali 
 is the best stomachic ; and perhaps the best stimulus 
 of all is the alkaline saliva. But the due and careful 
 administration of these artificial aids to digestion be- 
 longs rather to the medical art than to popular phy- 
 siology.
 
 VII. 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 
 
 THE skin is a complex structure, which forms a cover- 
 ing to the outer surface of the body, and protects the 
 deeper and more vital parts. It is the chief seat of the 
 sense of touch, and has also other most important offices 
 to discharge. At the various orifices, the nostrils, 
 mouth, etc., it is continuous with the membrane which 
 lines the internal parts, the mucous membrane as it is 
 called. At these places there is no sudden change 
 from skin to mucous membrane, but a gradual transi- 
 tion from the one to the other. And the structure 
 of the mucous membrane is very similar to that of 
 the skin, being modified chiefly by the fact that it 
 is not constantly exposed to the air. Hence, when 
 for some reason or other a portion of the mucous 
 membrane comes to the surface, its features are altered, 
 and it gradually assumes the character of skin; and if 
 a portion of skin occupies an internal position, it in 
 turn becomes converted into mucous membrane. The 
 physician has many opportunities of observing the close 
 connection which subsists between these two struc- 
 
 VOL. I. N
 
 178 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 tures. Thus it often happens that a derangement of 
 the mucous membrane gives rise to a disease of the 
 skin, or that when an affection of one of them sub- 
 sides, disease is lighted up in the other. It is well 
 known, too, that medicines which act specially upon 
 the one generally act upon the other also. Thus, there 
 is no medicine which is so frequently used, nor so 
 frequently abused, as arsenic in the treatment of skin 
 diseases, a remedy which often requires to be stopped 
 owing to its action upon the mucous membrane of the 
 lungs. 
 
 The skin is composed of two layers, the scarf 
 skin or cuticle (epidermis), which forms a covering and 
 protection to the deeper-seated and sensitive parts; 
 and the sensitive skin or true skin (cutist vera), which 
 contains blood-vessels and nerves and little glands, and 
 which differs very materially from the other, not only 
 in its structure, but also in its functions. The deep- 
 est layers of the sensitive skin consist of a loose net- 
 work of what is termed connective tissue, that is, very 
 minute fibres which are gathered into bundles and 
 cross one another in all directions, leaving little spaces, 
 which, however, are not empty, but filled more or less 
 completely with masses of fat. (Fig. 1, c.) 
 
 It is this accumulation of fat which imparts that 
 softness and smoothness to the skin which constitutes
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 
 
 179 
 
 one of the greatest beauties of youth; and it is to its 
 diminution that the furrows and wrinkles of age are 
 in great measure to be attributed. For this reason it 
 
 FIG. l. 
 
 tf- 
 
 rERI EXDICXTLAR SECTION THROUGH THE SKIN OF THE BALL OF THE THCME. 
 
 a. Scarf skin, b', V. The two layers of the sensitive skin. c. Masses 
 of fat. d. Papillje of skin. e. Sweat glands. /. Their ducts, g. Opening 
 of the ducts upon the surface. 
 
 is that these are almost absent in persons who, al- 
 though advanced in years, are more or less corpulent. 
 The deepest layer of the skin is of great import-
 
 i8o PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 ance, too, in so far as it forms a soft elastic cushion, 
 the yielding of which allows a certain degree of move- 
 ment to the upper layers, and prevents or diminishes 
 the liability of these parts to be injured by pressure 
 or violence. 
 
 Were it not for this provision, it would probably be 
 impossible for the soles of the feet to bear for any 
 length of time the whole weight of the body, for the - 
 horseman long to maintain his seat upon the saddle, 
 or for the mechanic to bear the pressure of his tools 
 upon the palm of his hand. 
 
 The quantity of fat accumulated in the subcutaneous 
 cellular tissue, as it is called, varies extremely in dif- 
 ferent parts of the body, as well as in different persons. 
 Thus it is usually abundant over the stomach, and 
 scanty on the head, back of the hands, top of the 
 feet, etc. 
 
 The excessive accumulation of fat beneath the skin 
 constitutes what is termed corpulence or obesity. But 
 it must not be supposed that in such cases the de- 
 posit is limited to this situation; for it is found also 
 in great abundance in internal parts; and although in 
 the former situation it strikes the eye, and seems to 
 the uninitiated the most important element of the 
 disease, for disease it must be called, in the latter it 
 gives rise to much more inconvenience ; nay, even in
 
 THE SKIN CORPULENCE. 181 
 
 some cases to very serious results, for it not only 
 renders the subject of it painfully large and unwieldy, 
 and diminishes very materially the power, and there- 
 fore the inclination, for exertion, but it also presses 
 upon, and interferes with the functions of, the inward 
 parts; thus, its undue accumulation in what is popu- 
 larly called the stomach (but technically the abdomen), 
 by pressure upwards, prevents the free action of the 
 heart and lungs, and leads, among other evils, to 
 shortness of breath; while its deposit about the heart 
 itself still further interrupts its functions, and may 
 even paralyse it altogether. 
 
 While, no doubt, the tendency to obesity is inherent 
 in some constitutions, and in part is hereditary, a great 
 deal of it is generally to be attributed to the habits of 
 the individual; for let a man who is predisposed to 
 fatness, sleep much, walk little, drink freely, especially 
 fermented liquors, such as ale, porter, and cider, and 
 eat like a glutton, especially indulging in large quan- 
 tities of fatty articles of diet, or of sweet things which 
 in the system are converted into fat, or of food contain- 
 ing much starch, such as potatoes, which is converted 
 into sugar and then into fat, and obesity is the natural 
 result. 
 
 Hence there is a good deal of truth, but not the 
 whole truth, in the remark that the cure of fatness
 
 1 82 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 consists in keeping the eyes open, the mouth shut, 
 and the legs in motion. For, of the innumerable in- 
 stances in which persons have attempted to reduce 
 themselves by early hours, active exercise, and a diet 
 approaching to starvation, failure has been the almost 
 inevitable result. The secret of success lies in the 
 abstinence from fatty articles of diet, and from food 
 rich in starch or sugar. This has long been known, 
 though too little recognised by the medical profession. 
 But, it should be remembered, the sudden adoption of 
 such a regimen is not without danger ; many lamentable 
 instances of which have of late years come under the 
 notice of medical men. For, while it is wonderful 
 how the system accommodates itself to altered circum- 
 stances, the change must be gradual, or the revulsion 
 will lead to disease. It is partly on this principle that 
 the removal of the leg of a person who has been re- 
 cently injured in the midst of health, is much more 
 likely to lead to fatal results than when the operation 
 is performed in consequence of old standing disease. 
 But we must leave the subcutaneous cellular tissue, 
 
 * 
 
 which is the deepest layer of the sensitive skin, and 
 inquire for a moment into the nature of its superficial 
 layer, or corium, as it is called. The latter, like the 
 former, is principally composed of connective tissue, 
 with this difference, that the fibres are much more
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 183 
 
 closely interwoven, so that there are no intervals filled 
 with fat, and accordingly it is a much denser and less 
 yielding structure than the subcutaneous cellular tis- 
 sue. Its upper surface is not smooth, but marked by 
 innumerable minute prominences, the "papillae" of 
 the skin, which are very important structures. It is 
 freely supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, hence the 
 pain and bleeding which result when it is pricked; 
 and each of the papillaa is furnished with a minute 
 blood-vessel or nerve, or both. Those upon the inner 
 surface of the hands and fingers, and also upon the 
 feet, are arranged in double rows, and accordingly, on 
 examining these parts, since the scarf skin takes on 
 the impression of the papillaa, innumerable little curved 
 lines are seen separated from each other by minute 
 depressions. It is in the papilla3, and especially in 
 those to which nervous filaments are distributed, that 
 the sense of touch mainly resides. 
 
 In most situations, and especially where there are 
 hairs, the sensitive skin is furnished with very minute 
 muscles (or sinews as they are popularly called), which 
 are attached to the roots of the hairs, or of the oil 
 glands, to which we shall refer shortly. The contrac- 
 tion of these muscles has the effect of rendering the 
 hairs more prominent, of making them " stand on 
 end" under the influence of fright, and it is also the
 
 1 84 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 cause of that roughness of the skin which is observed 
 under the influence of cold and the like, and which 
 is termed goose-sldn. 
 
 All persons are familiar with the blisters, as they 
 are improperly called, which are raised by the sting 
 of the nettle; and too many are acquainted with a 
 similar eruption which resembles the sting of the 
 nettle, and which is therefore termed nettle-rash. 
 Now it has been found very dim cult to explain this 
 peculiar appearance, owing to the suddenness with 
 which it conies and the rapidity with which it goes ; 
 but it appears to the writer that if we attribute it to 
 a spasmodic contraction of the muscles of the skin, 
 not only may the appearance which it presents, but 
 also the suddenness of its rise and fall, be satisfactorily 
 accounted for. 
 
 We have seen that the sensitive skin is composed 
 almost exclusively of fibres, and contains innumerable 
 little blood-vessels and nerves; whereas the scarf skin, 
 which forms a covering to the former, contains neither 
 fibres, blood-vessels, nor nerves, but is almost entirely 
 made up of an endless number of little plates or scales 
 (epithelial scales), which are soldered together so as 
 to form a uniform, structure. (Fig. 2.) The plates 
 composing the upper layer are quite flattened, very 
 closely packed, and to a certain extent, especially in
 
 THE SKIN, CORPULENCE. 185 
 
 some situations, almost horny in consistence, so as 
 to give protection to the deeper-seated sensitive parts ; 
 while the cells composing the lower layer are arranged 
 more loosely, and instead of lying flat have a vertical 
 direction. The under surface of the scarf skin is not 
 smooth, but marked by little depressions, into which 
 the papillge of the sensitive skin fit as the fingers 
 into a glove. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 SCALES OF WHICH THE SCAEF SKIN IS COMPOSED. 
 
 The division of the skin into two layers is justified, 
 not only from the marked differences which they present 
 structurally, but also from the fact that, although closely 
 united, they are not inseparable. Most of our readers 
 must have seen, either on their own persons or on those 
 of their friends, the effects of a common blister. The 
 skin is said to rise, and a quantity of fluid, derived from 
 the blood, accumulates beneath. But it is not the 
 skin, only the scarf skin, which is thus raised out of 
 its bed, and separated from the parts beneath. And ac-
 
 1 86 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 cordingly, when the blister is cut [that is, the scarf skin 
 removed] and the fluid escapes, the patient complains 
 of pain, which is the natural result of the exposure 
 to the air of the upper layer of the sensitive skin. 
 
 The scarf skin, like the rest of the body, is con- 
 tinually undergoing change and decomposition. New 
 plates or scales are being constantly formed at the 
 point where the scarf skin and sensitive skin meet, 
 while the old scales are in like measure thrown off 
 from the surface. In a state of health this takes place 
 so slowly, so regularly, and so methodically, that it 
 is not perceived ; but it is far otherwise if inflammation 
 attacks the skin. Although the scarf skin contains 
 neither blood-vessels nor nerves, it is endowed with 
 life, and when inflammation attacks it the scales die 
 in great numbers, and are thrown off from the surface 
 to such an extent that they attract attention ; and this 
 excessive fall of scales is termed desquamation. This 
 is well illustrated by the peeling off of the skin which 
 follows all attacks of scarlet fever in which the eruption 
 has been distinct. Most persons, too, are familiar with 
 what is popularly termed scurf of the head, and which 
 follows even slight inflammation of the scalp, resulting 
 from impairment of the general health, or the like. 
 
 The use of soaps is governed more by scientific 
 principles than is generally believed ; for all soaps con-
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 187 
 
 tain an alkali (usually soda), while the scarf skin is 
 chiefly composed of albumen, a substance which is 
 readily acted upon by alkalies. The soap thus softens, 
 dissolves, and removes the superficial layers of the scarf 
 skin, and with them the dirt which has accumulated. 
 
 Much ignorance prevails amongst the public as to the 
 use of soap and water. It is possible to carry every- 
 thing to excess, and physicians occasionally witness a 
 superficial irritation of the hands and face, as the 
 result of the too frequent use of soap and water, or of 
 water alone. Those who have very sensitive skins 
 should use soft water, for the face at all events ; and 
 the best water, if it can be had, is rain water with the 
 cold taken off it. Nor is it every kind of soap which 
 is tolerated by such persons. Thus, what is called black 
 soap is one of the most irritating of all ; while probably 
 the safest soaps are, not those which are said to contain, 
 but those which really do contain, a large proportion 
 of glycerine. 
 
 In an interesting article, entitled " Longevity and 
 Centenarianism," in the Quarterly Review, the following 
 remarks occur : " Records and experience concur in 
 furnishing cases of great tenacity of life under the most 
 directly opposite conditions. Men have lived beyond 
 a hundred years without walking more than a hundred 
 yards a day, from house to office and back. No ! it
 
 188 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 depends not on exercise, nor yet, if we dare breathe 
 it in an age wholly given to ' tubbing/ on frequent 
 ablutions or strict cleanliness. Witness 'Lady Lewson/ 
 to whose peculiar views on this topic a cutting short of 
 her days cannot be objected. Witness Elizabeth 
 Durieux, a woman of Savoy, whom a writer in Notes and 
 Queries saw when she was 119 years old, bony, large- 
 limbed, wrinkled, and very dirty." Witness, as a nation, 
 the Icelanders, of whom a Quarterly Eeviewer says that 
 " though very uncleanly, and suffering much from skin 
 diseases, and leprosy particularly, their average longevity 
 exceeds that of the continental nations of Europe." 
 
 Are we, then, to infer from the preceding remarks, 
 that cleanliness is injurious to health ? It is almost 
 unnecessary to answer in the negative, for the cases 
 alluded to are undoubtedly exceptional; the longevity, 
 owing to peculiarities of constitution, climate, and the 
 like, being attained in spite of dirtiness of habits. The 
 irritation of the skin, too, which sometimes follows the 
 use of soap and water, is due, not to regular and sys- 
 tematic, but to constant and excessive, ablution. 
 
 It must never be forgotten that the body is constantly 
 changing, the old tissues being replaced by new ones, 
 and one of the most important functions of the skin 
 is to assist in the removal of the effete matter from the 
 system. If, however, strict cleanliness is not observed,
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 189 
 
 the pores of the skin, through which this is accom- 
 plished, become choked rip, and the evil result in the 
 long run to the general health cannot be doubted. 
 
 The account of the scarf skin -would be imperfect 
 were we to omit allusion to those innumerable little 
 coloured particles (pigment granules) which lie em- 
 bedded in the cells of its deepest layer, and to which 
 the variations in the tint of different skins is due. Most 
 of our readers have probably at some time or other 
 seen an albino ; that is, a person with colourless skin, 
 white hair, and red eyes. Now this peculiar and strik- 
 ing appearance is entirely dependent upon the fact that 
 the skin and other structures are devoid of the usual 
 pigment granules. This condition is observed at birth 
 and continues throughout life, but no satisfactory ex- 
 planation can be given of the reason for its occurrence. 
 Again, the dark colour of the brunette, as compared 
 with the blonde, is due to the darker colour of the 
 pigment in the former, as compared with the latter; 
 while the colour of the negro is owing to the pigment 
 granules being nearly black. Some persons are born 
 with brown patches on different parts of the body 
 moles, as they are called; while others exhibit a pecu- 
 liar distribution of the pigment of the skin, that is to 
 say, it is altogether absent at some parts, while at others 
 it is excessive, so that patches of colourless skin are
 
 igo PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 surrounded by others of a dark colour, and if the head 
 is implicated in the disease, the hair proceeding from 
 the colourless parts is white. This deformity, which 
 is termed vitiligo, is sufficiently striking amongst the 
 white races ; but in the negro the appearance, as may 
 be imagined, is exceedingly remarkable, and he is 
 commonly called a pied-negro. 
 
 The late Dr. Addison was the first to direct attention 
 to a peculiar discolouration of the skin occurring in 
 connection with disease of an internal organ,* and 
 called Addison's disease in honour of its discoverer. 
 This discolouration is dependent upon the deposit in 
 the skin of an excessive quantity of pigment, and may 
 implicate only portions of the skin, or the whole of it, 
 in which case the patient resembles a mulatto, or a 
 bronze statue the gloss of which has been removed. 
 The occurrence of this discolouration in connection with 
 an internal malady is worth noting, as being a good 
 illustration of that sympathy which, through the in- 
 fluence of the nervous system, exists between organs 
 remote from one another. 
 
 Light and heat, and especially the latter, have a 
 powerful influence upon the deposit of pigment ; 
 
 * Of certain little bodies attached to the kidneys, and called the 
 " supra-renal capsules."
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 191 
 
 indeed, it is favoured by anything which tends to 
 increase the amount of blood in the skin; hence the 
 brown colour of the exposed parts in some persons 
 during the summer months, and the freckles which 
 disfigure the face so much in others. And most persons 
 must have observed the brown mark which is sometimes 
 left after powerful stimulation of the skin, as for ex- 
 ample after the application of a mustard poultice or a 
 blister, and which is dependent upon the same cause. 
 
 The nails are mere modifications of the scarf skin, 
 their horny appearance and feeling being due to the 
 fact that the scales or plates of which they are composed 
 are much harder and more closely packed. The root 
 of the nail lies embedded, to the extent of about the 
 twelfth part of an inch, in a fold of the sensitive skin, 
 and as may be observed from an inspection of the part, 
 the scarf skin is not exactly continuous with the nail, 
 but projects a little above it, forming a narrow margin. 
 (Fig. 3.) 
 
 The nail, like the scarf skin, rests upon, and is in- 
 timately connected with, a structure almost identical 
 with the sensitive skin; this is, however, thrown into 
 ridges, which run parallel to one another, except at the 
 back part, where they radiate from the centre of the 
 root. (Fig. 4.) On examining the surface of the nail, 
 a semicircular whitish portion is detected near its root.
 
 192 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 which is dependent upon the fact that the ridges there 
 contain fewer blood-vessels, and therefore less blood, 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 SECTION THEOUGH THE NAIL AND ITS BED, ALONG THE FINGEB. 
 
 a. Boot of nail. b. Body of nail. c. Free end of nail. d. Skin of tip 
 of finger, e. Skin of back of finger. /. Scarf skin on upper surface of 
 nail at its root, g, h. Bed of nail. 
 
 and on account of its half-moon shape it is called the 
 lunula. 
 
 The nail is constantly increasing in length owing 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 SECTION OF THE NAIL AND ITS BED, ACROSS. 
 
 a. Nail. 6. Its bed. c. The skin overlapping the nail at the sides. 
 to the formation 'of new cells at the root, which push
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 193 
 
 it forwards, while the increase in its thickness is due 
 to the secretion of new cells from the sensitive layer 
 beneath, so that the farther the nail grows from the 
 root, the thicker it becomes. Its nutrition, and con- 
 sequently its growth, suffers in disease, the portion 
 growing during disease being thinner than that growing 
 in health ; and accordingly a transverse groove is seen 
 upon the nail, corresponding to the time of an illness. 
 It will thus be seen that by a mere examination of the 
 nail we can astonish our friends by telling them when they 
 have been ill ; and .it has been estimated that the nail 
 of the thumb grows from its root to its free extremity 
 in five months, that of the great toe in twenty months, so 
 that a transverse groove in the middle of the former 
 indicates an illness about two and a half months before, 
 and in the middle of the latter, about ten months. 
 
 The culture of the nails, which when perfect con- 
 stitute so great a beauty, although their neglect is not 
 so deleterious as in the case of the skin, is of much 
 importance ; but the tendency is to injure them by 
 too much attention. The scissors should never be used 
 except to pare the free edges when they have become 
 ragged or too long, and the folds of scarf skin which 
 overlap the roots should not, as a rule, be touched, 
 unless they be frayed, when the torn -edges may be 
 snipped off, so as to prevent their being torn further, 
 
 VOL. i. o
 
 194 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 which may cause much pain, and even inflammation. 
 The upper surfaces of the nails should on no account 
 be touched with the knife, as is so often done, the 
 nail brush being amply sufficient to keep them clean, 
 without impairing their smooth and polished surfaces. 
 
 In the feet, the nails or their beds are often the seats 
 of disease, much of which is due to the use of ill-fitting 
 and especially tight shoes as, for example, in the case 
 of the so-called " ingrowing toe-nails," while ulceration 
 beneath the nail is a very common and exceedingly 
 painful affection, for the cure of which it is often 
 necessary to remove it altogether ; for the nail presses 
 upon and irritates the sore beneath, and prevents it 
 from healing. In some cases, too, a low form of veget- 
 able life takes root, grows between the nail and its 
 root, and injures it very much, or even causes it to fall 
 off. There are many others diseases of these parts, to 
 which, however, our space will not permit us to refer. 
 
 On all parts of the body provided with hair, the 
 skin is the seat of innumerable minute depressions 
 (hair-sacs), from which the hair grows. (Fig. 5.) 
 At the bottom of each sac is a little elevation, termed 
 the papilla, which is almost identical in structure with 
 the papillas of the skin, to which we have already re- 
 ferred. It is from the papilla that the hair draws 
 its nourishment, and from which the new hair grows
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 
 
 '95 
 
 when the old one has fallen out or been extracted. 
 There is a very common belief, which is shared by many 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 HAIR AND HAIK-SAC. 
 
 a. Hair shaft. 6. Boot of the hah-, c. Bulb of the hair. d. Hair-sac. 
 i. Papilla of hair. e. Reflection inwards of the skin at the aperture of 
 the hair-sacs, k. Ducts of the sebaceous glands. 
 
 medical men, that if the hair is extracted it will never
 
 196 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 \ 
 
 grow again. Were such the case, it would certainly 
 be a great boon to those who are troubled with super- 
 fluous hair. But, unfortunately for them, not only does 
 the hair reappear after extraction, but it tends to grow 
 stronger than before, and, within certain limits, the 
 oftener the operation is repeated, the greater is its 
 strength and luxuriance. The reason of this is obvious. 
 The extraction of the hair irritates the papilla, and causes 
 a rush of blood to it, so that extra nutriment is pro- 
 vided for the growth of the succeeding hair. 
 
 An examination of the hair with the microscope 
 reveals to us the fact that it is chiefly composed of 
 fibres, closely packed together, and that each is en- 
 veloped in a thin skin or cuticle, composed of square- 
 shaped cells, while' many of the hairs the white and 
 coarse ones in particular are marked by a central 
 streak, called the medulla, corresponding to the pith 
 in the stems of plants, and which is also composed of 
 cells. Scattered here and there over the hair, a number 
 of dark streaks and spots are usually to be seen, com- 
 posed partly of air-cells, but principally of pigment, 
 such as we find in the skin itself; and it is to the 
 varying quantity and tint of this pigment that the 
 differences in colour of the hair in different persons, 
 and on different parts of the body, are mainly to be 
 attributed. We know that the hair has a tendency
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 197 
 
 to vary in colour at different periods of life ; that it 
 is darker, as a rule, in the adult than in the infant, and 
 that its silver-grey colour is one of the ornaments of 
 age, although some persons are foolish enough, from 
 a desire to appear younger than they really are, to 
 disfigure themselves by the use of wigs, which are 
 both unseemly and unsuitable. The source of these 
 changes is to be found in the increasing quantity and 
 deepening colour of the pigment granules as adult life 
 is approached, and in its diminution and ultimate dis- 
 appearance in old age. Most of our readers have pro- 
 bably heard of cases in which, under the influence of 
 violent emotion, such as sudden fear or intense grief, 
 the hair has turned grey in a single night, but much 
 scepticism exists as to the possibility of such an occur- 
 rence. While, however, such cases are certainly rare, 
 it is an undoubted fact that they do occur, and that 
 they are not the mere offsprings of a lively imagination. 
 And a very curious circumstance has been discovered 
 with regard to them, namely, that the change of colour 
 is not dependent upon the disappearance of the pigment 
 of the hair, which can only take place slowly, but upon 
 the sudden development in its interior of a number of 
 air-bubbles, that hide and destroy the effect of the 
 pigment, which remains unaltered. One or two such 
 cases may be mentioned.
 
 198 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 Ludwig Harenburg had long been intemperate in his 
 habits, in consequence of which he was seized with 
 delirium tremens. The delirium, as is usual in such 
 cases, was of a very terrifying nature, and it was speci- 
 ally noticed that the entrance into his room of any one 
 who was unknown to him agitated him, and made him 
 tremble from head to foot for two or three minutes. 
 The delirium had lasted four days. On the evening of 
 the fourth day the hair was unaltered, but on the morn- 
 ing of the fifth the delirium had disappeared, and his 
 hair, which previously was fair, had become grey. It 
 was examined with the microscope, when it was found 
 that the pigment was still present, but that the central 
 streak of each was filled with air-bubbles. (Virchow's 
 Archiv, 1866, p. 589.) 
 
 A young Swiss, armed with a sabre, suspended 
 himself over a precipice by means of a rope, in order 
 to secure some young vultures in their nest. While 
 in the act of taking them, he was attacked by the 
 mother, and used his sabre freely to protect himself. 
 When the encounter was over, on looking up he found 
 that he had nearly severed the rope which supported 
 him. He almost died of fear, for a yawning precipice 
 was beneath him. Fortunately the rope was strong 
 enough to support him, but by the time he reached 
 the summit his hair had turned grey.
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 199 
 
 One other case, which is related in a work by a 
 celebrated physician, Daniel Turner, now no more, may 
 be added. Don Diego Osorius, a Spaniard, of a noble 
 family, being in love with a young lady of the Court, 
 had prevailed with her for a private conference, under 
 the shady boughs of a tree, within the garden of the 
 King of Spain; but by the unfortunate barking of a 
 little dog, their privacy was betrayed, the young gentle- 
 man seized by some of the king's guard, and im- 
 prisoned; it was a capital offence to be found in that 
 place, and therefore he was condemned to die. He 
 was so terrified at the hearing of his sentence, that one 
 and the same night saw the same person young and 
 old, his hair having been turned grey as in those 
 stricken in years. The gaoler, moved at the sight, 
 related the incident to King Ferdinand, as a prodigy, 
 who thereupon pardoned him, saying he had been 
 sufficiently punished for his fault. 
 
 In a state of health, the hair, when it has grown to 
 a certain length, falls out; but this shedding of the 
 hair is such a slow process, that it produces no de- 
 formity, and almost passes unobserved. It is far dif- 
 ferent, however, when the health is reduced, as after 
 a fever, for then it falls away in such abundance as 
 to produce well-marked thinning of the hair, and to 
 cause much uneasiness. Such a condition is not to
 
 200 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 be neglected, partly because of the deformity which 
 results, but mainly because it indicates that the general 
 health is in an unsatisfactory state. Again, many 
 persons must have seen cases in which the hair has 
 a tendency to fall away in certain parts, leaving round 
 bald patches ; and instances are known to the writer, 
 of the successive implication of different portions of 
 the hair, until not a single hair was left upon any part 
 of the body. It is supposed by some that this disease 
 is dependent upon a minute plant which eats away the 
 hair; but the most recent investigations tend to show 
 that it is not so, but that there is some peculiar alter- 
 ation of the nerves of the affected portions of the skin. 
 There are certain diseases of the hair, however, which 
 are undoubtedly due to the implantation and germin- 
 ation of minute fungi, of which we have a good illus- 
 tration in the disease too well known under the name 
 of ringworm of the head; and it is this circumstance 
 which imparts to it its contagious quality. (Fig. 6.) 
 This minute growth not only eats into the portion of 
 hair which is above the surface, and causes it to break, 
 but also finds its way into the root; and hence the 
 difficulty of reaching it with remedial agents, and the 
 obstinacy of the complaint in certain cases. 
 
 The skin is provided with innumerable little glands, 
 the sweat glands (or perspiratory glands), and the oil
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 
 
 201 
 
 glands (sebaceous glands), as they are called. The 
 former (Fig. 1, e,f) are little tubes, the walls of which 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 HAIE FROJI A CASE OF RINGWORM OF THE HEAD LOADED WITH AND BROKEN 
 UP BY THE SPOKES OF A FUNGOUS GROWTH.
 
 202 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 are similar in structure to the layers of which the skin 
 is composed. The orifices of these glands, the pores 
 of the skin, are oblique, because the little tubes in their 
 passage through the scarf skin have a spiral form; 
 in the sensitive skin they lose this spiral form in great 
 measure, but terminate in little coils of tubing in its 
 deepest layers. The whole length of each tube has 
 been estimated at a quarter of an inch, and the whole 
 number of tubes in an adult at more than two millions ; 
 so that, if it were possible to place them end to end, 
 they would reach to the extent of nearly ten miles. 
 
 The perspiration is composed almost exclusively of 
 water, of which more than two pounds are discharged 
 in the day. This fact is sufficiently striking to warn 
 persons of the danger of allowing the pores of the 
 skin to be closed from want of cleanliness. 
 
 In health, in a state of quiescence, the skin is com- 
 paratively dry, for the moisture passes off in the shape 
 of vapour as soon as it is discharged ; hence the term 
 insensible perspiration has been applied to it. But when 
 the circulation is unusually excited, under the influence 
 of exertion or of heat, or when the patient is extremely 
 weak, as in consumption, the little glands secrete pro- 
 fusely, and the skin is moist; and to this the term 
 sensible perspiration has been given. The secretion of 
 these glands, like that of the other organs and tissues
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 203 
 
 of the body, is under the influence of the nervous 
 system; hence, in cases of violent emotion, such as 
 sudden fear, we break into a profuse perspiration. 
 Hence the sympathy which exists between the skin 
 and the other excreting organs, there being a balance 
 of function between them; so that, when the skin is 
 secreting freely, the internal excretions are diminished, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that the skin is 
 an organ of excretion only, for it is endowed with a 
 considerable amount of power of absorption. It is on 
 this account that a certain degree of relief from thirst 
 has been experienced by shipwrecked mariners from 
 the immersion of their clothing in salt water; and 
 that when physicians desire to keep the stomach at rest 
 for a number of consecutive hours, they sometimes 
 envelop the limbs in wet bandages. Many persons, 
 too, are familiar with the application to the skin of 
 a belladonna plaster for the relief of pain ; yet it is 
 not generally know that the absorption of medicines 
 by the skin has been carried to such an extent as to 
 produce serious symptoms of poisoning. The scarf skin, 
 however, very materially interferes with the process 
 of absorption, and accordingly, when a speedy effect 
 is desired, a portion of the cuticle is frequently removed 
 by means of a blister, and medicines applied to the
 
 204 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 raw surface of the sensitive skin, which absorbs them 
 with great rapidity, so that much care is required in 
 this mode of administering drugs. 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 SEBACEOUS GLAXDS FROM THE XOSE SURROUNDING (1) A HAIR-SAC. 
 
 The oil glands are distributed over the greater por- 
 tion of the skin, but they are far more abundant in 
 hairy parts. The ducts of these glands are similar 
 in structure to the tubes of the sweat glands, but they
 
 THE SKIN. CORPULENCE. 205 
 
 are broader, and most of them open into the hair-sacs 
 instead of communicating directly with the surface. 
 The little glands themselves vary very much in cha- 
 racter, many of them being simple dilatations of the 
 extremities df the ducts, while others are divided into 
 several little sacs, as in the accompanying illustration 
 (Fig. 7). These glands secrete an oily substance, thus 
 ridding the system of certain nqxious elements, while 
 at the same time the surface of the skin is protected 
 from the air, and the injurious effects which might 
 otherwise be expected to arise from the rubbing against 
 one another of neighbouring folds of skin are pre- 
 vented. 
 
 An examination of the secretion squeezed out of the 
 oil glands has proved that they often contain a minute 
 parasite, which is supposed to serve some useful purpose, 
 such as the stimulation of the glands, or the consump- 
 tion of a portion of their secretion. At all events, they 
 are found in persons whose health is perfect, and do not 
 give rise to the slightest inconvenience; but it is by 
 no means certain, as some have asserted, that they 
 are to be found in the glands of all persons. 
 
 It not unfrequently happens that the secretion hardens, 
 accumulates in and distends the ducts, especially in 
 the' faces of young persons; and as the secretion at 
 the orifice of each attracts the particles of dust which
 
 206 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 are floating about, a number of black specks are to 
 be detected, which must be familiar to all our readers. 
 And if a watch-key be pressed firmly against the skin, 
 being so placed that the hollow of the key corresponds 
 to one of the black specks, the secretion is tilted up 
 and appears in the shape of a worm-like process, being 
 an accurate mould of the duct from which it has been 
 expressed. The prolonged retention of hardened se- 
 baceous matter in the glands is very apt to irritate 
 and inflame the surrounding parts, and to give rise 
 to the disease called acne. 
 
 Instead of the ducts of the glands, the glands them- 
 selves may become distended with their secretion, 
 and then, there being no contact of the secretion with 
 the air, there are no black specks ; but the appearance 
 presented is that of little pearly points, owing to the 
 sebaceous matter shining through the distended skin. 
 This is a condition often met with in the eyelids and 
 face, and is termed milium by scientific men. 
 
 Lastly, the secretion from the glands may be excessive 
 may diffuse itself in undue quantity over the skin, 
 and is very apt, especially on the head, to dry up into 
 yellowish scales, such as we often see in infants, and 
 to be mistaken for inflammation. For all these con- 
 ditions, it is well to seek medical advice.
 
 VIII. 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 IN the last chapter we gave a short account of the 
 structure and general use of the skin, but there remain 
 one or two points, more or less connected with this 
 portion of our frame, which deserve a few further re- 
 marks. Of these, we may take first the use and abuse 
 of bathing. 
 
 Bathing has two objects : to purify and to strengthen. 
 These are intimately connected, since nothing tends 
 more to enervate than contamination of the fluids 
 which circulate within the body, and to remove super- 
 fluous or worn-out substances is a direct way to im- 
 part vigour to all the organs ; but it is not in this 
 way alone that bathing strengthens. By virtue of the 
 change of temperature a cold bath implies, it acts, as 
 is well known, upon the nervous system, and calls out, 
 in answer to the temporary abstraction of heat, a freer 
 play of the general vital powers. 
 
 Of the bath as designed for ordinary purposes of 
 cleanliness, there need not much be said. The whole 
 surface of the body should be daily washed; but the 
 daily use of soap need not be considered necessary,
 
 208 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 t 
 
 except for those portions of the body which are spe- 
 cially exposed. For the general surface the use of soap 
 twice a week fulfills the demands of cleanliness, unless 
 in special occupations. Warm water, as is well known, 
 cleanses much more effectually than cold. 
 
 The Turkish bath, lately re-introduced with high 
 commendations into this country, has its chief use as 
 a means of thorough cleansing. Not, indeed, that by 
 it, as some of its too enthusiastic advocates have im- 
 plied, every kind of morbid agent can be washed out 
 of the blood. Diseases cannot be filtered away through 
 the sweat-glands. Still, by the profuse perspiration 
 which the high temperature induces, aided by the 
 drinking of a few tumblers of water, a great deal of 
 highly objectionable matter may be got rid of. Per- 
 sons with weak hearts should be careful how they have 
 recourse to the Turkish bath, although in some cases 
 otherwise adapted, and under careful medical super- 
 vision, persons suffering from confirmed heart-disease 
 have derived the greatest benefit from its use. But 
 for all other persons an occasional recourse to it is a 
 legitimate luxury, and for some a decided advantage. 
 The temperature of the heated air, however, should 
 not exceed 150, except under medical advice, or after 
 careful trial. If exhilaration and a feeling of increased 
 lightness and proneness to exertion follow, benefit has
 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 209 
 
 been gained; if lassitude and exhaustion, the bath is 
 unsuitable, or its duration or temperature should be 
 diminished. 
 
 The free perspiration induced by the Turkish bath, 
 judiciously taken, is in most cases beneficial ; but it 
 should not be supposed that there is any special virtue 
 ID. this particular means of inducing it. Active ex- 
 ercise is a better one for all persons who can take it; 
 and a walk or a game, which within the bounds of 
 moderate fatigue produces a copious secretion from 
 the skin, and on which no chill is allowed to super- 
 vene, does fully as much to eliminate ill materials from 
 the blood, as the most sedulous votary of the Turkish 
 bath can attain. The latter, indeed, regarded as a 
 means of health, may be looked upon most justly as 
 a kind of substitute for bodily exertion, when this is 
 unattainable through lack of strength or time a sub- 
 stitute, that is, in this one respect, but by no means 
 in all, for exercise does much more for us than merely 
 carry off fluid through the skin. 
 
 The Turkish bath accordingly is most suitable for 
 those who, from unavoidable causes, are compelled to 
 lead sedentary lives, especially if they suffer from want 
 of sufficient activity of the secreting organs. To them 
 it affords a partial supplement for more natural and 
 effective sources of invigoration. It is useful also for 
 
 VOL. i. p
 
 210 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 those to whom the free use of cold water without 
 previous warmth is too severe a shock, the high tem- 
 perature drawing the blood freely to the surface of 
 the body, and so preparing it to receive with advantage 
 the cold affusion with which the "bath concludes. For 
 the principle on which cold succeeds warmth in the 
 Turkish bath and it is one which all bathers should 
 bear in mind, as it determines whether the practice is 
 beneficial or the reverse is this, that the circulation 
 in the skin should be vigorous, and the temperature 
 accordingly warm, so that its temporary depression 
 from the cold may be followed by a vigorous reaction. 
 This is, indeed, the criterion of the influence of a cold 
 bath ; whether it leaves behind it a pleasant glow upon 
 the surface, or a feeling of chilliness : if the former, it 
 invigorates ; if the latter, it enfeebles. In this respect a 
 great deal depends upon the time that is passed in 
 the water. There are few persons who are not warmed 
 by a single plunge; still fewer who are not chilled, 
 and therefore injured, by a prolonged stay. On an 
 average, three minutes should suffice, except for those 
 who are inured to the practice, and unless the weather 
 is very warm. For active swimming in the sea, ten 
 minutes may be taken. 
 
 The glow which follows a cold bath, is the chief 
 secret of its tonic influence. It arises from the blood
 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 211 
 
 returning in a larger stream to the surface, from which 
 it had been partially banished; and it has these two 
 good effects : it is a safeguard against chills, through 
 the increased supply of blood to the external parts, 
 and for the same reason it wards off internal conges- 
 tions and other disturbances of the circulation. And 
 besides this effect upon the blood-vessels, it adds another 
 to those natural stimulants of the sensitive nerves, on 
 which, as we have before observed, the healthy tone 
 of the nervous system so much depends. All these 
 good effects are much aided by vigorous friction with 
 a flesh-brush or rough towel, applied as rapidly as may 
 be. It is bad to let the surface continue wet after 
 leaving the water. 
 
 The best time for prolonged bathing is the forenoon, 
 say two or three hours after breakfast ; but for a sim- 
 ple plunge no time is better than immediately on rising. 
 The skin is warm on quitting the bed, and in a good 
 state to receive the shock. The cold bath should not 
 follow immediately on a meal, because the blood should 
 not then be drawn too strongly to the surface, it being 
 required for the work of digestion. 
 
 The question has been a good deal discussed, whether 
 a cold bath should immediately follow a walk or other 
 exercise ; and an opinion to the contrary has widely 
 prevailed, backed by certain stories, which, however,
 
 212 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 are probably incomplete in some of their details. Ac- 
 cordingly it is much the custom after exercise to wait 
 until the body becomes cool, before bathing; and in 
 some schools it is made the business of a master to 
 see that no boy enters the water in a state of perspira- 
 tion. This opinion and practice, however, appear to 
 be ill-founded. If evil effects have resulted from bath- 
 ing after exertion, it has been not because the body 
 was hot, but because its powers were exhausted by 
 fatigue. Under such circumstances the danger of a 
 cold bath is not diminished, but increased, by waiting 
 until the heightened temperature has passed away. 
 The power of reaction, from the weakness of which 
 the danger arises, is thereby only rendered still more 
 feeble. The proper rule is, that cold bathing should 
 never be had recourse to after great fatigue, whether 
 we be heated or not. but, under all circumstances, it 
 is better to encounter it warm than cold; and there 
 is no better preparation for it than a moderate walk, 
 sufficient to induce a slightly heightened temperature. 
 Thus employed, a daily cold bath is a safe tonic for 
 almost all persons during the summer months, and 
 tends especially to restore the appetite when it has 
 been lost. 
 
 Some persons of heroic mould persist in a cold 
 plunge throughout the year, and regularly break the
 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH, 213 
 
 ice whenever the frost is severe. Of this practice we 
 can only say that it seems to be good for those who 
 are strong enough to bear it, but such persons un- 
 doubtedly are few. The luxury is attended with risks, 
 and should never be persisted in if a feeling of warmth 
 does not immediately succeed it. 
 
 The shower bath has some advantages over the 
 plunge ; the stimulus to the nerves of the skin is 
 greater, the abstraction of heat somewhat less. It is 
 useful, therefore, to certain nervous temperaments ; but 
 some precautions are advisable if there is any lack of 
 strength. It is a good plan, for instance, to stand in 
 a pan of warm water to prevent the feet from being 
 chilled, or in some cases to protect the head by an 
 oil-skin cap. It is indeed often desirable not to apply 
 cold water too freely to the head; and many persons 
 who derive great advantage from cold bathing find it 
 advisable to use tepid water for the head. This seems 
 to be especially the case with those who are subject to 
 great mental labour, and who sometimes increase the 
 nervous distress to which they are subject by an un- 
 wise use of cold water for its relief. But bathing the 
 face with cold water is often a great refreshment during 
 mental strain, and nothing calms the sleeplessness 
 which results from excitement better than its free ap- 
 plication to the face and neck.
 
 214 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 It does not appear that washing the head with tepid 
 instead of cold water, or the use of tepid baths, in- 
 creases, as might perhaps have been thought likely, 
 the liability to colds. As a rule, it may be said that 
 water which, although tepid, is decidedly below the 
 natural heat of the skin, so as to give a feeling of 
 coldness, has a bracing that which feels warm, a re- 
 laxing effect. The use first of warm and then of cold 
 water has an excellent influence, and is admirably adapt- 
 ed for those who are for the time too weak to bear 
 cold alone; but they should succeed each other imme- 
 diately, and the room should be warm. 
 
 In bathing infants it is desirable to cover them all 
 over with a shawl or flannel, and to wash them beneath 
 it. With this precaution they may be washed without 
 a fire in the coldest weather. And here appears a 
 palpable defect in the bathing arrangements of most 
 people. Till about four years old, children have a 
 daily bath, then as a rule they go without it till the 
 age of sixteen or so, when the wiser ones resume it 
 again if they can. But what is desirable is, that the 
 practice of daily bathing should be continued all through 
 life ; which it doubtless would be if the necessary con- 
 veniences existed. In every house there should be a 
 bath supplied with hot and cold water available for 
 every member.
 
 THE BATH.- THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 215 
 
 Warm baths should not be taken, except under medi- 
 cal direction, oftener than about once a week. Yapour 
 baths, also, are rather a remedy for disease than a 
 means of health. There are many contrivances for 
 giving them, of which the simplest is a hot brick 
 placed in a bucket of water beneath a chair. It should 
 be remembered, however, that such plans are not free 
 from a risk of scalding. 
 
 Passing now to the endowments of the skin as an 
 organ of sensation, we cannot but notice their great 
 variety. The skin is the seat of many senses rather 
 than of one. The perception of heat and cold, for in- 
 stance, is as different from the feeling of a solid body, 
 as seeing is from tasting. Tickling, again, is a quite 
 peculiar sensation; so also is the sensibility to pain, 
 which resides in the healthy state chiefly on the surface. 
 The reason for this heaping up of sensitive capacities 
 in the skin, of course, is obvious in the fact that it is 
 the medium through which we come directly into contact 
 with external nature. All our other senses, may be for 
 a time unexercised; but, save in sleep, the skin gives 
 us incessant information. It takes part in all our actions, 
 and furnishes guidance in the attainment of every end. 
 Little as we reflect upon it, it is unquestionably true 
 that, so far as knowledge is concerned, we had better
 
 216 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 lack every other organ of sensation than the skin. If 
 we had not clear apprehensions from our touch, our 
 eyes would present to us mere illusions, words would 
 have no solid meaning on which higher senses could be 
 built up. It is that recognition of separate substance 
 which the fingers give, that first reveals to the dawning 
 consciousness of the child his own individuality ; on the 
 basis of that recognition of substance the eye traverses 
 space, and translates a faint glimmer of light into a 
 world ; on that same basis the bewildering variety of 
 appearances in Nature stand before the mental eye as 
 an endless series of motions, fulfilling in every change 
 a perfect order. 
 
 There is scarcely any sense that the skin cannot in 
 some measure supplement. Blind men by its aid have 
 learnt to distinguish colours ; by its aid the deaf listen 
 and the dumb converse. Nay, as the case of Laura 
 Bridgman proves, let a man be born into a dark and 
 silent universe, eyeless and earless, cut off from every 
 charm by which Nature endears herself to us, from 
 every means . by which humanity acquires and stores up 
 its growing knowledge; yet can the sense of touch, by 
 loving nurture, still give him a happy place among his 
 fellows. 
 
 The touch is indeed remarkable for the improvement 
 it may receive from practice. The blind soon come to
 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 217 
 
 read with perfect ease a raised type not much larger 
 than that of an ordinary large-print Bible. Saunderson, 
 a professor of mathematics at Cambridge, blind from 
 two years old, could distinguish genuine medals from 
 counterfeits better than many good judges who possessed 
 their sight. Many blind persons have become good 
 sculptors ; others have been famous botanists ; and Dr. 
 Carpenter mentions a blind friend who has so thorough 
 a knowledge of shells that he takes rank with the best 
 conchologists. Perhaps this great development of touch- 
 power is not merely due, as in the case of the ear or 
 eye, to practice ; for the touch differs from these latter 
 organs in this respect, that while the nerves of hearing 
 and of sight are provided with an apparatus for specially 
 receiving and concentrating light and sound, the nerves 
 of touch are invested with a covering specially adapted 
 to deaden their perceptions ; namely, the outer layer 
 of the skin. The sense of touch, therefore, may be 
 susceptible of being rendered more acute by an alter- 
 ation in this layer of scarf-skin itself, which may give 
 the nerve a less impeded access to its object. 
 
 In some aspects the touch is the fundamental sense, 
 of which all the others are but modifications and de- 
 velopments ; the motions of light and sound strike upon 
 the ear and eye, so that seeing and hearing are but 
 touching at a distance. Perhaps indeed there is not
 
 2i8 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 truly the difference there seems to be ; for no two 
 bodies, so far as can be discovered, ever come into 
 absolute contact, so that in our firmest grasp we really 
 touch at a distance, and feel not substance, but only 
 force. But however this may be, this simplest of the 
 senses certainly yields to none of them in wonder. 
 
 The seat of the sense of touch is in the minute 
 papillae of the skin, before described. These, accord- 
 ingly, are most numerous in those parts of the surface 
 in which the sensibility is most acute, as on the tips 
 of the fingers, the lips, the point of the tongue. On 
 the palmar surface of the hand they are arranged in 
 rows, and so give rise to the lines which' mark this 
 part of the surface. From 12,000 to 30,000 are here 
 contained in a square inch. By means of a pair of 
 compasses, it is easy to test the sensibility to touch of 
 different parts of the body. The eyes being closed, the 
 two points of the compasses are applied so as to touch 
 "the skin at a short distance from each other, and it is 
 found that the power of distinguishing them as two 
 separate points varies very greatly with the situation. 
 On the tip of the tongue they are felt as two at the 
 distance of half a line ; on the point of the third 
 finger, at the distance of one line; while on the back 
 and the middle of the arm no clear sensation of two 
 points of contact is given until they are two inches
 
 THE -BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 219 
 
 md a half apart. These, at least, are 'the average dis- 
 mces, but they vary a good deal in different persons. 
 
 If a part, such as the finger, possessed of a delicate 
 tactile perception, touches another part which is less 
 sensitive, such as the arm, it is the finger which feels 
 the arm, not the arm the finger, unless the temperature 
 of the two parts is different, for then both are felt. 
 The sensations of touch also are persistent after the 
 removal of their causes, like those of the other senses, 
 but in still greater degree. Thus an earring may be 
 felt long after it has been removed ; and in a similar 
 way an irritation of the skin will frequently persist 
 when the cause has ceased to operate. 
 
 In appreciating weight, it has been found that the 
 small hairs which cover the surface greatly assist, since 
 the delicacy of the perception is much diminished when 
 these are shaved off. This fact favours the view that 
 the peculiar hairs with which some animals, such as 
 the cat, are endowed, are tactile organs. 
 
 The perception of heat and cold has a fair claim to 
 be regarded as a special sense ; and some facts observed 
 in disease seem to indicate that there are special nerves 
 devoted to it. It is certain that the sensation requires 
 for its production a special nervous structure in the 
 skin, for experiments have shown that it cannot be 
 excited when the skin is destroyed. Neither is it
 
 220 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 perceived in any of the internal organs. A sense of 
 cold or heat is felt from hot or cold substances swal- 
 lowed only when the skin' is affected by the change of 
 temperature in the parts within. Beyond a certain 
 point, heat and cold alike produce a sensation merely 
 of pain. Frozen mercury and red-hot iron feel alike. 
 The larger the surface involved, the more intense is 
 the feeling of temperature. Water at 104 degrees 
 seems less warm to one finger than water two degrees 
 lower seems to the whole hand. The left hand seems 
 to have usually the acutest sense of temperature. 
 
 There is another class of sensations, those which con- 
 stitute what is termed the muscular sense, or feeling of 
 exertion, which are also closely connected with the 
 sense of touch. This muscular sense it is that gives 
 us the consciousness of the amount of effort we put 
 forth in any action, and thus conveys to us the feelings 
 of resistance and solidity ; and, like touch, to the per- 
 fection of which it is essential, it resides chiefly in the 
 hand; though it is present in every part. It is, indeed, 
 the union of this sense, in its utmost perfection, with 
 nearly the most perfect sense of touch, that makes the 
 hand the wonderful instrument it is. We may judge 
 of the part the muscular sense plays in touch, by getting 
 a friend to move one of our fingers over a smooth 
 surface, while we shut our eyes. If he presses more
 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 221 
 
 firmly at one part than at another, we receive the im- 
 pression of an unevenness in the surface ; which we do 
 not have if we exert a varying pressure ourselves. 
 
 But besides being thus concentrated in the hand, the 
 muscular sense comes into play, consciously or uncon- 
 sciously, in every voluntary movement. By its teaching 
 we adjust the strength we put forth to the demands 
 of every action, and are able with a little experience 
 to exert just so much as will suffice to attain the end. 
 Through it we are able without thought to maintain 
 the constant series of muscular actions by which the 
 body is maintained in an upright position, and which 
 could not cease for a moment without a fall. But the 
 most wonderful instances of the operation of the mus- 
 cular sense are seen in the muscles which adjust the ear 
 and regulate the voice, so that persons with a good ear 
 can reproduce with the utmost accuracy the boundless 
 variety of tones, for each one of which a different kind 
 or degree of muscular contraction is required. 
 
 How entirely dependent our actions are on the 
 muscular sense which guides them, is proved by some 
 cases of disease, in which, though the muscular power 
 remains, sensation is destroyed. In these cases there is 
 an entire inability to act, unless the wanting muscular 
 sense is supplied by the sight. Thus " a patient who 
 cannot feel either the contact of his foot with the
 
 222 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 ground or the muscular effort he is making, can manage 
 to stand and walk by looking at his limbs ; and a woman 
 who cannot feel the pressure of her child upon her 
 arms can yet sustain it so long as she keeps her eyes 
 fixed upon it, but no longer ; the limb dropping power- 
 less the moment that the eyes are withdrawn from it." 
 But it is not only in disease that our actions are es- 
 sentially aided by our sight. In our ordinary move- 
 ments we "lean/' as Professor Mayo said, "upon our 
 eyesight as upon crutches;" and there is scarcely one 
 in which the closure of the eyes does not introduce 
 embarrassment, until by practice the muscular sense is 
 trained to supply their place. 
 
 Nor is it only in acting that the muscular sense and 
 the eyesight co-operate. It is by the union of these 
 two senses that distinct apprehensions of the world 
 around us are obtained; and perceiving may be said to 
 be the bringing to bear upon the object the conjoint 
 powers of sight and touch. If without touch the eye 
 would give us but appearances ; without the aid of know- 
 ledge gathered by sight, the touch would impart to us 
 little definite information, and would be subject to many 
 illusions ; for though this sense seems to bring us more 
 directly than the rest into relation with the very sub- 
 stance of things, it also has its liabilities to error. 
 For instance, if the second and third fingers be crossed
 
 THE BATH. THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 223 
 
 and a small object be placed between them, the feeling 
 given is that of two distinct objects : this feeling, no 
 doubt, arises from the relations of the nerves to each 
 other being altered. 
 
 In various diseases, again, illusions of the sense of 
 touch are present, showing that in this mode of per- 
 ceiving nature, as in others, there mingles also some- 
 thing from ourselves. Our feeling of solidity, for 
 example, answers to our own exertion, and may be 
 produced not only by solid substances, but by various 
 kinds of force, as on trying to bring together the cor- 
 responding poles (which repel each other) of two 
 powerful magnets. We must not think that by any 
 one of our senses we can penetrate the secret of the 
 universe. Light itself is but a shining veil; no eye 
 has seen what nature is, nor hand has felt it in its 
 grasp. Perhaps it is not without significance that, in 
 the sense of touch, which seems to bring us closest to 
 the world around, there is interposed a special impedi- 
 ment to cut us off from a contact too direct. It seems 
 an image of our state a parable engraved on each 
 man's hand, to remind him that in all that he per- 
 ceives there still is something hidden ; something that 
 it would need a finer sense, a higher faculty than ours, 
 to apprehend aright. Nor can we wonder that it should 
 be so. What else does our experience of nature suggest,
 
 224 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 but some mighty Power, betraying itself by wondrous 
 flashes, but never wholly revealed ? We have examined 
 most briefly and imperfectly indeed in previous 
 papers the various organs of the senses, and have seen 
 what science tells us. We have discovered structures 
 most beautifully adapted for receiving mechanical and 
 chemical impressions, and conveying them to a central 
 '- organ of nerve-cells and fibres. But how does this 
 explain our sensations ? What light does it cast upon 
 the thrill of joy we feel in beauty, the rapture with 
 which music carries us away ? These questions suggest 
 one answer, and but one : that there is more in that 
 which causes our sensations than we are conscious of. 
 As the scarf-skin clothes and dulls the nerves, which 
 could not bear, for pain, an unimpeded touch, so there 
 is a darkness clothes our souls, and dims for us a glory 
 too bright to bear. And therefore we see now but as 
 through a glass, darkly, not only the Creator, but His 
 works ; and therefore in us nature's harmony is broken. 
 There is one other thought : the hand and eye not 
 each in its own sphere alone, but used together give 
 us true knowledge of material things. Even so, if man 
 is to read Nature rightly, and gain but a faint glimpse 
 of her true meaning, the heart and intellect, united, 
 must furnish him the key.
 
 IX. 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 
 
 IT can scarcely be a pleasant occupation to read about 
 pain; yet there are few who have not felt it, and 
 feeling it, have wished to know something- of its nature, 
 its cause, its object, or its treatment. Any one of 
 these questions would give ample scope for a chapter, 
 but we have designedly headed this "Notes on Pain," 
 since it is our purpose to allude only to some of its 
 more prominent characteristics. 
 
 Pain may be due to many sources, but its most 
 frequent causes seem to be an excess of blood or 
 an intensity of nerve-currents, for the violent excita- 
 tion of any sensation is painful, although the moderate 
 excitement is pleasurable. We may, however, remark, 
 that in the nervous apparatus of the organs of special 
 sense the eye, the ear, etc. congestion, or intense 
 excitement of nerve-currents, does not cause pain, but 
 in the eye flashes of light, in the ear unusual noises, in 
 the tongue peculiar tastes, evidence a deviation from 
 the normal state. 
 
 The tendency of protracted intellectual work to ex- 
 pend force, exhaust physical power, and so induce 
 
 VOL. I. Q
 
 226 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 premature decay, is well known. Long-continued 
 concentration of mind is exhausting, though it may 
 seem easy and pleasant. Even pleasure itself implies 
 an expenditure of blood and nerve-tissue, to the 
 stinting, perhaps, of the active energies and intel- 
 lectual processes. But pain is a more costly ex- 
 perience than pleasure ; being accompanied by excess 
 of blood in the brain arising from intensity of 
 nervous action and conflicting currents (both of which 
 are sources of waste), it uses up vital force more rapidly 
 and wastefully than muscular or intellectual work. The 
 feeling of ennui or sense of failure, from unsuccessful 
 effort, is akin to pain, and is very wearying and de- 
 pressing. Mere excitement may detain thought and 
 impress memory, but does not waste power as pain 
 does. 
 
 The mention of excitement induces us to notice in 
 passing that the disappearance of pain under strong 
 mental emotion is no proof that the pain itself has 
 been a creation of the fancy; for a powerful emotion 
 may so modify the course of the circulation, as to 
 withdraw the attention from the seat of pain, and so 
 relieve local congestion.* The influence of pain in 
 
 * The following incident well illustrates the extent to which pain may 
 be dependent on fancy : " A butcher was brought into a druggist's from
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 227 
 
 enfeebling the action of the heart is very great ; and 
 when the blood is poor and the circulation weak, 
 the supply of force obtained from the food, and 
 available for muscular or mental work, is soon ex- 
 hausted, and a sense of tiredness, passing into pain, 
 occurs. Pain, too, may actually arrest secretion; 
 and, by allowing the accumulation of effete matters 
 in the blood, may poison the nervous system, disturb 
 the serenity, and confuse the mind. 
 
 We have so far regarded pain as a cause of the 
 expenditure of vital force, but pain is also a conse- 
 quence of the faulty removal of waste products. The 
 pain of gout, rheumatism, ague, etc., is due to the 
 presence in the blood of a material which acts as an 
 irritant to the sentient nerves, and often continues for 
 a long time after the removal of the poison. The 
 long continuance of pain may keep up a turgid state 
 of the vessels of the brain and render sleep impos- 
 
 the market-place opposite, labouring under a terrible accident. The man, 
 on trying to hook up a heavy piece of meat above his head, slipped, and 
 the sharp hook penetrated his arm so that ho himself was suspended. 
 On being examined, he was pale, almost pulseless, and expressed himself 
 as suffering acute agony. The arm could not be moved without causing 
 excessive pain, and in cutting off the sleeve he frequently cried out ; yet 
 when the arm was exposed, it was found quite uninjured, the hook having 
 traversed only the sleeve of the coat ! " The sensation here was perfectly 
 real, but originated in a change in the brain and nerves, instead of in the 
 external senses.
 
 228 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE, 
 
 sible. The nutrition or restoration of nerve-tissue, 
 which ought to go on during sleep, is suspended, 
 waste products accumulate, and interfere with clear- 
 ness of intellect and happy activity of mind. Miserable 
 restlessness and irritability are in this way engendered, 
 which themselves may give rise to hypochondriasis, 
 melancholia, or brain disease. 
 
 We may notice the influence of pain on the lower 
 animals, on different races of the human family, and 
 on different individuals. Shakspeare says 
 
 " The poor beetle that we tread upon, 
 In corporal sufferance feels a pang as great 
 As when a giant dies." 
 
 Modern discovery entitles us to offer an opinion on 
 
 the truth of this poetic axiom. Pain, " nature's kind 
 
 harbinger of mischief," being given for wise purposes, 
 
 acute perceptions could scarcely, in accordance with 
 
 our enlarged views of the beneficence displayed in the 
 
 construction of the universe, be supposed to exist in 
 
 animals who have no power of avoiding dangers ; and, 
 
 inasmuch as, in the higher animals at least, the power 
 
 of feeling pain exists in the brain, it is natural to infer 
 
 that where this organ is wanting, the sensibility to 
 
 pain would be absent too ; and that, as this part of 
 
 the nervous system becomes more perfect, the power 
 
 of feeling pain would increase. In other words, as
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 229 
 
 the strength, activity, and intelligence of an animal, 
 by which it can escape from pain, depend on the per- 
 fection of the brain, so does the perception of torture 
 depend on the condition of the same organ. Apart 
 from science and theory, every-day observations show 
 us that, among many of the lower animals, the feeling 
 of pain is not acutely developed. The fly seized by 
 the leg will leave its limb behind, and with apparent 
 unconcern wing itself away to regale on the nearest 
 sweets; and of so little moment is the loss of a limb 
 to a lobster, that he will throw off his claws if alarmed 
 by the report of a cannon. Talking, barking, and 
 grunting animals scream more when hurt than those 
 that use but little language, as the horse, sheep, or 
 cow. 
 
 Not only does a difference exist in the sensibility to 
 pain evinced by man, as compared with the lower 
 animals, but between the various races of the human 
 species the diversity is almost as marked. The power 
 of bearing pain without exhibition of feeling, as culti- 
 vated by the stoical Spartan, varies greatly in different 
 persons, and in the same person at different times; 
 and it cannot be doubted that, irrespective of relative 
 fortitude, there is a real diversity in the nervous sus- 
 ceptibilities of different persons and races of mankind. 
 To some it is natural to be loudly demonstrative, and
 
 230 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 they, perhaps without less real fortitude, cry out 
 vociferously where another man, or a man of another 
 nation, would not flinch. We may, on the other 
 hand, often learn a lesson in resignation from the 
 calm behaviour of those whose delicate organization 
 must increase their susceptibility to pain, and who yet 
 bear without a murmur agony the most continuous 
 and excruciating. It is said of the late Sir Robert 
 Peel, that his sensibility to pain was excessive ; and no 
 one would accuse him of a want of fortitude. In the 
 same person the sensibility to pain varies : at one time 
 the application of a blister is as " nothing ; " at another 
 it is " agony." Not only does the organization of the 
 sufferer affect his capacity for endurance, but the very 
 nature of the pain itself has a considerable influence 
 on the question : for some pains are more readily 
 borne with equanimity than others, and this appar- 
 ently quite independently of the intensity of the 
 suffering. In gout, for instance, proneness to irrita- 
 bility, both mental and physical, is an almost insep- 
 arable symptom of the disease; and great indeed 
 must be that man's fortitude and power of endurance 
 who can bear without exhibition of temper the height 
 of the gouty paroxysm, and remain calm and uncom- 
 plaining throughout the attack. The unbearable severity 
 of gouty pain is such as to render every thought but
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 231 
 
 of the pain impossible. A well-known barrister, who 
 is a martyr to neuralgia, while he has been perfectly- 
 unable to concentrate his mind on his case when 
 labouring under an attack of gout, has often con- 
 ducted a cause when suffering from a paroxysm of 
 tic-douloureux. Although pain may be well-nigh in- 
 tolerable, it is not therefore always an index of serious 
 mischief ; and though so acute in gout and rheumatism, 
 it is often altogether absent in far more fatal maladies. 
 In consumption, for instance, it is not uncommon for 
 the sufferer to be free from pain, even to the last. And 
 in some rare instances the occurrence of pain may even 
 be a proof of a change for the better. 
 
 We have seen that, as was to be expected from the 
 variation in their respective organisms, a distinction 
 may be drawn between the susceptibility to pain of 
 the lower animals and of man; that a difference in 
 this particular likewise exists between two men of the 
 same race indeed, in the same man at different times, 
 or under different circumstances. We may carry the 
 distinction one step farther, and notice that in the 
 various parts of the same body there is a different 
 susceptibility to pain, a difference due to the structure 
 of the organs, and the distribution of the sentient 
 nerves. 
 
 In tense unyielding tissues, as those which cover the
 
 232 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 bones and cartilages, the pain from swelling caused by 
 inflammation is intense, while in lax elastic parts it is 
 trifling. In inflammation of the scalp, for instance, it 
 is curious to observe that only where the yielding 
 tissues are firmly united with the gristle of the ear, is 
 pain complained of. 
 
 The character, as well as the intensity, of pain varies, 
 too, according to the structure involved. Thus, if the 
 pleura covering the lungs is inflamed, the pain is 
 stabbing or darting; in the conjunctiva (the membrane 
 covering the eye), the pain is gritty or itching ; burn- 
 ing or gnawing in the lining of the stomach. Throb- 
 bing pain, produced by the filling and tension of the 
 arteries with each beat of the pulse, is usually indi- 
 cative of inflammation, though it may occur in paralysed 
 persons from weakening or diminished elasticity of the 
 blood-vessels. From this cause a permanent flushing 
 of the cheeks is common in palsy, just as blushing is 
 due to a temporary paralysis of the nerves which con- 
 trol the cutaneous circulation. 
 
 Although, as already hinted, the existence of extreme 
 pain cannot be taken as an evidence of the severity of 
 a disorder, for pain of the most acute character occurs 
 often without any other evidence of disease (being itself 
 the disease), and passes away, leaving no traces of altera- 
 tion or change of structure in the painful part, yet pain
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 233 
 
 is of great value to the physician as a sign or symptom 
 of disease, indicating to him by its situation the organ 
 affected, and by its character and intensity the nature 
 of the complaint. But it should be borne in mind, 
 that though of real value in assisting diagnosis, pain is 
 a symptom very apt to mislead. The seat of pain is 
 not always that of the disorder whence it originates; 
 an irritating cause may be either at the source, or along 
 the course of a nerve, or at its termination, and yet 
 be felt at the same spot. Tic-douloureux may be caused 
 by disease of the bones of the head pressing on a 
 nerve where it passes through the skull. Discomfort 
 in the stump of an amputated limb may be referred 
 to the parts which have been removed, as in the case 
 of the old sailor who constantly complained of a pain 
 in the toes, though he had lost both his legs at the 
 battle of Trafalgar. Pain in the knee is common in 
 hip disease ; in the shoulder, from disordered liver ; 
 in the arm, from heart affection ; and in the larynx, 
 from accumulation within the lungs. Pain, too, often 
 occurs long after the cause to which it is due has 
 passed away; and if this fact were more generally 
 realized, we should be better able to avoid what is 
 harmful. Muscular stiffness is often greatest two or 
 three days after the exertion which gave rise to it, 
 and the same is true with regard to headache arising
 
 234 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 from overwork. Still more is this the case with other 
 common forms of " sick-headaches/' which, having no 
 direct and immediate relation to the food last taken, 
 are confidently asserted to be entirely independent of 
 the digestive organs. In searching for the cause of a 
 morbid condition, we shall be less likely to be misled 
 if we bear in mind that this interval (between the pain 
 itself and its exciting cause) may be, especially in 
 persons of feeble organization and slow circulation, 
 greatly prolonged. Pain in a part, even when purely 
 subjective in its origin, may produce not a semblance 
 merely of actual disease, but real alteration in the 
 structure, though previously healthy; for the direction 
 of the attention to any organ is a cause of the deter- 
 mination of blood to the part; inflammatory action 
 may follow congestion, and may pass on to disor- 
 ganization.* 
 
 Internal organs, the lungs especially, sometimes 
 become diseased in consequence of the habitual direc- 
 tion of the consciousness to them. Not only is pain 
 an active agent in the production of disease, but it is 
 sometimes an actual cause of death. Its influence in 
 diminishing the action of the heart is immense, pro- 
 
 * The late Sir Benjamin Brodie recorded a number of cases of affection 
 of the joints following hysterical concentration of the mind on the part.
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 235 
 
 ducing that extreme degree of depression, or collapse, 
 from which the patient never rallies. When we speak 
 of death from " shock/' it is sometimes the pain which, 
 inducing the shock to the nervous system, must be 
 looked upon as the destroying agent. 
 
 Hence we are naturally led to consider the treatment 
 of pain, and cannot fail to see the importance of sound 
 views as to its origin and nature. If pain were due 
 to an " excess of life," then it might be a right practice 
 to attack it with lowering remedies; but since it is 
 really dependent on deterioration of the vital pro- 
 cesses, our aim must be to restore rather than to de- 
 stroy, to build up rather than to pull down. 
 
 On the first suggestion of pain, our impulse is at 
 once to fly to the nearest remedy : that which shall the 
 most speedily and effectually secure to us the much- 
 desired relief. It may be interesting to point out the 
 action of some of the means usually adopted to attain 
 this end; ami a word of warning against their abuse 
 may not be out of place. 
 
 The power of tea and coffee in relieving nerve pain 
 is particularly striking; and the influence of quinine 
 and strychnine is, in a certain sense, analogous. The 
 former, as well as the latter class, of remedies, may be 
 taken in poisonous doses. Brandy and other powerful 
 stimulants often act by a sort of revulsive influence.
 
 236 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 Since one form of disease may counterbalance and 
 counteract another, it is sometimes justifiable to de- 
 velop an artificial source of disturbance, and it is 
 upon this principle that blisters, setons, and issues, 
 etc., act. 
 
 Chloroform, like cold or galvanism, causes contraction 
 of vessels, renders the brain pale, and thus destroys 
 consciousness. Narcotics, opium, tobacco, and the like, 
 retard oxygenation, and check vital processes. Local 
 aneesthetics, as ice, or asther spray, by freezing the 
 part to be operated upon, deaden its sensibility ; and 
 though thus annihilating pain, they yet leave the 
 patient fully conscious, and alive to the feelings of 
 horror consequent upon his seeing the operation in 
 progress. Other means of temporarily destroying the 
 sensibility of the nerves to pain there are, such as 
 opiates taken internally, or syringed under the skin of 
 the painful part, and they are of great value. But it 
 must be borne in mind that the removal of pain is not 
 necessarily the removal of the disease. 
 
 The deadening of pain by opiates may gain for the 
 doctor the delightful applause of the sufferer, although 
 not unfrequently the benumbing of sensation is the 
 first step in the course of hopeless retrogression. It 
 is this benumbing influence of sedatives which make 
 them often so injurious; they induce an artificial calm,
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 237 
 
 and say " Peace, peace, when there is no peace." It is 
 as unwise thus to silence the voice of nature, as to 
 deal heedlessly with the complaints of the body. By a 
 merciful provision, it frequently happens that nature 
 herself supplies the means whereby the sufferer is 
 enabled to bear up though enduring the most racking 
 pain. Under the influence of intense excitement, or 
 mental emotion, the balance of the nervous system is 
 sometimes so completely destroyed, that during great 
 injury of sensitive structures no pain is experienced. 
 This absence of pain after wounds, which would other- 
 wise entail suffering of the most intense character, is 
 often remarked upon the field of battle. Dr. Living- 
 stone's account of his rencontre with the lion, when 
 his arm was fractured, illustrates this fact : he writes, 
 " I saw the lion in the act of springing on me. I was 
 on a little height ; he caught my shoulder as he sprang, 
 and we both came to the ground below together. 
 Growling horribly close to my ear, he shook me as a 
 terrier dog does a rat. The shock produced a stupor 
 like that which seems to fall on a mouse after the first 
 shake of the cat. It caused a sort of dreaminess, in 
 which there was no sense of pain nor feeling of terror, 
 though I was quite conscious of all that was happening. 
 It was like what patients partially under the influence of 
 chloroform describe, who see all the operation, but feel
 
 238 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 no knife. This singular condition was not the result 
 of any mental process. The shake annihilated fear, and 
 allowed no sense of horror in looking round at the 
 beast." This peculiar state is probably felt in all 
 animals killed by the carnivora ; aud if so, is a merciful 
 provision by our benevolent Creator, for lessening the 
 pain of death. 
 
 Livingstone remarks that, "besides crushing the 
 shoulder-bone into splinters, he left eleven teeth wounds 
 in the upper part of my arm," a wound which, but for 
 the fascination described, must have been an acutely 
 painful one. 
 
 At a recent railway accident, such was the excite- 
 ment of the moment, that a gentleman, five of whose 
 ribs were broken, was observed to disentangle himself 
 from the broken carriage, lift his wife, by no means a 
 "light weight," and lay her on the embankment, 
 ignorant of the injury he himself had sustained ; whilst 
 a little boy, whose leg was badly broken, crept through 
 the broken window, and trying to walk, found he could 
 not stand, for his leg was " limp like a doll's." 
 
 Not' only is the cessation of pain in acute disease 
 often a sign of ill-omen, but the absence of pain in 
 disorders which are usually intensely painful pleurisy, 
 for example is frequently a serious evil; partly, no 
 doubt, because the malady may thus run its course
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 239 
 
 unobserved, without any steps being taken to check 
 it. When the natural sensitiveness of a part becomes 
 destroyed, disease often progresses with great rapidity. 
 In some kinds of paralysis a particle of dust falling 
 on the eye gives rise to no sensation of grittiness or 
 pain, as would be the case in a healthy condition, but 
 sets up irritation, which frequently results in the de- 
 struction of the organ. In paralysis,* again, one posi- 
 tion is often retained until the vitality of the part is 
 weakened, and thus "bed-sores" form; whilst in health 
 a sensation of discomfort leads us at once to shift our 
 position, and this almost without our noticing the dis- 
 comfort, or the change of posture. Between discomfort 
 and pain we can draw no line, the one passing insens- 
 ibly into the other. 
 
 It must therefore be evident that pain is, under 
 certain circumstances, really beneficial. It is often a 
 great boon to have a sensitive stomach; for those who 
 suffer pain after food are less apt habitually to err in 
 diet, and thus to become dyspeptic or gouty, than those 
 whose organs receive everything uncomplainingly. Pain 
 in the stomach is frequently due (in well-to-do people) 
 
 * In hysterical or hypochondriacal people, whose sensibility is very 
 acute, apparent paralysis occasionally occurs, not from loss of power, 
 but from fear to move a part lest motion should give rise to painful 
 sensations.
 
 240 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 to the fact that they won't work and will eat ; not 
 that the stomach itself is weak (as they think) , but that 
 the supply of food being greater than the demand, the 
 system becomes overstocked. In dyspepsia the cause 
 is very often far away, and the stomach is no more 
 the cause of the malady than the big toe is of the gout ; 
 but if the stomach gave no signs of perturbation, the 
 evil would be allowed longer to exist unnoticed. We 
 should always give early attention to pain, and discover 
 its causes, before they become too complex to be un- 
 ravelled, and before the derangement which its presence 
 indicates becomes permanent. "We must not school the 
 body to bear it under a mistaken notion that resig- 
 nation, for its own sake, is a virtue to be cultivated, 
 but take steps at once to find out and avoid the cause. 
 Pain tells us that the bodily machinery is out of order, 
 and needs attention ; and to nothing does the old adage 
 apply more truly, that "a stitch in time saves nine/' 
 In some persons, it is true, there is a tendency to 
 morbid introspection, and much thought may be given 
 to little meaningless ailments ; but as a rule it is wise 
 to be ready to detect the earliest evidence of derange- 
 ment in order that appropriate remedial measures may 
 be at once adopted. When, on the other hand, it has 
 been ascertained that any form of pain denotes no real 
 danger, or that the mischief is irremediable, nothing
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 241 
 
 contributes more at once to manliness of character 
 and to enjoyment of life than to put away as far as 
 possible the thought of the inevitable suffering, and to 
 encounter it with cheerfulness. 
 
 From what has been said, it appears that we can in 
 no sense regard pain as a needlessly inflicted punish- 
 ment, for plain evidences of its usefulness are not 
 wanting. In health, but for a wholesome dread of pain, 
 we should, as children, be daily rushing into danger; 
 and throughout life it acts as a continual perservative 
 from harm, preventing the performance of many actions 
 which might entail upon us bodily injury. In disease, 
 again, especially when of an inflammatory type, it serves 
 to secure to us that perfect rest so essential in promoting 
 recovery, and prompts to many necessary actions which 
 we should otherwise neglect.* 
 
 Pain also has higher uses even than these. We most 
 of us admit that we are better for wise correction ; and 
 if we regard pain as a means of " refining our earth - 
 liness," as indeed a "loving correction/ 7 then the 
 correction may become " loved " also for its end's sake, 
 
 * The following extract from the letter of a lady, long a great sufferer, 
 illustrates the influence of pain as a life preserver : " Pain makes me take 
 care now : though the love and desire of life are wholly gone, there remains 
 the same shrinking from increased pain ; and so I don't do things I 
 should do otherwise, because they would probably bring on suffering 
 without touching life." 
 
 VOL. I. K
 
 242 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 and bearing the pain become an easy task; so that 
 we can say in Keble's spirit : 
 
 " Wish not, dear friends, my pain away ; 
 Wish me a wise and thankful heart, 
 With God in all my griefs to stay, 
 Nor from the loved correction part." 
 
 As gold is purified in the furnace, so is character 
 refined by pain. Nor is this merely a modern thought ; 
 when the ancient patriarch was wasted .by protracted 
 suffering, then it was said, "There is none perfect on 
 all the earth like Job." 
 
 All this, however, does not prove that pain is a good 
 in itself. Its beneficial effects in leading us to avoid 
 evil are partial only ; often its results are mischievous : 
 nor does it always punish sin, or serve as a discipline 
 to character; for very often it falls upon the innocent 
 most heavily; very often it hardens and rouses to the 
 bitterness of despair, paralysing instead of stimulating. 
 Some deeper reason than any of these must account 
 for its existence in the work of a beneficent Creator. 
 
 We have now hastily glanced at some of the pro- 
 minent characteristics of pain. The subject of pleasure 
 is so intimately associated with it in our minds, that 
 we cannot pass it by without the one remark that it 
 is impossible to draw an absolute line between the two. 
 In some instances, what is to one person painful, is to
 
 NOTES ON PAIN. 243 
 
 another, or to the same person at another time, plea- 
 surable. Our pains and pleasures depend to a great 
 extent upon ourselves. The absence of all exertion, 
 unendurable to the healthy man, may be to the invalid 
 essential to pleasure or comfort; the natural exercise 
 of the powers, which ought to be a source of pleasure, 
 may be his agony. Things rightly pleasurable become 
 painful when we lack the power to enjoy them; and 
 on the other hand, without a certain amount of endur- 
 ance, life ceases to be enjoyable, and work, itself an 
 irksome thing, we find necessary for happiness.
 
 X. 
 
 RESPIRATION. 
 I. THE FLAME OF LIFE. 
 
 IT has been a favourite comparison of moralists and 
 philosophers to say that the life of man is like the 
 burning of a flame; and, looking at the physical life, 
 not of man only, but of other animals, there can be no 
 doubt that the comparison, is true in more senses than 
 could have been suspected by those who first made use 
 of it. For life, like the burning of a flame, is a con- 
 tinuous process, which has no stop or pause. It needs, 
 like fire, to go on with a certain energy and intensity, 
 if it is to go on at all; and, failing this, it fades away 
 and comes to an end, not to be again revived, except 
 new life be given. These points of likeness have 
 always been seen, and it is probably such as these 
 which suggested the image. But there is one other 
 point, less striking at first sight, in which life and 
 flame are not merely analogous, but exactly alike. 
 Neither, as we commonly know them, can exist 
 without the presence of the common air; and, as we 
 shall see, there are other points of likeness which de- 
 pend on this. It is not, of course, our object here
 
 RESPIRATION. 245 
 
 to pursue the comparison very far, but having to speak 
 of that part of man's life called respiration, or, In plain 
 words, of what we have to do with the air how we 
 breathe it, and for what end it will greatly help us 
 to start from this admirable comparison. For, in this 
 respect, at least, our life is precisely like the burning 
 of a taper. 'We need air just as much, we take from 
 it the same things, and we give the same things to it, 
 as a candle, or a fire. But, to make this clear, it will 
 be necessary to say first what it is we mean by burn- 
 ing, and what this has to do with the air. 
 
 We have said that a candle cannot burn without 
 air. How is this shown? Since in common life we 
 do not know what it is to be without air, it is neces- 
 sary to have recourse to an experiment. Let us sup- 
 pose that we set a taper to burn in some limited space, 
 as, for instance, in a closed glass jar. Lecturers on 
 chemistry do this by fixing the taper on a piece of 
 cork, floating in water, and then inverting a bell jar 
 over the whole. Most persons know what the result 
 is. At first the taper burns as freely as in the open 
 air, but gradually the flame becomes less bright, and 
 at length it goes out altogether. Moreover, in a large 
 jar it burns a longer, in a small jar a shorter time. 
 This shows very plainly that not only is some air neces- 
 sary, but a certain quantity. We shall find, too,
 
 246 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 another fact well worthy of notice, namely, that the air 
 which remains is altered; so much so, that a fresh 
 taper will not burn in it at all. It would seem then, 
 that the taper has removed from the air all that 
 was valuable, and left behind what it could make no 
 use of. 
 
 Now, exactly in the same way, the effect produced 
 by living beings on the air may be examined, and 
 the result is found to be precisely the same. If a 
 small animal, such as a mouse, is shut up in a closed 
 jar, it dies after a longer or shorter time; and it will 
 be impossible for another animal to live in the air in 
 which the first has died. Moreover, as a general rule, 
 it would be found that a candle could not burn in the 
 air in which an animal could not live, and vice versa. 
 
 It seems, then, that in these respects the process 
 of life and the process of burning are exactly alike. In 
 each process, a certain part of the air seems to be used 
 up ; and since the air which is left is good neither for 
 life nor for combustion, we may suppose that they 
 require and use up the same part or ingredient of 
 the air. Every one who knows anything of chemistry 
 has heard that the air, though it seems to us some- 
 thing quite simple, is really a mixture of two gases or 
 kinds of air. These are known by the names of oxygen 
 and nitrogen. Oxygen, also called vital air, is the
 
 RESPIRATION. 247 
 
 active and important element in supporting life and 
 combustion : while nitrogen is a neutral or inactive 
 gas, which is of no particular account for either of 
 these purposes. If oxygen were removed, though it is 
 only one-fifth part of the whole in bulk, nothing could 
 live or burn. If nitrogen, which makes up four-fifths, 
 were taken away, its absence, though important enough 
 in other respects, would not prevent the processes 
 of life or combustion from going on. It is hardly 
 necessary to say, then, that what a burning candle 
 or a living animal takes from the air is oxygen (though 
 neither takes away, generally speaking, all the oxygen), 
 and what is left behind is principally nitrogen. 
 
 But there are one or two other points to be men- 
 tioned about the air in which things have burned or 
 lived. In the first place, such air is always moist. 
 We know that our breath is moist, that is to say, 
 contains watery vapour, and the same thing may be 
 seen by holding a cold glass above the flame of a 
 candle. In the second place, such air always contains 
 a peculiar gas, or kind of air, called carbonic acid, or 
 fixed air. This is indeed to be found in the atmo- 
 sphere at all times, but in very small quantities, only 
 about four parts in ten thousand. It is the same gas 
 which in mines is called choke-damp, which is met with 
 at the bottoms of wells and in brewers' vats; and is
 
 248 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 in all these cases known to be so dangerous and deadly. 
 It is always contained, as we have seen, in the air 
 in which any living animal has been, or a candle has 
 burnt ; and it is the presence of this gas, quite as much 
 as the want of oxygen, which prevents other things 
 from living or burning in the same space. 
 
 In these respects, then, at least, life and combustion 
 are precisely alike : that they take from the air oxygen 
 or vital air, and they add to it moisture and the deadly 
 gas called carbonic acid. So far, every living thing 
 has a fire burning within. It seems strange that, 
 in this point, all living things should be the enemies 
 of each other. We are each one of us continually 
 taking from the air what our fellow-creatures need, 
 and adding to it what is poisonous to them. The 
 competition would be terrible indeed were vital air 
 not bestowed in such inexhaustible profusion; and 
 serious indeed would be the wrong done by one crea- 
 ture to another, were there not means at hand for 
 dispersing the deadly poison which all produce, and 
 rendering it harmless. In the open air no creature 
 ever suffered from want of oxygen, or from too much 
 carbonic acid; but in crowded rooms and unhealthy 
 dwellings, serious harm may be caused by the excess 
 of the one, and possibly also by deficiency of the other. 
 Of this, however, we shall speak by-and-by.
 
 RESPIRATION. 249 
 
 II. THE MECHANISM OF BREATHING. 
 
 WE have said that animals are continually taking from 
 the air, and giving to it, certain gases. We shall now 
 say something about the mechanism or apparatus by 
 which those gases get in and out of the body. 
 
 In the first place, we must say that the gases always 
 pass through a moist membrane or delicate skin, and 
 always pass into or out of the blood. This is the one 
 thing necessary. There must be in every organ of 
 breathing a delicate moist skin, which permits air of 
 different kinds to pass through readily, but nothing 
 else to pass in or out. Such a membrane as this, on 
 one side of which is the blood, on the other side the 
 air, may be called the breathing-membrane. In the 
 simplest animals the whole of the skin serves this 
 purpose; they breathe all over their bodies. But in 
 more complicated animals one part only of the general 
 covering is set apart for this purpose. Just as in a 
 simple state of society every man is a soldier, a hus- 
 bandman, a shepherd, a tradesman ; but in civilized 
 societies one man has, as a rule, only one trade : so 
 in simple animals any part of the skin may be used 
 for any purpose for taking in food or for taking in 
 air ; but in the higher animals one part is devoted to 
 one purpose and one to another. 
 
 Now the breathing membrane of animals is arranged
 
 250 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 in various forms. It may line a hollow place com- 
 municating with the outside, as in the lungs of air- 
 breathing animals, or it may be stretched over a pro- 
 jecting portion of the body, as in the gills of fishes 
 and other water animals. The sea snail in Fig. 1 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 DOEIS, OR SEA SNAIL. 
 
 The crown of tufts on its back, which is covered with a delicate mem- 
 brane, is its breathing apparatus. (After Carpenter.) 
 
 breathes by the delicate tufts on his back, which are 
 covered by what we have called the breathing-mem- 
 brane. Water animals do not really breathe water, 
 but the air which is dissolved in it. If you boil some 
 water, so as to drive all the air out, and put a fish in 
 it, he will be just as badly off as a fish out of water. 
 
 So that the breathing of water animals and land animals 
 
 . 
 is really the same process. The fact that an animal 
 
 possesses breathing organs does not prevent some 
 breathing taking place through the ordinary skin. 
 Animals with moist skins, as frogs, breathe a good
 
 RESPIRA TION. 
 
 251 
 
 deal in this way; and even in ourselves a certain 
 amount of gas is given out through the skin, though 
 it is doubtful whether any air is absorbed. At all 
 events, the chief amount of breathing is done by the 
 special breathing-membrane which lines, as we have 
 said, certain organs called the lungs. 
 
 Our lungs, as most people know, are situated in our 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 CAST OF ONE OF THE TERMINAL BRANCHES OF THE BRONCHIAL TUBES 
 FROM THE HUMAN LUNG. 
 
 Natural size. (After Henle.) 
 
 chest, and air is conveyed to them through a pipe in 
 our neck, called the trachea or windpipe. Now, the 
 windpipe divides into two, sending a branch into each 
 lung. These branches divide into several others, called 
 bronchial tubes, and these into still smaller bronchial 
 tubes (Fig. 2). Finally, the smallest bronchial tubes
 
 252 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 end in a very small funnel-shaped cavity, at the 
 sides of which are several saucer-shaped spaces, called 
 air-cells. Fig. 3 represents a plaster cast of some of 
 these funnel-shaped terminations, with the air-cells 
 upon them. Thus the whole system of tubes is like 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 SMALL PORTION OF THE SAME CAST AS IN FIG. 2. 
 
 Magnified 15 diameters. (After Henle.) 
 
 a tree, of which the windpipe is the trunk j and the 
 air-cells are, roughly, like fruit or leaves growing on 
 the smallest twigs. Each twig, or little bronchial 
 tube, with its group of air-cells, forms a hollow space, 
 like a glove with the fingers distended, and does not 
 communicate with the others, but only opens into the 
 larger air-tubes. This will be understood by Fig. 4, 
 which represents a lung before it is completely formed.
 
 RESPIRATION. 
 
 253 
 
 Here the air-tubes are seen to be hollowed out in the 
 solid substance of the lung. As the lung grows, these 
 become a hundred times as numerous, and are so 
 closely packed together that the solid substance be- 
 comes almost nothing, and the lung appears porous, 
 
 HUMAN LUXG AX A VERY EABLY STAGE OF GROWTH. 
 
 Showing the plan on which the perfect lung is formed. T is the trachea, 
 or windpipe. (After Ecker.) 
 
 like a sponge. But really it is made up of nothing 
 but air-cells and tubes arranged as we have described 
 them, and forming one cavity which communicates with 
 the outside air only through the windpipe. 
 
 The membrane lining this cavity is the breathing-
 
 254 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 membrane, and its whole extent has been calculated 
 as from 10 to 20 square feet; so that if we imagine a 
 sheet 3 feet long by 4 or 5 feet wide, that will show 
 us by how large a surface air is constantly entering 
 and leaving our body. "We said just now that the 
 breathing-membrane must have air on one side and 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 NETWOBK OF CAPILLARY BLOOD-VESSELS ON THE MEMBRANE LINING AN 
 AIB-CELL. 
 
 * * Small arteries cut across. Magnified 300 diameters. (After Henle.) 
 
 the blood of the body on the other. We have seen 
 how the air gets to it. Let us now speak of the 
 blood. If we examine the wall of one of the air-cells 
 we find that many very small blood-vessels, called, 
 from their size, capillaries, or hair-like tubes, are
 
 RES P IRA TION. 255 
 
 spread over it. They are so closely placed that (as 
 we see in Fig. 5) they occupy more space than the 
 intervening parts. Imagine the sheet we spoke of 
 just now covered with a network like this, and we 
 shall get some notion of the distribution of blood in 
 the lungs. These little vessels are in connection with 
 larger vessels called arteries, which start from one 
 main stem, called the pulmonary artery, which begins 
 in the heart. At every beat of our heart, blood is 
 sent through the pulmonary artery into this wonderful 
 network of vessels, whence it returns by another set 
 of vessels, called veins, to the heart. It is calculated 
 that zV of all the blood in our bodies passes at each 
 stroke of the heart into the lungs; so that after 
 twenty-seven strokes, or, on the average, in twenty 
 seconds, the whole mass of blood has passed over the 
 breathing-membrane and been exposed to the action 
 of the air. 
 
 The lungs are inclosed in an air-tight box viz., the 
 chest, which may be made larger or smaller by the 
 movements of its floor and walls. The floor of the 
 chest is a muscular plate called the diaphragm, or 
 midriff, which is not flat, but arched or vaulted up- 
 wards. Every time we " draw a breath/' or take air 
 into the chest, this floor becomes flatter and less 
 arched, the consequence of which is that the size of
 
 256 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 the cliest is increased. The walls of the chest, as we 
 know, are made of the bony plates called the ribs. 
 These are so arranged that they move upwards, and 
 at the same time project farther from the backbone, 
 and thus the chest becomes deeper in its fore and aft 
 direction. The lungs are not absolutely fastened to 
 the walls of the chest, but their outer surface clings 
 very closely to the walls by suction; so that if the 
 hollow of the chest becomes larger, the lungs, being 
 made of a substance which is extremely elastic, swell 
 up and become larger in proportion. If, then, we 
 want to draw breath, the floor of our chest moves 
 down, the walls move upwards and outwards, the lungs 
 expand, and a certain amount of air is drawn into 
 them through the windpipe. When this effort, called 
 inspiration, or breathing in, is over, the chest walls fall 
 back to their former position by their natural elas- 
 ticity, and as much air as was drawn in is now ex- 
 pelled. Thus the movement of breathing in is a 
 distinct effort, and the movement of breathing out is 
 not, as a rule, an effort at all; but we can increase its 
 force, if necessary, by some voluntary exertion. 
 
 As might be expected, not all the air in the lungs 
 is changed with each breath. The amount drawn in 
 and driven out again is calculated to be not more than 
 -TO of what the lungs contain, the actual quantity being
 
 RESPIRATION. 257 
 
 from 20 to 30 cubic inches. The air, when drawn in, 
 cannot, of course, penetrate at once to the inmost parts 
 of the lungs, where the air-cells are; but it mixes with 
 the air contained in these parts, and thus that which is 
 breathed out again, though about the same in quantity, 
 is very much altered in properties. It is both hotter 
 and moister, and the gases it contains, are in different 
 proportions. The vital air is, as we might expect, less 
 in proportion, but the carbonic acid of which we have 
 spoken is enormously increased. Breathed air contains 
 a hundred times as much carbonic acid as ordinary 
 air, containing four parts in a hundred instead of four 
 in ten thousand. It is plain, then, that the use of 
 the lungs is to take up air for the use of the body, 
 and to send out the gas which, as we have seen, is 
 always produced by life or by burning; we must not, 
 however, suppose that the process of burning takes 
 place especially in the lungs. The air absorbed is 
 conveyed by the blood to every part of the body, 
 and the carbonic acid given out is, in the same way, 
 collected from every corner to which the blood pene- 
 trates. 
 
 m. VAKIATIONS IN AMOUNT OF RESPIRATION. 
 HAVING, then, said something about the machinery by 
 which the process of breathing is carried on, we now 
 VOL. i. s
 
 258 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 propose to consider the amount of breathing which 
 goes on under different circumstances, and the rules 
 for practical life which may be drawn from these 
 facts. The most elaborate and extensive experiments 
 have been made to measure the quantities of gases 
 absorbed or given off under different circumstances; 
 and it will perhaps be interesting to give some ac- 
 count of some of the ingenious and beautiful apparatus 
 by which these results have been arrived at. 
 
 We shall confine ourselves to describing the most 
 perfect apparatus yet contrived that erected at Munich 
 by the wise liberality of the late King of Bavaria, and 
 now in operation under the guidance of Professors 
 Pettenkofer and Yoit. The principle of this is to 
 determine the exact amounts of oxygen consumed and 
 carbonic acid given out by an individual living under 
 ordinary conditions, and with whom it is therefore 
 possible to carry on the experiments for many hours 
 at a time. The way in which this object is effected 
 is as follows : 
 
 A little sheet-iron chamber, about eight feet in each 
 direction, is devoted to the individual who is the subject 
 of experiment : in it he can live, eat, and sleep with 
 tolerable comfort for twelve or twenty-four hours. In 
 one side of the chamber two pipes are fixed, about 
 three inches in diameter, which unite a little way off,
 
 RESPIRATION, 259 
 
 and through which air is continually pumped out of 
 the chamber by steam-power. There is an opening on 
 the other side for the entrance of air, but this is not 
 wanted, that which finds its way in through the 
 crevices of the door and windows being sufficient. In 
 this way a continual strong current of air is drawn 
 through the chamber, so that on an average 70,000 
 gallons pass through in one day. The air which is 
 thus drawn through has to be measured, and also to 
 be analysed, in order to ascertain the exact amount 
 of oxygen, carbonic acid, and watery vapour which it 
 contains. The air is measured by being made to pass 
 through an ordinary English gasometer, and a portion 
 only is withdrawn to be analysed; this portion being, 
 of course, also measured, and the quantities of these 
 substances contained in it being ascertained, it is, of 
 course, possible to calculate how much is contained in 
 the whole mass of air. The sample analysed is not, 
 however, more than ^^o f the whole. It will thus 
 be seen that the results obtained do not show the 
 proportion of particular gases in the air inspired or 
 expired, but the absolute amount of oxygen consumed, 
 and of carbonic acid generated, under particular cir- 
 cumstances. A little consideration will show why this 
 is so important a matter to determine. It is very 
 much like, though not exactly the same thing as,
 
 290 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 weighing the coals burnt in a furnace. It is like 
 that, or comes to the same thing, because, when any- 
 thing is burnt, the amount of material consumed is 
 exactly in proportion to the amount of air used up. 
 If, then, we could measure the air consumed by a 
 steam-engine, it would be the same thing as measur- 
 ing the coals, and would equally tell us the amount 
 of work performed. Now this is just what we do 
 with the animal body. We measure the amount of 
 air it uses up, and the carbonic acid produced, and 
 find that this tells us precisely what amount of work it 
 does or can do. So exactly does this process corre- 
 spond to determining the amount of fuel burnt up in a 
 fire, that when some candles were burnt in the Munich 
 apparatus, the weight consumed could be, it was found, 
 precisely calculated from the gases produced. 
 
 We must here say a word about the one point in 
 which the comparison of life to combustion does not 
 entirely hold. In combustion, the amount of air used, 
 and the amount of the offcen-spoken-of carbonic acid 
 produced, are, for any period whatever, exactly equal 
 in bulk. In the living animal, this is not the case, if 
 the observation is made for a short period of time only ; 
 sometimes the one seems to be too much, sometimes 
 the other. If, however, the quantities of Doth in 
 twenty-four hours are determined, they are found to be
 
 RESPIRATION. 261 
 
 pretty nearly equal; the oxygen being constantly rather 
 more ; since it is, in fact, used in the body for other 
 purposes besides burning up material to form carbonic 
 acid gas. With this exception, the processes are in 
 the long run the same. Now, it has always been 
 suspected that the body possessed some power of 
 accumulating oxygen for future use, and some experi- 
 ments lately made with the great Munich apparatus 
 have thrown much light upon this point. It has been 
 found that, speaking generally, we absorb more oxy- 
 gen during the night, and produce more carbonic acid 
 during the day.* In other words, we store up in the 
 hours of sleep that vital air which we need for the 
 hours of toil. Moreover, as the amount of carbonic 
 acid produced always bears some kind of proportion 
 to the work done in the day, so, after a laborious 
 day, it was found that the process of absorption was 
 also active just in proportion. This certainly explains 
 better to us the uses of sleep than any facts hitherto 
 known. As the production of carbonic acid is more 
 especially a process belonging to the day, so it is 
 accelerated by all occupations which belong to the 
 
 * Later experiments have thrown some doubt on this statement. It 
 has been found that the hours of taking food much affect the result. 
 Still something always remains which is due to the difference of day and 
 night.
 
 262 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 day. The quantity increases with exercise, it in- 
 creases after taking food. It has been noticed, too, 
 that in cold weather much more of this gas is pro- 
 duced than in warm weather, and more when moist 
 air is breathed than dry air. We should not suppose, 
 as people often do, that fresh air is less needed in 
 winter than in summer. As might be expected, the 
 amount of this gas produced is greater also in pro- 
 portion to the size of the individual; but it is curious 
 that this seems to depend more upon muscular de- 
 velopment than height, or even the capacity of the 
 chest. Grown persons produce naturally more than 
 children or old people, but children produce more in 
 proportion to their weight. 
 
 We have spoken of some of the conditions under 
 which the great fire of the animal body is kept up. 
 A few words may now be said about one result com- 
 monly associated with burning, and, as we shall see, 
 also associated with the flame of life that is, the 
 production of heat. It is certain that the heat of the 
 animal body is simply owing to the burning which is 
 continually going on inside it. This production of 
 heat doubtless takes place in all parts of the body, 
 and not only in the lungs, so that no one organ can 
 be spoken of as if it were the furnace of the whole 
 system. Rather the whole body is one great furnace.
 
 RESPIRATION. 263 
 
 It is tolerably certain tliat most, if not all, of the 
 great operations or functions of the body cannot go 
 on without some kind of combustion. The muscles 
 contract, the nerves transmit sensations or the com- 
 mands of the will, the stomach digests, the brain acts 
 in thinking; in all these cases, some kind of chemical 
 process is going on which requires the presence of 
 vital air, and which resembles in some degree the 
 process of burning. If this be the case, how im- 
 portant it must be that there should be no impedi- 
 ment to perfect combustion, that not only the supply 
 of fuel, but the supply of air, should be sufficient ! 
 
 With the fuel we have at the present moment nothing 
 to do. That stands for food in our comparison. But 
 just as coals will not burn unless there be a good 
 draught, so it is certain that food will do us no good 
 without a proper supply of fresh air. People are very 
 willing to admit this in words, but they do not always 
 think about, or perhaps know, what pure air is, and 
 how it is to be obtained. No one doubts that the air 
 of the mountain-top or of the open fields in a healthy 
 country is pure. If we could only get enough of that, 
 we should do very well. But the air some of us have 
 to breathe is not so good as this ; and we do not al- 
 ways get enough of it. There are very many impuri- 
 ties met with in air ; but we must confine ourselves
 
 264 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 here to those arising from the process of breathing 
 itself; in which, as we have seen, men are always 
 tending to poison one another. A man breathes out 
 on an average twelve cubic feet of air in an hour; 
 and this air contains, as we have seen, 100 times as 
 much carbonic acid as ordinary air. In order, then, 
 to dilute this, and to bring it to a condition in which 
 it is fit to breathe again, it should be diluted with one 
 hundred times its bulk of pure air. Since ordinary air 
 contains, as we have said, a certain proportion of this 
 gas, it will be necessary to have double this quantity 
 in order that the products of respiration may be ren- 
 dered at once perfectly harmless. This would give 
 2,400 cubic feet per hour as the quantity of fresh air 
 necessary. Since, however, there is a great deal of 
 imperceptible diffusion of air, it is quite safe to say 
 that 2,000 cubic feet per hour for each individual 
 would be sufficient. This number agrees very closely 
 with those obtained by different observers by various 
 methods, and is, moreover, the same as that arrived 
 at after careful experiments as to actual ventilation of 
 rooms. 
 
 This will, however, convey but little practical in- 
 formation if we do not know what size and arrange- 
 ment of openings there should be to secure this 
 amount of air. It is calculated that if nothing bat
 
 RESPIRATION. 265 
 
 natural ventilation is made use of, that is to say, the 
 natural movements of hot and cold air, an opening 
 five inches in the square will admit this amount of air 
 in an hour; at the same time there should be an 
 equal opening in another position for escape of the 
 impure air. The outlet should naturally be near the 
 top of a room, and the inlet near the floor. To take 
 an instance : suppose that a room is to be ventilated 
 entirely by means of a window four feet wide. If this 
 were opened rather more than half an inch at the bot- 
 tom and the same at the top, we should get two open- 
 ings of the required size ; that is the very smallest 
 amount sufficient to destroy the bad effects of the 
 breathing of one person. If two persons are present, 
 each opening should be twice as large, and so on. 
 This implies that the window must be thus open day 
 and night, quite independently of opening the doors 
 and windows from time to time. Of course, it is not 
 in all seasons possible to keep windows open, and then 
 we must have some other method. The one most 
 readily at hand is the fireplace. Since there is here 
 an additional force at work, namely, the heat of the 
 fire, we can, to a certain extent, dispense with an inlet, 
 for the draught will suck air in for itself through cre- 
 vices and chance openings, but it is much better that 
 these should be provided. An ordinary chimney is sel-
 
 266 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 dom more than one foot square in the shaft, often not 
 more than eight inches. Now, a shaft eight inches 
 square gives ventilation sufficient for about three men, 
 on our scale, certainly not more. So that if more than 
 that number habitually live in a room, some other means 
 of ventilation is necessary. 
 
 We give these numbers as the least possible con- 
 sistent with proper removal of the ordinary products 
 of breathing; but how many other sources of impurity 
 are there ! Take simply gas-burners, or even other 
 lights. It has been calculated that an ordinary gas- 
 burner requires, to remove entirely all the impurities 
 produced, about 5,000 cubic feet in an hour, or 2^ 
 times as much as a man. We must then reckon two 
 gas-burners as equivalent to five persons in the amount 
 of ventilation they require. A moderate-sized oil-lamp 
 or a candle only contaminates the air one-tenth as much 
 as a gas-burner. 
 
 It must be evident that very few rooms are con- 
 structed to change the air as much as, on these prin- 
 ciples, it should be changed. In ordinary sitting-rooms, 
 where but few people remain at one time, and where 
 the doors are frequently opened, the fireplace in win- 
 ter, and open windows in summer, are quite sufficient. 
 But what can be the state of workshops, schools, law- 
 courts, theatres, concert-rooms ? what of churches and
 
 RESPIRATION. 267 
 
 chapels ? It is plain that scarcely any at all approach 
 the proper standard. In buildings used only for an 
 hour or two, the deficiency may be pardoned ; but what 
 is to be said of workshops and factories, where many 
 live for long hours, and are besides hard at work; 
 thus producing, as we know, with all the more ra- 
 pidity, substances which contaminate the air ? 
 
 The day will come, let us hope, when people will 
 look back with astonishment and horror on the cruel 
 ignorance of the present day. 
 
 Look again at sleeping-rooms. We know that though 
 the air is less contaminated during sleep, there is all 
 the greater need of oxygen ; since, too, there is no 
 opening of doors, or going in and out during the night, 
 there should be all the more care taken to have a con- 
 stant change of air. Yet people will shut up every 
 crevice in a small bedroom, and go to sleep, flattering 
 themselves that if it is warm it must be healthy. 
 
 Closely connected with the question of the supply 
 of fresh air is that of the size of rooms. The amount 
 of space allowed to each man in barracks is now 600 
 cubic feet, and in hospitals twice that amount. This 
 is equal to a small room measuring 8^ feet every way, 
 in height, width, and length. There is little doubt, 
 however, that it should be more, and 800 feet would 
 not be too much. This gives a room eight feet high,
 
 268 PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. 
 
 and ten feet in each of its other dimensions. These 
 numbers apply especially to sleeping-rooms, but quite 
 as much space is necessary in day-rooms, if they are 
 occupied for many hours together, as are workshops 
 or schools. 
 
 So far are ordinary buildings from fulfilling these 
 conditions, that we must be prepared for a little in- 
 credulity as to the necessity for them. It may be said 
 that if this be the case, no one can be in good health. 
 Now the real state of the case probably is, that well- 
 to-do people living in good-sized rooms, which are 
 very rarely crowded, do not, as a rule, suffer from 
 insufficient supply of air ; but in the crowded dwellings 
 of the poor, and quite as much in shops, milliners' 
 workrooms, and so forth, the amount of disease and 
 ill health thus produced is enormous. One good in- 
 stance is worth a hundred statements of opinion; and 
 so we will just quote authentic documents relating to 
 the prevalence in the English army of certain diseases 
 as, for instance, consumption which are known to 
 be especially encouraged by impure air. In former 
 years, barracks were built without any regard to the 
 health of the soldier, and combined almost every pos- 
 sible deficiency in the supply and distribution of fresh 
 air. Since the year 1859, an entirely new system has 
 been in force. The new barracks are built with a pro-
 
 RESPIRATION. 269 
 
 per regard to ventilation, and the old ones have been 
 much improved. The effect in the general mortality, 
 and especially in diminishing the ravages of this class 
 of diseases, is most extraordinary. Formerly, con- 
 sumption and similar diseases caused more than half 
 the whole number of deaths; the proportion is now 
 just about one-third. When we take into account the 
 fact that deaths from all diseases in the army are 
 scarcely half as numerous as formerly, the gain to 
 human life will seem still more extraordinary. All 
 European armies formerly suffered much in the same 
 way, and some do so still ; but in most similar reforms 
 have lately been introduced. It should be remembered 
 that these facts refer, in the case of the English army, 
 not only to cities and unhealthy stations, but to some 
 of the most splendid climates in the world, where the 
 only circumstance tending to produce consumption was 
 the bad construction of the barracks. This instance is 
 quite enough to show that active habits and sufficient 
 food and healthy climate are not enough to prevent 
 such diseases, if the rooms in which we live, and es- 
 pecially those in which we sleep, do not give us a 
 proper supply of air to feed the ever-burning fire 
 within us.
 
 June, 1876. 
 
 AN ALPHABETICAL LIST 
 
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 4 A List of 
 
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 6 A List of 
 
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 8 A List of 
 
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 10 A List of 
 
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 Henry S. King & Co.'s Publications. 11 
 
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 12 A List of 
 
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 Henry S. King & Go's Publications. 13 
 
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 14 A List of 
 
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