'(^ vi/ty^l John Swett This year, o in as g< cover i1 .as^ •• x. V ^-^^jt-f, \ NEW LANGUAGE LESSO.NS;, AN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. By WILLIAM SWINTON, AUTHOR OF ** harper's LANGUAGE SERIES," ** BIBLE AVORD-BOOK^" ETC. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 187S. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by Harper & Brothers, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. The present text-book is a new - modelling and rewriting of Swinton's Language Lessons. It has grown out of a double motive —first, the desire of better fitting it to fill its place as the inter- mediate book of Harper's "New Language Series;" and, next, the conviction that an elementary manual might be made, which, com- bining the essentials of English Grammar and Composition, should find especial welcome in ungraded schools. The remarkable favor with which the Language Lessons was received has suggested the propriety of retaining, in the new book, at least the spirit of the old. In that work the author's theory was set forth in the following words : " This book is an attempt to bring the subject of language home to children at the age when knowledge is acquired in an objective way, by practice and habit, rather than by the study of rules and definitions. In pursuance of this plan, the traditional presentation of grammar in a bristling array of classifications, nomenclatures, and paradigms lias been wholly discarded. The pupil is brought in contact with the living language itself: he is made to deal with speech, to turn it over in a variety of ways, to handle sentences ; so that he is not kept back from the exercise — so profitable and in- teresting — of using language till he has mastered the anatomy of the grammarian. Whatever of technical grammar is here given is evolved from work previously done by the scholar." IV . PREFACE. Ill the actual test of the school-room daring the past four years, it has been found that the vitalizing elements of the Language Le,^- sons are, first, the analytic or inductive method of unfolding the theory of language ; and, secondly, the affluence of constructive work. Accordingly, in the preparation of the present book these approved features have been retained ; but it has been the author's aim to remould the book on a more comprehensive plan, Avith a more systematic arrangement and a more orderly development of the subject. AVherever the book was thought to be weak — as, for instance, according to many, on the side of too great a neglect of grammatical forms — it has been " toned up ;" and, throughout, the effort has been made to produce a thorough, working text-hoolc. To the thousands of teachers who gave the old Language Lessons a reception exceptional in the history of text-books, the author de- sires to commend the ]\^ew Language Lessons as being, in his belief, more worthy of their acceptance, and, in his hope, a nearer ap- proach to their ideal. WiLLIAit S WIN TON. iJec. 1877. CONTENTS. SECTION PAGF. I. CLASSES OF WORDS 1 II. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 21 III, SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH GO IV. MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 85 V. SYNTAX 116 VL ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 144 APPENDIX 181 INDEX. A, article,/;. Abstract noun, dorinitlon of, (yi. Active voice, lOo. Adjective, definition of, 6; nsc of, as modifier, 29; qualifying, 71; limit- ing, 73; proper, 71; pronominal, 73 ; irregular, comparison of, 97; com- parison of, 96 ; syntax of, 123 ; pred- icate, syntax of, 12.5. Adjunct, definition of, 28, 144. Adverb, definition of, 9 ; use of, ns mod- ifier, 42 ; simple, 78 ; conjunctive, 78 ; comparison of, 97; syntax of, 131 ; misuse of, 12.5. An, article, 0. Analysis, definition of, 144; of the sim- ple sentence, 148-150; of complex sentences, 154-157; of the compound sentence, 16^^-164. Antecedent, definition of, 68. Apposition, explanation of, 86; syntax of, 127. Article, definite, 72; indefinite, 72; use of, 72, 73; syntax of, 124. Auxiliary verb, 103. Bills, forms of, 170. Capitals, rules for use of, 21, 61, 71. Case, definitipn of, 89 ; nominative, 89 ; possessive, 89; objective, 89; pos- sessive, syntax of, 126. Clause, definition of, 147. Common noun, definition of, 61. Comparative degree, definition of, 96 ; rule for use of, 124. Comparison, definition of, 96; rules for the adjective and adverb, 96, 97; of irregular adjectives, 97. Complement, syntax of, 130. Complex sentence, 147 ; analysis, 154- 157; synthesis of the, 158-162. Composition, definition of, 1. Compound sentence, 147; analysis of the, 162-164 ; synthesis of the, 164- 167. Conjugation, definition of, 103; regu- lar, 103 ; irregular, 103. Conjunction, definition of, 14; subor- dinate, definition of, 80 ; co-ordinate, 80 ; syntax of, 137. Construction, rule of, 117, 118. Contraction of sentence, 169, 170. Co-ordinate conjunction, definition of, 80. Declension, definition of, 89. Degrees of comparison, 96. Expansion of sentences, 167, 168. Forms of the verb, 184 ; progressive, 184; emphatic, 184, 185. Gender, explanation of, 90. Gerund, explanation of, 102. Grammar, definition of, 1. Imperative mood, 101. Indicative mood, 101. Infinitive mood, definition of, 101; syntax of, 129, 139. Interjection, definition of, 16 ; syntax of, 138. Interrogative pronoun, definition of, 68 ; declension of, 95. Intransitive verb, definition of, 76. Irregular verb, definition of, 103; list of, 187-192. Language, definition of, 1. Language lessons, definition of, 1. Letter - writing, directions for, 171- 175. Limiting adjective, 72. Love, to, conjugation of, 104-107. Modification, definition of, 86. Modifier, definition of, 28, 144. Mood, definition of, 101; indicative, 101; potential, 101 ; subjunctive, 101 ; imperative, 101. No, 78. Nominative case, 89. Nominative independent, syntax of, 38. Note, promissory, 178, 179. Nouns, definition of, 2; in apposition, 36 ; common, definition of, 61 ; prop- er, definition of, 61 ; abstract, defini- tion of, 62 ; modification of, 87 ; gen- der of, 90 ; declension of, 90 ; person of, 90, 91. Number, definition of, 87 ; definition of, in verb, 99; irregularities of, iu nouns, 182. Object, definition of, 50; of a verb, rule for, 128; indirect, 129. Objective case, definition of, 89; gov- ernment of by a preposition, 136; syntax of, 128. Parsing, definition of, 116; model for, 116, 117. Participle, definition of, 102; mode of forming present, 102 ; mode of past, 102; syntax of, 123, 129. Parts, i)rincipal, of a verb, 103. Parts of speech classified, 2-20 ; sub- division of the, 60-84; modification of the, 85-115. Passive voice, definition of, 103; mode of forming, 103. Person, definition of, 66, note; explana- tion of, 90, 91 ; definition of, in verbs, 99. Personal pronoun, definition of, iJQ'^ declension of, 94. Phrase, definition of, 40, 146; adjec- tive, definition of, 40 ; adverbial, definition of, 44 ; arrangement ol, 48. Plural of nouns, rules for, 87, 88; double forms of, 181 ; in foreign nouns, 182; in compound nouns, 183. Possessive case, use of as modifier, 33; definition of, 89; rule for forming the, 89; syntax of, 126. Potential mood, 101. Predicate, simple, 28, 144; complete, 28, 145 ; modification of, 42-48 : with VI I object, 40, hO; adjective, definition of, 53 ; nominative, definition of, 53 ; adjective, syntax of, 125. Preposition, definition of, 12; list of, 13; syntax of, 136. Principal parts of a verb, 103. Pronoun, definition of, 11 ; personal, definition of, 66 ; relative, definition of, 68; interrogative, definition of, 68 ; modifications of, 94, 95 ; person- al, declension of, 94; relative and interrogative, declension of, 95 ; syn- tax of, 133. Proper noun, definition of, 61. Proposition, definition of, 145. Punctuation, rules for, 22, 47, 50, 151, 152, 158, 159, 164, 165. Qualifying adjective, 71. Receipts, forms of, 177, 178. Regular verb, definition of, 103 ; con- jugation of, 104-107. Relative pronoun, definition of, 68; declension of, 95. Root of a verb, 102. Rules for plural, 87, 83. Sentence, definition of, 21, 144; kinds of, 22; its elements, 21-59 ; simple, 147; complex, 147; compound, 147. Simple sentence, 147 ; analy^sis of the, 148-150; synthesis of, 151-154. Subject, definition of, 144; simple, 28, 144 ; complete, 28, 144 ; modifiers of, 29-41 ; syntax of, 118. Subjunctive mood, 10 ; syntax of, 140. Subordinate conjunction, definition of, 80. Subscription, models of, 171-175. Superlative degree, definition of, 96; rule for use of, 124. Superscriptions, models of, 171-175. Syntax, definition of, 116 ; false, exer- cises in, 141, 142. Synthesis, definition of, 144; of the simple sentence, 151-154; of the complex sentence, 158-162; of the compound sentence, 164-169. Tense, definition of, 100. The, article, 6. To love, conjugation of, 104-107. Transitive verb, definition of, 76. Verb, definition of, 4; transitive, de- finition of, 76; intransitive, defini- tion of, 76 ; neuter, 76 ; interchange- ability of transitive and intransitive, 76; modification of the, 99-110; con- lugation of, 103 ; principal parts of, 103; auxiliary, 103 ; syntax of, 120; irregular, conjugation of, 183 ; to be^ conjugation of, 185; list of irregular, 187-192. Verbals, definition of, 101. Voice, definition of, 102; active, 103; passive, 103. Words, classes of, 2-20. Yes, 78. NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS. INTRODUCTORY LESSON. 1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. 2. Language lessons furnish rules for speaking and writ- ing correctly, and practice in composition. Language study is divided into two parts : I. Grammar. II. Composition. 3. Grammar is the science that treats of the principles of language. 4. Composition is the art of writing correctly. This book is divided into six parts, or sections : I. Classes of Words. II. The Sentence and its Elements. III. Subdivision of the Parts of Speech. IV. Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Y. Syntax. VI. Analysis and Synthesis. A SECTION I. CLASSES OF WORDS. I— NOUNS, OR NAME -WORDS, » 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. Buffaloes roam over the prairies. 3. Are you fond of slating ? 4. We love the fragrance ofjloicers. Analysis. — Tbc word "Columbus'' is the name of a person ; the word "America" is the name of a place; the word "buffaloes" is . the name of certain animals ; the words " prairies " and " flowers " are names of things ; the word " skating " is the name of an action ; the word " fragrance " is the name of a quality. Explanatiou. — Words that are used as names of persons, places, things, actions, or qualities are name -words. In grammar they are called nouns. Definition. — A noun, or name-word, is tlie name of anything. NOTE. — In selecting the nouns in a sentence pupils should remem- ber that, when it is stated that a noun is the " name of anything," we do not mean by " thing " merely what we know by our senses, but any object (person, place, thing), action, or quality. *'A noun is the name of anything, existing or conceived by the mind." — (Swinton's English Gramm/ir). NOUNS, OR NAME-WORDS. 3 EXERCISE 1. a. 1. Mention (or write) the names of all the things you see in the school-room. 2. Mention (or write) the names of five persons of whom you have read. 3. Mention (or write) the names of five places of which you have read. 4. Mention (or write) the names of five actions, as singing, -5. Mention (or write) the names of five feelings of the body (as hunger) y or of the mind (as j^^^I/)- b. Copy the following sentences on slates or paper, drawing a line under each noun. 1. T^au^vows in China. 2. The oak bears acorns. 3. "Webster was a great orator. 4. Paris is the capital of France. * 5. The greatest of these is charity. 6. Sometimes we see a ship. 7. Sometimes we ship a sea. ' 8. Singing in concert is an improving exercise. 9. The light comes in at the win- / dow. 10. The lightning flashes and the thunder roars. / 11. Honesty is the best policy. 13. Seeing is believing. ^ 13. Shakspeare was born at Stratford, in England. 14. I fear / your joy is short-lived. 15. The scent of the roses hangs round it still. 16. Go where glory waits thee ; / But when fame elates thee, O then remember me. Mention each noun in the preceding exercise, and apply the defi- nition of a noun : Model : *'Tca rjrows iu China." *'Tca'' is a noun, because it is the name of something; *' China" Is a noun, because it is the name of something. 4: CLASSES OF WORDS. [sEC. I. IL—TERBS, OR ACTION-WORDS. 1. The sun sliines. 2. Are you icriting ? o. Bring me a book. Analysis. — The word *' sliines" tells or states sometliing about the sun ; it is used in making a statement. The words " are writ- ing" are used in asking a question. The word "bring" is used in expressing a command. Explanation. — A word that is used in stating Avhat any person or thing does or is, or in asking what a person does or is, or in tell- ing another person to do or he something, is called a verb. Definition. — A yerb is a word tliat expresses action or being. NOTES. I. " A verb is a word that predicates action or being " (Swinton's English Orammar). To '^ predicate " signifies to express, assert, or de- clare. This is the principal use of verbs, though they are also em- ployed in asking questions and expressing commands. II. A verb may consist of more than one word : as, is learning, will he told, has hecn requested. Hence, in selecting verbs, care must be taken to include all the words needed to express the action or state ofheing intended to be expressed in the given sentence. EXERCISE 2. a. Add verbs telling what the following things do. Model : *' The kitten " The kitten romps in the garden. 1. The kitten 5. The clock 2. The boy G.Kings 3. The girl 7. The sun 4.' the birds 8. The wind ......... VERBS, OR ACTION-WORDS. 5 b. Join verbs telling about the following things being — (something). Model : " The apple " The apple is sour. 1. The apple sour. 5. Soldiers 2. The grapes ripe. 6. Honesty ?). James here yesterday. 7. London 4. Iron malleable. 8. The lion c. Fill up the blanks with suitable verbs. 1. Trees in forests. 2. David a lion and a bear. 3. The glazier the window. 4. The artist a picture. 5. The grocer tea. 6. The servant down stairs. Copy the following sentences, drawing one line under each noun, and two lines under each verb. 1. The cuckoo builds no nest for herself. 2. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in size. 3. Vast prairies extend beyond the Mississippi. 4. Before our house a prattling river runs. 5. A herd of cattle grazed in a meadow. 0. The timid bird saw the snake in the grass. 7. My fiither's fields have produced corn. 8. Those pears may ripen on the wall. 9. Diogenes lived in a tub. 10. The ship was wrecked on the coast. 11. Some might have been saved. 12. *' Will you walk into my parlor?" Said the spider to the fly. e. Mention each verb in the preceding paragraph, and state how you know that it is a verb. Model : *' Builds " is a verb, because it expresses aetion. CLASSES OF WORDS. [sEC. X. Ill— ADJECTIYES, 1. Bring me that book. 2. Here is a drove of ten cattle. 8. The ripe fruit is plucked. Analysis, — The word *' that " is added to the noun " book " to tell which book is meant ; the word " ten " is added to the noun "cattle" to tell hoiv many are meant; the word "ripe" is kdded to the noun " fruit " to tell what kind or quality of fruit is meant. Explanation. — Words such as "that" and "ten" are said to limit the meaning of a noun with which they are joined. A word such as " ripe " is said to express some quality of the thing named by a noun, or to qualify the meaning of a noun. A word which limits or qualifies the meaning of a noun is called an adjective. Definition. — An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit or qualify its meaning. KOTES. I. Sometimes adjectives are used with the class of words called pronouns. (See definition, page 11.) II. The words a, or an, and the are adjectives, because they limit (or define) tlie meaning of nouns ; but they are often called articles. EXERCISE 3. a. Use with each noun an adjective to limit or qualify its meaning. Model : " Fine grapes grow in simmj France." 1 grapes grow in France. 2. The tree has leaves. 3. The cat catches mice. 4. The wind tree. ADJECTIVES. 7 blew down the trees. 5. The picture is 6. The clouds float in the sky. 7 drops of water, grains of sand, Make the ocean, And the land. Join with each of the following nouns as many appropriate ad- jectives as you can think of, and prefix a or an, as in this model, an old a green a tall an elegant a magnificent a fruit-bearing . I. tree. 2. horse. 3. house. 4. man. 5. water. 6. bird. c. In the following sentences, select the adjectives, and tell how you know each is an adjective. Model: "Dashing" is an adjective because it is joined to a noun — "waves"— to qualify its meaning; "rock-bound" is an adjective, because it is joined to a noun— " coast "—to qualify its meaning; "the" is an article, limiting "waves;" "a" is an article, limiting "coast." 1. The dashing waves beat on a rock-bound coast. 2. A large garden is not always a profitable garden. 3. A handsome flower is not always a sweet-smelling flower. -4. Hail, blithesome stranger of the grove! 5. Fresh water is a pleasant drink. C. A common lamp smoked in the neck of a stone bottle. 7. All horned animals are ruminant. 8. Dear, patient, gentle Nell was dead. 9. Be not like dumb, driven cattle. 10. The way was long, the wind was cold ; The minstrel was infirm and old. II. This silly little grasshopper Despised his wise old mother. CLASSES OF WORDS. [SKC. I. d. Arrange the adjectives, nouns, and verbs in the sentences below in separate columns. (The articles may be omitted.) Model : " Beautiful ferns grow in shady places." ADJECTIVK. »ODN. VEllB. beautiful shady ferns places grow 1. The tall girl ate the sweet apple. 2. The Grecian army gained a splendid victory. 3. Little drops of water make the mighty ocean. 4. The poor boy has a blind father. 5. Switzerland is noted for its lofty mountains and beautiful lakes. 6. A rainy day gladdens the white ducks. 7. How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour ! IV,— ADVERBS. 1. The big fire burns 'brigJdly. 2. That book is exceedingly dear. 3. Some birds fly very swiftly. Analysis. — The word " brightly " adds something to the meaning of the verb " burns ; " . the w^ord " exceedingly " adds something to the meaning of the adjective " dear ; " the w^ord " very " adds some- thing to the meaning of the w^ord (adverb) " swiftly." Explanation, — A word that in some mode (manner) changes the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is said to modify the word with which it is joined. In grammar a w^ord of this kind is called an adverb. ADVERBS. Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify tlie meaning of a verb, an adjective, or anotlier adverb. NOTE. — An adverb generally denotes tlme^ place^ manner^ or degree : as — I saw my uncle [when?] yesterday time. I met him [where?] here place. He spoke to me [how?] 2^^(^santly manner. He spoke to me [degree ?] very pleasantly... degree* EXERCISE 4. a. Supply suitable adverbs to fill the blanks in the following gen- tences : Model : " Call me early in the morning." 1. Call me in the morning. 2. Glass is brittle. 3. The exercise is written. 4. The robin sings very 5. The boy has returned. 6. Well-baked bread is wholesome. 7 will you come? 8. Tell him to walk 9. The bells rang 10. We shall rest 11. The moon shines 12. King Alfred governed b. Make six sentences containing adverbs of ti7ne Make six sentences containing adverbs of place Make eight sentences containing adverbs of manner Make twelve sentences containing: adverbs T ■, -, ^ ^]^^ £ T Y soft, hard, sweet, oit- •^ J ter, fine, line, etc. In the following sentences select the adverbs, and state why each is an adverb. Model: ** Terribly" is an adrerb, because it modifies the meaning of the verb "blew." A 2 Using the verbs conu, go, call, walk, run, jum2y, fly, sing, cry, etc. 10 CLASSES OF WORDS. [sec. I. 1. The wind blew terribly. 2. The boys swim badly. 3. I know where he did it, when he did it, and why he did it. 4. Charles was here yesterday. 5. The stars are very bright. G. We must win now or never. 7. The eagle flies exceedingly high. 8. Alice's exercise is well written. 9. We shall not fail. 10. The Tribune is published daily. 11. Few men are always happy. 12. This lesson has not been perfectly prepared. Arrange the adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverbs in the following sentences in separate columns, as in the model. (Include the ar- ticles among the adjectives). Model : '' The merry little squirrel sat slyly on the branch of a very lofty tree.^' ADJECTIVE. NOUN. VEBn. ADVEEB. the squirrel Bat slyly raeri-y branch very little tree the a lofty 1. The treacherous spider soon caught the poor tly. 2. The house was entered yesterday, and the thief stole the sil- ver-plate. , 3. The sun shone brightly on the calm waters of the ocean. 4. The sailors danced joyously when the gallant ship entered the harbor. 5. He sang sweetly the old songs of his boyhood. ^ 0. The fire burns cheerily in the grate to-night. 7. Heavy masses of mist floated lazily across the high mountains. 8. A winter so cold has never been known before. 9. Where is mv brotlier now ? PRONOUNS. 11 v.— PRONOUISS. 1. /am glad that you have come. 3. Frank likes his dog and it likes Mm. Analysis. — The word " I " shows that the person speaking means himself — it is used /or the name of the speaker. The word ^^you" shows that he is speaking to some one — it is used for the name of that person. The word " it " takes the place of the noun " dog ;" the word " him " takes the place of the noun " Frank." Explanation. — Words that are used for real names, or that are used instead of nouns, arc called pronouns — that is, for-names, or for-nouns. Definition. — A pronoun is a word used for a name, or instead of a noun. NOTE. — The following words are among the principal pronouns ; I you we he she it they me us him her them EXERCISE 5. a. Complete the following sentences by adding pronouns, 1 . If you tease the dog, w^U bite 2. The pond is deep, and there are many fish in 3. The man ran after the rabbit, but could not catch 4. My aunt saw the pictures, but did not buy 5. Tell (the speaker) what brings (the person addresvsed), gentle youth, to Rome. b. Use pronouns instead of the words in italics. Model: "I come to bury Caesar, not to praise Ccesar'''' =J come to bury CcTsar, not to praise 7dm. 12 CLASSES OF WORDS. [sEC. I. 1. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise Gmsar. 2. Thomas ploughed the field, but Thomas did not plough the field well. 3. Xew York is a large city ; New Yorlc is the metropolis of the Empire State. 4. The general told the soldiers that the soldiers would gain the victory. 5. The crocodile lives in large swamps ; the crocodile belongs to the lizard kind, and the crocodile is amphibious. 6. Alexander was an ambitious man; Alexander conquered the whole w^orld, and then Alexander sighed because Alexander had no more worlds to conquer. 7. The queen walked in the queen's garden with the queen's maids ; the queen''s maids wore blue dresses, and these dresses [which] were trimmed w^ith lace. Copy the following sentences, drawing a line under each pronoun. 1. Charles and I ran home ; w^e were tired. 2. John is a good boy ; he has learned his lesson. 3. You should not lose your place. 4. Whales are not fishes, though they live in the sea. 6. The farmer's wife gave me an apple, and she said I w^as not to eat it until I went home. 6. She said, ^' Sir, we are seven." 7. 1 had a little pony. His name w^as Dapple Gray. I lent him to a lady. To ride a mile away. YL— PREPOSITIONS. 1. The ship sailed /r6»m Boston. # 2, The book on the desk is mine. Analysis. — In the first sentence the word "from" expresses a relation between " Boston " and *' sailed.'' In the second sentence PREPOSITIONS. 13 the word "on" expresses a relation of place between "desk" and "book." Explauation. — Words that express a relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word are called prepositions. They con- nect the words between which there is a relation of meaning. Definition. — A preposition is a connective word expressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some otiier word. NOTE. — In our language there are about fifty of these relation' words. The following are the most used prepositions : at from off till up by in on ' to witli for of through EXERCISE 6. a* Supply suitable prepositions to fill the blanks in the following sentences. Model : '' The visitor passed through the gate." 1. The visitor passed the gate. 3. Swallows build the eaves of houses. 3. The mighty Andes rise the clouds. 4. The orator was received applause. 5. Place my book the table. 6. Will you come my house? 7. Children coming home school, look in the open door. 8. The poem Paradise Lost was written Milton. 9. Carry that box James my compliments. 10. Did you buy that book mc? 11. We work noon dewy eve. 13 whom are you speaking? 14 CLASSES OF WORDS. [sEC. I. b. In the following sentences select the prepositions, and tell why each is a prepositio-n. Model: "In" is a preposition, because it shows a relation of meaning between *'lieart" and "trutli;" "on" is a preposition, because it sliows a relation of meaning between "lips" and "trutli." 1. Truth in the heart is better than truth on the lips. 2. The trees of the garden are loaded with fruit. 8. I walked yesterday from our house to the church. 4. The river flows down the valley. 5. The boy in the boat caught a fish with a line. 6. A sailor at sea looks hopefully for land. 7. The child met me on the road. 8. We must return to the dust from which we were taken. 9. They grew in beauty side by side, They filled one home with glee ; Their graves are scattered far and wide, By mount and stream and sea. VII.— CONJUNCTIONS. 1. James and John went home together. 2. I went tecause he asked me. Analysis. — The word "and" connects the two nouns "James" and "John;" the word "because" connects "I went" and "he asked me," which are parts of the sentence. Explanation. — A word used to connect two words or other parts, or elements^ of a sentence, or to connect two statements in the same sentence, is called a conjunction. Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences or the elements of a sentence. CONJUNCTIONS. 15 NOTES. I. The elements of a sentence are the loords, phrases^ or propositions of which it is composed. (For definitions, see pages 144, 145.) II. The following are some of the principal conjunctions : and either — or if but neither— nor than because for that EXERCISE 7. Supply suitable conjunctions to fill the blanks in the following sentences. Model : " He is poor, hut he is honest." 1. He is poor, he is honest. 2. Ann Ella are sitting on the grass. 3. Do it, I wish you to do it. 4. Art is long, time is fleeting. 5. I will tell him, he ask me. G. Either he I must be in the wrong. 7. I did not know your brother had hurt himself. 8. Texas is larger New York. 9. All seek happiness, not many find it. 10. Hannibal, Caesar, Napoleon were great generals. b. In the following sentences select the conjunctions, and tell why each is a conjunction. Model: *'And" is a conjunction because it connects the nouns "animals" and "plants," two elements of the sentence; "and" is a conjunction because it connects "live" and "grow," two elements of the sentence. 1. Animals and plants live and grow. 2. The father wept, for his son was dead. 3. Richard sat down, but his sister ran ofi". 16 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. I. 4. Two and two make four ; but two and three make five. 5. Neither soldiers nor sailors could advance. 6. No harm was done, though the storm was very severe. 7. I like him because he is generous. 8. We heard that you had arrived. 9. They are brave and modest boys. 10. They arc slow, but they are sure. VIII.-~INTERJECTIONS. 1. Alas! poor Yorick : I knew him, Horatio. 2. Aha! papa, I have found you out. Analysis. — The word "alas" is an exclama;tion of sorrow; the word " aha" is an exclamation of surprise and pleasure. Explanation. — A word of exclamation denoting some sudden feeling is called an interjection. This literally signifies a word merely thrown in among the other words in a sentence. Definition. — ^An interjection is a word which expresses an emo- tion. EXERCISE 8. In the following sentences select the interjections^ and tell why they are interjections : 1. Hush ! you should not talk now. 2. Fie ! it was not kind of you to do so. 3. Alas ! they had been friends in youth. 4. Hurrah ! we are to have a holiday. 5. Ho ! breakers on the weather bow i 6. Adieu, adieu I my native shore fades on my sight. / SUMMARY. 17 All the words in the English language are arranged in eight classes, called parts of speecli. These are : 1. Noun. 5. Pronoun. 2. Verb. G. Preposition. 3. Adjective. 7. Conjunction. 4. Adverb. 8. Interjection. 1. A noun, or name-word, is the name of anything. 2. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 3. An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit or qualify its meaning. 4. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 5. A pronoun is a word used for a name or instead of a noun. 6. A preposition is a connective word expressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other word. 7. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences or the elements of a sentence, n 8. An interjection is a word which expresses an emotion. REVIEW EXERCISES, a. Make (orally or in writing) sentences of two words each by telling what the following animals do. Model: "Bees buzz." — 1. Bees 5. Owls 9. Squirrels 2. Dogs G. Hens 10. Crickets 3. Cats 7. Geese 11. Bears 4. Horses 8. Eagles 12. Wolves 18 CLASSES OF WORDS. [sEC. I. b. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by joining to each noun an adjective, and to each verb an adverb. Model : "Good scholars study diligently." 1. Scholars study 5. Fruit ripens 2. Men w^ork 6. The fire burns 3. The wind blows 7. Birds sing 4. The girls sew 8. The cat and the dog played c. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by joining a verb with each of the following pronouns. Model: "I study." 1. I 4. We 7. It 2. He 5. You 8. Who ? 3. She 6. They 9. What ? d. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by putting a noun after each of the following prepositions. Model : " Tea comes from China." 1. Tea comes /?W7i 4. The cow jumped over 2. The sun rises in 5. The church i^ on 3. The dogs ran through 6. We went to Chicago by e. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by supplying a conjunction where required. Model : " Boys and girls write." 1. Boys girls write. 2. Dogs bark bite. 3. Will you have pears peaches ? 4. I will go you will. 5. I have neither gold silver. 6. John recites well in grammar poorly in geography. COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 19 COMPOSITION EXERCISES, a. We may briefly describe a place by answering the following questions : 1. What is it ? 2. Where is it ? 3 What is it noted for ? Model: *' Chicago." 1. It is a great citj^ 2. It is in the State of Illinois. 3. It is noted for its trade in grain. These statements may be thus combined : Chicago, a great city in the State of Illinois, is noted for its trade in grain. Make statements of each of the following places, and combine into a sentence. 1. Boston. 4. New Orleans. 2. San Francisco. 5. Baltimore. 3. Cincinnati. C. The place you live in. b. We may briefly describe a building, such as a house, a church, or a railroad depot, by answering the following questions : 1. What is it ? 2. What is it used for ? 3. What are its pnncipal parts ? 4. What is it built of? Model : "A house." 1. It is a building. 2. It is used for a dwelling-place. 3. Its principal parts are the walls, roof, floors, rooms, windows, doors, and halls. 4. It is built of wood, brick, or stone. Combined. — A house is a building which is used for a dwelling-place. It is built of wood, brick, or stone, and its principal parts are the walls, roof, floors, rooms, windows, doors, and halls. 20 CLASSES OF WORDS. [sEC. I. Make statements of each of the following objects, and combine into two sentences. 1. A church. 4. A jail. 2. A railroad depot. 5. An asylum. 3. A barn. 6. Our post-office. The following story is to be read aloud to the class, and pupils are then to write what they can remember of it. (This is called an abstract from memory.) DON'T GIVE TOO MUCH FOR THE WHISTLE. When I was a little boy about seven years old, my friends, on a holiday, filled my pockets with spending-money. I went direct- ly towards a shop where toys for children were sold ; and being charmed with the sound of a whistle, in the hands of another boy that I met by the way, I offered him all my money for it. I then came home, and went whistling over the house, much pleased with my whistle, but disturbing all the family. My brothers, sisters, and cousins, hearing of the bargain I had made, told me I had given four times as much for the whistle as it was worth. This put me in mind what good things I might have bought with the rest of the money ; and they laughed at me so much for my folly that I cried with vexation. This little event was afterwards of use to me, for often, when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary thing, I said to myself: '' Don't give too much for the whistle ;" and so I saved my mone3\ — Benja- min Fraiikliju SECTION 11. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. IX.--DEFINITION OF THE SENTENCE. Fire burns. Analysis. — Here something is named — " fire.'' Something is said about fire — (it) " burns." Explanation. — Whenever we smj something about anything, we express a thought. A thought expressed in words is called a sentence. Definition. — A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought : as— 1. Rain is falling. 2. The stars are distant. 8. The merry schoolboy whistles loudly. Rule for Capitals. — The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. NOTE. — A sentence is made up oficords; but words thrown together at random do not form a sentence : they must mean something before tliey can be a sentence. A pupil was told to write a sentence on air. She wrote these words : " The air that Mve breathe." Now these words are not a sentence, for the reason that they do not make any complete statement. They might easily be converted into a sentence by saying, "The air that we breathe is sweet," or "The air that we; breathe is a fluid." 22 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. EXERCISE 9. Supply such words as will convert into sentences the following incomplete collections of words. Model: ^^lnl4Q2Co\nmh\xs discovered America.''^ 1. In 1492 Columbus ' 2. The earth, in 365i days . 3. A band of robbers 4. The story of Robinson Crusoe 5. When Washington had cut down the cherry-tree 6. The city of New York is 7. The Empire of China 8 was a great patriot. 9 gives milk. 10 is the largest city in the world. 11 tell us the time of day. 12 is an improving study. 13 travel over the desert. 14 live in Africa. X.-KINDS OF SENTENCES. I. A sentence may take one or other of these forms : 1. Declarative. — It may simply express a statement, or declare something : as, "' The sun shines." Such a sentence is called a declarative sentence. 2. Interrogative. — It may ask a question: as, "Are you ill?" Such a sentence is called an interrogative sentence. 3. Imperative. — It may express a command: as, "Go away." Such a sentence is called an im^Krative sentence. 4. Exclamative. — It may express a wish : as, " May every bless- ing attend you I" Such a sentence is called an exclamative sentence. KINDS OF SENTExXCES. 23 11. Rule for Terminal Marks.* — A declarative or an impera- tive sentence is closed with a period (•) ; an interrogative sentence, with an interrogation point (1); an exclamative sentence, with an exclamation point (!)• EXERCISE 10. Copy on slates or paper the following sentences. J^" Exchange exercises for correction as to (1) spelling, (2) capitals, and (3) ter- minal marks. 1. The farmer mows the waving grass. 2. Tell me what you want. 3. "What are you doing ? Where are you going ? 4. How sw^eet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 5. Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here idle ? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the l^rice of chains or slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take ; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death ! (5. Oh ! call my brother back to me ! I cannot play alone. The summer comes with flower and bee ; Where is my brother gone ? b. Foim sentences of the kinds indicated, using the following words : STATEMENTS. Washington Gold Our state Many ships QUESTIONS. is situated? steam-engine? discovered....? Did know ? COMMANDS. Cease... Write... Send.... Honor.. * A terminal mark is a mark of punctuation placed at the end or termination. of a Bcntcncc. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. 11. C. Express each of the following statements in the form of a ques- tion, a command, and an exclamation. Model : 1. Dogs delight to bark and bite. (Statement.) 2. Do dogs delight to bark and bite ? (Question.) 'S. Let dogs delight to bark and bite. (Command.) 4. How dogs delight to bark and bite ! (Exclamation.) 1. Dogs delight to bark and bite. 2. The big fire burns brightly. 8. Time flies rapidly. 4. The storm rages fiercely. 5. The scholars rejoice. 6. The lion roars. XI.— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. Birds fly. Analysis. — In this sentence, is anything named ^ "What? Is any- thing said about them ? What ? Explanation. — Every sentence, however short, must have two parts: 1. The name of what is spoken of — or the subject ; 2. What is stated of the subject — or the predicate. In any collection of words, unless something is nained and some- thing stated about what is nam^d, there can be no statement, and hence no sentence. Definition I. — The subject of a sentence represents that cf which something is stated. Definition II. — The predicate of a sentence tells what is stated of the subject. Definition III— A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 25 NOTES. I. Both the subject and the predicate may consist of many words. II. The question " Who (or what) is mentioned f^ will always suggest the subject as its answer. And " What is said of the subject T' will give the predicate. Thus in the sentence, " The squirrel eyes the browning chestnuts," w hat is mentioned ? " The squirrel." What is said of the squirrel ? " Eyes the browning chestnuts.' ' EXERCISE 11. a. Make sentences, using suitable pairs of the following subjects and predicates. Model : *' A dog worried a cat." c A dog, robin, crow, horse, baby, Subjects J the boy, the girl, the jockey, the coachman, tlie ( doctor, the teacher, the musician, (taught the class, will play the fiddle, shall win the race, worried a cat, will sing a song, built a nest, upset the carriage, cured the man, trundles a hoop, shall toss a ball, wants its rattle, broke the fence. b. Supply suitable subjects : 1 revolves around the sun in a year. 2, is the season of snow and ice, 3 are drawn over the snow in sledges. 4 sufie red terribly at Valley Forge. 5 is called the Father of his Country. 6 sail across the Atlantic Ocean. 7 wrote her exercise. 8 lived on a desert island. 9 tremble in, the breeze. 10 glides skilfully over the ice. B 26 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. Supply suitable predicates. 1. London 2. Coal 3. Sounds of music ...... 4. Vessels 5. The source of the Nile .... 6. The children 7. The fierce lion 8. The kind-hearted doctor , Write a sentence containing each of the following words. Un- derline all the words in the subject, and doubly underline all the words in the predicate. Model : Smoke " Smoke curls u p from the chimney.''^ 1 . Smoke. 5. The steam-engine. 2. Desk. 6. The eagle. 3. Air. 7. Money. 4. Book. 8. Girls. JS^ Exchange papers, and see if the subjects and predicates are correctly underlined. e* Compose two or more sentences upon each of the following sub- jects: 1. Cotton. 2. Dogs. 3. Robinson Crusoe. S^" Let some of the sentences be written on the blackboard, and made the basis of class-criticism. Correct according to the follow- ing directions : 1. Draw a line under each misspelled w^ord. 2. Draw a line through each small letter that should be a cajiital, or capital that should be a small letter. 3. Mark a cross where a period is omitted. . ANALYSIS AKD SYNTHESIS. 27 XIL— AXALTSIS AND SYNTHESIS. I. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts or ele- ments of which it is composed. II. Synthesis is the process of constructing sentences from their elements. EXERCISE 12. a. Analyze, according to the model,, the following sentences. Model : "Trees blossom" is a sentence, because it expresses a thought, and it is a simple sentence because it contains but one subject and one predi- cate. "Trees" is the subject, because it names that of which something is thought; "blossom" is the predicate, because it tells what is thought of "trees." 1. Trees blossom. 7. Dogs bark. 2. Kings rule. 8. Grass will grow. 3. Worms crawl. 9. jMorning has daw ned. 4. Money was paid. 10. Bread nourishes. 5. Boatmen were rowing. 11. Exercise invigorates. 6. Lions roar. 12. Men have been loved. *>• Construct sentences by joining a suitable subject with each of the following predicates — no sentence to contain more than two words. 1 run. 5 play. 9 fell. 2 grow. G purrs. 10 sailed. 3 expand. 7 bellow. 11 died. 4 die. 8 swim. 12 live. c. Construct sentences by joining a suitable predicate with each of the following subjects — (each predicate to consist of one verb only, though the verb may be expressed in more than one icord). 1. Ladies 3. Rivers o. Ships 2. Roses 4. Greece G. The teaehcr ..-...-. 28 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II, XIII. -SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, L A thought may be expressed by means of two words — one being the subject, the other the predicate : thus — BUBJE0T8. PREDICATKB. Birds fly. Fishes swdm. Diamonds sparkle. Nero fiddled. Rome remains. II. When the subject consists of a single word it is called the simple subject ; when a predicate consists of one verb (word or words) it is called the simple predicate. III. The simple subject and simple predicate often have words added to them to modify their meaning. One or more words added to another to modify its meaning is called an adjunct^ or modifier ; and a word thus added to is said to be modified or enlarged, IV. The complete subject or predicate is the subject or predicate with all its modifiers. 1. Birds fly. This is a sentence, with a simple subject, ** birds," and a simple predicate, ''fly." 2. Some birds fly swiftly. Here the subject is modified or enlarged by the word "some," and the predicate by the word " swiftly." 3. Some birds of prey fly very swiftly. Here the words " of prey " are added to the last subject, and " very " to the last predicate. 4. Some birds of prey^ having secured their victim, fly tcith it very swiftly to their nests. Here the subject and the predicate are modified or enlarged by many ad- ditional words. SUBJECT MODIFIED. ^ 29 8UBJE<1TS. PKKDIOATKS. 1. Birds fly. 3. Some birds fly swiftly. 8. Some birds of prey fly very swiftly. 4. Some birds of prey, having secured their victim, fly with it very swiftly to their nests. Exercise. — In like manner, enlarge the following sentences till you make them as long as you can. Be careful to have only one subject and one predicate : 1. Boys study. 2. A horse ran. XIV.— SUBJECT MODIFIED: By an A^eetiye. 1. Three tall soldiers passed. 2. The melancholy days have come. Analysis. — The word "tail'' modifies "soldiers," which is the subject of the sentence ; " three " limits " tall soldiers." The words " the " and " melancholy " modify the subject " days." Explanation. — It is often necessary to modify (that is, to limit or qualify) the meaning of the noun-subject. For this purpose we may use adjectives. "Three," "tall," "the," and "melancholy" are adjectives. First Modifier. — The simple subject may be modified by an adjective. EXERCISE 13. a. Analyze according to the model. ^ Model: '*The melancholy days have come" is a simple sentence. * At this stage of progress the analysis is to be confined to stating the sim- ple subject and its modifiers. The predicate may merely be named, not an- alyzed. 30 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. " Days" is the simple subject : it is modified by the adjectives " melancholy " and "the." The predicate is "have come." 1. The melancholy days liave come. 2. Large bodies move slowly. 3. The gray horses ran away. 4. Dark shadows stretched across the green meadow. 5. Huge elephants live in Africa. 6. The lowing herd comes home. 7. Beautiful meadows lay below. 8. Early rising is healthful. 9. The rising sun shone through the window. 10. The wild cataract leaps in glory. b. Write six sentences, each of which shall contain one of the fol- lowing nouns as its subject ; and join one or more adjective modi- fiers with each subject. 1. School-house. o. Grass. 5. Feelings. 3. Mill. 4. Peaches. , G. Doll. XV.— ADJECTIYE MODIFIERS: Synthesis. To a noun-subject we may join — 1. A single adjective : as, " Tall trees appear." 2. Two or more adjectives, of which one modifies the noun directly, while the others modify the noun as already modified by the nearest adjective : as, "A miscMewiis little boy sat on the back seat." 3. Two or more adjectives separately modifying the noun: as, " Kate's large, laughing, light-blue eyes danced in her head." Punctuation. — The following rule of punctuation applies to ad- jectives : Three or more adjectives (or two if not joined by a conj unction) modi- fying a noun are separated by commas : as— 1. This calm^ resolute man. 2. This cahn^ cool,, and resolute man. 3. This calm and resolute man. / ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 31 NOTES. I. When a noun has joined with it two or more adjectives whicli do not separately modify it, the adjectives sliould not be separated by the comma. Thus, in the sentence — "A mischievous little boy sat on the back scat"--- *' little" modifies "boy," "mischievous" modifies "little boy," "a" modifies " mischievous little boy." Hence, as these adjectives do not separately modify the noun, they are not separated by the comma. II. The adjective next to the noun is not followed by the comma. EXERCISE 14. a. Unite each group of statements into a single sentence, using all the adjectives as modifiers of the subject. A boy ran away from school yesterday : He was a cross boy. He was a quarrelsome boy. He was a lazy boy. 1. The Himalayas extend across Asia: The Himalayas are lofty. The, Himalayas are majestic. The Himalayas are snoic-capped. 2. A ship sailed yesterday to the East Indies : It w^as a large ship. It was a noUe ship. It w^as a gallant ship. 3. Mice ran after the farmer's wife : They were three mice. They were Nind mice. - A cross, quarrelsome, lazy boy ran away from school yesterday. 32 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. 4. Books are nice Christmas presents : It IS pretty books that are nice Christmas presents. It is illustrated books that are nice Christmas presents. It is story-hooks, that are nice Christmas presents. 5. A king named Alfred ruled over England a thousand years ago : He was a learned king. He was a valiant king. He was a much-lo'ced king. 6. A song cheered the soldiers : It was a siceet song. It was a tender song. It was a home-like song. b. Supply the comma where omitted in the punctuation of the ad- jectives in the following sentences.* 1. A grand gloomy and peculiar drama was played. 2. A free patriotic liberty-loving people are hard to conquer. 3. Reserved and proud haughty and ambitious, how could lie be beloved by the people ? 4. Tell me the old old story. 5. The sailor had a large strong hard and sunburned hand. 6. The garden was filled with rare costly beautiful sweet-scented flowers. 7. Jane had a short sensible well -written well -spelled and well- punctuated composition. 8. The condor is the largest strongest swiftest and most tireless of birds of prey. XVI.— SUBJECT MODIFIED : By a Possessive Noun, The girl has a book, and the girVs book is here. Explanation. — The noun "girl" is used as the subject of the verb " has." But the form " girl's " is not used as a subject : it is * Though the adjectives in these sentences are not in every instance modi- fiers of the subject noun, they illustrate equally well the rules for the punctua- tion of adjectives joined with the subject. SUBJECT MODIFIED. 33 joined with tlie noun ^'book" to tell whose book we are speak- ing of. The form " girPs " is made from the form " girl " by adding the letter s with the mark called an apostrophe (') before it. This form of the noun is named the possessive case. Definition. — The possessive ease is that form whicli a noun has in order to denote ownership or possession. Second Modifier. — The subject may be modified by a noun in the possessive ease. NOTES. I. As a preparation for waiting possessive forms in the exercises given below, the pupil should carefully read over the rules for forming the possessive case singular and plural* (see page 89). II. For practice, copy the following : POSSESSIVE rOUM, OB CASK. 8UKJECT FORM, OR C.VSE. Singular. Plural. lion lion's, lions' scholar scholar's, scholars' valley valley's, valleys' city city's. cities' wife wife's. Avives' potato potato's, potatoes' fox fox's. foxes' calf calfs. calves' dwarf dwarfs, dwarfs' tooth tooth's. teeth's brooch brooch's, brooches' sheei^ sheep's. sheei3's child child's. children's * Though, in the order of development, the consideration of the possessive case belongs properly under Section IV., where the full treatment will bo found, it seems necessary for practical reasons that the mode of forming the possessive should here be taken up by anticipation. P, 2 04 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. EXERCISE 15. a. Select the nouns in the ^055emve form. 1. John tore Henry's book, 2. The man's face is black. . 3. I admire your fatlier's house. 4. The horse's leg was broken. 5. The cat scratcl>ed the boy's face. C. Lend me your broth- er's knife. 7. Papa's horses fell down. 8. The dog's ears were cropped. 9. The earth's surface consists of land and water. 10. We saw the lion's mane. 1). Rewrite the cxpressiyns below, changing the italicized nouns into the possessive form. . - Model : " The bonnet of Mary ^^ = Marifs bonnet. 1. The bonnet of Mary. % The shoes of the children. 3. The house of Mr. Jacob. 4. The j)laythings of the Way. 5. The carriage of the general. 6. The lapdog of the lady. 7. Tiie tail of the slieeji. 8. The tails of the sheep (several). 0. The hoofs of the oxen. c. Write the following possessive singulars in the plural form. 1. The horse's teeth. 2. The deer's horns. 3. The child's play- things. 4. The hero's harp ; the lover's lute. 5. A woman's dress. 6. The soldier's gun. 7, Our teacher's greatest de- sire, 8. A prince's favor. 9. Tlic sparrow^'s nest. 10. Tlie gentleman's umbrella. XVII.— POSSESSITE MODIFIERS: Analysis. Analyze according to the model the following sentences. Model : *' Our country's history is full of interest.'' This is a simple sentence: "history" i» the simple subject; it h POSSESSIVE MODIFIERS. 35 modified by " our/' and by '' country's," a noun in the possessive case. " Is full of interest " is the predicate. 1. The spider's web is a wonderful piece of work. 2. The minstrel's task is done. 3. Tl\e boy's bravery was rewarded. . 4. Ladies' shoes are sold liere. 5. The wolf s long howl was heard. 6. Birds' nests attract boys. 7. Longfellow's Evangeline is a beautiful poem. XVIIL— POSSESSIVE MODIFIERS: Synthesis. Unite each group of statements into a single sentence, using, possessive modifiers of the subject. Model: The army melted away in Russia, "i ^^ T- .1, jy -KT 1 ( =:Napoleon s miffhty army melt- ' It was the army of Napoleon. > ^ ^ . ^ . T. . 7 . \ ed away m Russia. It was a mighty army. J '^ 1. The doll was stolen. It was the doll of the girl. It was Q. pretty doll. It was a icax doll. 2. Deeds are not forgotten. The deeds of men are spoken of. The good deeds of men are spoken of. 3. Courage freed Switzerland. It was the courage of William Tell. It was his patriotic courage. 4. A footprint in the sand startled Robinson Crusoe. It was the footprint of a iimn. 5. A web is a wonderful object. The web of a spider is spoken of. 36 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. 6. The roar was heard in the night. It was the roar of the Mllow, It was a deep roar. It was a hoarse roar. XIX.— SUBJECT MODIFIED : By a Noun in Apposition. William, the young UacJcsmith^ shoes horses. Analysis. — What is the simple subject of this sentence ? What use has the word " blacksmith ?" The word " blacksmith " explains which " William " is meant. Explanation. — When a noun denoting the same person or thing as another noun is placed beside it to explain its meaning, the explanatory noun is said to be in apposition with the word which it explains. Definition. — A noun in apposition is a noun joined to anollier noun to explain it. Third. Modifier. — Tlie subject may be modified by a noun in apposition. EXERCISE 16. Select the nouns in apposition, and mention with what word each is in apposition. Model: The noun "father" is in apposition with the noun "Washing- ton." 1. Washington, the father of his country, was our first president. 2. The statesman Jefferson* wrote the Declaration of Independ- ence. * The noun in apposition generally follows the noun with whieh It is in ap- position (called the 2'>^'incipal term). But sometimes, as in this instance, the ap- positive comes first. To determine the principal term, inquire "What is the name of the principal object (person or thing) spoken of?" APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS. 37 3. Milton, the illustrious English poet, was blind. 4. Next came Thomas, the boy who carries the mail. 5. That faithful animal, the horse, is often abused. 6. The Somerset, a phantom ship, was swinging at her moorings. XX.— APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS: Analysis. Analyze according to the model the following sentences. Model : Howard, the distinguished philanthropist, was beloved by all. This is a simple sentence. The simjjle subject is " Howard ;" it is modified by " philanthropist," a noun in apposition ; " philanthropist " is modified by the adjectives " the '' and " distinguished." The predi- cate is *' w^as beloved by all." 1. James Watt, the inventor of the stoam-engine, was born ia Scotland. 2. Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was poisoned. 8. Peter the Hermit preached the first Crusade. 4. Night, sable goddess, stretches her sceptre. 5. David, the psalmist, was king of Israel. C. That faithful animal, the dog, w^atches our houses. XXI.— APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS : Synthesis. I. A noun in apposition may itself be modified by other words. Thus— Warren, the gallant young hero, fell at Bunker Hill. The noun " hero " is in apposition with " Warren ;" at the same time the appositivc noun is modified by the adjectives "the," "gallant," and "young." The whole appositive expression — " the-gallant-young hero " — is set off by commas from the other parts of the sentence. II. Punctuation. — Nouns in apposition, especially when modified by other words, are set off from the other parts of the sentence by the comma. 38 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. NOTE. — The two nouns arc not separated by the comma if both words have become so closely connected as to form really one name: as, " Paul the Ai^ostle^''' " Peter the Hermit:^ III. Sentence -buildins?. — The sentence — Warren, the gallant young hero, fell at Bunker Hill — may be separated into several distinct statements: thus— 1. Warren fell at Bunker Hill. 2. He was a hero. 3. He w^as a young hero. 4. He was a gallant hero. By the reverse process, the following statements may be com- bined into one sentence. Columbus w^as persecuted. \ Columbus w^as a naxigator. ( =Columbus, a great Italian navigator, He was an /ifrtZM??. i was persecuted. He was great. ) EXERCISE 17. a. Unite each group of statements into a simple sentence, as in the model. 1. Sago is excellent for sick people and young children. It is a food. It is a cheap food. It is a nourishing food. 2. Bryant wrote " Thanatopsis.'* He is a poet. He is an American poet. He is an illustrious poet. APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS. 39 3. Benjamin Franklin learned his trade. He was a 2^Mosophe)\ . " He was a distinguished philosopher. He learned his trade in the office of his brother. His brother was a ^>rm^ adlcd a polyp. b. Copy the following piece, drawing a line under each noun which is in apposition. THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. The English, keeping side by side in a great mass, cared no more for the shower of Norman arrows than if they had been showers of Norman rain. When the Norman horsemen rode against them, with their battle-axes they cut men and horses down. The Normans gave way. The English pressed forward. Duke William, the Norman commander, pretended to retreat. The eager English followed. Duke William's army turned again, and fell upon the English with great slaughter. The sun rose high, and sank, and the battle still raged. Through all the wild October day the clash and din resounded in the air. In the red sunset, and in the white moonlight, heaps upon heaps of dead men lay strewn all over the ground. Harold, the Saxon king, wounded in the eye by an arrow, was nearly blind. His brothers were already killed. At length Harold, the king, received a mortal wound and dropped. The English broke and fled. The Normans rallied, and the day was lost. — Dickens's ChihVs History of England. 40 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. XXII.— SUBJECT MODIFIED: By a Phrase. 1. A thing ofheauty is a joy forever. 2. Like a glow-worm golden In a dell of dew. Analysis. — The expression " of beauty " is used to modify " thing." We might express the same idea by using the adjective beautiful : " a beautiful thing." The expression " of dew " is used to modify the meaning of the word " dell," and *' dell of dew " signifies the same thing as deivy dell. Explanation. — In each of these cases we have a noun which is joined (or related) by a preposition to another word. An expres- sion of this kind is called a phrase. It forms a part, or element, of a sentence, just as if it were a single word. Definition I. — A phrase is a combination of related words form- in* an element of a sentence. Definition II. — A phrase which modifies the subject (or any noun) is called an adjective phrase. Fourth Modifier. — The subject may be modified by an adjective phrase. NOTE. — Many phrases consist of a preposition and a noun. Such phrases may frequently be clianged into single w^ords : thus — The man in armor =: the armored man (adj.). Our cottage hy the sea-side = our sea-side cottage (adj.). A man of note = a noted man (adj.). A w^oman of distinction = a distinguisTied woman (adj.). A hat icith three corners = a three-cornered hat (adj.). PHRASE MODIFIERS. / 41 EXERCISE 18. a. Change the italicized icords into 2^^*ctses, 1. It is pleasant to lie on ajloicenj bed. 3. The army advanced hastihj. 3. Jenny Lind sang sweetly. 4. Sensible men sometimes differ in opinion. 5. The professor delivered an historical lecture. 6. There w^ere no raih'oads tJien, h. Change the italicized phrases into single tvords. 1. A man of courage does not fear death. 2. We sailed on the river by the light of the moon. 3. The bear sprang in haste from his bed of grass. 4. Learning is the eye of the mind. 5. A settler /rom Australia returned last week. G. People at this time live better than they ever did before. 7. The old bucket ofoah hangs in the well. XXIII.— PHRASE MODIFIERS: Analysis. Analyze the following sentences : Model : *' The house on the hill is burnt." - This is a simple sentence: "house" is the simple subject; it is modified by "the," an adjective, and by "on the hill," an adjective phrase. "Is burnt" is the predicate. EXERCISE 19. 1. The wings of the eagle are very strong. 2. The study of history is useful. 3. Roads in the country are often muddy. ^2 THE SE>'TENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. 4. Grapes from California are much esteemed. 5. The man with the white coat has gone. 6. The light of the sun nourishes plants. 7. The bird in the bush sang sweetly. . . XXIV.-PREDICATE MODIFIED: By an Adverb. 1. Alice plays nicely, 2. Thomas w^alks Jiere, 3. We will come soon. Analysis, — The word " nicely " modifies the meaning of the verb " plays," by expressing hoio Alice plays. The word " here " modi- fies the meaning of the verb " walks," by expressing where Thomas walks ; the word " soon " modifies the meaning of the verb *^ will come," by expressing when we will come. Explanation. — It is often necessary to modify the meaning of the verb in the predicate by a w^ord expressing how, ivhen, or where. For this purpose we use the class of words called adverbs, (See definition of the adverb, page 9.) The words " nicely," " hastily," and " soon " are adverbs. First Modifier. — Tlie predicate yerb may be modified by an adverb. EXERCISE 20. a. Analyze the following sentences.* Model: *' Charles was here yesterday." This is a simple sentence: * At this stage of progress the analj'sis is to inclnde the subject and its n»oditiers, and the predicate yerb Avith its adverbial modifiers. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 43 •' Charles '' is the subject ; "was here yesterday " is the predicate ; the predi- cate verb "was" is modified by the adverbs "here" and "yesterday." 1. Charles was here yesterday. 2. The wind blew terribly. 8. We must win now. 4. The girls laughed heartily. 5. She seldom sees her brother. G. Oil have I heard of Lucy Gray. 7. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. b. Modify each predicate verb by an adverb. Model : " Our fields produce dbundautlyV 1. Oar fields produce 2. Foxes run )•. Your friend died .......... 4. The exercise is written. 5. Young people should rise 0. We shall rest 7. The cricket chirps 8. The old soldier lies 9. It is very hot 10. The tables turned. 11. Homer's Iliad has been read. 12. Were you at Niagara? XXV.— PREDICATE MODIFIED: Adverbial Phrase. 1. A great man lives here, 2. A great man lives in this placed Analysis. — The word *' here" is an adverb, and modifies the pred- icate verb " Uvcs." The expression ** in this place" is a phrase, and 44 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sL II. has the same meaning m *' here :" it modifies '' lives," and hence is called an adverbial phrase. Definition. — An adverbial phrase is a phrase which modifies a ^ verb.* Second Modifier. — The predicate verb may be modified by an adverbial phrase, NOTE. — An adverbial phrase is generally introduced by a prepo- sition : as, " in the street," " through the woods." But in some phrases the preposition is not expressed: as, "The war lasted ten years'''' {z=iduring ten years) ; " we walked thirty miles^'' {=.a distance of thirty miles). Every such expression, when it has the meaning of an adverb, is an adverbial phrase. ity. EXERCISE 2i. a* Change the italicized adverbs into adverbial ^9^r«5^5. Model: "The army advanced rapidhf =T\iq army advanced ivith rapid- 1. The army advanced rapidly. 2. The lady spoke calmly. 3. Caesar returned triumphantly. 4. Kate sings sweetly. 5. The child followed the good man cheerfully. 6. An old elm grew here formerly. 7. That man expresses himself correctly. 8. Take her up tenderly. 9. Sorrowfully our parents see our faults. 10. Joyfully we greet the opening flowers of spring. 1^^ In the foregoing sentences state what verb each phrase modifies. •^'' It will hereafter be seen that an adverbial phrase may also modify an ad- jective or another adverb. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 45 Make sentences with the following adverbial phrases. Model : "In his stall."— The horse stands in his stall. In his stall ; on tlie table ; to the church ; into the store ; till to- morrow ; among the corn ; before the glass ; across the bridge ; over the river ; all the clay ; from every opening flower ; after the storm; to his long home; near the fire; since yesterday; above the w^ater ; under a spreading chestnut-tree. c. In the following sentences modify the predicate verbs by supply- ing adverbial phrases expressing time. Model: "The meeting begins " — The meeting begins at seven o'clock. 1. The meeting begins 2. I shall go to school 3. America was discovered 4. The stars shine 5. The battle lasted ......... G. Congress meets 7. We have a holiday In the following sentences modify the predicate verbs by supply- ing adverbial phrases expressing place, %. ! Model: "I planted the flowers "—I planted the flowers in the 7S garden. 1. I planted the flowers 2. Henry is studjdng 3. Napoleon died 4. Tea is brought 5. Columbus sailed ....i.... 6. Cotton is groAvn 7. My grandfather resides 46 THE SEA'TEXCE AXD ITS ELEMENTS. | SEC. II. e. In the following sentences modify the predicate verbs by supply- ing adverbial phrases expressing manner, cause, or by ivhom or what. Model : *' She sings " — She sings like a nightingale. ** Printing was invented ''—Printing was invented hy Guieuherg. 1. She sings 2. Printing was invented 3. Tlie water rushed 4. Goliath was killed 5. He made his fortune C. That mountain is higli. 7. The steamboat was invented 8. The lady fainted XXVL— PREDICATE MODIFIED: Analysis. Analyze the following sentences : Model : " Many a time, on holidays, we rambled through the woods.'* This is a simple sentence: *' wx" is the subject; "rambled" is the predicate verb : the predicate verb is modified by the adverbial phrases " many a time," " on holidays," and " through the woods." EXERCISE 22. 1. Many a time, on holidays, we rambled through the woods. 2. There he lived in days of yore. (3. The sun rises in the east and sets in the w^est. 4. The lad leaped from the boat into the river. 5. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 6. The moon was reflected in the lake. 7. Columbus sailed from Palos in 1492. 8. The village smithy stands under a spreading chestnut-tree. 0. We came on the trail of the Indians in the evening. 10. 8hc perished 'mid Italian flowers. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 47 XXVIL— PREDICATE MODIFIED: Synthesis. I. Punctuation. — The following rules of punctuation apply to ad- verbs and adverbial phrases : EuLE I. — Two or more adverbs or adverbial phrases in a series are separated by commas : as— 1. Sloicly^ sadly we laid him down. 2. He reads rapidly^ Jiumtly^ and correctly. 3. He goes from grate to gay, from lively to severe. 4. I went from New York, througli Liverpool, to Bombay, by way of Suez. NOTE. — Ttco adverbs or adverbial phrases joined by a conjunction are not separated by commas: as, ^'' Slowly and sadly we laid him down." Rule II. — An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence, or otherwise out of its natural order, is generally set off by the comma : as— 1. Over the great plains, the buffalo still roams. 2. Columbus, in 1493, returned from his voyage to the West Indies. NOTE. — In what is called the ^^ natural order" of a sentence the subject comes first, the predicate verb next, and then follow all the ad- verbial modifiers. But this is by no means the most pleasing order. Good writers, when they employ two or more adverbial phrases in the same sentence, distribute them in such a way as to make an agreeable, harmonious whole. It is when phrases are thus out of their natural order, and in their literary order, that the rule for the comma applies. II. Sentence -building. — In the following exercise several sepa- rate statements, each containing a phrase, are to be combined into n single simple sentence : thus — ^Columbus returned from his voyage. Separate Statements. .. -' He returned from his voyage to the West Indies. (He returned in 1493. Coml>hicd.— Columbus returned from his voyage to tlie West Indies in 1493. In this sentence there are three phrases— (1)'^ from his voyage,"' 48 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. (2) " to the AVest Indies," (3) '' in 1493 "—and they are all brought to- gether in the predicate. The sentence would be more agreeable if arranged thus — In 1493, Columbus returned from his voyage to the West Indies ; or, Columbus, in 1493, returned from his voyage to the West Indies. Direction. — Several phrases used in the same sentence should be distributed in such a way as to make the sentence most agree- able to the ear. EXERCISE 23. Combine as in the model ; 1. The teacher of our academy gave prizes. He gave them on exliibition-day. He gave them/(9r scholarship. 2. Napoleon invaded Russia. He invaded it in the icinter of 1812. He invaded it with a great army, 3. Gold was discovered. It was discovered in California. It was discovered in the year 1849. 4. Close at hand runs the highway. It nins to the little railroad depot. The depot is in the 'valley. 5. The first Congress met. It met at Philadelphia. It met in the year 1774. 6. The battle began. It began the next morning. It began at dayh-ealc. It bepiran in terriUe earnest. PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 49 7. Columbus landed. He landed early next morning. He landedy?w7i his vessel^ 8. The swallows built their nests. This was in the spring-time. They built them under the eaxes of the lam. The nests were built in a long row. XXYHL— PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 1. Carpenters build houses, 2. The hunter shot a lear, 8. I teach Mm and he teaches me. Analysis. — The noun "houses" denotes what carpenters build; the noun "bear" names what the hunter shot. The pronoun "him" denotes whom I teach, and the pronoun "me" denotes ivhom he 'teaches. Explanation. — In such sentences as " Birds fly," " Fishes swim," the verbs "fly" and "swim," when used with a subject, as "birds," "fishes," express a complete meaning — they make complete state- ments. But when we say — Columbus discovered Watt invented no complete statement is made. We wait to be told of some thing or object which Columbus discovered or Watt invented. A word that is used to complete the meaning of a verb denot- ing action is called the object of the verb. In the examples at the beginning of this lesson, "houses" is the object of "build;" "bear" is the object of "shot;" "him" is the object of "teach," and " me " is the object of " teaches." A verb that requires an object in order to make a complete state- ment is called a transitive verb. c 50 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. Definition I. — A transitive verb is one that denotes an action terminating on some object. Definition II. — The object of a transitive verb is the word or words nsed to complete the statement made by the verb. EXERCISE 24. a. Supply objects after the following transitive verbs. 1. Indians bunt 2. The doctor cures 3. Whitney invented 4. The frost kills 5. Rain refreshes 6. William CuUen Bryant wrote b. Make sentences by supplying a verb after each subject, and then selecting from the list a suitable object. Subjects. lU&lUiUU Objects. The musician. A baby. recitation. corn. The carpenter. A robin. rattle. violin. The doctor. A horse. nest. play. The teacher. A boy. patients. houses. c. 1. Write a sentence telling what you saw at the museum. 2. Write a sentence telling several things that the carpenter males. 3. Write a sentence telling three things that your state produces. 4. Write a sentence naming four things that you study. 5. Write a sentence specifying several objects that the hardware merchant sells. 6. Write a sentence naming several books that you have read. B^* Underline all the ol)jects. PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 51 XXIX.— PREDICATE WITH OBJECTS Analysis. Analyze the following sentences : Model : *' The hunter shot a bear.'* This is a simple sentence: ''the hunter" is the subject; "shot a bear" is the predicate; "shot" is the predicate verb, and "bear" is the object. 1. Carpenters build houses. 2. The Egyptians embalmed bodies, 3. The minister preached a sermon. 4. Music soothes the mind. 5. James has written a letter. 6. Fools despise knowledge. 7. Physicians prescribe medicines. 8. Patriots love their country. 9. Education improves the mind. 10. Teachers hear recitations. XXX.— PREDICATE WITH OBJECT: Synthesis. I. Punctuation. — Rule. Three or more objects of the same verb (or two if not connected by a conjunction) are separated by commas : as— 1. Our state produces wheat, corn, potatoes, and fruit. 2. Our state produces peaches and pears. II. Sentence -building. — Several statements in which the same verb is used, but with different objects, may be combined into a single sentence by using the verb only once: thus — Milton wrote Paradise Lost. '] =Milton wrote Paradise Lost, Milton wrote Paradise Begained. j- Paradise Regained^ and sev- Milton wrote several other poems. J era! other poems. f 52 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. L^EC. II. EXERCISE 25. Combine the statements into single sentences, as in the model. 1. We caught a pickerel. We caught three trout. We caught four llue-fisJi. 2. Railroads transport persons. Railroads transport cattle. Railroads transport goods. 3. Mary studies geography. Mary studies history. Mary studies lotany. Mary studies drawing. 4. Alfred has a dog. Alfred has two rahUts. Alfred has six pigeons. Alfred has several other jjets. 6. In a druggist's store you may find rhubarb. * In a druggist's stor§ you may find calomel. In a druggist's store you may find senna. In a druggist's store you may find ipecacuanha. In a druggist's store you may find various other drugs. 6. Dickens wrote The Piclcwick Papers. Dickens wrote Oliver Ticist. Dickens wrote Dowibey and Son. Dickens wrote A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens wrote Ttiany other novels. XXXI.— PREDICATE ADJECTIYE AND NOMINATIVE. 1. Gold is yellow. Gold is a metal. 2. Alfred was Icing. Jefferson was a statesman. 3. The boy becomes a man. Analysis. — Do the words " Gold is . . . ." make a complete state- ment? They do not. We must supply some word, as ''yellow," or" PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOMINATIVE. 53 *' metal," telling what gold is. In like manner the words "Alfred was ....," " Jefferson was ....," and "The boy becomes ....," make no statement until w^e have completed the predicate by using w^ords to denote what Alfred and Jefferson were^ and what the boy becomes. Explanation. — The verbs " is," " was," and " becomes " arc not transitive verbs, because they do not express action ; hence the words used with these verbs to complete the statement are not called objects. An adjective used to complete the sense of a verb not expressing action is called a predicate adjective, and a noun used in the same way is called a predicate nominative, \ Definition I. — A predicate adjective is an adjective used to com- V plete the sense of a predicate verb. \ Definition II. — A predicate nominative is a noun (or pronoun) \i used to complete the sense of a predicate verb. NOTE. — There are not many verbs of the kind spoken of in this lesson. The one most used is the verb to be^ w^hich has various forms — i8, am, are^ icas^ icere, have been, etc. Other verbs of this class are : become as, " Mary became queen.'''' feel as, " Velvet feels smooth,-^ look as, "The baby looks happy. ^"^ seem as, " Success seems secure.'''' smell as, "The rose smells /ra^rawf." taste as, " Vinegar tastes S(?wn" EXERCISE 26. a. Select the predicate adjectives and the predicate nominatives, 1. That mountain is high. 3. Oxygen is a gas. , 2. Contented persons are happy. 4. You have been sick. 54 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. 5. London is a city. 9. The boy seemed dull. 6. David became king. 10. The boy was dull. 7. Molasses is a liquid. 11. The boy was a dunce. 8. The syrup tastes sweet. 12. Emily felt proud. b. Fill out the blanks first by an adjective complement, then by a noun complement. When done, unite the two statements into one sentence. ^.^ .,t . Model: "Iroms " Iron is hard, [Adjective] Iron is a mdal. [Nominative] Iron is a hard metal. [Sentences united.] 1. Iron is 6. The moon is 2. Sugar is 7. Diamonds are 3. Paul Jones was 8. James has been 4. Clarissa will be 9. This church is 5. The skv is 10. Franklin was XXXIL— PREDICATE WITH COMPLEMENT: Analysis. Analyze the following sentences : Model — 1. *' All men are mortal." This is a simple sentence: "all men" is the subject, "are mortal" is the predicate; "are" is the predicate verb, and "mortal" is the predicate adjective. 2. "Frogs are animals." This is a simple sentence: "frogs" is the subject," "are animals" is the predicate ; " are " is the predicate verb, and " animals " is the predicate nominative. 1. Raphael was an artist. 2. The eye is the organ of sight. 3. The Romans were warlike. 4. We arc wron^. PREDICATE WITH COMPLEMENT. 55 5. The whale is a mammal. 6. The stars are distant. 7. Temperance is a virtue. 8. Tadpoles become frogs. 9. A chrysalis becomes a butterfly. 10. The children seem happy. 11. This plum tastes acrid. 12. An owl looks wise. 13. A church is an edifice. sxjm:m:-a.ky. I. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought. II. The subject represents that of which something is stated. III. The predicate tells what is stated of the subject. IV. A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate. V. An a^unct, or modifier, is a word or words added to another word to modify its meaning. VI. The simple subject may be modified by — 1. An adjective : as, " Bright stars twinkle." 2. A possessive noun : as, " The loy'^s bravery was rewarded.'' 3. A noun in apposition : as, " Milton, the poet^ was blind." 4. An adjective phrase : as, " The study of history is useful." VII. The predicate verb may be modified by — 1. An adverb : as, " The fire burns 'brightly. '''' 2. An adverbial phrase : as, " Columbus sailed from Palosy VIII. A verb that does not express a complete statement may bo completed by — 1. An object : as, " Columbus discovered Americay 2. A predicate adjective : as, " Gold is yellow^ 3. A predicate nominative : as, " Gold is a metals 56 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. REVIEW EXERCISE. Combine each of the following sets of statements into a well- constructed simple sentence. Give the simple subject and predicate, and mention the modifiers of each. 1. We skated. It was in the winter evenings. The evenings were cold. / They were frosty. It w^as on the mill-pond. The mill-pond was near our father^s house. 2. A boy threatened to eat me. It was during my first day at school. He w^as a big boy. He had a wide mouth. He had large teeth. 3. The school-house stood on a hill. The school-house w^ns old. It was red-colored. It was shabby. I The hill was bleak. It w^as cold. It was destitute of trees. 4. An Italian mariner made his appearance. This w^as in the last quarter of the 15th century. He was a citizen of Genoa. He made his appearance at various European courts. 5. A cook made his appearance. He was fat. He w^as French. He appeared on deck. It was soon after breakfast. REVIEW EXERCISE. 57 6. The beaver constructs [something]. It is his house that he constructs. He constructs it with great skill. He constructs it before winter. 7. Leonidas died. He was a king. He was king of Sparta. He died like a hero. He died at Thermopylse. Thermopylae is in Greece. 8. The boy wrote. He was a good boy. He wrote a letter. He wrote to his father. He wrote from school. He wrote on his birthday. It was a long letter. He wrote it early in the morning. He wrote it before breakfast. 9. James Watt died in 1819. He was the great improver of the steam-engine. He died at Heathfield. He died at the age of eighty-four. ^ 10. Washington gained a victory. He was commander-in-chief of the American army. The victory was decisive. It was gained over the British. The battle was fought at Trenton. Trenton is in the State of New Jersey. This took place in 1776. b. 1. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by two ad- jectives. 2. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a pos- sessive noun and an adjective. 02 58 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. 3. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a noun in apposition. 4. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by two ad- jectives and one adjective phrase. 5. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a pos- sessive noun, an adjective, and a phrase. \C. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb modified by three adverbs. 1. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb modliied by two adverbial phrases. 8. Write a simple sentence, wdth the subject modified by an ad- jective phrase, and the predicate verb by an adverbial phrase. 9. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb completed by an object. 10. AVrite a simple sentence, with the predicate verb completed by a predicate adjective, and another by a predicate nominative. COMPOSITION EXERCISES, a. WMte an abstract foom memory after reading the following piece: ANECDOTE OF DANIEL WEBSTER. When Daniel entered PhillijDS Academy at Exeter, N. H., he was an awkward country boy, and was placed at the foot of the low- est class. The higher-class boys were inclined to make fun of the difiident lad, clad in homespun ; but Daniel, taking little notice of this treatment, applied himself to study, and soon rose to the head of his class. One day the teacher said aloud in school, ''Daniel Webster, take your books and stand uj), sir!" Daniel obeyed, and the kind old man continued : " Leave the room, and go into a higher class. Boys, say good-by to him, for you will never overtake him." They never did overtake him. He went through college, became a distinguished lawyer and orator, a United States senator, and„the great expounder of the American Constitution. COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 59 b. Write a composition on " Squirrels," paying attention to the following points : 1. What kinds of squirrels. \ 2. Where they live. _3 ^ xl""^ 3. How they live. 4. What they eat. 5. How caught or killed. C. An anecdote, or an account of a squirrel-hunt. c. Write from memory any of the following stories : 1. Little Red Riding-hood. 2. Cinderella. 3. Robinson Crusoe and his goats. d. Write short compositions on any of the following subjects. METALS AND MINERALS. Outline : Where found ; how mined or quarried ; qualities ; uses. 1. Iron. 4. Copper. 7. Marble. 2. Gold. 5. Lead. ' 8. Coal. 3. Silver. ^ 6. Quicksilver. 0. Granite. TREES. Outline: Where found; size; height; foliage; varieties; qualities; uses. 1. The maple. 4. The birch. 7. The pine. 2. The elm. 5. The chestnut. 8. The hickory. 3. The beech. 6. The oak. 9. The apple. MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. ' Write short descriptions of the process of making such of the following articles as are manufactured in or near the place where you reside : 1. Shoes. 3. Brick. 5. Cotton cloth. 2. Boots. 4. Horseshoes. G. Woollens. SECTION III. SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. XXXIIL— THE NOUN : Proper, Select from the following examples all the nouns that are the names of particular persons, places, or things. Model: "Walter visited New York, and saw the Central Park and the Hudson River." " Walter " is the name of a particular person ; *' New York " is the name of a particular place ; '' Central Park " is the name of a particu- lar object ; " Hudson River " is the name of a particular river. Examples. — 1. Thomas lent his knife to John. 2. Mary gave Emma a rose. 3. Socrates died like a philosopher. 4 Watt and Fulton were inventors. 5. New Orleans is in Louisiana. 6. Texas is the largest state. 7. China is the most populous country in the world. 8. Jerusalem, my happy home ! 9. Carlo is a good dog. 10. The Rhine is not so large a river as the Mississippi. 11. The Alps are the highest mountains in Europe. 12. We shall have a holiday on Thurs- day because it is the Fourth of July. Explanation. — The name of a particular person, place, or thing is an individual or special name. It does not belong to the person, place, or thing by nature, but is given to the person, place, or thing to distinguish that one from others of the same kind. , In grammar such names are called proper nouns. THE NOUN. 61 Definition. — A proper noun is a special or individual name. Capitals. — Rule : A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. KOTE. — A name made up of two or more words is to be taken as one proper noun : thus, New Orleans, Fourth of July, John Quincy Adams, Rocky Mountains, Peter the Great, Washington County, etc. XXXIV.— THE NOUN: Common. Select from the following examples all the nouns which are the names of all objects of the same class or kind. Model : " The cat is a domestic animal." ' "Cat" is a name denoting every individual of the cdX-lcind ; "ani- mal " is a name applied to all living creatures. Examples.— 1. Tlie bud shoots forth. 2. The oak is one of the largest trees in the forest. 3. Ships spread their sails. 4, Cows eat grass and give us milk. 5. Birds build nests. 6. The door of the schoolroom was open. 7. A lady stood before the window. 8. The clouds are drifting across the sky. 9. Who threw this stone over the wall ? 10. The water in the old well is clear. 11. Great changes have taken place. 12. Sail on, proud ship ! Explanation. — Many names are not individual or special names, but names of every one of a class or kind. Thus hoy is not a name denoting only a particular one : it belongs to all boys in common, and is a general name, or class name, which denotes every individual belonging to the boy-kind. Such names arc called common nouns, Definition.^-A common noun is a general or class name. NOTE. — A collective noun is a noun denoting a collection of in- dividuals considered as forming one whole or body : thus, amiy^ fleet, jury, committee, etc. 62 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. XXXV.—THE NOUN: Abstract. Select from the following examples all the nouns which are the names of qualities or actions. Model: *'Wisdomis tobesoughtfor; Running is good exercise.'' "Wisdom" is the name of a quality; "running" is the name of an action. Examples. — 1. The whiteness of this paper is remarkable. 2. Wash- ington's goodness was known by all. 3. His firmness, sagacity, and prudence saved the country. 4. Writing is useful. 5. Her beauty made me glad. 6. Walking is healthful. 7. Always speak the truth. 8. We should observe moderation in all things. 9. Alas ! for the rarity of Christian charity ! 10. Bathing, diving, swimming, riding, dancing, singing, arc names of actions. Explanation. — Some nouns are the names, not of things, but of qualities belonging to a number of things. These qualities we can- not perceive by the senses, but we can think of them and speak about them. Thus many things arc sweety and, thinking about this quality apart from the things themselves, we name it sweetness. These names of qualities are called abstract nouns, because we consider the quality apart from the things themselves. Names of actions are a kind of abstract noun. Definition. — An abstract noun is the name of some quality or action. NOTE. — Most abstract nouns of quality are formed from adjectives : thus — ADJECTIVES. ABSTRACT N0U^'8. good goodness pure purity temperate temperance just justice splendid splendor deep depth REVIEW OF NOUNS. 63 XXXVI.— REVIEW OF NOUNS. There are three subdivisions of nouns : I. Proper. II. Common. III. Abstract. I. A proper noun is a special or indlmdiial name. II. A common noun is a general or class name. III. An abstract noun is the name of some quality or action, ^ EXERCISE 27. a. In the following sentences tell the class to which each noun belongs. Model : " Napoleon praised the bravery of his soldiers.'' Napoleon is a proper noun, because it is a special or individual name. braTery is an abstract noun, because it is the name of a quality. soldiers is a common noun, because it is a class name. 1. Napoleon praised the bravery of his soldiers. 2. Our teacher commended the neatness of our writing. 3. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. 4. Amsterdam, like Stockholm and Venice, is built on wooden piles driven to a great depth into the ground. 5. My pony is named Peggy. G. The White Mountains are visited by many tourists. 7. Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the trutli ? 8. Alas I poor Yorick I I knew him, Horatio. 9. A photograph is a picture made by the light of the sun. 10. Alexander had a horse named Buce^^us. ; 11. Many rivers west of the Rocky Mountains flow into the Pacific Ocean. 12. Greece, though a famous country, is only about one half the size of New York State. 13. Hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, and gnus arc found in Africa. G4 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. 14. Scaling mountain-peaks is a favorite summer amusement. 15. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his disposition. 16. Knowledge is power, and the pen is mightier than the sword. 17. From my study I see in the lamplight, Descending the broad hall-stair, Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra, And Edith with golden hair. Do you think, O blue-eyed banditti, Because you have scaled the wall. Such an old moustache as I am Is not a match for you all ? b. Rule slates or paper, and write the nouns in the previous ex- ercise accordincy to this model : PBOPER. COMiMON. ACSTKACT. Napoleon soldiers teacher bravery neatness writing XXXYII.-THE NOUN: Constructive Exercises. a« Use a common noun (with a or an) as predicate nominative. Model : *' Columbus was a discoverer^ 1. Columbus was 5. Daniel Webster was . 2. Shakspeare was C. Julius Caesar was 3. Robert Fulton was 7. Dickens was 4. Florence Nightingale was 8. Mrs. Hemans was .... Write a sentence upon each of the following subjects by stat- ing from what country each of the articles named is obtained. THE PRONOUN. 05 Draw one lino under each common noun and two lines under each proper noun. 1. Tea. \4; Gutta-percb a. ■:7. Raisins. 10. Bananas. 2. Coffee. - 5. Ostrich plumes. 8. Dates. 11. Indigo. ^<^ 3. Ivory. 0. Olive-oil. 9. Wine. 12. Pineapples. ' ^ c. Write, in the form of a letter addressed to your teacher, a short account of yourself by answering the following questions: Where do you reside ? [Name of city (or town), county, and state.] What is your name ? [Giving real name.] What is your age ? Model. Q//u'nct6. Q4ly 7ia7n6 €6 &77itm G^t'm/uf,' anc/ (2/ XXXVIII.— THE PRONOUN: Personal. Select from the following examples all the words that are used for the name of the pei'son speaking or spoken to, or that stand for nouns, JVroDEL: 1. "I am glad that you have come.'* 2. *' Frank likes his dog and it likes him." The word " I " is used for the name of the person speaking; the word "you" is used for the name of the person spoken to; the word *'it" stands for the noun " dog ; " the word " him " stands for the 7ioim '' Frank." (j6 subdivision of the parts of speech. [sec. III. Examples. — 1. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 2. I hope, madam, you find yourself better this morning. 3. John spoke to Ann : he says she will come when she has found the book he wants. 4. The boy saw the mouse as it ran across the floor. 5. Have you had your breakfast ? 6. The children are coming home from school, and they look in at the open door. 7. I help you, but you do not help me. 8. Charles went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her. 9. The mountain was higher than we thought it to be. 10. I come to S23eak to you of what he wish'd — Enoch, your husband : I have ever said Tou chose the best among us— a strong man ; For where he fixed his heart he set his hand To do the thing he willed, and bore it through. Explanation. — The pronoun used by a speaker to denote himself is called, in grammar, the pronoun of the Ji7'st person. It is used because it would be very awkward for one to speak his own name every time he had to make a statement about himself. The pronoun which we use for the name of the person we are addressing is called the pronoun of the second person. It is used because it would be very tedious to call persons by their proper name every time we address them. Besides, it often happens that we do not know the name of the person to whom we are speaking. Three pronouns — he, she, and it — are used instead of nouns which we have already used : by so doing we avoid the unpleasant effect of repeating the same word. These are called pronouns of the third person. These pronouns, since they have special forms to denote the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of, are called personal pronouns. Definition. — A personal pronoun is one that shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person. THE PRONOUN. 67 NOTE. — The principal pronouns are : I denoting the speaker. We denoting the speaker along with others. You denoting one or more persons spoken to. He ^ She > ...denoting the person or thing spoken of. It ) They denoting the persons or things spoken of. The personal pronoun "I" should alwaj^s be written as a cap- ital letter. XXXIX.— THE PROXOUN: Relative. Select from the following examples all those pronouns that relate to a word (noun or pronoun) going before. Model: *'The man who sold me the horse that was blind will receive the reward which he merits." The pronoun "who" relates to the noun "man;" the pronoun "that" relates to the noun "horse;" the pronoun "which" relates to the noun " reward." Examples. — 1. This is the lady who called on you. 2. I have lost the book which I bought. 3. London, which is situated on the Thames, is the capital of Great Britain. 4. I have seen the largest lion that was ever brought to this country. 5. I know what you wish. 6. Are those the dogs which your father had with him ? 7. Those who love mercy shall receive mercy. 8. I who speak to you am the man that did the deed. 9. You who are so boastful should give some evidence of your ability. 10. The boy and the dog that you saw passed on. 11. 1 do not know which of you to invite. 12. It is the mind that makes the body rich. 13. The Indians lived in wigwams which they made of bark or the skins of animals. 14. Solomon was the wisest man that ever lived. 15. High on a throne of royal state, wliich far Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, Satan exalted sat. 68 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. Explanation. — Some pronouns not only stand for nouns, but also connect statements. Thus, in the sentence "We love people who love us," the pronoun " who " stands for the noun " people," and at the same time connects the statements " we love people " and " love us." Since these pronouns carry our mind back to a noun going be- fore, they are called relative pronouns ; and the noun to which they refer is called the antecedent. {Antecedent means going before.) [ Definition I. — A relative pronoun is one that refers to a pre- ceding noun or pronoun and connects two statements in a sentence. ^Definition II. — The antecedent of a relative is the noun or pronoun represented by the relative. ( NOTE. — The relative pronouns are : wJiOj wliich^ wJiat^ that. XL.— THE PRONOUJf: Interrogative. Select from the following examples the pronouns which are used in asking questions : Model : " Who did it ?'' " Which did you see ?" '' What shall I say?'* The words " who," ^' which," and " what " arc used in asking ques- tions. Examples. — 1. Who comes here? 2. Who killed the deer? 3. Which of you did that ? 4. What is the meaning of the word inter- rogative ? 5. To whom did you offer the present ? C. AVhat's this ? 7. Which of the two do you mean ? 8. Who comes here ? 9. What have you got to say ? / Definition. — An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking a question. They are who, which, and what. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 69 XLI.— EEYIEW OF PRONOUIVS. There are three subdivisions of pronouns : I. Personal. II. Relative. III. Interrogative. I. A pei'sonal pronoun is one that shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person. II. A relative i^ronoun is one that refers to a preceding noun or pronoun and connects two statements in a sentence. III. An inten'Ogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking a ques- tion. They are iclio^ wJiicJi^ and icJiat EXERCISE 28. a. In the following sentences tell the class to which each 2^^'onoim belongs : 1. I have just received the picture which you sent me. 2. Who has been in this room ? 3. The man wdio was here yesterday. 4. What shall I say to him, and what shall I do ? 5. Fulton, who built the first steamboat, was an American. 6. This is the man of whom you spoke. 7. When will they make us a visit ? 8. Who shouts treason ? Let him die. 9. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! 10. We have just recited a geography lesson. 11. He says that she is a better scholar than you. 12. What sought they thus afar? 13. They sought a faith's pure shrine. 14. Dear little blossoms down under the snow, You must be weary of winter, I know. b. Eule slates or paper, and write the pronouns in the previous ex- ercise accordino* to this model. PEKSONAL. KEI.ATIVK. INTEUnOGATIVE. I you me - which who ? 70 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. C. Supply suitable pronouns^ and tell the class to which each be- longs. 1. John says knows the boy stole the apple. 2. Do remember the place where met, long, long ago? 3. Tell me of the books want, and shall have ...... 4 was the first president of the United States ? 5 and could not learn w^as there. 6. James has lost the knife his father gave 7. JeiTisalem was the city to the Crusaders bent their course. 8. The scholar studied most improved the most. 9. This is the house Jack built. 10 hope and will soon be able to write good English. XLII.— THE ADJECTIVE : QuaUfying. Select from the following examples all the adjectives that de- note some quality/ of the thing named by the noun which they modify. Model ; " Good shepherds care for tender lambs.'* The adjective "good" expresses a quality oi sheplierds ; the adjec- tive "tender" expresses a quality oflamhs. Examples. — 1. Good shepherds care for tender lambs. 2. An hon- est man is the noblest w^ork of God. 3. Friday w^as a comely, hand- some fellow, with straight, strong limbs. 4. John gave Jam.es ten large apples. 5. Clever girls can learn difficult lessons. 6. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 7. What a beautiful flower you have 1 8. The new map has come. 9. After a w^eary walk w^e reached a small village. 10. The loftiest mountains are found in Asia. 11. The sun, the great fountain of light, showered down his rays. 12. Some mossy bank my couch must be, Some rustling oak my canopy. THE ADJECTIVE. 71 Definition. — A qualifying acyectire is one that denotes a quality. NOTES. I. Adjectives show qualities of clifFerent kinds : as- Color Size. ( A white horse. A black dog. A red book. ( A la7'ge house. A s)nall cottage. A broad road. A narrow path. A low chimney. A tall chimney. A soft bed. A pleasant bed. A hard rock. Soft sand. Kind . . -j A fierce tiger. A gentle lamb. Fine weather. A siceet apple. A strotig hand. A brave heart. II. Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and hence are called proper adjectives : thus — lOPKU NOUKS. PROPER ADJECTIVES. China, Chinese. Italy, Italian. America, American. Spain, Spanish. Scotland, Scotch (or Scottish). Turkey, Turkish. Capitals. —EuLE ; Proper adjectives begin with a capital letter. XLIIL— THE ADJECTIVE : Limiting. Select from the following examples all the adjectives that merely 2:)oint out the thing named, or denote the number or quantity of it. Also select the articles. Model : " This book has belonged to my sister for four years." The word " this " is used to point out which book ; the word " four " is used to denote hoio many years. Examples. — 1. This book has belonged to my sister for four years. 2. That woman lives in this cottage. 3. A nightingale sang some 72 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. sweet notes. 4. Your six pigeons are dead. 5. On the second day after our arrival fifty persons came to visit us. 6. Whose book is this ? 7. What a beautiful flower you have ! 8. Our brave soldiers faced many dangers. 9. Two tall elm -trees shade the old brown house. 10. There are seven days in a week. 11. Most boys enjoy skating. 12. Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair, And cursed himself in his despair ; But the waves rush in on every side, And the vessel sinks beneath the tide. Definition. — A limiting adljective is one that merely defines or restriets the meaning of a noun. NOTES. I. Some limiting adjectives serve merely to 2^oint out the thing named: as — this horse (the nearer one), that horse (the /ar^^^?' one). II. Some limiting adjectives show the quantity of a thing : as — 1. Fixed, One ox. Two oxen. Three cows. 'T\\Q first fox. The tMrd horse, l^ha fourth dog. Each individual. Either man. Neither Numher, - woman. 3. Uncertain. Soine persons. Other persons. All children. Many childvipn. Several women. Few girls. Most boys. No persons. Eva^y traveller. Mass or Bulk [ Some tea. Much sugar. Little milk. Any bread. III. Articles. — A (or an) is called the indefinite article; the, the definite article. An is used before words beginning with vowel sounds; a before REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 73 words beginning with consonant sounds : as, a man ; a house ; a year ; a wonder; a use; — an art; an end; an heir; an urn. Obs. — a, e, i, 0, M are the vowels. TFand y are consonants when they pre- cede a vowel in the same syllable ; otherwise, vowels. IV. Pronominal Adjectives. — Some limiting adjectives may by tliemselves represent a noun. These are called pronominal adjectives: tlius — LIMITING. Look on this picture. Both boys are studious. Have you seen any geese ? Some girls are lazy. rRONOMINAL. Look on thk. Both are studious; Not any. Some are industrious. XLIV.— RETIEW OF ADJECTITES. There arc two general subdivisions of adjectives : I. Qualifying. II. Limiting. I. A qualifying" adjective is one that denotes a quality. II. A limiting' adjective is one that merely defines or restricts the meaning of a noun. The articles, the and a or «;?, are limiting adjectives. EXERCISE 29. Rule slates or paper as below, and write the different classes of adjectives in the following piece. QUALIFYING. LIMITING. ARTICLES. little green - this a the D 74 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. SILK. We get silk from a caterpillar called the silk-worm. This little creature is green in color, and feeds on the leaves of the mulberrj^- tree. It is hatched from an egg about the size of a mustard- seed, and changes its skin four times before it reaches its full size. When full grown it leaves off eating, and covers itself over with a pretty silken case, inside of which the little si^inner goes to sleep for some time. When its sleep is over, it makes a hole in its case, and comes out in the shape of a small butterfl}^, which lays a number of eggs and then dies. It is from the case or ball spun by the silk-worm that all our silk is made. The balls, or cocoons, as they are called, are thrown into warm water, to loosen the gum with wdiich the silk- worm glues the threads together. Then four or five of the threads are fastened to a reel and wound. In this state it is called raw silk; and it is next sent ta the silk-mill, to be prepared for the weaver. The best silk comes from China, where silk-worms were reared and silk was woven into cloth hundreds of years ago. XL v.— THE ADJECTIVE: Constructive Exercises, a. Write sentences introducing the adjective forms of the following proper nouns. J^" Underline the adjectives. Model : " Switzerland. — Swiss scenery is celebrated for its beauty.'* 1. Switzerland. 3. Holland. 5. Japan. ^ 7. Paris. 2. Sweden. 4. Peru. 6. Scotland. 8. Turkey. b. Supply suitable adjectives, 1. Caesar w\as a general. 2. There are scholars in my class. 3 dog was barking at horse. 4 house on the hill is mine. THE VERB. 75 c. Write on paper or slates ten sentences, each sentence containing one of the following nouns with an adjective joined to it : 1. orange. 3. bonnet. 5. farm. 7. mountain. 9. thread. 2. coat. 4. shawl. 6. monkeys. 8. wagon. 10. scissors. d. Write in columns, on slate or blackboard, under each heading, nine more adjectives^ denoting — Color. I Kind. I Size, brown. | sweet. | large. e. Rewrite the sentences, and change the meaning by putting in other adjectives. Model : "A little red cross dog attacked a gay young prancing horse." 1. A large black fierce dog attacked a poor old lame horse. 2. The damask roses perfume the bahny morning air. 3. The pretty little child fondles the small black kitten. ^ 4. Some idle careless scholars waste many precious hours. 5. Two tall elm-trees shade the old brown house. ob\ XLVI.— THE VERB 2 Transitive and Intransitive. Select from the following examples all those verbs which take an hjectj and in another column those which do not take an object : Examples. — 1. The pony eats hay. 2. The house fell. 3. The cow gives milk. 4. John loves his sister. 5. The bird flew away. 6. Leaves have their time to fall. 7. The teacher instructs us. 8. Who calls me? 9. Watch him. 10. Coal burns. 11. This poor man dwells in a little hut; yet he loves his home. 12. The sisters danced the polka. 13. I felt so happy that I almost danced for joy. 14. Old Joe 76 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. tells funny stories. 15. His illness lasted long. 16. A soft answer turneth away wrath. Definition I. — A transitive verb is one that denotes an action I terminating on some object. Transitive means passing over^ for th(i action denoted by the verb is thought of as passing over to tlie object. The object of a transitive verb is either a noun (or pronoun) or some word or words iiaving the use of a noun. Definition II. — An intransitive verb is one that denotes (1) a. state or condition, or (2) an action not terminating on an object. \ Intransitive means not passing over to an object, for the action ends with the person (or thing) spoken of as doing it. NOTES. I. The same verb may be cither transitive or intransitive, according to its use. Thus — 1. Farmers mow (intrans.). Farmers mow gr'ass (trans.). 2. Ice melts (intrans.). Heat melts ice (trans.). 3. Fire Uirns (intrans.). Fire hums wood (trans.). II. Most intransitive verbs require no words to complete their sense ; but a few intransitive verbs take a complement^ or completing part (see page 53). Such verbs are sometimes called neuter^ copula^ or apposition verbs. They are, however, simply intransitive verhs of incompjlete j^redl- cation. EXERCISE 30. a. Rule slates or paper as below, and write the verbs. grows invented verb intrans. verb trans. THE ADVERB. ' 77 1. The india-rubber tree grows in Brazil. 2. Wliitney invented the cotton-gin. 3. The farmer sent his servant. 4. The moon moves round the earth. 5. Fulton constructed the first steam- boat. 6. Brj^ant wrote Thanatcypsis. 7. The patriot's heart bled. 8. Is he coming home ? 9. Speak, marble lips! 10. God moves in a mysterious wa}^, His wonders to perform : He plants his footsteps in the sea, And rides upon the storm. b. Write twelve sentences with verbs which require an object, and twelve with verbs which do not require an object. XLVH.— THE ADVERB: Simple and Conjunctive. Select from the following examples the adverbs that simply modify verbs and distinguish them from those that connect state- ments in a sentence. Model : " You live here." " I know where you live." " Here " is an adverb, and merely modifies the verb " live." " Where '' is an adverb, and connects the two statements " I know " and " you live." Examples. — 1. You live here. 2. 1 know where you live. 3. James studies diligently. 4. I have heard how he studies. 5. Slowly, sadly we laid him down. 6. The wind blew terribly. 7. I will go when I am invited. 8. We must study while w^e are young. 9. A very pretty bird daintily picked up the crumbs. 10. Do you know why it is cold in northern countries? 11. Go where glory waits thee. 12. Go yonder. Explanation. — Some adverbs serve only to modify the words with which they are joined. These are called simple adverbs. A few adverbs are used to connect statements in a sentence. These are called conjunctive (that is, con-joining) adverbs. 78 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. Definition I. — A simple adverb is one that merely modifies the word with which it is used. Definition II. — A conjunctive (or relative) adverb is one that not only modifies the word with which it is used, but connects two statements in a sentence. KOTES. I. The principal conjunctive adverbs are : when, where, whence, why, how. II. When the conjunctive adverbs are used to introduce a question, they are called interrogative adverbs. III. The words yes and no are generally classed with adverbs ; but they do not modify any word. They give answers, or responses, to questions ; and hence are sometimes called responsives. EXERCISE 31. a. Eulc slates or paper as below, and classify the adverbs in this BIMPLK. CONJUNCTIVE. cheerfully when 1. I will cheerfully accompany you Vvlien you are ready. 2. Thomas rose early in the morning, and soon finished his work. 3. He would not tell me where he had put the letter. 4. Will you show me how to perform this example ? 5. Does she write neatly ? No ; quite clumsily. 6. Did you call once or twice ? 7. Nero was exceedingly cruel. 8. He refused to tell his father why he ran away. 9. That boy goes where he pleases and when he pleases. THE CONJUNCTION. 79 10. When the dry season arrives, the reptiles bury themselves in the mud, where they remain till the tropical rains fall again. b. Use a corresponding adverb for each adjective^ making such changes in words as are necessary : thus — 1. He is a slow runner. 2. The child's sleep was soft. He runs slowly. The child slept softly. 1. He is a swift writer. 2. Her singing was sweet. 3. Their failure was complete. 4. Your labors were successful. 5. John had a Jieavi/ fall. 6. My suspicions were co7Tect. 7. We took a sJy peep. 8. I gave him a steady look. 9. The wJiole blame was his. 10. He showed true sorrow. He writes She sang They failed You labored John fell I suspected We peeped I looked at him. He was to blame. He was sorry. XLVHI.— THE CONJUNCTION: Co-ordinate and Subordinate. Select the sentences the parts of which are independent — that is, those containing and, or, hut, therefore — and distinguish them from the sentences containing a dependent statement — that is, a state- ment introduced by if though, unless, that, ' Examples. — 1. I will go and you will come. 2. I will go if you will come. 3. I will go, but you will remain. 4. Fools build houses, and wise men live in them. 5. You w^ill not become learned unless you study. 6. Stay a while, that we may enjoy ourselves. 7. Kapo- leon conquered nearly all of Europe, but he died a prisoner at St. Helena. 8. We cannot solve the riddle unless we have the key. 9. James or John is to blame. 10. Though He was rich, yet for our sakes He became poor. 80 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. Explanation. — The sentence " I will go and you will come " consists of two statements — statements of separate independent facts. The sentence " I will go, if you will come," consists of two state- ments also ; but the one is made dependent on the other : I will go, provided you come (meaning, if you do not come, I will not go). A conjunction which connects two independent parts of a sen- tence is called a co-oi^dlnate conjunction — that is, a conjunction join- ing two parts of the same order ^ or rank A conjunction which joins a dependent part of a sentence to the principal part is called a subordinate conjunction — that is, a conjunction joining a part of a lower rank or order to another part. Definition I. — A co-ordinate conjunction is one tliat connects / words, plirases, or propositions liaving tlie same rank. ^ Definition IL— A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent witli a principal proposition. NOTE.— The principal conjunctions are — CO-OKDINATK. SUBOEDINATE. and but if lest either — or though because neither— nor unless for therefore hence that since EXERCISE 32. Supply conjunctions, and tell whether co-ordinate or siihordinate. 1. The clouds soon passed away, sunshine succeeded. 2. The wicked may prosper for a time, they will receive retri- bution in the end. 3. Contentment is better riches. 4. He was gentle in manner, resolute in action. 5. We shall improve w^e study. 6. Life is so uncertain w^e should always be prepared for deatli. REVIEW EXERCISE. 81 7. I told you he would fail. 8 you say so, I cannot believe it. 9. You will succeed you persevere. 10. We study we wish to learn. 11. I shall not tell you, you promise to keep the secret. 12. I think Henry is older Paul, he is not so tall. TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. r Proper. Noun ) Common. ( Abstract. r Personal. Pronoun ) RELATIVE. ( Interrogative. Subdivisions of Parts of Speecli. (p> Adjective. Verb.. Adverb., Conjunction . . Limiting. Qualifying. Transitive. Intransitive. Simple. Conjunctive. Co-ordinate. Subordinate. REVIEW EXERCISE. Name the class and subdivision 0f each word in tlie following The spider is a cunning fellow. He makes his living by his arts and stratagems. He lives by snares and plots ; and yet he is an interesting little creature. He exhibits wonderful skill and in- D 2 82 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. genuity in weaving his nest, and possesses extraordinary pa- tience and perseverance. The thread of the spider is a soft substance, which is contained in a little bag in the body of the insect. I). Little Ann had a famous dog. His name was Grip. One day Ann went out to visit a poor woman, and took Grip with her. Grip had not gone far until he saw a cat. He immediately gave chase ; but the cat ran up a tree, and was safe. Grip stood at the bottom, and barked with all his might ; but the cat never heeded him. c. Three or four years before ^.att patented his steam-engine and Arkwright his spinning-jenny, there was born in a New Eng- land farm-house a boy whose work was needed to complete theirs. His name was Eli Whitney. Eli was a born mechanic. It was his nature to invent and construct. When a mere boy, he made pins and walking-canes, and thus earned money to support himself at college. In 1792 he went to Georgia. A friend with whom he stayed begged him to invent a machine to separate the seeds of cotton from the fibre. He shut himself up in his room and brooded over the difficulty. At length his rude-looking machine was finished. It was put in motion. It was evident to all that it could do the work of hundreds of men. Eli had gained a great victory for mankind. In that rude huf in Georgia, cotton was crowned king, and a new era was opened for America and the world. d. Then came a burst of thunder sound — The boy — O, where was he ? Ask of the winds that far around With fragments strewed the sea — With mast, and helm, and pennon fair, That well had borne their part ; But the noblest thing that perished there, Was that young, fiiithful heart. 2. COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 83 COMPOSITION EXERCISES, a.— Filling Blanks. THE MARTINS. . There an amusing story of two martins. 2. One spring, on back to their old nest, they a sparrow already possession of it as her own. 3. When the martins to in, the sparrow at them, and not the nest. 4. The swallows ..;... some of their companions to their aid ; but, what they , they not the sparrow 5. At last they away, and the sparrow (that , if sparrows ) that they her to the nest in quiet. G. But the next day they all back. 7. There more than a hundred martins, and each a bit of clay in its beak. 8. Then they to work, and up the door of the nest with the clay; so that the poor sparrow not out, and of course for want of food and air. b.— Answering Questions. SUGAR. What happens to sugar if you leave it in the water ? Do you know any other things besides sugar that are sweet ? If you put sugar into tea, what happens to the sugar ? If you put sugar into tea, does anything happen to the tea? FRUIT-TREES. At what time of the year do fruit-trees blossom ? When is the fruit ripe ? When do the leaves fall from the trees ? '^ Are there any trees which are in leaf all the year round ? I c— Composition from Outlines. BREAD. Made from wheat — crushed in the mill — sifting or separating into the bran and the flour— the flour then formed into dough by 84 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. III. being well mixed with water— leavening the dongh — mixing it w4th yeast or old leaven — rising — baking — bread made from Indian corn, barley, and rye — how these kinds compare with wheaten bread. [Girls may add a recipe for making any kind of bread or cake.] d.— Abstract from Memory. TURNING THE GRINDSTONE. When I was a little boy, I remember, one cold winter's morning, I was accosted by a smiling man with an axe on his shoulder. " My pretty boy," said he, *' has your father a grindstone ?" " Yes, sir,'? said I. *' You are a fine little fellow," said he ; " will you let me grind my axe on it ?" Pleased with the compliment of " fine little fellow," " O yes, sir," I answered, " it is down in tlie shop." " And will you, my little man,'? said he, patting me on the head, *' get me a little hot water ?" How could I refuse ? I ran, and soon brought a kettleful. " How old are you ? and what's your name ?" continued he ; "I am sure you are one of the finest lads that ever I have seen ; will you just turn a few minutes for me ?" Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, I went to work, and bitterly did I regret it. It was a new axe, and I toiled and tugged till I was very tired. The school-bell rang, but I could not get away ; my hands were blistered, and the axe was not lialf ground. At length, however, it was sharpened, and the man turned to me with, "Now, you little rascal, you've played truant ; scud to the school, or you'll catch it !" It was hard enough to turn a grindstone, but to be called a little rascal was too bad. e,— Letter-writing. Write a letter to your teacher, giving an account of some picnic, excursion, exhibition, play, or accident. Note. — Carefully read the "Directions for Letter- writing,'* page 171. I? 4 SECTION IV. MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH XLIX— MODIFICATIONS DEFINED. A noun may denote one or more than one of the objects named : as — ONE. WORE THAN ONE. star stars hidy ladies ox oxen The distinction between one and more than one is called number. A noun may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb, or it may denote that the person or thing named possesses some* thing. 1. Mother [suhj.] loves baby [obj.]. 2. Baby [subj.] loves mother [ohj.]. 3. The &{ (it ) We sometimes join a noun with a pronoun of the first person : as — I Paul have written it. And sometimes we address a person by a real name instead of a pronoun: as — riato^ thou reasoncst well. The noun "Paul" is in the j^rs^ person, and the noun "Plato" in tlie second person. With the exception of such examples as these, nouns are always the names of persons or things that we speak of — which may be denoted by Tie^ or she^ or it — and hence are in the third person. Besides, there is no change of form to mark the person of a noun. This distinction is, therefore, of little importance in parsing nouns. LI.— THE NOUN : ConstrnctiTe Exercises, I. Write -three sentences on each of the following nouns, bringing •in each noun, as, 1. subject ; 2. possessive ; 3. object. Model : "The ocean.'' 1. The ocean is the great body of w\^ter surrounding the globe. 2. The ocean^s greatest depth has never been found out. 3. The Sandwich Islanders love the ocean. 1. The horse. 3. My cousin. 5. The river. 2. A ship. 4. Washington. 6. A tiger. 92 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. IV. II. Write these sentences so as to make each statement m the singu- lar number. Model : " Dutiful children obey their parents." Changed— K dutiful child obej^s its parents. 1. Dutiful children obey their parents. 2. Men are mortal. 3. Sheep have valuable wool on their backs. 4. The oxen tread out the corn. 5. Little women sometimes have great minds. 6. These deer roam wild over the mountains. 7. The schools are conducted very well. m. Write these sentences so as to make each statement in \\\q plural number. Model: "My boy's tooth is decayed by eating sweetmeats." Chaiiged— My boy's teeth are decayed by eating sweetmeats. 1. My boy's tooth is decayed by eating sweetmeats. 2. A goose, by cackling, is said to have saved Rome. 3. The mouse has been nibbling at the cheese. 4. The ox browses in the green meadow. 5. The sheep furnishes us with an important article used in mak- ing clothing. 6. A man of words and not of deeds Is like a garden full of weeds. 7. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 8. The child likes to play. 9. The woman washes clothes on the beach. 10. A deer is a beautiful animal. 11. A salmon was leaping in the water. 12. The ox was drawing the team. MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 93 lY. 1. Write a sentence throwing into the plural form the statement, The 'Galley rejoices. 2. Write in the singular form this sentence: PhilosojyJiers survey mankind from China to Peru. 3. The cargo has arrived : write a sentence stating that more than one has arrived. 4. Write in the singular form the statement, Good wives wish to lylease their husbands. 5. Write in the plural form the statement, A man tries to he inch, 6. Monarchs tax their subjects : write this in the singular form. 7. Write in the singular form : Monkeys flourish in Africa. 8. Write a sentence introducing man in the plural. 9. Write a sentence introducing mice in the singular. 10. Write a sentence introducing cJiild in the plural. 11. Write a sentence introducing i^enny in the plural. 12. Write a sentence introducing / Definition. — Voice is a modification pf the transitive verl), ex- pressing wlietlier tlie subject names tlio||[ictor or the recipient of the action. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 103 There are two voices : namely, the active voice and the passive voice. A verb in the active voice represents the subject as acting upon an object : as — Watt invented the steam-engine. A verb in the passive voice represents the subject as receiving an action : as — The steam-engine was invented by Watt. V Rule. — The passive voice is formed by uniting with the past parti- ciple of any transitive verb the various parts of the verb to be. 6. Conjugation of Verbs. The conjugation of a verb is the systematic arrangement of its various forms. There are two conjugations: I. The regular. II. The irreg- ular. These two conjugations are distinguished by the mode of forming the past tense (indicative) and the past participle. A regular verb is one whose past tense and past participle arc formed by adding ed to the root: as, (root) love; (past tense) loved; (past participle) loved. Obs. — In suffixing ed care must be taken to observe the rules for spelling derivative words. An irregular verb is one whose past tense or past participle, or both, are not formed by adding ed to the root: as, (root) taJce; (past tense) tooJc ; (past participle) ta^en. The principal parts of a verb are : I. The present indicative. II. The past indicative. III. The past participle. I An auxiliary verb is one used to assist in conjugating other ^ verbs. The principal auxiliaries are, c?o, he, have, shall j may, can, must, with their variations. 104 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. IV. COXJUOATIOX OF A EEGULAR VERB.* TO LOVE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present — love. Past — loved. Past Participle — loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. The present indicative is a simple tense, and one of the principal parts. It is varied thus : SINGULAK. TLUKAL. 1. I love, 1. We love, 2. You love, 2. You love, 3. Hef loves ; 3. They X love. Past Tense, The past indicative is a simple tense, and one of the princiiDal parts. In regular verbs it is formed by adding eel to the root ; in irregular verbs, in some other way. SINGULAR. PLUliAL. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. You loved, 2. You loved, 3? He loved ; 3. They loved. - • Future Tense. The future is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries sliall or icill to the root: thus — 1. Expressing simply a future action or event. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. You will love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love ; 3. They will love. * The conjugation of the verb to love presents the common form of the regular verb. The paradigm embodying the ancient form of the second per- ' son singular will be found in the Appendix, page 185. t Or any other pronoun of the third person singular— s7ie, it^ etc. ; or any noun in the singular number. X Or any noun in the plural number. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 105 2. Expressing a determination^ command^ or threat, 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 2. You shall love, 2. You shall love, 3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. Present Perfect Tense, The present perfect indicative is formed by joining the auxiliary have with the past participle of the verb. SINGULAR. PLUBA.L. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. You have loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. Past Perfect Tense, The past perfect indicative is formed by joining the auxiliary had with the past participle of the verb. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. You had loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. Future Perfect Tense. The future perfect tense is formed by joining the future tense of the auxiliary have with the past participle. SINGULAR. » PLURAL. 1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 3. He shall or will have loved ; 3. They shall or will have loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. The present potential is formed by joining the auxiliaries may^ can, or must with the root. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I may* love, 1. We may love, 2. You may love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love ; 3. They may love. * Substitute caii and must. E 2 106 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [sEC. IV. Past Tense. The past potential is formed by joining tlie auxiliaries mighty could^ iDOiildj or sliould with the root. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I might * love, 1. We might love, 2. You might love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love; 3. They might love. Present Perfect Tense. The present perfect potential is formed by joining the present potential of the auxiliary have with the past participle. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. 1 may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. You may have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. Past Perfect Tense. The past perfect is formed by joining the past potential of the aux- iliary verb liave with the past participle. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. You might have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved ; % They might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. The present subjunctive 2S a simple tense having the same forms as the present indicative, except that the suffix s of the third person is omitted.t It is generally introduced by the conjunctions if tlwugh, that, etc. SINGULAR. PLUKAU 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If you love, 2. If you love, 3. If he love ; 3. If they love. * Substitute could^ wouldy should. f The suflSlx st in the solemn style is also omitted. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 107 Past Tense. The past subjunctive is a simple tense having the same forms as the past indicative, and generally introduced by if^ etc. BINQULAR. PLURAL. 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 2. If you loved, 2. If you loved, 8. If he loved ; 8. If they loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Love (you). INFINITIVES. Present — to love. Perfect — to have loved. (Gerunds) ] ^^"^"^ ' loving ; havin'What is to be will be," said the little pea, as he shot up and lodged in an empty flower-pot in the window of a room where lay a poor sick girl. Pretty soon the little pea sprouted, and began to grow up into a beautiful vine. " Dear mother, I think I shall get well," said the little girl one day ; " for my pea is growing famously." "God grant it," said the mother; and she took a stick and tied a string to it, so that the green vine might have something to cling to. After many days there stood a beautiful pink pea-blossom smiling in the warm sunshine. The little girl kissed it, and said, " Now I am sure I am going to get well." SECTION V. SYNTAX. Syntax* is that division of grammar which treats of the relations of words in sentences. It is divided into two parts — parsing and the rules of con- struction. Parsing consists in stating the class, subdivision, and modifica- tions of the words in a sentence. The rules of construction are statements of the general prin- ciples governing the relations of words in sentences. I. Parsing. In parsing the different parts of speech the method indicated in the following tables may be followed : SvBiHYisio^— proper, common, or abstract. Number — singular or j^hiral. (Number in proper nouns Xoun ^ may be omitted.) Case — nominatwe, possessive, or objective (as denoted by form or use). ^^5^SDlYl&lO^— personal, relative, or interrogative. Person — (in personal pronouns ; in relative pronouns of the 1st or 2d person only). Pronoun... \ Number — singular or plural. Gender — (in personal pronouns of the 3d person sin- gular only). . Case — nominative, possessive, or oljjective. RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 117 ( Subdivision — limiting (pronominal) or qualifying. Adjective... \ Comfarisou^— positive, comparative, or superlative, I Office — attributive or complementary. ' Conjugation — regular or irregular. Subdivision — transitive or intransitive. Voice — active or passive. Verb \ Mood — indicative, potential, etc. Tense— ^r^s^?^^, past, etc. Person— ^rs#, second, or tliird. . Number — singular or plural. k({ \\ i Subdivision — simple or conjunctive. \ Comparison — i\i! comparative ov superlative). Prepositions. . . .words connected . Conjunctions ...words or propositions connected. II. EULES OF COKSTEUCTION. Eule I, — The subject of a verb is in tlie nominative case. ^ Eule II. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Eule III. — Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pronouns. Eule IV. — A noun modifying another noun signifying a different thing is in the possessive case. Eule V. — A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case. Eule VI, — The object of a transitive verb is in the ob- jective case. 118 SYNTAX. [sBC. V. Eule VII. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case. Kule VIII. — An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Eule IX. — A pronoun agrees in person, gender, and number with its antecedent or the word that it represents. Eule X. — 1. A preposition joins a noun or pl-onoun to some other word. 2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition is in the objective case. Eule XI. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or propositions. Eule XII.— 1. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word is put in the nominative case. 2. The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. THE SUBJECT. Rule I.— The subject of a verb is in the nominative case: as— 1. Water consists of two gases. 2. Re is the man who /think wrote the letter. Model for Parsing. water... is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative case, subject of the verb " consists," according to Rule I. he is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, THE SUBJECT. 119 masculine gender, and nominative case, subject of the verb *' is," according to Rule I. wlio is a relative pronoun, of the singular number and nomina- tive case, subject of the verb " wrote," according to Rule I. I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, nominative case, subject of the verb "think," according to Rule L EXERCISE 37. In the following sentences parse the subjects according to tho model. 1. Books are not dead things. 2. The teacher taught the pupils to sing. 3. The crows which are feeding in the field are easily frightened. 4. I heard a wonderful story when I was a little girl. 5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow. 6. lie lives in the old cottage at the foot of the hill. 7. And the mother gave, in tears and pain, The flowers she most did love ; She knew she should find them all again. In the fields of light above. Caution.— Never use a pronoun in the objective case as the subject of a verb : thus — Betsey and me were out. This is incorrect, because the pronoun "me" in the objective case is made the subject of the verb " w^ere." It should be^ *' Betsey and / were out," EXERCISE 38. Correct by the caution the following examples ; 1. Suppose you and me go a-gunning. 2. Ida is the girl whom we supposed would read the poem. 3. Who will go after a pail of water ? Her and me [will go]. 120 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 4. Who did the miscliief ? Them [did]. 5. Them are the books which we wanted. G. You learn faster than me [learn]. AGEEEMENT OP THE VEEB. Sule IL— A verb agrees with its subject in number and in person: as— 1. 1 am that merry wanderer. 2. A bee among the flowers of spring is one of the most cheerful objects that can be seen. Model for Parsing. am is an irregular intransitive verb (be), of the indicative mood, present tense, first person singular, and agrees with its subject " I," according to Rule II. is is an irregular intransitive verb, of the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, and agrees with its subject " bee," according to Rule II. can be seen... is an irregular transitive verb (see), of the passive voice, potential mood, present tense, third person plural, and agrees wdth its subject " that." EXERCISE 39. . In the following sentences parse the verbs according to the model. 1. Letters paaa through the post-ofRce. 2. We watered across the meadows. 3. The goats werefeeding on the mountain-side. 4. Still waters run deep. 5. "Where have you been ? 6. Men may come, and men may go. 7. "For oh !" s^ the children, " vTe are weary, And wc canno t run or leap." AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 121 Caution.— Words or plirases qualifying tlie subject must not affect the number of the verb : thus— The sound of many voices reach my ear. Incorrect: because the verb "reach" is plural, while its subject " sound " is singular. It should be, " The sound of many voices reaches my ear." Special Rules under Rule XL Special Eule I.— Two or more subjects in the singular connected by AND, and conveying plurality of idea, require a verb in the plural : as— 1. Gold and iron are metals. 2. Mary and Ida seem happy. Caution.— "When two singular nouns convey the idea of one person or thing, or when they are preceded by each, every, or no (and are thus taken separately), the verb must be in the singular : as— The soldier and statesman who secured our liberties were born in Virginia. Incorrect: because the nouns '^soldier" and "statesman" denote one person (Washington), and hence should take a verb in the singu- lar. But " were born" is plural. It should be " was born." Special Rule II.— Two or more Subjects in the singular connected by OR or NOR require a verb in the singular: as— 1. Either the man or his wife has stolen my watch — (not ^'•have stolen my watch"). 2. Neither the day nor the hour has been appointed— (not " have been appointed"). Special Rule III.— Collective nouns require a verb in the singular when the sense is singular, and in the plural when the sense is plural : as — The regiment was composed of many men. Yv^e think of the regi7nent (though composed of many men) as form- ing one body. The sense is singular, and hence the verb "was com- posed " is singular also, F 122 SYNTAX. [sec. V. The people wet^e greatly displeased. We do not think of " people " as denoting one body : it has the sense of many persons, each of whom " was disioleasedy Hence the verb is plural. EXERCISE 40. Correct these examples by Eule II., or the Special Rules or Cautions. By Bale II. 1. What -was you doing and where was you going? 2. Cowardice and treachery generally goes together. 3. Romulus and Remus w^as twin brothers. 4. Many who was slain lies in unknown graves. 5. Six months' interest are due. 6. Honor and shame from no condition rises. 7. The number of senators from each of the states are limited to two. 8. Nitrogen and oxygen united forms the air w^hich we breathe. By Special Eule I.— Caution. 1. Each book and each paper were carefully examined. 2. My friend and companion JiayeL often warned me of the danger. 3. No oppression, no. tyrant reign'here. 4. Bread and milk are good for children. 5. Every emotion and every operation of the mind have a corre- sponding expression of the countenance. 6. For a lacrf]:ard in love and a dastard in war AVcre to w^ed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. By Special Eule II. 1. When sickness or misfortune overtake us, the sincerity of friend- ship is tested. 2. A man's being rich or his being poor do not affect his character for integrity. 8. Neither the man nor his son were present. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 123 Dy Special Rule III. y 1. The army were large. 2. The Board of Education have passed the resolution unanimously. 3. The Senate of the United States jia^^e adjourned. 4. The fleet have been scattered by the storm. ADJECTIVES ATO PAETIOIPLES. Rule III. — Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pro- nouns: as— 1. Around the fire one wintry night The farmer's rosy children sat. 2. The king, surrounded by his courtiers, proceeded to the palace. Model for Parsing. the. =..is a limiting adjective (pr, an article) modifying the noim " fire," according to Rule III. Ox-. is a limiting adjective modifying the noun "night," according to Rule III. wintry is a qualifying adjective modifying the noun " night," according to Rule III. rosy is a qualifying adjective modifying the noun "chil- dren," according to Rule III. surrounded .is a participle n\odifying the noun "king," accord- ing to Rule III. EXERCISE 41. In the following sentences parse the adjectives and participles according to the model. 1. The singing birds have come at last. 2. Upon at barren /Steep, Above a stormy/deep, I saw an angel, watching the wild sea., . o. At church, with meek and' unaficcted grace^ His looks adorned -the venerable place. 12'i: SYNTAX. [sEC. Y. 4. The large black cat killed the bird. 5. The great, heavy iron* bar fell on the unfortunate man, killing liini instantly. 6. The long rows of quaint black piles, shiny and wet and weather- worn, with funeral garlands of sea-weed twisted about them by the late tide, might have represented an unsightly marine cemetery. Caution.— The following errors in the use of adjectives are to be care- fully avoided: 1. The use of these ov those for this or that with a singular noun. Say " this sort of peoj^le," " that kind of horses " — not " these sort of people," ^^tlwse kind of horses." 2. The use of the pronoun them for the adjective those. Say " those carriages," " those apples " — not " them carriages," " the^n apples." Special Rules under Eule III. 1. The Articles. Special Rule I. — When two or more nouns or adjectives refer to the same thing, the article is prefixed to the first only ; but if they refer to different things, the article should be repeated with each : thus— 1. The governor and commancler-in-chief has arrived (that is, one person). 2. The governor and the commander-in-chief have arrived (that is, two persons). 3. He lives in a long and narrow street (one street). 4. The rich and the poor have a common interest (two classes). 2. Comparison. Special Rule II.— An adjective is used in the comparative degree when two objects are compared, in the superlative when more than two: as— 1. Gold is heavier than iron. 2. Mercury is the heamest of metals. * Noun used as an adjective. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 125 3. Predicate Adjective. Special Rule III.— A predicate adjective relates to the subject of tlie verb: as— 1. Iron is hard. 2. The fruit seems rijpe. Caution.— An adverb should not be used in place of a predicate adjec- tive: thus— The rose smells siceetly; The velvet feels smoothly. The adverbs " sweetly " and " smoothly " are here used incorrect- ly for the adjectives sweet and smooth. The rose does not really " smell " or the velvet " feel ;" what is meant is that the rose is sweet to the smell or scent, and that the velvet is smooth to the touch. In each case it is the subject, not the verb, that is to be modified, and hence an adjective, not an adverb, is required. NOTE. — The following verbs, each containing the force of the verb to he^ require to be followed by a predicate adjective when the subject is to be modified : 1. smell. 3. look. 5. become. 2. feel. 4, taste. 0. grow. EXERCISE 42. Correct the following examples : 1. Them apples are sour. 2. Those sort of people are always complaining. 3. Hand me them slates. 4. I am very fond of those sort of apples. 5. The president, secretary, and treasurer have arrived. C. Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher and the statesman, lived in Philadelphia. 7. I passed a man and boy on my way to town. 8. Silk is a fine and a delicate fibre. 126 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 9. This is tlic best house of the two. iO. Which is the oldest, William or Edwin ? 11. The lemon tastes sourly. 12. Miss Smith looks beautifully. 13. Mary sings sweet. THE POSSESSIVE CASE. Rule IV.— A noun modifying another noun signifying a differ- ent thing is in the possessive case : as— Ladles' and children's shoes are sold here. Model for Parsing. ladies^ ..is a common noun, of the plural number and posses- sive case, modifying " shoes," according to Rule IV. cMldren's is a common noun, of the plural number and posses- sive case, modifying " shoes," according to Rule IV. EXERCISE 43. In the following sentences parse the possessive nouns according to the model. 1. John's book was torn. 2. My sister's hat w^as blow^n into the river. 3. Have you ever seen Webster's Spelling-book ? 4. Richer by far is the heart's adoration. 5. Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin was one of the most ini- ■portant ever made. 6. Order is heaven's first law. 7. We bought the shoes at Sutherland's.* 8. That book is Richard's.f 9. Did the War of 1812 happen in Adams's]: or in Madison's ad- ministration ? 10. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, thy God's, and truth's. * Supx^ly store. f Supply took, % Supply administration. APPOSITION. 127 Caution.— Never omit the sign of possessive in writing the possessive case of a noun, nor employ it in writing that of a pronoun : as— Write loy'^s^ doys^ cJiild^s, cMldren's — not hoys^ childs, childrens. Write Jiei^ itSj ours, yours, tlieirs — not liefs, iVs, our'^s, your^s, tJieir^s. Special Rule under Rule IV. . When two or more nouns in the possessive case are connected and de- note joint owners of the same thing, the sign of possessive is suffixed to the last noun only : as— " Ball and Black's store." But when they denote separate owners of different things, the sign of possessive is suffixed to each noun : as— " Webster's and Worcester^ s dictionaries." EXERCISE 44. Correct these examples by Eule lY. or Special Rule, 1. *' Ladle's and gentlemens boots and shoes" was painted over the door. 2. Men and women's shoes are made here. . 3. The United States was at war during Madison and Lincoln's . administrations. 4. Did you ever hear of Mason's and Dixon's line ? 5. Have you read any of Dickens or Thackeray's works ? 6. That is Thomas kite. 7. The blame is their's, not yours'. APPOSITION Rule v.— A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case : as — 1. Milton, the English poet, wrote Paradise Lost. 2. The Christians were persecuted by Nero, the infamous emperor. 128 SYNTAX. [sec. V. Model for Parsing, poet is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative case, in apposition with the subject " Milton." emperor... is a common noun, of the singular number and objective case, in apposition with " Nero." E-XERCISE 45. Parse the nouns in apposition. 1. The potato, a root much used for food, was first grown in America. 2. Franklin, the philosopher, discovered the identity of lightning and electricity. 3. That useful animal, the camel, is found in Asia and Africa. 4. Have you studied the geography of Asia and Africa, two grand divisions of the globe ? 5. Cicero, the greatest orator among the Romans, was put to death. 6. I did not know him, the gentle boy. 7. He shot the albatross, that strange bird. 8. I, John Barclay, solemnly affirm. 9. We, the people of the United States, declare this constitution. 10. Do we not admire those brave men, the mountaineers of Swit- zerland 1 THE OBJEOTIYE CASE. Rule VI.~The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case: as — Follow me. Who -killed the deer ? Model for Parsing. me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, and objective case, object of the transitive verb " follow," according to Rule VI. deer is a common noun, of the singular number and objective case, object of the transitive verb " killed," according to Rule VI. OBJECTIVE CASE. 129 EXERCISE 46. In the following sentences parse the objects according to the model. 1. Fulton invented the steamboat, 2. We have just received our presents, 3. Me he restored, and him he hanged. 4. They saw us as we entered the carriage. 5. Who called her? 6. Whom^did she call ? 7. She sang the song most beautifully^ Caution.— Hever use a pronoun in the nominative case as the object of a transitive verb : as— - Who did you see at church ? This is incorrect : because the pronoun " who " in the nominative case is made the object of the verb "did see." It should be, ^^Whom did you see ?" Special Rules under Rule VI. Special Eule I.— The indirect object of a transitive verb may be in the objective case without a preposition : as— • Give me a book. The indirect object shows that to or for w^hich anything is or is done. Special Rule II.— The infinitives or participles of transitive verbs may govern objects in the objective case : as— 1. To love our enemies is a Christian duty. 2. The thief, seeing the officer, ran away. EXERCISE 47. Correct these examples by the Caution : 1. The teacher asked my sister and I to come. 2. Is this the boy who you w^anted ? 8. Who did she marry ? F 2 130 SYNTAX. [SEC.V. 4. Tliey that honor me I "will honor. 5. She told somebody, but I don't know who. 6. They who we injure we dislike. COMPLEMENT. Rule VIL — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case: as— 1. Caesar was a great general [nom. case]. 2. The girl becomes a woman [nom. case]. 3. Henry was chosen captain [nom. case]. 4. It proved to be she [nom. case]. Model for Parsing. general (sentence l)...is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative case, complement of the intransi- tive verb " was," according to Rule YII. captain (sentence 3)... is a commonnoun, of the singular number and nominative case, complement of the passive verb " was chosen," according to Rule YII. she (sentence 4) is a personal pronoun, of the third person, sin- gular number, feminine gender, and nomina- tive case, complement of the intransitive verb " to be," according to Rule VII. EXERCISE 48. a. . In the following sentences parse the complements according to the model. 1. Gold and silver are precious metals. 2. Mecca is a holy city. 3. John was called the beloved disciple. 4. The boy seems a scholar. 5. Study was always his delight. ^6. The food appears to be poison. ADVERBS. 131 7. If I were she I would improve my opportunities. 8. Bo you think it was she ? 9. Men are but children of a larger growth. 1 10. Webster and Ashburton were appointed commissioners to settle the boundary question. 11. John proved a worthy successor to his brother. 12. Some mossy bank my couch must be, Some rustling oak* my canopy. b. Correct the violations of Rule YII. 1. Who struck the bell ? It was hkq^ 2. It is them that you mean, not us. 3. It could not possibly have been &6j:^ 4. I took it to be^e. 5. Wh<^ do you imagine him to be ? 6. It wasTika w^ho issued the order, although the people for a long time disbelieved it to be ^. 7. I should try to do better if I W5re Hmi, ADYEEBS. Rule VIIL — An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an- other adverb : as— 1. Merrily^ merrily went the bark. 2. The frost is intensely severe. 3. Pianists move their fingers very quickly. Model for Parsing, merrily is an adverb, modifying the verb "went," according to Rule VIIL intensely is an adverb, modifying the adjective "severe," ac- cording to Rule YIII. very is an adverb, modifying the adverb "quickly," ac- cording to Rule VIII. * Supply must le. 132 SYNTAX. [sec. V. EXERCISE 49. In the following sentences parse tlie adverbs according to tlio model. 1. The very fairest flowers usually wither most quickly. 2. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 3. The pupil has answered very w^ell. 4. When are you coming ? 5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow^ 6. She loved not wisely, but too well. Caution I.— Never use two negatives to express a negation: thus— I have not been nowhere. This is incorrect : *' not nowhere " implies somewhere. It should be " I have been nowliere^'' or ^' I have not been anywhere.'''' Caution II.— Never use an adjective where an adverb is reqnked: thus — 1. The army marched rapidly — (not rapid). 2. The horse trots iDell — (not good). 3. The bird sings leautifully — (not leautiful). Special Rules under Rule VIII. Special Rule I. — Adverbs should be so placed in a sentence as to qualify the word intended : thus— 1. He came to see me only once. 2. He only came to see me once. These two sentences have different meanings according as the ad- verb *' only " is placed so as to qualify once or came. The first means, " He came to see me only once," not oftener. The second means, " He only came to see me once " — he did nothing else. Special Rule II.— A noun denoting direction, time, distance, value, etc., is in the objective case vdthout a preposition : thus— 1. The scholars have gone home — (modifying " have gone"). PRONOUNS. 133 2. That girl is fifteen years old — (modifying ^' old"). 3. There is a pole twenty /jd^ high — (modifying '' high"). NOTE. — A noun thus used is called the objective adverbial. EXERCISE 50. Correct the violations of Eule VIII. ' 1. I don't like geography nohow. 2. 1 did not get no dinner to-day. 3. Can your father not do no work ? 4. He did not say nothing. - 5. Pauline writes elegant. C. Joseph reads very slow. 7. The wounded man began to rapidly fail. 8. He was an uncommon tall man, with an exceeding long neck. 9. I wish you to deeply ponder this, and to seriously consider it. 10. Speak distinct, write careful, and spell correct. PEONOOTS. Rule IX.— A pronoun agrees in person, gender, and number with its antecedent or the word that it represents: thus— 1. The lady went to Europe in spring, but she has returned. 2. The lady w^ho went to Europe has returned. Model for Parsing. she is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, and feminine gender, to agree with the noun " lady," which it represents, according to Rule IX. who IS a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, and feminine gender, to agree with its antecedent " lady," according to Rule IX. 134 SYNTAX. [sec. V. EXERCISE 51. Parse tlie pronouns for person, gender, and number.* 1. The snow fell fast, but it melted as fast. 2. The French retreated, leaving their wounded behind them. 3. My sister and I had scarcely reached our t home when we f set off again. 4. Some plants are peculiar to certain districts : they are always found in them. 5. The man who found the money restored it. 6. The girls who were caught in the shower took refuge in the cave. 7. This is the same book that I saw yesterday. 8. The sea, which washed the shore, was covered with wrecks. 9. I that denied thee gold will give my heart. Caution.— Do not use a personal pronoun as subject of a verb when the verb has already a noun for its subject: thus— Say "Richard went to school" — not " Richard lie went to school." NOTE. — In poetry both nouns and pronouns are often used: as, "The deck it was their field of fame." But in prose we should say, " The deck was their field of fame." Special Rules under Rule IX. Special Rule I.— When a pronoun is used to represent two or more singular nouns, it must be singular or plural, according as the verb agree- ing with the nouns is singular or plural; thus— 1. Webster and Clay were distinguished for their oratory. 2. The celebrated painter and sculptor died before Tie was fifty years of age. * The case of a pronoun depends on its use in the sentence. t In sentences of this nature, the teacher has simply to ask what pronoun could be substituted for "my sister and I" to enable the pupil to observe the? usage. No special rule is required. PRONOUNS. 135 3. Every act and every thouglit has its effect on our character. 4. Every boy and girl must take his or Tier own seat.* 5. Will Jennie or Hattie sing us her favorite song ? Special Rule II.— A collective «oiin is represented by a pronoun in the singular number when the meaning of the noun is singular, but by a plural pronoun when the meaning is plural : thus— 1. Congress will hold its session till March. 2. The peoi)le were divided in their opinion. Special Rule III.— The relative pronoun that should be used in preference to who or which in the following cases ; 1. After the interrogative pronoun who: as, "Who that heard it will believe it ?" 2. After an antecedent preceded by the adjectives some, same, any : as, " Some people that were there said so ;" " This is the same man that you saw ;" ^' Do you know any person that thinks so ?" 3. After an adjective in the superlative degree : as, " These apples are the best that can be found." 4. After two antecedents, one requiring who and the other which : as, " The boy and the clog that you saw are gone." 5. Whenever we wish to restrict the meaning of the antecedent. KOTE. — When who or which means " and he," " and it," etc., it in- troduces an additional or explanatory statement; that introduces a clause without which the antecedent is incomplete, and hence is re- strictke. Thus — I heard the n^ws from my friend, who [and he] heard it from the passengers that [restrictive] arrived last night. Special Rule IV.— In the position of singular pronouns of different * In sentences like this, the selection of pronouns is often difficult. We must not use the plural pronoun their, since the adjective '' every " implies ihat each one is taken separately, and ''his " must be represented by a singular pronoun. To "his or her own seat," though correct, is very formal; and per- haps the best way is to change the form of expression and say : "All boys and girls must take their own seats." 136 SYNTAX. [sec. V, persons, the second (you) precedes the others (he, she, it, i) ; and the third (he, she, it) precedes the first (i) : as— ^'You and he will go ;" " He and I will go." NOTE. — A noun has the same place as a third personal pronoun ; as, " He says he saw either my cousin or me^ With the plural pronouns, we has the first place, yotc the second, and they the third : as, '^ We and they start to-morrow." . EXERCISE 52. Correct the violations of Kule IX. 1. Every man is the architect of thek own fortune. 2. The army dragged themselves along through the mud. 3. Every boy and girl must learn their lesson. 4. The dog is a faithful animal when their master is kind to them. 5. Anybody in their senses would have known better. G. A Franklin or a Jefferson renders great service to their country. 7. I would have told Mm and you a piece of news if you had stayed. 8. Every passenger must first buy their ticket. 9. Richard he went to school. 10. Eva she forgot her lunch-basket. 11. The dog 31 ran down the street. 12. An invitation was sent to me and George. OBJECTIVE AETEE A PEEPOSITIOK Rule X. — I. A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some other word. 11. A noun or a pronoun depending on a preposition is in the objective case. I had a little daughter. And she was given to me To lead me gently backward To the heavenly Father's knee. CONJUNCTIONS. 137 Model for Parsing. me is a personal pronoun, of tlie first person, singular number, and objective case, depending on the preposition " to,'^ according to Rule X. knee is a common noun, of the singular number and objective case, depending on the preposition " to," according to Rule X. Caution.— When a pronoun is remote from the preposition on which it depends, care should be taken that it has the proper objective form: , thus — Who does this slate belong to f This is incorrect: the pronoun "who" in the nominative depends on the preposition " to;" but according to Rule X. a noun or a pronoun depending on a preposition should be in the objective case. Hence it should be " Whom does this slate belong to ?" or " To ichom does this slate belon/? ?" EXERCISE 53. Correct the violations of Rule X. 1. Between you and I all that glitters is not gold. 2. Come along with William and I. 3. So you must ride On horseback after we» 4. He is a friend who I am greatly indebted to. 5. Who did you give the apple to ? 6. We then saw that it was no other but heu CONJUNCTIONS. Rule XL — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or proposi- tions: as— Mars and Jupiter are planets — (joining two ^vords). 138 SYNTAX. [sec. V. Kor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he— (joining two phrases). He is poor, hit he is honest — (joining two propositions). Model for Parsing. and is a conjunction, connecting the nouns ''Mars" and "Jupi- ter," according to Rule XI. but is a conjunction, connecting the propositions " He is poor" and " He is honest," according to Rule XI. EXERCISE 54. In the following sentences parse the conjunctions according to the model. 1. The lion and the lamb shall lie down together, and a little child shall lead them. 2. He departed from home, but he soon returned. 3. He forsook his home and his friends. 4. Lightly and brightly breaks away The morning from her mantle gray. 5. The trees have lost their foliage, because autumn has come. 6. Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn. NOMnrATIYE INDEPETOE^T AND ABSOLUTE. - THE HT- "^^EEJEOTIOK Rule XXL — I. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word is put in the nominative case. II. The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. I. A noun or pronoun is used independently when it has no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. There are two principal uses of this construction : 1. In naming a person or thing addressed : as — Plato, thou reasonest well. * O thoUy who art with glory and majesty crowned! ADDITIONAL RULES. 139 2. When a noun or pronoun is joined with a participle to form a phrase not grammatically connected with the rest of the sentence : as — The Siorm having ceased [phrase independent], we departed. Model for Parsing. Plato... is a proper noun, in the nominative case independent, ac- cording to Rule XII. storm... is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative case, nominative absolute (with the participle "having ceased"), according to Rule XII. is an interjection, and has no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence, according to Rule XII. EXERCISE 55. Parse the nouns in the nominative independent or absolute. 1. Begone, dull care, for thou and I can never agree. 2. False wizard, aV aunt ! 3. The president having given his assent, the bill became a law., 4. O liberty, how many crimes are committed in thy name. 5. The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket that hangs in the well ! G. Our task being finished, we were allowed to play. 7. Listen, my children, and you shall hear ^^;^j0f the midnight ride of Paul Revere. ADDITIONAL EULES. I. Rule for the Infinitives. An infinitive may he used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverbj and when dependent is governed by the word which it limits. 140 SYNTAX. [sec. V. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. To walk [or walking'] is healthy— [used as a noun and subject of the verb " is "]. 2. I like to walk — [used as a noun and object of the verb "like "]. 3. A time to laugh — [used as an adjective and governed by the noun "time," which it limits]. 4. Permission to speak — [used as an adjective and governed by the noun "permission," which it limits]. 5. I have come to see you — [used as an adverb and governed by the verb " have come," which it limits]. 6. Wonderful to relate— {yx^Qdi as an adverb and governed by the adjective " wonderful," which it limits]. II. Rule for the Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive mood is used in a subordinate proposition when both contingency and futurity are expressed, or when the contrary fact is im- plied: as— 1. If he continue to study, he will improve. 2. If he were guilty [as he is not]^ he would suffer. NOTES. I. When a condition is assumed as real the statement is made by means of the indicative : as — 1. If he Jias money [as it is assumed he has], he keeps it. 2. If he is guilty [as he probably is], he will suffer. II. A good practical rule with respect to the use of the subjunctive is that it is to be employed iclienever a potential or a future auxiliary is implied: thus — 1. Though he [may] slay me, I will trust in him. 2. Go thy way lest a worse fate [shoidd] befall thee. 3. If it were [shoidd be] done, when 'tis done, then Hwere [would be] well it were [should be] done quickly. EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION. 141 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION. 1. The pyramids of Egypt latts- stood thousands of years. 2. Neither the time nor tlie place of Homer's birth are known. 3. My books was bought at Brown's the bookseller's. 4. The hunter shot an owl, squirrel, .eagle, and, quail. 5. An honest and aii honorable man is always respected. 6. This book is the largest and costliest of the two. 7. Select either of the three books on the table. 8. I,, he, and you are all going there together. 9. Vf^ho sliall we invite to our party next week ? 10. I think it was neither Mm nor -h«r who did it. 11. They say they will not give me »o more money, 12. You neither care for us ^^jk. any body else. 13. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 14. Neither of the boys were able to pass examination, 15. If I wfts-him I would accept the office. 16. He hasn't -got-^io money to pay for it -with. 17. Avarice is one of those passions whicli^ never satisfied. 18. The news iraive just been received by telegraph. 19. Much depends on a~man doing right. 20.-^3^ the visitors from the city arrived yet ? II. 1. The teacher told every scholar to bring their books. 2. Every boy and every girl were at school in season. 3. Each one of us hftre as much as they can do. 4. She sung very fine and looked very -^pfettily. 5. We should help ihem friends which help us. 6. Who did you give the apple to ? 7. London is larger than any city in the world. 8. You cannot be he?. 9. Father brought some candy to divide between us-«}i- 10. Who did you say you went to visit ? 142 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 11. He is the richest man -who I know of. 12. The laclie's parlor is finer than the gentlemens'. 13. It is more hard to work than play. 14. Believe me, I'll never do so no more again. 15. "Will we have a vacation next week. 16. The number of inhabitants exceed forty million. 17. I saw four horses, but did not buy either of them. 18. Grammar leanas us to write correct and speak proper. 19. Was you living there at that time. 20. I will drown, and nobody shall help me. COMPOSITION EXERCISES. From each of the following sets of subjects select the subject which suits you best, and write a composition about it : FIRST SET. 1. Housekeeping. 3. A husking. 5. Making wine. 2. Haying-time. 4. Making cider. 6. Picking cotton. SECOND SET. Write some anecdote that you have read about any one of the following animals : 1. The monkey. 3. The bear. 5. The fox. 2. The wolf. 4. The dog. 6. The lion. THIRD SET. Write from memory a short sketch of one of the following stories : 1. Bluebeard. 3. Cinderella. 5. Kobinson Crusoe. 2. Robin Hood. 4. Arabian Nights. 6. Jack the Giant Killer. FOURTH SET. Write a short description, telling how the following products are cultivated : 1. Wheat. 8. Cotton. 5. The grape. 7. Hops. 2. Corn. 4. Tobacco. 6. Flax. 8. Sugar. COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 143 FIFTH SET. 1. Story of a boy and a purse of gold. 2. Story of a hunter and a bear. 3. Story of a girl and her lamb. SIXTH SET. 1. Autobiography of a ring. 2. Autobiography of a cat. 8. Autobiography of a knife. 4. Autobiography of a mouse. SEVENTH SET. 1. A ghost story. 2. A witch story. EIGHTH SET. On a subject chosen by yourself, write the best composition you can, as a specimen of your ability to write good English. After you have made the first draft, go carefully over it, correcting errors and improving your sentences. Then copy the whole in your best style of penmanship. SECTION VI. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. LV— DEFINITIONS. I. Subject and Predicate. I. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts, or ele- 9nentSy of which it is composed. . II. Synthesis is the process of constructing sentences from their elements. III. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought. IV. The principal elements of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The sifjjjeCt represents that of which something is stated: as, ^'^ Birds sing." The predicate tells what is stated of the subject ; as, " Birds singy y. An adjunct, or modifier, is a word (or words) added to the subject or predicate to limit or modify its meaning : as, *' The hie/ fire burns brightly^ VI. The simple subject is the subject without adjuncts: as, ''Fire burns.'' YII. The complete subject is the simple subject with its ad- juncts : as, " The big fire burns." SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 14:5 VIII. The simple predicate is the predicate verb : as, " The big fire burns, ''^ IX. The complete predicate is the predicate verb with its ad- juncts: as, "The big fire burns 5n^A%." X. A proposition is the combination of a subject with a predi- cate, forming either an independent or a dependent statement. Thus— 1. Life is but an empty dream — [independent statement]. 2. Tell me not that life is hut an empty dream — [^' that life is but an empty dream" a dependent statement, because the object of the verb "tell"]. EXERCISE 56. a. In the following sentences select, first the simple subjects and predicates, and then the complete subjects and predicates. 1. The army advanced rapidly. 2. Great men are rare. 3. The huntsman's horn awoke the echoes. 4. Many friends of my youth have perished. 5. The little bird's song is sweet. 6. Franklin, the great philosopher, was an American. 7. The bright fire soon w^armed our hands. 8. The garden has many beautiful flowers in full blossom. 9. We must not eat unripe fruit. 10. The apples will be ripe soon. 11. Where has your brother gone ? 12. How cool the air is ! b. In the following sentences, expand the subject by means of ad- jective words, adjective phrases, or both. Model : " The bridge spans the river." Enlarged— ^^ The great iron bridge, built by a skilful engineer, spans the river." 1. The bridge spans the river. G 146 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. 2. The mechanic repaired the engine. 3. Snakes infest the country. 4. Milton wrote Paradise Lost, 5. Birds fly. 6. The fox stole the hens. 7. Bees gather honey. ' 8. Music soothes. 9. The fire burns. 10. The day is passed. 11.. Humboldt is dead. 12. Books please me. c. In the following sentences, expand the predicate by means of adverbs, adverbial phrases, or both. Model: "We go to swim." Enlarged— ^'•^^q often go to swim in the river." 1. We go to swim. 2. The moon shines. 3. They learn their lessons. 4. The American soldiers fought. 5. James wrote a letter. 6. It is pleasant to watch the stars. 7. We took shelter. . 8. The fire burns. 9. Bees gather honey. 10. The microscope shows us animalcules. 11. Birds fly. 12. Fishes swim. II. Elements of the Sentence. . I. A phrase is a combination of related words forming an ele- ment of a sentence. -^ 1. A phrase is generally introduced by a preposition, a participle, or an infinitive : as — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 147 The study of history improves the mind — [phrase introduced by a preposition]. The balloon, filled with gas, floated up in the air — [phrase intro- duced by a participle]. To forget an injury is the mark of a noble mind — [phrase intro- duced by an infinitive]. y 2. A phrase is equivalent to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When equivalent to a noun it is called a noun phrase; when equivalent to an adjective, an adjective phrase; when equivalent to an adverb, an adverlial phrase. ^ II. A clause is a dependent, or subordinate, proposition, intro- duced by a connective : as — 1. He will learn if you teach him. 2. I shall be ready when you call. X III. Sentences are classed as simple, complex, and compound, \ A simple sentence consists of one independent proposition : as— The earth rotates. > A complex sentence consists of one independent (or principal) proposition and one or more clauses : as — We succeed [principal statement] because we persevere [clause]. X A compound sentence consists of two or more independent prop- ositions : as — ' The fields are fragrant and the woods are green. IV. According to their use, sentences are classed as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative. For the definition of these terms, sec page 23. 148 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. LYI— ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1. Nature of the Simple Sentence. I. The simple subject of a simple sentence consists of a word or a phrase. r Gold is a metal — [noun subject]. Word Subject < We hear the music — [pronoun subject]. ( To walk is good exercise — [infinitive subject]. r Where to go is the question. Phrase Subject... ■< Fishing for trout is fine fun. ( To die for one'^s country/ is sweet. IL The simple subject of a simple sentence may be modified by adjective words or adjective phrases, in. An adjective word may be — 1. An adjective : as, " 6n^A^ skies ;" "some books." 2. A noun in the possessive case : as, " the huntsman's horn ;" " the sun''s rays." 3. A noun in apposition : as, " Franklin, the philosopher ;^^ "Alex- ander, the coppersmith.^^ lY. An adjective phrase may be introduced by a preposition or a participle: as — 1. The love [subject] of money is the root of all evil. 2. Exhausted by fatigue j we [subject] lay down to rest. Y. The simple predicate of a simple sentence may take an object or other complement (predicate nominative or predicate adjective) ; as — 1. Carpenters build houses — [object]. 2. We ARE scholars — [complement or predicate nominative]. 3. Glass IS transparent — [complement or predicate adjective] ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 149 VI. The simple predicate of a simple sentence may be modified by- 1. An adverb : as, "The horse ran swiftly ^ 2. An adverbial phrase : as, " Great men lived during the Revo- lution.'''' 2. Directions for the Analysis of Simple Sentences, 1. Name the simple subject. 2. Name the simple predicate. 3. Name the adjuncts or modifiers of the subject. 4. Name the complete subject. 5. Name the adjuncts or modifiers of the predicate. 6. Name the complete predicate. NOTES. I. When a verb has an object or other complement, the predicate verb is first to be mentioned, then the object or complement with its adjuncts (if any). II. A noun used as the object or complement of a verb may itself be modified by an adjective word or phrase. III. A subject having no adjuncts may be called the subject, sim- ple and complete. So with the predicate. Models for Analyzing Simple Sentences. 1. America^ called the New World, was discovered in 1492. This is a simple declarative sentence. The simple subject is " America." The simple predicate is " was discovered." The simple subject is modified by " called tlie New World," an adjective phrase. The complete subject is " America, called the New World." The simple predicate is modified by " in 1492," an adverbial phrase. The complete predicate is " was discovered in 1492." 160 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. 2. You have prepared your lessons carefully. This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject, simple and complete, is " you." The simple predicate is " have prepared," which has for its object "lessons." "Lessons" is modified by the adjunct " your." The simple predicate is modified by " carefully," an adverb. The complete predicate is " have prepared your lessons carefully." 3. Will you walk to-day ? This is a simple interrogative sentence. The subject, simple and complete, is " you." The simple predicate is " will walk." The simple predicate is modified by the adverb " to-day." The complete predicate is " will walk to-day." 4. Bring that large volume here. This is a simple imperative sentence. The subject, simple and complete, is you (understood). The simple predicate is " bring," which has for its object "volume." "Volume" is modified by the adjuncts "that" and "large." The simple predicate is modified by the adverb " here." The com- plete predicate is " bring that large volume here." EXERCISE 57. Analyze tlie following simple sentences : 1. The sun shines. 2. Bees gather honey. 3. The fire burns. 4. The big fire burns brightly to-night. 5. The study of history improves the mind. 6. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 7. Sailing over the Atlantic, Cabot reached Labrador. 8. Under a spreading chestnut-tree the village smithy stands. 9. All men are mortal. W, Where are you going this summer?* * Call "this summer" an adverbial phrase. SYNTHESIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 151 11. The hero's harp is silent. 12. Milton, the English poet, wrote Paradise Lost. 13. Light the gas. 14. The stars are worlds. 15. Whitney, the inventor of the cotton-gin, was born in New England. 16. Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? 17. Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 18. The sloth in its wild state passes its life on trees. 19. The Egyptians embalmed the bodies of their dead. 20. Some birds of prey, having secured their victim, fly with it very swiftly to their nests. 21. Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea. LVII.— SYNTHESIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1. Punctuation. The comma and the terminal mark (period, point of interroga- tion, and point of exclamation) are the only marks used in punc- tuating simple sentences. EuLE I. — Words of the same class in a series, taken individually or in pairs, are set off by commas : thus— 1. The calm^ cool^ resolute man presented a noble example of daring. 2. Russia exports wheat ^ talloic^flax^ and hides. Note.— But two co-ordinate words joined by and or or are not to be sep- arated. i/ Rule II. — A phrase, unless very closely connected with the word to which it belongs, is set off by a comma : thus— 1. In spite of all difficulties^ they resolved to make the attempt. 2. The Indian xn.on^vQ\\ stunned and bewildered^ saw his faithful subjects falling around him. Note. — But in the sentence, " Our house is beautifully situated about three miles from town," the phrase about three miles from town is too closely joined in construction to be separated by a comma. 152 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. \/ Rule III.— In a succession of phrases, eacli pkrase is set off by a comma: thus — At daybreak, the combined fleets were distinctly seen from the Victory's head, formed in a close line of lattle ahead^ on the star- hoard taclc^ alout twelve miles to leeward^ and standing to the south. Rule IV. — Adverbs like however, indeed, therefore, etc., being equivalent to phrases, are generally set off by commas : thus— 1. The story, however^ was pronounced untrue. 2. No man, indeed^ is always happy. V Rule V. — "Words or phrases in apposition are set off by commas: thus — 1. James Watt, the improve?' of the steam-engine, was a native of Greenock. 2. Washington, commander-in-chief of the American army, won the battle of Trenton. / Rule VI.— The nommative independent (nominative of address) is set off by the comma : thus— Siceet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain ! 2. Construction. A series of detached statements may be combined into a simple sentence. Thus — ' Three vessels sailed. They were small vessels. They sailed from Palos. Palos is a seaport town. It is in Spain. * They sailed on the 3d of August. It was in the year 1492. Combined.— On the 3d of August, 1492, three small vessels sailed from Palos, a seaport town in Spain. Separate Statements. . SYNTHESIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 153 EXERCISE 58. Combine each set of statements into a simple sentence, as in tlie model. 1. Columbus returned to Spain. He returned in 1493. He had spent several months in exploring the delightful re- gions. These regions were now first thrown open to European eyes. 2. Boston was occupied by soldiers. This was in the spring of the year. The soldiers were British. There were three thousand of them. They were commanded by General Gage. 3. New York is a great city. It is a commercial city. It is situated on New York Bay. It is situated at the mouth of the Hudson River. 4. I have a dress. It is a pretty dress. It is a blue dress. It is made of silk. It is cut in the latest fashion. It is trimmed with lace. 5. Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated. He was defeated at Pultowa. It was by Peter the Great he was defeated. Peter the Great was Czar of Russia. 6. The house was burned. It was a white house. It was on the hill. It had a beautiful garden. 7. The smugglers came to the hermit's cell. They came on the third day. They came by the direction of the peasants. G2 154: ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. 8. A balloon is a bag. It is a tliin bag. It is a light bag. It is made of varnished silk. It is generally shaped like a globe. It is filled with a fluid lighter than common air. LVIIL— ANiXYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1. Nature of the Complex Sentence. "* \ I. A complex sentence consists of one independent, or principal, proposition and one or more clauses. II. Connectives, — Clauses are joined to principal statements by — 1. Subordinate conjunctions: as, ?*/*, that, though, unless. 2. Eelative pronouns : namely, who, which, that, and ivhat. 3. Conjunctive adverbs : as, when, where, while, why. III. There are three kinds of clauses : I. The noun clause. II. The adjective clause. III. The adverbial clause. lY. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun ; it may be the subject or the object of a sentence : as — 1. Wlien he will go is uncertain. 2. Do you remember what I said f EXERCISE 59. a. Point out the noun clauses in the following sentences, and tell whether they are subjects or objects. 1. They soon saw that the elephant's mouth was underneath his trunk. 2. No one could tell what had become of him. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 155 3. That we get leather from skins is known to every one. 4. Where Homer w^as born is not known. 5. Every one thought the tree would be blown down. b. Supply noun clauses in the following sentences. 1. Do you not remember ? 2. Most people know 3. How could she hear ? 4. People used to think 5. He asked one of the masons to tell him Y. An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective to modify a noun : as — Those birds tTiat live on other animals are called birds of prey. EXERCISE 60. a. Point out the adjective clauses^ and tell what nouns they qualify. 1. I know a story of an eagle, which you will like to hear. 2. The crowd that had gathered round to welcome her now stood back. 3. Franklin, who was a great philosopher, was born in Boston. 4. We get silk from a caterpillar which is called the silkworm. 5. The house where Shakspeare was born still stands. 6. Among the foreigners who repaired to Egypt to buy com were the brethren of Joseph. 7. The Scots, who advanced to York, ravaged the country with unsparing fury. 8. The minutest animal that is attentively examined affords a thousand wonders. * 9. The heart of Robert Bruce, which was preserved in a silver case, was consigned to the care of Douglas. 156 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. Supply adjective clauses, 1. I will show you the book 2. The hides of oxen and sheep are sold to the tanner ...... 3. The milk and the butter are obtained from the cow. 4. That is the house 5. Are these the acorns ? VI. An adyerbial clause is a clause used as an adverb to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs : as — The daisy shuts her eye when the dew "begins to fall. EXERCISE 61, a. Point out the adverbial clauses. 1. We shall sail when the moon rises. 2. The sugar-cane is pressed between heavy rollers till all the juice runs out. 3. As they drew near the nest, the eagle dashed by. 4. If we study, we shall improve. 5. You will not succeed unless you persevere. b. Supply adverbial clauses. 1. We shall be glad to see you ...... , 2. Come 3. I will tell you a secret 4. Charles had not been five minutes on the ice 5. We shall learn a great many things ...... Write a complex sentence on each of the following words : 1. Ants. 3. The buJBfalo. 5. Scholars. 2. Music. 4. Columbus. 6. Geography. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 157 2, Directions for the Analysis of Complex Sentences. In analyzing complex sentences, proceed as follows : 1. Tell which is the 'principal statement. 2. Tell which is the clause. 3. Tell what connective joins the clause with the principal state- ment. 4. Then analyze the principal statement and the clause, as in the case of simple sentences. Model for Analyzing Complex Sentences. When the war closed^ Washington retired to Mount Vernon, This is a complex sentence. The principal statement is, " Wash- ington retired to Mount Vernon." The clause (or subordinate state- ment) is, " When the w^ar closed." The connective is the conjunctive adverb " when." The subject of the principal statement is " Wash- ington." The predicate is "retired." The predicate is modified by the adverbial phrase "to Mount Vernon." The subject of the clause is " the war." The predicate is " closed." EXERCISE 62. Analyze the following complex sentences : 1. If you would be happy, you must be active. 2. We get silk from a caterpillar which is called the silkworm. 3. I shall be ready when you call me. 4. He is proud that he is a soldier. / 5. Wait till you see. 6. The sea, after it had spent its fury, became calm. 7. When the door was opened, the people crowded into the hall. 8. And when he next doth ride abroad, May I be there to see. 9. Call upon me when you have time to spare. 10. Can you tell me where they have laid him ? 168 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. 11. He who ascends to mountain-tops shall find . / The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow. 12. The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all but him had fled. The flame that lit the battle's wTcck Shone round him o'er the dead. LIX.— SYNTHESIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 1. Punctiiatioii. Rule I. — Introductory adverbial clauses are, in general, set off from the principal btatement by a comma : thus— 1. Before the storm began, w^e had built a camp-fire. 2. If this be treason, make the most of it. HuLE II.— Explanatory adjective clauses, introduced by who or WHICH [="and he," ^'and it," etc.], are set off by commas. Eestrictive clauses, introduced by that or an equivalent connective, require no commas: thus — EXPLANATORY CLAUSES. 1. The king, who [zi^and he] was a merciful ruler, forgave the ofibnce. 2. The Missouri, which [=:ajid it] rises in the Rocky Mountains, is the chief tributary of the Mississippi. EESTRICTIVE CLAUSES. 1. That is the man who aided me. 2. It is the tallest tree that I ever saw. . / Rule III.— A noun clause used as the subject of a verb is set off from the verb by a comma : thus— 1. That the earth rotates on its axis, was denied by the ancients. 2. That illiterate men should be intelligent votere, is not to be expected. Rule IV.— A noun clause used as the object of a transitive verb re- quires no comma : thus— I have told you who he is. SYNTHESIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 159 Rule V. — Wlieii the sentence is introduced by the pronoun rr, and the noun clause is put after the verb, no comma is required ; thus— It is not to be expected that indolent pupils should rank high in their class. \ Rule VI.— Commas must be used to set off the principal statement when it comes between the divided parts of an objective clause : thus-- 1. He expected, it seems^ to surprise the enemy. 2. The man was murdered, it is supposed^ by a band of Apaches. 3. "Beautiful creature," said the cunning fox, "you sing like a nightingale." 2. Construction. Two or more simple sentences may be combined into a complex sentence in various ways : thus — 1. I have a canary-bird. His name is Jack. 2. The boys went a-fishing. They had good luck. 3. There is the boy. I spoke to him yesterday. 4. Tea is a refreshing drink. It is used by all nations. 5. I will go on one condition. You must go with me. 6. He did not improve. The reason was idleness. 7. Riches are good. Wisdom is better. 8. Blanche is a good scholar. Wil- lie is an equally good scholar. COMPLEX. 1. I have a canary-bird whose name is Jack. 2. The boys wTio went a-fishing had good luck. 3. This is the boy that I spoke to yesterday. 4. Tea is a refreshing drink which is used by all nations. 5. I will go if you will. 6. He did not improve because he was idle. 7. Wisdom is better than riches [are]. 8. Willie is as good a scholar as Blanche [is]. 160 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sec. Separate Statements. Examples op Synthesis. ' 1. The Spaniards were surrounded by the natives. 3. This was after their landing. 3. These natives w^ere a simple-minded race of tawny savages. 4. They gazed with astonishment on the new-comers. Combined. — After their landing, the Spaniards were surrounded by the natives, a simple-minded race of tawny savages, who gazed with astonishment on the new-comers. Separate Statements. ' 1. Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered himself to the British. 2. He had been defeated at Waterloo. 3. He was exiled by the British to the island of St. Helena. Combined. — After he had been defeated at Waterloo, Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered himself to the British, by whom he was exiled to the island of St. Helena. NOTE. — When there are several adverbial clauses, use one or more of them to introduce the sentence, instead of crowding them all to- gether after the main verb. EXERCISE 63. Combine the groups of statements into complex sentences as in the model. 1. A crow had seized a piece of cheese. He flew up with it to a high tree. Here he quietly prepared to enjoy his repast. 2. The King of England granted these men a great slice of terri- tory in America. This king's name was James the First. This territory was claimed by the English. EXAMPLES OF SYNTHESIS. 161 3. A sea-captain entered the Narrows. He did this after sailing along the American coast. He sailed in a little craft called the " Half Moon." The name of this captain was Henry Hudson. 4. Our country had to carry on a severe struggle with the French in America. This was during the time that our country belonged to England. 5. The British rulers passed a law. They did this to get money out of the Colonies. Tliis law was that no writing should be held valid in the court unless it was written on stamped paper. 6. Boston was occupied by British soldiers. They had been sent out to overawe the patriots. 7. The patriots began to make preparations for war. They did this because they saw the king w^as bent on forcing them to obey his unjust laws. 8. Washington hemmed in the British very closely in Boston. He did this so closely that they came near starving. 9. The Declaration of Independence was put forth by the Conti- nental Congress. This Congress w^as the real government of this country at that time. 10. The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jef- ferson. He was afterwards President of the United States. 11. The old bell-man rang the bell. He rang it when the Declaration was adopted. This bell proclaimed " liberty throughout all the land, unto the inhabitants thereof." 12. The leading orator of Virginia was Patrick Henry. He excited the people to rise against the tyranny of Great Britain. 162 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. 13. Lafayette crossed the ocean. He did this to give his sword to America. He was born to high rank in France. When he crossed the ocean he was only nineteen years of age. 14. The scholar will learn something. He will learn it wlien he grows up. What he will learn is that the seeds of the war of Secession were sown long before the men who waged the w^ar were born. 15. Columbus waited seven years. He then turned his back on the court of Spain. He resolved to apply to the King of France. 16. Columbus was overtaken by a messenger. This was while on his way to France. The messenger was sent by the Queen of Spain to call him back. LX.--ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 1. Nature of the Oompoimd Sentence, \ I. The compound sentence consists of two or more independent propositions. 11. Compound sentences may consist of two or more simple sen- tences, or of two or more complex sentences, or of a simple sentence combined with a complex sentence : thus — 1. The fields are fragrant and the woods- are green. 2. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know. 3. The evil that men do lives after them ; [but] The good is oft interred with their bones. ni. The leading statements of a compound sentence are general- ly connected by a co-ordinate conjunction expressed or understood. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 163 NOTES. I. The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and^ also, oi\ nor, hut, Tioioever, noticitlistandlng, yet, and /or. II. Some common adverbial connectives in compound sentences are again, besides, then, when, where, whence, on the other hand, for all that, III. A relative pronoun, or a conjunctive adverb, when it contains the force of and, may connect the statements of a compound sentence : thus — 1. I met General Jackson, who [and he] invited me to enter his head- quarters. 2. At length the reinforcements arrived on the field, w7ien [and then] the terrible struggle was renewed. 2. Directions for Analysis. In analyzing a compound sentence, mention the principal state- ments, and state what conjunction connects them ; then proceed to analyze the separate statements as in the analysis of simple sentences. Model of Analysis. The Revolutionary War lasted for seven years, and it ended in 1782. This is a compound sentence. It is composed of the two statements " The Revolutionary "War lasted for seven years " and " It ended in 1782." These statements are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction " and." The first statement is, "The Revolutionary War lasted for seven years." The simple subject is " war." The subject is enlarged by the adjectives "the" and "Revolutionary." The simple predicate is " lasted." The predicate is enlarged by the adverbial phrase " for seven years." The second statement is, " It ended in 1782." The subject is " it" — not enlarged. The simple predicate is " ended." The predicate is enlarged by the adverbial phrase "in 1782." 164 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. EXERCISE 64. Analyze the following compound sentences : 1. The country was rich, and the city was the centra of its wealth. 2. The man recovered from the bite, but the dog died. 3. The army must gain a victory, or our cause wdll be ruined. 4. All the world is a stage, and all the men and women [are] mere- ly players. 5. There were no more worlds to conquer; therefore Alexander w^ept. 6. Prosperity did not unduly elate Washington, nor did misfortune cast him down. 7. A great war may be very glorious, but it is also very miserable. 8. By the invention of the cotton-gin, cotton was crowned king, and a new era was opened for America. 9. Justice was administered under the shade of forest-trees, and the jury sat upon a log. 10. There was timber to fell, there were fences to build, and there were fields to plough. 11. Prosperity makes friends, but adversity tries them. 12. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. LXL— SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 1. Punctuation of the Compound Sentence. Rule I.— Closely connected principal statements, unless much con- tracted, are, in general, set off by a comma, and are always so set off when there are more than two principal statements: thus— 1. Napoleon Bonaparte was of Italian blood, and was a Corsican by birth. 2. I came, I saw, I conquered. SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 165 Rule II.— Loosely connected principal statements, when long or when subdivided by a comma, are separated by a semicolon ; thus — 1. The history of the Orient is the history oi dynasties: the history of Greece and Rome is the history of the people. 2. The Greeks were indebted to the Phoenicians for the alphabet; the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet with some changes ; the Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern alphabet. Rule III.— When a compound sentence is elliptical, the omission of the principal statement is marked by a semicolon before each of a series of clauses: thus— England has to undergo the revolt of the colonies ; [England has] to submit to defeat and separation ; [ ? ] to shake under the vol- cano of the French Revolution ; [ ] to grapple and fight for the life with her gigantic enemy, Napoleon ; [ ] to gasp and rally after that tremendous struggle. Rule IV.— .Principal statements and clauses are punctuated accord- ing to the rules for the simple and the complex sentence. 2. Construction. . Separate statements may be combined into a compound sentence in various ways. Thus — SEPARATE STATEMENTS. The day was cold. The day was stormy. 2. Animals live. Animals grow. Animals feel. Animals move. 3. I will go. You must not go. 4. You cannot go. I cannot go. 5. You must work. The alterna- tive is to starve. 1 COMBINED. 1. The day was cold and stormy. 2. Animals live, grow, feel, and move. 3. I will go, but you must not. 4. Neither you nor I can go. 5. You must either work or starve. 166 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. Examples of Synthesis. Separate j The sun is the centre of the solar system. ;.|: Combined. — The sun is the centre of the solar system, and is the great source of light and heat. r You can go to school. Separate J You are well. Statements. I I must stay at home. 1 1 am sick. Combined. — You can go to school, for you are well ; but I must stay at home because I am sick. EXERCISE 65. Combine the separate statements into compound sentences. 1. Plants live. Plants grow. Plants die. Plants do not feel. Plants do not have the power of voluntary motion. 2. Labor and learning may toil for eloquence. Labor and learning will toil in vain. 3. Eloquence must exist in the man. Eloquence must exist in the subject. Eloquence must exist in the occasion. 4. Will it be the next week ? Will it be next year ? 5. I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the police judge. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had no right to do this. 6. Alexandria was one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity. It was anciently the residence of the kings of Egypt. . 7. Boston is a great American seaport. San Francisco is also a great American seaport. New York is a seaport greater than both together. 8. The wolf could not run fast. The sheep's clothing \vas hanging about his legs. He was detected. He was shot by one of the men. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 167 9. At last the capital of Palestine rose on their view. Palestine was lovely even in her desolation [adj. phrase, limit- ing Palestine]. The knights wet the turf with tears of mingled joy and grief. They did so when springing from their saddle [participial phrase, limiting 'knights']. 10. We revere Washington [why ?]. He was a patriot. We execrate Arnold [why ?]. He was a traitor. 11. Bois-Gilbert turned his countenance towards Rebecca. He then exclaimed [something]. He did so, looking fiercely at Ivanhoe. He exclaimed, " Dog of a Saxon ! take thy lance, and prepare for the death thou hast drawn upon thee." LXH.— EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 1. Simple to Oomplex. Direction. — A simple sentence may be expanded into a complex sentence by changing a word or phrase into a clause. Thus — SIMPLE. 1. We arrived there after sunset. 2. Honest boys will be trusted. 3. I expected him to be there. 4. I told you to go. 4. 0. I supposed it to be him. 5. G. The attack having failed, the »G. enemy withdrew. COMPLEX. We arrived there after the sun had set. Boys who are honest will be trusted. I expected that he » would be there. I told you that you should go. I supposed that it was he. After the attack had failed, the enemy withdrew. 168 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. EXERCISE 66, Expand the following simple sentences into complex sentences : 1. Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable. 2. The ancients believed the earth to be the centre of the universe. 3. With patience, he might have succeeded. 4. The utility of the telegraph is evident to all. 5. The manner of his escape is a profound mystery. 6. Mary being ill, we had to go to the picnic without her. 7. I supposed the birds to be sand-pipers. 8. In collecting honey, bees do not confine themselves solely to flowers. 9. At the conclusion of the battle, the commander began to count his loss. 10. The discoveries of Livingstone, one of the greatest travellers of modern times, have taught us much about the interior of Africa. 2. Complex to Compound, Direction. — A complex sentence may Ibe expanded into a com- ponnd sentence by changing a clause into a principal proposition. Thus— COMPLEX. COMPOUND. 1. When he had become exhausted, the swimmer was drowned. 2. As Mary was ill, w^e had to go to the picnic without her. 3. The Scots, w^ho advanced to York, ravaged the country with unsparing fury. 1. The swimmer became exhaust- ed, and he was drowned. 2. Mary was ill, and hence we had to go to the picnic without her. 3. The Scots advanced to York, and ravaged the country with unsparing fury. EXERCISE 67. Expand the following complex sentences into compound : 1. As the wind was fair, the vessel put to sea. 2. Beyond the Mississippi are yast j^rairies, over which roam great herds of buffalo. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 169 3. The heart of Robert Bruce, which was preserved in a silver case, was consigned to the care of Douglas. 4. The Rhone, which flows into the Lake of Geneva, emerges from it at the town of that name. 5. The coral insect, which barely possesses life, is hourly creating habitations for man [and yet it^ etc.]. C. The men ran away because they became frightened. 7. When his reinforcements arrived, Napoleon ordered an ad- vance alon'n told told thought thought throve, -ed thriven, -ed threw , thrown trod trodden, trod woke, -ed woke, -ed waxed waxen, -ed wore w'orn ■ wove woven w^ed, -ed wed, -ed wept w^ept wet, -ed wet, -ed whet, -ed Tvhet, -ed w^on won wound, -ed w^ound wrought, -ed wTought, -cd WTung wrung wrote, writ written YB 36498 541632 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY p s rv