OCSB LfBRARV
 
 ON 
 
 MARINE MOTORS 
 
 AND 
 
 MOTOR LAUNCHES 
 
 A HANDY BOOK FOR YACHTSMEN 
 
 BY 
 
 E. W. ROBERTS, M. E. 
 
 Author of "The Gas Engine Handbook." 
 
 NEW YORK AND LONDON : 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 1901
 
 COPYRIGHT 1901 
 
 BY 
 
 E . W . ROBERTS, M . E , 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 
 
 PRKSS OF 
 
 THOMSON & CO., 
 9 MURRAY STREET, N. Y.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I PAGE 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION - - 9 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 METHOD OH FUFL SUPPLY - 23 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 OPERATION - - 2 7 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 ABOUT GASOLINE - 41 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 CHOOSING AN ENGINE 57 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 IGNITERS 73 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 WEir.Ha- IN CAS ENGINES - 97
 
 UNIFORM EDITIONS 
 
 RUDDER^ON^tSERIES 
 
 ON YACHTS AND YACHT HANDLING. By 
 Thomas Fleming Day. Bound in blue buckram and 
 gold, 32mo, illustrated. Price fi. 
 
 ON MARINE MOTORS AND MOTOR LAUNCHES. 
 By K. W. Roberts, M. E. Bound in blue buckram 
 and gold, 32010, illustrated. Price $i. 
 
 RUDDER^JHOW-TO^SERIES 
 
 HOW TO BUILD A SKIPJACK. Reprint from THE 
 
 RUDDEU. B.und in blue buckram and gold, 8vo, 
 
 48pp, illustrated. Price $i. 
 HOW TO BUILD A RACER FOR $so. Reprint from 
 
 THE RUDDER. Bound in blue buckram and gold, 
 
 8vo, <52pp, illustrated. Price 1. 
 HOW TO BUILD A MOTOR LAUNCH. By Chas. 
 
 D. Mower. Bound in blue buckram and gold, 
 
 8vo, 48pp, illustra'ed. Price $i .
 
 PREFACE 
 
 HpHE gasoline engine for marine propulsion is fast be- 
 coming one of the most extensive factors in power 
 craft of small sizes. That it is not taking hold faster is be- 
 cause it is not understood as well as it should be both by 
 the builder and the engine runner. While there are quite a 
 number of very good engines, there are, unfortunately, 
 a great many more of which it may be said that, while 
 the makers' intentions were good, the results have not 
 fulfilled his intentions. The steam engine has so long 
 been a factor in our life that it has ceased to be looked 
 upon with awe, and an}- one with the least pretensions to 
 a knowledge of engineering understands the general prin- 
 ciples of operation of the older motor. While the gas 
 engine is simple and, in fact, much less complicated than 
 the steam engine in so far as its mechanism is con- 
 cerned, it is but imperfectly understood even by many 
 who have had close dealings with it for years. Chving to 
 the fact that a gasoline engine is self-contained and pro- 
 duces the propulsive force from the fuel as it is needed, 
 the derangement of any function is very likely to throw
 
 8 
 
 the entire motor out of working order. A knowledge of 
 the principles of operation involved, as well as the trou- 
 bles that are likely to arise and where to look for the 
 cause, is essential to the runner. Quite frequently the 
 remedy is one that can be applied immediately, and no 
 inconvenience will result from the derangement. Should, 
 however, the engine runner not know what the matter 
 is and the remedy to apply, he might as well have no 
 engine. It was to help the engine runner that the present 
 series of articles now appearing in book form were written. 
 The author trusts that the hints contained in this small 
 book will accomplish the object he has had in view in 
 their preparation, i. e., to smooth over many of the rough 
 places in the operation of a marine gasoline engine.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION. 
 
 \\/HEN selecting a gasoline engine for driving a boat 
 * there are a number of considerations to be dealt 
 with, but all of them, great and small, subservient 
 to the primary consideration of reliability of oper- 
 tion at all times and under the most trying conditions. It 
 is a very peculiar thing about the gasoline engine that it is 
 expected to be in good working order at all times and 
 that it must never break down. If it does, the owner or 
 operator, as the case may be, will decry the gasoline en- 
 gine, its builders and all who have anything to do with it, 
 in language that is probably not of the mildest kind. If 
 a steam engine breaks down, there may be some strong 
 words used with reference to the maker, but as a rule 
 nothing is said against the steam engine as a prime 
 mover, for the simple reason that we are accustomed to 
 its vagaries and take them as a matter of course. 
 
 \Yhile much more is usually expected of the gasoline 
 engine than of the steam engine, the previous assertion 
 is none the less true that reliability of operation is the
 
 10 
 
 primary consideration and by all means the most impor- 
 tant. Economy of fuel, which is a matter of first impor- 
 tance with all prime movers on land, becomes a second- 
 ary requirement as far as the marine gasoline engine is 
 concerned, and more especially when these engines are to 
 be used for small powers and go as a rule under the care 
 of the unskilled. It is a very mistaken notion that any- 
 one, even a child, can operate a gasoline engine. True, a 
 child will get on very well after being taught, and until 
 something happens. Then comes the necessity for a man 
 with reasoning powers that are well developed and with 
 a clear head. All kinds of things may happen to a vessel, 
 if its motive power gives out. What these are it is scarce- 
 ly necessary to explain to the reader. A great many 
 things may happen to a gasoline engine in indifferent 
 hands, and the greater portion of this article will be de- 
 voted to the things that may happen and what to do in 
 case accidents occur. 
 
 Before taking up the matters of selection and care of a 
 gasoline ^ngine, it will be necessary to explain briefly 
 the principles of operation of the two types available for 
 marine purposes. These types are the four-cycle engine, 
 in which there is but one impulse at full power for each
 
 two revolutions of the crankshaft, and the two-cycle 
 engine, in which an impulse occurs at each revolution of 
 the crankshaft. Of the two, the four-cycle engine is that 
 most in use for stationary purposes, but in marine prac- 
 tice the two-cycle engine is driving the other very hard. 
 Although not generally considered as economical of fuel 
 as the four-cycle engine, it can be built much lighter for 
 the same power, and the great frequency of the impulses 
 makes it much steadier in operation. This can perhaps 
 be realized better when it is remembered that a single 
 cylinder steam engine receives an impulse at every stroke 
 of the piston, or two impulses at every revolution of the 
 crankshaft, while the four-cycle gasoline engine receives 
 but one impulse to two revolutions, or one impulse to 
 four in the steam engine. The steam engine also re- 
 ceives two impulses during the same time that the two- 
 cycle engine receives one. It is supposed, of course, that 
 both the steam engine and the gasoline engine are run- 
 ning at the same speed. Suppose again that the mean 
 pressure within the cylinders of each class of motor 
 (steam and gasoline) are the same, then the power of the 
 steam engine for the same cylinder diameter, and the 
 same stroke and running at the same speed would be
 
 twice that of the two-cycle engine and four times that of 
 the four-cycle engine. 
 
 The principles of operation of the four-cycle engine 
 may be best understood by reference to Fig. i. In this 
 figure there are shown four operations of the engine, one 
 operation taking place during one stroke of the piston. 
 At A is shown the first operation in which the piston P 
 is on the downward stroke, and the inlet valve is open, 
 allowing an explosive mixture of gasoline and air to be 
 drawn into the cylinder as indicated by the arrows. Just 
 as the piston reaches the bottom of the suction stroke the 
 valve is closed, and upon the following upward stroke, 
 shown at B, the mixture, called the charge, is compressed 
 into a space at the end of the cylinder which is not en- 
 tered by the piston and the volume of which is about one- 
 third of the volume displaced by the piston during its 
 stroke. Thus the charge is compressed into a volume 
 equal to one-quarter of what it was originally, or to some- 
 thing in the neighborhood of seventy-five or eighty 
 pounds to the square inch. Just before the piston reaches 
 the top of the compression stroke, the charge is ignited 
 by means of a spark passing between the two points of 
 the igniter I. This causes a sudden rise of pressure in
 
 FIG. 1
 
 FIG. 1
 
 the cylinder, which will, if the spark occurs at the proper 
 time, reach a maximum value just at the end of the 
 stroke. The piston then descends as shown at C, and 
 the products of combustion expand until, when the pis- 
 ton has reached a point about 10 per cent, of the stroke 
 from the bottom of the stroke, the exhaust valve E is 
 opened and the burnt gases escape through the exhaust 
 pipe to the atmosphere, being driven out by the return of 
 the piston during the next stroke of the piston as shown 
 at D. This completes the cycle or series of operations, 
 which consists of the four operations shown, and hence 
 the name four-cycle, which, to be strictly correct, should 
 be called four-part cycle. In the four-cycle engine, the 
 exhaust valve E is invariably opened by the mechanism 
 of the engine, which is in nearly all cases a cam on a shaft 
 called the cam or lay-shaft, and which makes one revo- 
 lution to two of the crankshaft. Many devices have been 
 introduced in order to avoid the necessity of using reduc- 
 ing gears for operating the exhaust valve, but the majori- 
 ty of builders use either a pair of spur gears, a pair of 
 bevel gears, or a pair of skew or helical gears. The first 
 and third of these are the ones in most general use. The 
 suction valve S is operated either by a cam in the same
 
 i6 
 
 manner as the exhaust valve or by means of a vacuum 
 formed within the engine cylinder upon the down stroke 
 of the piston. 
 
 The operation of the two-cycle engine may be ex- 
 plained by means of the diagrams in Fig. 2. In the two- 
 cycle engine the same general principles are involved as 
 in the four-cycle engine, the only difference being that 
 the suction and the exhaust strokes are cut out in a very 
 ingenious manner. In the two-cycle engine of the type 
 mat is employed so extensively in small marine engines, 
 the crank and the connecting rod are enclosed in an air- 
 tight case called the crank-case, so that the piston is al- 
 ternately producing suction and compression in the 
 crank-case. At A in the figure the piston P has started 
 upon its upward stroke, and may be supposed to contain 
 a charge of gasoline vapor and air. The charge is com- 
 pressed and ignited near the top of the stroke as in the 
 four-cycle engine. At the same time the suction caused 
 by the upward stroke of the piston is drawing a fresh 
 charge into the crank-chamber through the valve S. On 
 the following downward stroke of the piston the burnt 
 gases are expanded and the fresh charge in the crank- 
 ciiamber is compressed. Just before the piston reaches
 
 FIG. 2
 
 FIG. 2
 
 19 
 
 the bottom of its stroke, it passes the exhaust port E, and 
 the products of combustion escape through the exhaust 
 pipe to the atmosphere. Immediately after the exhaust 
 port is opened, the piston passes the inlet port G and the 
 fresh charge which has already been raised to a pressure 
 of from five to six pounds in the crank-case rushes into 
 the cylinder and is deflected by the plate R to the top, 
 as indicated by the arrows, and drives out the major por- 
 tion of the previous charge. The cycle is then repeated 
 as in the case with the four-cycle engine. It may be seen 
 that the complete series of operations is finished in two 
 strokes of the piston, or in one revolution of the crank- 
 shaft. The name two-cycle is derived in the same man- 
 ner as that of the four-cycle engine, and similarly it is in 
 reality a two-part cycle. 
 
 The two-cycle engine is growing rapidly in favor both 
 with the yachtsman and the manufacturer. The valve S 
 in Fig. 2 is operated by the suction of the piston and the 
 only mechanism employed is a reciprocating rod operated 
 by an eccentric to drive the water pump and the igniter. 
 Much trouble is experienced at times with the two-cycle 
 engine from ignition taking place in the crank-chamber, 
 and is due to several causes, which will be explained
 
 later. It often happens that, in a poorly proportioned 
 engine, a portion of the fresh charge will escape through 
 the exhaust with the products of combustion. One of the 
 greatest of troubles with this type of engine is, however, 
 that it is usually the. first one to be built by an amateur, 
 and he generally makes the engine so out of proportion 
 that it will not operate successfully under very favorable 
 conditions. The author has frequently run across cases 
 of this kind, and he has one in mind where an unfortunate 
 designer far away in Manitoba sent the author a photo- 
 graph of his engine with a mournful appeal to tell him 
 why it would not run. Unfortunately the photograph 
 had nothing about it to indicate the proportions of the 
 engine, and it was of course impossible to suggest a 
 remedy without writing the inquirer a long dissertation 
 on design. 
 
 In addition to the features of the engine shown by the 
 diagrams there is usually a hollow chamber surrounding 
 the cylinder through which water is caused to circulate 
 by means of a pump, in order^to prevent overheating of 
 the cylinder and the piston, although in some small 
 gasoline engines the cooling is effected by means of 
 radiating ribs of metal, which project from the outside of
 
 21 
 
 the piston. This device works very well with engines 
 having cylinders of three and one-half inches diameter 
 and below, if there is abundant access of air. But the 
 fact that water is always present in plenty when the 
 engine is employed for marine purposes makes this 
 arrangement appear somewhat unnecessary. A gasoline 
 engine will often stop from overheating of the cylinder, 
 and a plentiful supply of water is at all times a certain 
 preventive of this trouble.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 METHOD OF FUEL SUPPLY. 
 
 are three distinct methods of supplying gaso- 
 line to the engine, the principal object of each being 
 to furnish gasoline in such a manner that it will be in a fine- 
 ly divided state and well mixed with the air at the time ig- 
 nition takes place. The first method in use is that of 
 passing the air either over or through the body of the 
 fuel in order that it may take up a portion, charging the 
 air with gasoline vapor. This is called the carbureter 
 system, and the device by which it is accomplished is 
 called a carbureter. Only a portion of the air that passes 
 into the engine cylinder is allowed to pass through the 
 carbureter, as the carbureted air is usually too heavily 
 charged with gasoline to be explosive. One of the most 
 successful marine gasoline engines in use employs a 
 carbureter, but the system has the objection that it will 
 take up only the lighter -portions of the fuel, leaving a 
 heavy residue in the bottom of the carbureter that is use- 
 less for the purposes of the engine. Warming the gaso- 
 line by passing a portion of either the exhaust or the hot
 
 24 
 
 jacket water through a pipe which in turn passes through 
 the liquid fuel in the carbureter will usually overcome 
 this difficulty to a great extent. 
 
 The vaporizer system is one in which the air passes 
 by a small opening leading to a reservoir containing a 
 limited quantity of gasoline and drawing the fuel wil.li 
 it much in the same manner as in the familiar perfume 
 atomizer, or a valve is opened by the action of the air 
 passing into the engine, allowing a small quantity of the 
 fuel to flow into the path of the entering air. In fact a 
 vaporizer may be defined as any device so arranged that 
 the air, in passing by an opening, carries with it the 
 requisite amount of fuel. 
 
 Jets are devised by which gasoline is forced into the 
 path of the air by means of a small gasoline pump, no 
 dependence being placed upon the action of the air cur- 
 rent. Of the three methods it is the author's experience 
 that the last gives the most trouble in the hands of the 
 unskilled operator. I have seen several makes of gaso- 
 line engines which operated both regularly and smoothly 
 with a jet feed, but as soon as the inexperienced operator 
 takes them in hand and changes the adjustment, as he 
 invariably will, the trouble commences. Vaporizers and
 
 carbureters both have their individual troubles. Carbu- 
 reters will quite frequently "freeze up" in winter, i. e., the 
 gasoline will get so cold that it will not evaporate. The 
 effect is heightened by the very nature of the process. 
 The action of the evaporation carries off heat from 
 the liquid and rapidly lowers the temperature of the fuel, 
 which soon becomes too cold for effective working ex- 
 cept when the lost heat units are supplied from an out- 
 side source, either from the air in summer, or from hot 
 jacket- water or exhaust gases in winter. Vaporizers are 
 inclined to cause trouble from the fact that the openings 
 are so small as to easily become clogged by any foreign 
 matter that may find its way into the gasoline. For 
 this reason, the writer advises that all gasoline should be 
 poured into the tank through a strainer. If a fine wire 
 strainer is not obtainable, a piece of muslin will answer 
 the purpose very well. Keeping gasoline in old paint or 
 varnish cans is especially pernicious in its effects, as the 
 gasoline will dissolve any residuum in the cans and is 
 quite inclined to deposit it in the small passages of 
 the vaporizer. For the same reason the tank should be 
 thoroughly cleaned at frequent intervals, and precaution 
 taken to prevent foreign matter from entering. The outlet
 
 26 
 
 pipe which carries the fuel to the engine should not be 
 taken from the bottom of the tank, but its opening should 
 be at least one-half inch above the bottom.
 
 'Tp 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OPERATION. 
 
 ROUBLES with gasoline engines are, quite frequently, 
 the outcome of the operator's carelessness in reading 
 or understanding the instructions sent out by the builder. 
 A gasoline engine will not run on pure gasoline or vapor 
 nor with igniter so set that it ignites the charge halfway 
 down the expansion stroke. These remarks may appear 
 unnecessary to the experienced operator, yet it is a fact 
 that I was once called upon to examine an engine in 
 which both these thing's were done. To the reader who 
 has had no experience in the operating of gasoline en- 
 gines, I would say, always read the instruction book 
 carefully and follow the instructions to the letter. Bear 
 in mind that the builder is quite certain to know more 
 about the engine than you do yourself. Because you are 
 a good steam engineer is no reason that you should be 
 able to operate a gasoline engine successfully from the 
 start. It is quite likely to increase your confusion. 
 
 When starting a gasoline engine, it is a good plan 
 to have in mind a certain routine of the necessary opera-
 
 28 
 
 tions and to follow this routine every time in order that 
 nothing may be omitted. First fill the charging cup, 
 which will be found attached to the cylinder of nearly all 
 gasoline engines. The amount of gasoline to use for this 
 purpose will usually be noted in the instruction book sent 
 with the engine. Allow the contents of the cup to flow 
 into the cylinder, and then close the valve between the 
 cup and the engine. It is well to note at this point that 
 more gasoline is required for this purpose when the 
 cylinder is cold than when it is warm, and the proper 
 quantity for each case may be determined best by ex- 
 periment. The gasoline should be given a short time 
 to evaporate, and, in the meantime, other things may be 
 attended to. All valves between the engine and the gaso- 
 line tank should now be opened and the oil cups filled. 
 It is a good plan to fill the oil cups every time you start 
 upon a trip, no matter if they are nearly full already. 
 Carefully examine the ignition device to see that it is in 
 good working order. This may be done, with an electric 
 igniter, by touching the two ends of the wires together 
 and seeing if a good "fat" spark results. Then press the 
 movable electrode against the stationary one and deter- 
 mine if there is a circuit by holding one wire in place and
 
 2 9 
 
 wiping the other on its binding post. If a flash results, 
 there is no obstruction to the circuit. If it is suspected 
 that the ignition mechanism is not working properly, the 
 above operations should be repeated when the engine has 
 been turned over until the igniter is just about to snap 
 and again after the "snapping" has taken place. If there 
 is a charge of gasoline in the cylinder, be careful to keep 
 one of the wires away from its binding post when the 
 igniter is in operation. No flash should occur after the 
 igniter has "snapped." 
 
 To start the engine, the relief cock should be opened, 
 and, if there is a device for delaying the action of the 
 igniter, the lever for that purpose should be moved to 
 the position for starting the engine. The gasoline valve 
 should then be opened, but only about one-half the dis- 
 tance it should be when the engine is running at full 
 speed, or else the charge will be too rich. Turn the en- 
 gine over by means of the starting crank until one or 
 more explosions take place, and the engine will go of it- 
 self. As the engine gets up to speed, open the gasoline 
 valve cautiously, and, should the engine show signs of 
 slowing down, lessen the opening of the gasoline valve 
 until it starts off again. When the engine is well under
 
 3 
 
 way, look to the water circulation and so adjust the water 
 valves that after the engine has been running for about 
 , fifteen minutes the exit water will be about as hot as can 
 be borne comfortably by the hand. If for any reason the 
 water circulation has been neglected and the engine runs 
 hot, the water should be turned on with great caution, as 
 too sudden cooling of the cylinder may cause it to con- 
 tract so rapidly as to bind the piston. 
 
 Numerous difficulties are frequently encountered by 
 the inexperienced gasoline engine operator. If the en- 
 gine runs too hot from defective circulation within the 
 water jacket it may shut down altogether. Should the 
 ignition battery be weak, the engine will start very well, 
 but it will soon begin missing explosions, and the misfires 
 will gradually increase until it fails entirely to ignite. 
 Explosions in the crank-chamber of a two-cycle engine 
 are the result of either too weak a mixture or of leaks in 
 the crank-chamber, which lessen the compression. Pre- 
 mature ignitions, those that take place too soon and cause 
 a severe shock in the cylinder, are the bctc noir of the gas 
 engineer. Aside from an improperly adjusted igniter, 
 they can usually be traced to some projection within the 
 compression space which reaches a temperature so high
 
 as to act in the same manner as a hot tube and ignite the 
 charge before the proper point in the stroke. Disconnect 
 one of the igniter wires or open the switch, if there be 
 one, and should the engine continue to run with the cur- 
 rent cut off, there is a hot point in the compression space. 
 Projections upon the end of the piston or at any point 
 within the cylinder are inclined to gather carbon, which 
 may form in the shape of a cone or a thin flake and be- 
 come highly heated after the engine has. been running a 
 short time. Even the igniter points have been known to 
 act in this manner. Compression raises the temperature 
 of the charge, and if the compression is too high it may 
 of itself cause the ignition of the mixture. If the trouble 
 can be traced to no other cause, it is a good plan to re- 
 duce the compression, or, in case the air is heated before 
 it enters the cylinder, to reduce the temperature of the 
 entering air by leading a portion of it around the heater. 
 Much trouble in the operation of both gas and gaso- 
 line engines is due to the use of a cylinder oil that is not 
 adapted to the purpose. Too heavy an oil will carbon- 
 ize in the cylinder and deposit carbon to the detriment of 
 the operation of the engine. This is especially true of 
 oils in which a portion of the mixture is of direct animal
 
 32 
 
 origin. There is an oil which has been placed upon the 
 market and advertised as made expressly for gas engines 
 which has caused untold trouble to the users. This oil 
 will give good satisfaction as long as the engine is run 
 with a comparatively hot cylinder, and will probably 
 cause but little trouble when used on marine engines. It 
 has proven inadequate to the task when employed in en- 
 closed crank-chambers, as it is apt to cake and thus to lose 
 its lubricating properties. My advice to the gas engine 
 runner is to invariably use the oil recommended by the 
 maker of his engine, or else to look out for trouble. If at 
 any time it is found that the piston rings are rusted fast 
 in the grooves it is a sign that an improper oil has been" 
 employed. An unusual deposit of carbon in the cylinder 
 or in the exhaust passages is also an indication of an im- 
 perfect oil, and this result may be traced to oils of too 
 great specific gravity or to those which have a proportion 
 of animal oils. 
 
 Explosions in the exhaust passages may generally be 
 traced to misfires, and they sometimes occur from a leaky 
 exhaust valve, the direct cause of the trouble being, of 
 course, the presence of an explosive mixture in the pas- 
 sages. At the first sign of a leaky valve, especially when
 
 33 
 
 it is the exhaust valve, there should be no delay in re- 
 grinding it to its seat. Neglect of this matter will result 
 in a rapid increase of the leak, until the valve soon be- 
 comes useless and has to be replaced. Exhaust valve 
 stems should be lubricated with kerosene only, as the use 
 of the heavier oils will cause a deposit that will result in 
 the valve sticking. All packing for gasoline valve stems 
 and similar joints should be lubricated with soap. Every 
 portion of the gasoline attachments should be cleaned 
 at frequent intervals, a good cleansing compound being 
 a strong suds made with warm water. After cleaning, 
 the parts should be rinsed in gasoline. 
 
 A part of the gasoline engine that is apt to be neglected 
 is the water jacket. It should be cleaned occasionally 
 and all solid matter removed. The easiest way to do this 
 is, perhaps, with a stream of water from the nozzle of a 
 hose. If no hose is at hand, or if the deposit is too hard, 
 it should be dug out with a hook similar to a poker, or to 
 one of the little hoes used for cleaning stoves. 
 
 If trouble is experienced in starting a gasoline engine 
 in cold weather, it may be heated by filling the water 
 jacket with boiling water. A hot brick or a hot stone 
 may also be laid on the vaporizer or the carbureter. Fail-
 
 34 
 
 ure to start in any weather may be due to any one of 
 many different causes. The current may not pass through 
 the igniter, as the igniter may be corroded or be put out 
 of order in other ways. The mixture may be too rich in 
 fuel, or too weak. The gasoline may have been forgot- 
 ten and the valves not turned on. The gasoline supply 
 pipe or the valves may be clogged up. The igniter may 
 not be set properly. 
 
 Pounding may result from premature explosions, from 
 an excessively rich mixture, or from a loose bearing. 
 Swinging the fly-wheel back and forth through a short 
 arc will show a loose bearing, and premature ignition 
 will usually be indicated by the violence of the knock. If 
 it is found that the pounding ceases upon cutting off the 
 igniter and that the bearings are in good adjustment, the 
 pounding is probably due to an excessively rich mixture. 
 Explosions in the crank chamber of a two-cycle engine 
 are also productive of pounding. An engine having an 
 imperfect vaporizer will also give similar results, but the 
 jar will vary in strength, and upon some cycles be absent 
 altogether. It is well to avoid a vaporizer that is not 
 controlled automatically, and which supplies the fuel in 
 proportion to the arnount of air taken into the cylinder
 
 35 
 
 irrespective of hand regulation. This is one of the ob- 
 jections to the jet, and it will occur with devices in which 
 the gasoline feed is opened wide at every stroke of the 
 engine, and the amount of gasoline taken into the cylin- 
 der is not dependent upon the amount of air that enters. 
 There are other features about a gas engine that may 
 cause trouble. A leaky valve may be caused by the spring 
 being a weak one, so that it does not seat properly. A 
 weak spark may be due to a short circuit or a leak in the 
 spark coil. It is well to always keep the spark coil in as 
 dry a place as possible, and if necessary to place it in a 
 water-tight box. The engine may lose in power from 
 a leak in the cylinder or past the piston, so that it does 
 not hold its compression. Leaky pistons are usually in- 
 dicated by smoke issuing from the open end of the cylin- 
 der. The state of the mixture may be quite readily de- 
 termined while the engine is running by the color of the 
 flame which appears at the priming cup if it is open at the 
 time of an explosion. The most perfect combustion is 
 indicated by a flame of a deep purple color, while a mix- 
 ture that is too rich in fuel is indicated by a flame that is 
 tinged with orange or yellow, and a mixture poor in fuel 
 is shown by the flame being a pale blue. This is also a
 
 36 
 
 very good way to determine the manner in which the 
 vaporizer is working. If the vaporizer is giving mixtures 
 of the same proportion at every stroke of the engine, the 
 color of the flame will be the same at each explosion ; 
 but should the vaporizer be working unevenly, the flame 
 shows it at once by changing color from time to time. 
 This is a simple way to determine if the engine is pound- 
 ing because of too rich a mixture. Misfires may some- 
 times occur because the igniter is so situated that it is in 
 a pocket which is rilled with the burnt products of com- 
 bustion left from a previous charge and which have not 
 time to escape. About as good a place for the igniter as 
 can be found is in the direct path of the entering charge, 
 as it is then subject to the cooling effect of the air and is 
 always located in fresh mixture. 
 
 There is but one engine in the market that is fitted 
 to reverse at full speed, all others being designed to run 
 in one direction only, and in order that the direction of 
 motion may be changed from ahead to astern it is neces- 
 sary to supply some device for this purpose which is in- 
 dependent of the engine. To supply the demand for such 
 a device there has been designed the reversible propeller. 
 In this propeller the blades are arranged to rotate about a
 
 37 
 
 line drawn through the root of the blade through 
 the tip, and through an angle of ninety degrees. 
 The blade is thus changed from a left hand to a right- 
 hand screw, or from a right-hand to a left-hand screw, as 
 the case may be. Again, there is the solid propeller of 
 the type so familiar to the steam engineer, and this is so 
 arranged that its shaft may be reversed independently of 
 the engine. This is accomplished in a number of differ- 
 ent ways, with the aid of various combinations of friction 
 clutches and gears too numerous to mention. Either 
 system has advantages peculiar to itself, as well as advan- 
 tages which are not found in the other. The reversible 
 propeller takes up less room on board the boat, but the 
 principal parts of the operating mechanism are on the 
 outside and hard to reach when there is a necessity for 
 their adjustment and repair. Again the reversible pro- 
 peller is a hard thing to throw weeds off of for the 
 reason that the direction of rotation is never reversed. 
 The mechanism of the reversing clutch is on the inside 
 of the boat and takes up considerable room, but it has 
 the advantage of being easy to get at in case of trouble, 
 and also the direction of the propeller shaft may be 
 reversed in order to clear it of weeds. It is the general
 
 33 
 
 custom among gasoline engine builders to supply rever- 
 sible wheels with small craft and on engines of six or 
 eight horse-power and less, and reversible clutches on 
 engines of larger sizes. It is a very poor plan to depend 
 upon stopping the engine and starting it again in the 
 opposite direction, as the ability to reverse quickly is 
 practically a necessary feature, particularly when the boat 
 is to be used in a crowded water way. 
 
 It is a good plan when selecting a gasoline engine for 
 a boat to see another of the same make you propose buy- 
 ing at work in another boat. Find out if possible from the 
 owner if he has had much trouble with it, and if he has 
 had a great deal of trouble look around a little more 
 before you purchase. Don't buy anything just because it 
 will run, as you may get a poor engine, of which there 
 are unfortunately quite a number on the market. If 
 you wish to make a long cruise and need an economical 
 engine, purchase a four-cycle. Get a two or three cylin- 
 der if you can afford to pay the difference in price. And 
 if you can do so conveniently, and without too great 
 an outlay, have an expert from the factory teach you 
 how to run the engine. 
 
 A gasoline engine is an ideal power for pleasure craft,
 
 39 
 
 especially when the operator desires to be his own en- 
 gineer. You can enter the boat wearing a spotless white 
 duck suit, run the engine all day, and leave the boat at 
 night with the suit as clean as when you went aboard in 
 the morning. There is no smoke, soot, or heat, and no 
 hard work. There is no delay in getting started, as the 
 engine is always as ready to run as a steam engine with 
 full pressure up in the boiler at all times. There is no 
 waste of fuel when standing idle, and in contrast to the 
 electric launch, you are dependent only on your supply 
 of gasoline, which can be replenished anywhere at a 
 tritling cost.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ABOUT GASOLINE. 
 
 fjASOLINE, also called naphtha, is a by-product in the 
 ^-* manufacture of kerosene oil from crude petroleum. 
 The term naphtha, while not altogether erroneous, is some- 
 what misleading, as, strictly speaking, it is a term synon- 
 ymous with petroleum. 
 
 Gasoline is the name usually applied to a by-product 
 in the manufacture of kerosene which has a specific 
 gravity midway between that of the heavier kerosene 
 and the lighter benzine. It is classified by the petroleum 
 trade as A naphtha, B naphtha, and C naphtha, C naphtha 
 being the lightest of the three. 
 
 Petroleum, and of course all of its derivatives, belong 
 to that large family of chemical compounds known as 
 hydrocarbons. The name is derived from the two ele- 
 ments, hydrogen and carbon, of which all hydrocarbons 
 consist. These two constituents form chemical unions 
 in different proportions and at ordinary temperatures 
 they exist in the forms of gases, liquids and solids, rang- 
 ing from the constituents of the familiar illuminating
 
 42 
 
 gases, through the ethers, benzine, gasoline, kerosene, 
 light and heavy machinery oils, vaseline, paraffine wax, 
 tar and coke. 
 
 Each variation in the proportion of the two elements 
 forms a different substance from its fellows, and quite 
 frequently hydrocarbons are found on which the propor- 
 tions of the constituents are precisely the same, but in 
 properties of which they are entirly different. 
 
 The origin of petroleum has been attributed to various 
 sources, but the latest investigations point to an un- 
 doubtable animal origin. During prehistoric times, large 
 numbers of animals, principally the inhabitants of the 
 sea, were buried by convulsions of the earth. The fleshy 
 portions of the dead animals not being exposed to the 
 air, underwent a transformation into petroleum, while the 
 bones and the shells were transformed into stone. The 
 name "coal oil" is therefore a misnomer, for although 
 hydrocarbons similar to the petroleum derivatives have 
 been artificially produced from coal, there is no evidence 
 to support a theory of vegetable origin for petroleum. 
 
 So much for science. The origin and properties of 
 petroleum are most interesting to the student, but to the 
 operator of a gasoline launch a knowledge of the proper-
 
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 45 
 
 ties of gasoline are of the greatest importance. I dare 
 say that nine out of ten people would take to their heels 
 if it were proposed to pour a stream of gasoline into a fire 
 from an ordinary oil can in their presence. The same 
 persons would undoubtedly run if a lighted match were 
 thrown into an open can of gasoline. Yet either may be 
 done with impunity, for the expected explosion would 
 not occur. 
 
 For instance, the top may be removed from the can, 
 Fig. i, and a lighted match held near the opening, and 
 unless the can has been quite recently filled no explosion 
 will occur. The gasoline vapor will burn at the opening 
 in a manner similar to gas issuing from the gas pipe. 
 The reason no explosion follows this seemingly foolish 
 action of holding a match to the opening is that there 
 is not sufficient air mixed in the gasoline at the top 01 
 the can to form an explosive mixture. 
 
 Gasoline evaporates quite rapidly at ordinary tempe- 
 ratures, and shortly after the can has been filled the 
 vapor has driven practically all air from the top of the 
 can. Gasoline cans will explode after they have been 
 filled for some time, but only under the following cir- 
 cumstances:
 
 46 
 
 A gasoline can which has no vent and is exposed to a 
 temperature considerably higher than that at which the 
 gasoline will evaporate, will explode from a rise of pres- 
 sure due to the transformation of the. liquid into vapor. 
 Contrary to the popular opinion, an explosion of this 
 nature is not necessarily followed by a conflagration. In 
 fact the writer can call to mind a case in which a can of 
 benzine exploded in a building and the benzine did not 
 -atch fire, because neither the liquid nor the vapor was 
 exposed to a flame. 
 
 The state of affairs in a gasoline can or reservoir 
 shortly after being filled is illustrated in Fig. 2. In the 
 figure gasoline vapor is represented by circles arid air 
 by crosses. The relative proportions of air and gasoline 
 vapor in any portion of the reservoir is indicated by the 
 relative number of crosses and circles. The figure shows 
 that near the surface of the liquid there is nothing but 
 vapor, while near the top of the reservoir the proportions 
 of air to vapor is about 4 to I. The time which would 
 elapse before the condition of affairs shown in the figure 
 would exist depends upon several conditions. 
 
 These conditions are, the specific gravity of the gas- 
 oline, the proportion of the surface exposed to the vol-
 
 47 
 
 time by the space above the liquid and the temperature 
 of the surrounding atmosphere. But within a very short 
 time after filling the tank such a condition exists, as 
 shown in Fig. 2, and gradually the air is entirely dis- 
 placed by gasoline vapor. Gasoline vapor alone, and 
 even when mixed with air in the proportion of four or 
 five volumes of air to one of vapor is not explosive. The 
 slow evaporation of the heavier hydrocarbon kerosene 
 permits an explosive mixture to remain above the liquid 
 in a kerosene reservor much longer than in the case ot 
 gasoline. In fact there is much less danger of a reservoir 
 of gasoline exploding from the application of a flame at 
 an opening than if the reservoir contained kerosene. 
 This is strictly true notwithstanding the popular opinion 
 to the contrary. 
 
 It is the well-known volatile property of gasoline 
 which is the foundation of the popular belief in its dan- 
 gerous properties, that is in reality the basis of its safe- 
 ty under the circumstances already discussed. In fact, 
 the more volatile a product of petroleum the less is the 
 danger of an explosion coming from the application of a 
 flame to the opening of a reservoir which contains it. 
 
 Apropos of the present discussion may be mentioned
 
 another popular fallacy, one which has afforded much 
 amusement to those who know better. It is generally 
 supposed that if a flame be applied to the open neck of 
 a balloon, a violent explosion will follow. Balloons have 
 caught fire, but no explosion has ever followed such an 
 occurrence, because there was not sufficient air mixed 
 with gas to cause an explosion. If the balloon should 
 contain an explosive mixture of gas and air its buoy- 
 ancy would be destroyed. Balloons have exploded, bitf 
 no fire has followed. A balloon explosion is caused by 
 tying up the neck of a gas bag and ascending to a high 
 altitude. The gas expands owing to the reduced pres- 
 sure of the surrounding atmosphere and the internal 
 pressure becomes so great as to rend the fabric. 
 
 Returning to the subject of gasoline, take the res- 
 ervoir shown in Fig. I, and light the vapor at the open- 
 ing. From an ordinary spout oil can filled with gaso- 
 line a stream of the liquid may be poured into the open- 
 ing in the reservoir directly through the flame into the 
 reservoir, as shown in Fig. 3, and without an explosion 
 occurring. The flame will mount the stream, but will 
 not enter the can. Stop pouring and a tiny flame will 
 remain at the end of the spout. This may be extin-
 
 49 
 
 guished with a light tap of the finger, and the flame at 
 the reservoir opening may be put out by a light tap of 
 the palm of the hand. 
 
 To avoid an explosion from expansion due to over- 
 heating, even 7 gasoline reservoir should have a vent, as 
 shown in Fig. 2 at H, or be provided with a safety valve. 
 A simple form of such a valve is illustrated in Fig. 4. 
 This valve consists of a leather washer W do not use 
 rubber which is attached to an arm L pivoted at 
 P. The valve may be weighted if desired, provided the 
 reservoir is strong enough to stand some pressure. In- 
 stead of a lever a spring may be used, which is held 
 under compression, but the lever arrangement is un- 
 doubtedly better, for the reason that a sudden overheat- 
 ing or a possible explosion, due to a mixture of air with 
 the gasoline vapor on top of the reservoir, will blow the 
 valve so far off its seat as to leave the reservoir open 
 and give a free exit for the rush of gas. 
 
 For the reason that a gasoline tank is liable to ex- 
 plode from overheating it is best to place the tank under 
 ground, or at least in the shade of a properly constructed 
 shed. When the gasoline tank is placed upon a boat a 
 corresponding precaution should be taken and a space
 
 5 
 
 should be left between the deck upon the top of the tank 
 and means afforded for free ventilation of such a space. 
 The vent in the tank should communicate to the outside 
 of the vessel, and suitable precaution should be taken to 
 prevent the escape of the vapor into the space about the 
 tank. 
 
 Owing to the explosive properties of a mixture of gas- 
 oline vapor and air when confined, every precaution 
 should be taken to prevent either the liquid gasoline 
 or its vapor from escaping into any enclosed portion 
 of the boat. Leaks from any portion of the gasoline sup- 
 ply system should be effectualy stopped as soon as dis- 
 covered. A partial stoppage of the leak is as bad as 
 none, and it by no means avoids the presence of dan- 
 ger. A forcible example of the danger of a leak into 
 the enclosed portions of the vessel is a lamentable acci- 
 dent which 'Occurred to a gasoline launch on Long Island 
 Sound. 
 
 The danger that arises from leaks in the gasoline 
 supply pipe may to a great extent be avoided by using an 
 extra pipe surrounding that through which the gasoline 
 flows to the engine. This is a wise precaution at all times 
 and one that is taken by a great many gasoline launch
 
 builders. If every portion of a gasoline launch into 
 which the vapor might escape were to be thoroughly 
 ventilated, a large percentage of the danger would be 
 eliminated. 
 
 The writer remembers a disastrous explosion which 
 occurred on one of the small lakes in Northwestern New 
 York some six years ago. In this case the engine, 
 although it used gasoline as a fuel, was not a gas engine. 
 A leak in the gasoline supply system permitted the liquid 
 to flow into the engine room which was enclosed, and the 
 vapor that accumulated formed an explosive mixture 
 with the air in the cabin. This mixture took fire from a 
 torch and exploded, tearing the upper works of the boat 
 to pieces, injuring the owner and crippling the engineer 
 for life. 
 
 In the face of the facts already stated, it would seem 
 advisable to always put a gasoline engine in an open part 
 of the boat. But if precautions are taken never to enter 
 the engine room with a light after it has been unoccu- 
 pied for some time, especially if it has been kept closed, 
 and to keep the engine room thoroughly ventilated at 
 all times, there will be very little danger of an explosion 
 of this nature. Cleanliness in the engine room and the
 
 52 
 
 avoidance of leaks by proper care, such as an experienced 
 engineer would ordinarily take, would avoid much of the 
 trouble from this source. 
 
 As in a gasoline launch the greatest danger is from 
 leaks and the only way in which an explosion could 
 occur would be from a leak into an enclosed portion of 
 the boat or from the explosion of the gasoline tank 
 shortly after it has been partially filled, there is not so 
 very much to look after in order to avoid danger. An 
 explosion seldom if ever occurs from the latter cause ; 
 thus it will be seen that leaks are the principle thing to 
 look after. In an engine which uses electric ignition 
 there is no danger of an explosion even should a leak 
 occur, unless someone lights a match in the boat or a 
 naked flame is present. Therefore, should a leak occur, 
 those in the boat should not light matches, although 
 there is no danger of igniting gasoline or its vapor from 
 an ember like that of a burning cigar. 
 
 It will thus be seen that with proper precaution the 
 dangers of an explosion or its disastrous consequences 
 in a gasoline launch are not so great as one might sup- 
 pose. No one should run a boat having a gasoline en- 
 gine without a thorough knowledge of the fuel. The
 
 53 
 
 chief danger lies in handling gasoline carelessly. It is 
 entirely wrong for anyone to blame an explosion on the 
 engine itself or upon its makers, as many are ofttimes 
 inclined to do. When a steam boiler explodes the blame 
 is generally laid at the door of the operator, where it 
 almost invariably belongs. Xo one would think of 
 making a wholesale condemnation of the steam engine 
 because of a boiler explosion, or an accident which 
 happened to any part of the machinery. Xo more 
 should the gas engine as a power be condemned because 
 of an occasional accident. It is the same with any 
 branch of machinery, and no branch is entirely free 
 from the danger of an accident. 
 
 If by any chance the quantity of gasoline should take 
 fire, water should never be used to put it out unless 
 it can be employed in such a manner as to wash the 
 gasoline overboard, or at least to a place where it would 
 burn itself out without doing great damage. Should 
 water be used, the burning oil will float on top, and 
 spread rapidly, carrying the flame with it. It is likely 
 in this manner to do more damage than it would if left to 
 burn out in place where the fire originated. To choke 
 the flame, some porous non-combustible substance should
 
 54 
 
 be spread over the burning oil. If the body of gasoline 
 is not deep, sand or earth will answer the purpose very 
 well and will be more effectual if damp. But if the body 
 of the fluid is deep and a large quantity of earth and 
 sand cannot be quickly spread upon the oil, the sand will 
 sink to the bottom and the oil is quite likely lo continue 
 burning on top of the sand. For this reason ordinary 
 flour is a much better extinguisher, as it will float on top 
 of the oil and effectually choke the flame. Should gas- 
 oline catch fire in a room which may be tightly closed, 
 the best extinguisher and the one that will act most 
 quickly is aqua ammonia. A bottle of this liquid thrown 
 into a room in which there is a fire, and with force 
 enough to break it, will soon extinguish any fire. This 
 is because the fumes of ammonia will rapidfy spread, and 
 atmosphere will soon be so filled with it that it will no 
 longer support combustion. 
 
 If a bottle of ammonia is hung by a string containing 
 a fusible link in a room where gasoline is stored, the 
 arrangement will make a very effective fire extinguisher. 
 The string should pass over a pulley in the ceiling of the 
 room, and the link should be placed in a position where 
 fire is most likely to occur. The link may be made out of
 
 55 
 
 ordinary fuse wire, such as is usually employed by electri- 
 cians and which may be obtained of any electrical supply 
 store. Several fusible links may be placed at different 
 points in the string. Then a fire starting near a link 
 would melt it and let the bottle of ammonia drop on the 
 floor and break, permitting the ammonia to escape into 
 the room. The writer has never tried this fire extin- 
 guisher, but suggests it as something that is sure to 
 prove effectual. He believes that two quarts of strong 
 ammonia will be sufficient for a room containing 1,000 
 cubic feet of space. Employing ammonia as a fire extin- 
 guisher is an idea that 'is not original with the writer. 
 It has already prove itself effectual in extinguishing fires 
 in warehouses containing cottonseed, an exceedingly in- 
 flammable substance.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CHOOSING AN ENGINE. 
 
 *T*HOSE who are thinking of purchasing or building a 
 gasoline pleasure boat for the next season's outing, 
 would do well to make their selections at an early date. 
 Those who put the matter off until after New Year's day are 
 likely to find the factories overcrowded with orders, and 
 they may not be able to secure their boat until the sum- 
 mer season is far advanced. This is especially true when 
 the boat is built to order and to suit the individual taste 
 or needs of the purchaser. Xo one is more at sea than 
 the average layman who goes about the selection of 
 a gasoline engine, and it is the object of this article to 
 aid this class of individuals. 
 
 When about to select an engine, decide first upon the 
 horse power that will be required. If you are not par- 
 ticular about speed, the following rough rule will give a 
 resultant horse power that is suited to average conditions, 
 and for craft between 20 and 50 feet 1. o. a.: subtract 
 9 from one-half the 1. o. a. and the result will be the de-
 
 livered horse power of the gasoline engine required. 
 Stated as a formula: 
 
 Let H^zthe horse power required. 
 Let L=l. o. a. 
 
 L 
 Then H 9. 
 
 2 
 
 For Example: Suppose it is desired to find the horse 
 power suited to a 35-ft. boat. L=35, then H=35/2 
 9=171^ 9=8^, say a 9 or lo-horse-power engine. Re- 
 member, that this rule is a rough one only. If a definite 
 speed is desired, the problem is too complex for any one 
 but a marine engineer, and it had best be left to the 
 builder of the boat, or its designer, if such a person be 
 employed. 
 
 Having decided upon the size of the engine, the next 
 thing to do is to select the style of engine. Two-cycle 
 engines are best for small craft where the question of 
 fuel economy is not an important one. They are of sim- 
 pler construction than the four-cycle engine, and for this 
 reason there are fewer parts to take care of. If well 
 designed and carefully made, a two-cycle engine is fully 
 as good as the four-cycle engine ; but strange to say, it
 
 59 
 
 is not every engine maker who understands the require- 
 ments of a two-cycle engine. They do as a rule use a 
 little more gasoline per horse power than the four-cycle 
 engine, but they are as reliable under intelligent manage- 
 ment as the four-cycle as is shown by the fact that one of 
 the longest journeys ever made by a gasoline yacht was 
 with one driven by a two-cycle engine. 
 
 Concerning the proportion of weight to power, the 
 two-cycle engine has a slight advantage, but the differ- 
 ence between the average weight of two-cycle engines 
 and the average weight of four-cycle engines of the same 
 horse power is not so great as might be supposed. Con- 
 cerning the choice between the two styles of engines, 
 when both are equally well designed and constructed, 
 the whole matter narrows itself down to one of fuel 
 consumption, and even then the advantage possessed by 
 the four-cycle engines is not as a general rule so very 
 great, although personally the author would prefer a two- 
 cycle engine for small powers and a four-cycle engine for 
 large powers, say of over fifteen or twenty horse power. 
 
 In the matter of duplication of cylinders, the author 
 would say that, leaving the matter of first cost out of con- 
 sideration, he believes the multiple-cylinder engine has
 
 6o 
 
 many advantages over an engine with a single cylinder. 
 Among these are steadier running, greater ease of start- 
 ing^ and less weight for the same power. Although a 
 multiple-cylinder engine makes more parts to take care 
 of, in case one cylinder gets out of order, it is quite pos- 
 sible to run to port with the remaining cylinder or cylin- 
 ders. Gasoline engines of from four to six horse power 
 and up can usually be obtained in multiple cylinders, and 
 quite frequently with three or four cylinders. It seems 
 to be the general opinion of experienced gas-engine men 
 that, so far as easy running and steadiness of propulsion 
 are concerned, a three-cylinder engine is all that may be 
 desired, and that the four-cylinder engine has its only 
 advantage in the fact that it is not so tall as a thfee- 
 cylinder engine of the same power, a condition which 
 lowers the center of gravity. 
 
 Having decided upon the size and upon the number of 
 cylinders required, the next thing in order is to choose 
 the particular make of engine which will best suit your 
 requirements. In the first place, be strictly on your 
 guard against that smoothly-talking individual, the gas- 
 engine salesman, whose business is to sell engines re- 
 gardless of their good qualities. The agent himself is,
 
 6i 
 
 as a rule, in nowise to blame for selling an engine of 
 poor quality, as that is his business. In fact the poorer 
 the article and the less its reputation the better is the 
 salesman who manages to dispose of it. This phase of 
 the question is a more troublesome feature in the gaso- 
 line engine business than in any other. And it is so, be- 
 cause manufacturers of this class of machinery seldom, if 
 ever, give a written guarantee to cover anything further 
 than the material of which the engine is built. They 
 will very seldom guarantee the operation of the engine 
 for even a limited time. This state of affairs is the out- 
 come of the story once scattered broadcast by the gas- 
 oline-engine builders that their engines would practically 
 run themselves. It is now the prevailing idea that such 
 is the case, and the man who has never run a gasoline 
 engine thoroughly believes that all he has to do is to 
 give the crank one turn, and that the engine will run 
 without any attention whatever until stopped. 
 
 Gasoline-engine builders have learned better, and 
 now they send out with their engines more or less care- 
 fully compiled instruction books. Dissipating such a 
 well-rooted idea, however, as that the engine will run it- 
 self, is like breaking up a bad habit. It almost needs a
 
 62 
 
 surgical operation. Still another cause of the unwill- 
 ingness to give a guarantee of satisfactory running is the 
 tendency of the gasoline runner to entirely ignore in- 
 structions, and the preconceived notion that he knows 
 more about running the gasoline engine than the man 
 who built it. The inexperienced man seems to be de- 
 termined to throw every adjustment on the engine out of 
 order, and in fact he keeps fiddling away until the engine 
 will not run at all. Then he sends post haste for a man 
 from the factory to come and straighten the matter out, 
 and generally wishes the builder to pay the man's ex* 
 penses. 
 
 The first step for the prospective buyer to take is 
 naturally to write to every maker of gas engines who 
 advertises in his favorite paper, and secure their cata- 
 logues and price lists. He will find of course that each 
 one builds the best engine on earth, if his story is to be 
 believed; but it is a sad truth that there are many very 
 poor gasoline engines offered for sale to the unsuspect- 
 ing public. You will probably find several catalogues 
 which contain an engine very nearly the size which you 
 have selected for your new launch. If the circulars you 
 received contain testimonials from persons who live in
 
 your vicinity, make it a point to call on them, and have 
 a private chat about their gas engines. If you do not 
 find their testimonials, it is quite possible that the man- 
 ufacturers from whom you receive the catalogue can give 
 you references to owners of their make of engine who 
 live within easy reach. 
 
 Having selected one or more of these individuals, pre- 
 pare yourself beforehand with a stock of questions to .ask 
 him about the performance of his engine, and place more 
 reliance upon the words of a man who has his engine for 
 a considerable period than upon the statements of one 
 who has had his engine only a few weeks. 
 
 Before asking the questions get the man's confidence, 
 find out how much the engine has been run, and secure a 
 narrative of all his experiences with the engine when he 
 was running it himself. Then begin your questions. 
 Find out, if possible, the longest as well as the shortest 
 time it has taken him to get the engine started, and how 
 long it has run continuously at any time without stopping. 
 Learn, if possible, if the engine is addicted to thumping or 
 pounding in any part of the mechanism, and whether such 
 a condition is of frequent occurrence, or only occasional 
 Ask him how long his ignition apparatus will last, and
 
 64 
 
 how frequently the battery has to be renewed. Find out 
 if he has ever had any breakdowns, and their nature 
 and extent. 
 
 If possible, get him to take you out in his boat, and 
 watch the running of the engine yourself. Note if there 
 is much work about starting the engine, and try to find 
 the length of time it takes to get the boat under way. 
 N/)te if there are any complicated attachments or a great 
 number of attachments on the engine. Simplicity is of 
 the first consideration, and much lessens the bill for re- 
 pairs in a season's running. If the engine h in a filthy 
 condition, or If it is running with its parts badly out of 
 adjustment when it is apparent that proper adjustments 
 could readily be made, it is a point in favor of the engine. ' 
 Any engine that will run fairly well when badly handled 
 has considerable to recommend it. Should the engine be 
 clean and all the adjustments properly made, and yet run 
 in a manner that is noisy and jerky, it is a very poor 
 engine. 
 
 A badly balanced engine will transmit a great deal of 
 vibration to the boat at all speeds. Almost any engine 
 will set up vibration of the boat at one particular speed, 
 but not at others. This is because the rate of vibration
 
 65 
 
 of the boat itself is in time with the speed of the engine 
 just at that moment. If you find that the engine trans- 
 mits very little vibration to the boat, it may be presumed 
 that it is well balanced. 
 
 Another way to tell whether an engine is in good 
 balance is to see if it will run for quite a little time after 
 the fuel and the igniter current have both been turned off. 
 Of two engines, that are of the same size, and equally 
 well lubricated, and which have practically the same 
 friction load, the engine will run the longer after power 
 is shut off that is in better balance. Resting the hand 
 upon the cylinder head when the engine is running with- 
 out power, you should be unable to detect a jar at each 
 revolution, for if a knock is perceptible when the engine 
 is running idle it is a certain sign that it is out of balance. 
 
 If the engine is counterbalanced in the fly wheel in- 
 stead of on the crank webs or crank disks it gives a 
 wrenching action to the shaft, and the balancing is im- 
 perfect. A well-balanced engine should have the counter- 
 weight as nearly opposite the crank pin as it is possible 
 to put them. In a two-cylinder engine with the crank 
 pin at 1 80, or in a three-cylinder engine with the cranks 
 at 120, a balancing effect is obtained which is much bet-
 
 66 
 
 ter than that produced by a counter-weight. It is the 
 custom with some makers to put the crank pins on the 
 same side of the shaft for a two-cylinder engine, for the 
 reason that the impulses are thus better distributed 
 throughout the two revolutions of the engine. It is gen- 
 erally conceded that a better balance is obtained with the 
 cranks at 180 and in a vertical two-cylinder engine of the 
 four-cycle type with an enclosed crank case, the latter 
 arrangement avoids the pumping action that occurs when 
 the cranks are on the same side of the shaft, and there is, 
 therefore, no necessity of a hermetically sealed crank 
 case. 
 
 Should the counter-weight be in the fly wheel, see if 
 there is much of a wavering motion when the engine is 
 running, or, in other words, see if the fly wheel is out of 
 true sideways. Should such be the case, it shows that the 
 crank shaft is too weak for an engine of this kind. 
 
 Note if the bearings give much trouble from overheat- 
 ing, and be particular to ask your mentor his experience 
 in this matter. Find out if he considers it necessary to 
 keep his eye on the engine at all times, or whether he feels 
 secure in giving the engine only an occasional glance to 
 see if matters are all right.
 
 6 7 
 
 If you can see the inside of an engine of the kind 
 you wish to purchase, after it has been running for some 
 little time, it will assist you in judging of the pains taken 
 in its manufacture. One of the most important things 
 in a gas engine is to have a piston that isperfectly gas 
 tight, for any leak past the piston causes a loss of power, 
 and in a two-cycle engine it will produce explosions in 
 the crank chamber. If it is feasible to do so, remove 
 the cylinder head of the engine, and turn the fly wheel 
 over until the pistcn is at the lower dead center. If 
 there is much oil on the side of the cylinder wipe it clean 
 with a piece of waste, and see if there has been an even 
 wear on the entire inner circumference of the cylinder 
 wall. If the wear has been uneven, some parts of the 
 cylinder may be brighter than others, but if the engine 
 has been running for some time, and the wear is even, 
 there will be a polish of the same degree of brightness all 
 over the inner surface of the cylinder. 
 
 There are iwo ways of cutting the packing rings for 
 the piston. One is to make a straight slot in the ring, 
 dividing it at an angle of about 45 to the side of the 
 ring. This form of slot answers very well, until the 
 rings and the cylinder begin to wear, when it opens up,
 
 68 
 
 and leaves a path for leakage of the gases. The other 
 method of cutting the packing ring is to make a slot 
 halfway through the ring at right angles to the side and 
 a similar slot, not very far from the first one, from the 
 other side. These two slots are usually from half an 
 inch to an inch apart, and are joined by another slot 
 parallel to the side of the ring. If carefully made, there 
 will be no leak through this kind of a cut in the ring, no 
 matter how much wear should occur. It ii scarcely 
 necessary to say that the latter arrangement is the one to 
 be preferred. 
 
 While a cylinder head is off, note the location of the 
 igniter, and also its construction. The points of an 
 electric igniter should be short and thick rather than long 
 and slender, and they should be placed as nearly as pos- 
 sible in the path of the incoming charge in order to keep 
 them cool, and to prevent premature explosion. Note ; 
 also if there are any springs or bearings in the igniter 
 which would be surrounded bv the heat of combustion, 
 as, should this be the case, the igniter will surely give 
 trouble. Projections of any sort in any part of the com- 
 bustion space are detrimental to the working of the 
 engine, and if they are not so placed as to be kept cool j
 
 6 9 
 
 cither by the water jacket or by the impact of the im- 
 coming charge, they are certain to cause annoyance. 
 Projections of any sort on the end of the piston in the 
 shape of boltheads, nuts, igniter strikers, or anything of 
 that sort which would be likely to become heated to a 
 high temperature or to collect soot, are productive of 
 premature explosions, and should cause a prospective 
 purchaser to buy an engine of another make. This does 
 not include the deflecting plate or tube of i two-cycle 
 engine, as this is generally quite thick, and it is, in any 
 case, exposed to the cooling effect of the incoming charge. 
 
 The collection of soot, either from the fuel itself or 
 from the lubricating oil, is apt to occur upon any pro- 
 jection or sharp corner in the combustion space, where it 
 deposits in the form of flakes or cones. These flakes or 
 cones get red hot very soon after the engine has been 
 started, and are apt to ignite the charge before the proper 
 time, thus causing a thumping in the engine. 
 
 In a two-cycle engine, it is quite important that the 
 crank case should be gas tight. If it is not, much fuel 
 will be wasted by being driven through the leaks and 
 a dangerous explosive mixture may collect in the engine 
 room. Such a condition is easily determined by watch-
 
 yo 
 
 ing the joint of the crank case and the ends of the crank- 
 shaft bearing while the engine is running, and it will be 
 shown by the exudation of oil through the leaks. 
 
 A marine engine, particularly when it is to go in the 
 hands of the novice, should preferably have good brass 
 or bronze bearings, rather than Babbit metal, as an over- 
 heated bearing is quite likely to cause the Babbit metal to 
 melt and throw the engine out of commission. The 
 throttle valve for controlling admission of the charge 
 into the cylinder should be of the type that will permit 
 of its being opened or closed by a small movement of a 
 lever. The writer knows of an engine which had a globe 
 valve throttle, and which required about four turns of the 
 valve to shut off the charge when the engine was running 
 at full speed. Anybody who has run an engine to any 
 extent can readily see that such an arrangement is nothing 
 more than a nuisance. 
 
 Turning again to the igniter mechanism, choose an 
 engine which has a mechanism of the kind which can be 
 adjusted without removing the cylinder head. Do not 
 buy an engine which has a long igniter rod tripped by a 
 toothed cam, as such an arrangement is uncertain in its 
 action and very noisy. The trips should be ?s near to
 
 the reciprocating- part of the igniter as it is possible to 
 place it. Avoid any engine which employs flat springs, 
 as they are inclined to cause trouble, and break without 
 the slightest warning. 
 
 For a marine gasoline engine, the vaporizer is usually 
 to be preferred to a carbureter, and as these two instru- 
 ments are very often confused, and their meaning is not 
 clearly understood by everyone, an explanation is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 A carbureter is an instrument by means of which a 
 portion of the air which passes to the engine is unriched 
 with vapor by passing this air either over or through a 
 considerable body of the liquid. 
 
 A vaporizer is a device which is employed to trans- 
 form a small quantity of the gasoline to a finely divided 
 spray, which usually turns at once into a vapor. It dif- 
 fers from the carbureter, in that it transforms the fuel 
 into vapor only as it is needed and vaporizes only the 
 exact quantity required for a single charge, while the 
 carbureter always contains a quantity of vapor from 
 which a supply is drawn to the cylinder. 
 
 Carbureters are wasteful of fuel, in that they only 
 vaporize only its lighter constituents, leaving a useless
 
 residue which has to be thrown away. They are also very 
 sensitive to changes of temperature, and in extremely 
 cold weather it is necessary to heat them or the air that 
 passes through them, in order that they may work proper- 
 ly. A properly designed vaporizer, on the contrary, is 
 subject to none of these troubles, and on a marine engine 
 they prove themselves much more convenient and easier 
 to handle. 
 
 If you can induce a friend who has had a great deal of 
 experience with gas engines to make your selection for 
 you, or if you will hire a reliable expert who is not pre- 
 judiced in favor of any particular engine, it will probably 
 save you much trouble in selecting an engine, and you 
 will feel quite certain that your outing will be a season 
 of pleasure rather than a chapter of troubles. A little 
 knowledge of the subject on your part will not, however, 
 come amiss, and you will be able to know whether your 
 agent is working for your benefit or for that of the build- 
 er. If, however, you can find an engine that has run 
 several seasons, and has given its owner little or no 
 trouble, its a prettv good sign that the purchase of such 
 an engine will be a good investment.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 IGNITERS. 
 
 'TpHERE is nothing that will put a gas engine out of com- 
 mission so soon as a disordered ignition device. In 
 fact, the igniter may be said literally to furnish the spark of 
 life for the engine. It takes but a few successive miss- 
 fires to stop an engine, and even missfires, occurring at 
 frequent intervals, will reduce the power of the engine. 
 \Yhile the plan of following" strictly the printed instruc- 
 tions which usually accompany the engine is a very good 
 one, and while if they are followed intelligently a great 
 deal of trouble will be avoided, yet at times an emergency 
 will arise which the printed instructions do not cover. It 
 is in these emergencies that a knowledge of the funda- 
 mental principles of electricity is a prime requisite. For 
 the reason that the electric igniter is employed upon at 
 least ninety per cent, of the marine gas engines in use at 
 the present time, it is the purpose of the author to give in 
 this article a brief description not only of the electric 
 igniter itself, but also of the electric principles involved,
 
 74 
 
 in order that the reader may be prepared for any emer- 
 gency. 
 
 In order to make this discussion intelligible to those 
 who know nothing whatever of electricity, the author will 
 start at the foot of the ladder and explain the meaning of 
 the terms involved. He trusts that those of his readers 
 who are better informed will pardon this elementary por- 
 tion of the discussion. 
 
 A source of the electrical energy produces a difference 
 of pressure, and when there is a complete circuit from 
 one terminal of the source to the other, consisting of 
 electric conductors, ,this difference of pressure causes a 
 current to flow. The most familiar sources of electrical 
 energy are the dynamo and the chemical source known 
 as the electric cell, commonly but erroneously called a 
 "battery." A battery is a combination of cells grouped 
 together in such a way that the combined strength of the 
 entire group may be concentrated in one circuit. In order 
 that an electric current may flow there must be a continu- 
 ous, unbroken path of conducting material from one 
 terminal of the source of energy to the other, and through 
 the source of energy to the other terminal. 
 
 In order that this phase of the subject may be better
 
 flG I
 
 76 
 
 understood it will be explained by wbat is generally 
 known as the "waterworks analogy." Consider the pump, 
 B, Fig. i, as corresponding to the source of electrical 
 energy, or battery, B, in Fig. 2. So long as the pump is 
 in operation and there are no obstructions in the pipe, 
 c o z, a current of water will flow from c to s. In the 
 same way, if the battery, B, is in good order, and there is 
 no obstruction to the circuit, cos, Fig. 2, a current will 
 flew from c, through the conductor, to z. 
 
 It is easy for the reader to understand that an ob- 
 struction in the pipe, c o z, Fig. I, or in the pump, B, will 
 produce a resistance to the flow of water, and the pressure 
 at the pump would be increased by the obstruction. An 
 obstruction in the pump itself will have the same effect 
 as one in the pipe, for it is obvious that the water must 
 not only flow through the pipe, but also through the 
 pump from z to c. The same thing is true about the 
 electric circuit in Fig. 2. An obstruction of any kind 
 in the wire or in the source of energy, either one, would 
 reduce the flow of current or necessitate an increase 
 of pressure at B, in order to retain the same flow of cur- 
 rent in the circuit. In an electric circuit this obstruc- 
 tion may consist either of a reduction in the size of the
 
 o 
 
 .13 
 
 He
 
 78 
 
 wire or other material used as a path for the circuit, or 
 in the introduction of material through which it is more 
 difficult for the current to flow. Thus in the waterworks 
 system a pipe with a rough interior will form a path of 
 higher resistance to the flow of the current of water 
 than a pipe having a smooth interior. Again, a pipe of 
 small diameter will offer greater resistance to the flow 
 of water than one of larger diameter. This reduction in 
 the size of the pipe is analogous to a reduction in the 
 size of the wire in Fig. 2, and the rough pipe and the 
 smooth one are analogous to wires of high and low resist- 
 ance respectively. 
 
 An increase in resistance to the flow of water causes a 
 generation of heat at the point where the resistance is 
 located. This is, however, not perceptible in the water 
 conductor, owing to the cooling effect of the liquid. In 
 an electric conductor the heat generated by resistance is 
 quite frequently manifest to the casual observer. This 
 generation of heat causes a loss of energy directly in pro- 
 portion to the amount of heat given off, and wherever it 
 occurs it makes a corresponding reduction in the amount 
 of energy in the circuit which is available for other pur- 
 poses than heat.
 
 79 
 
 Suppose a valve to be placed at A, in Fig-, i, If this 
 valve be closed slowly, the effect upon the valve of the 
 current of water will not be perceptible, but, if the valve 
 be shut quickly, the inertia of the moving- column of 
 water will be so great that if a valve be not a strong one 
 it may be broken open, for the tendency of the water is 
 to continue on its path. Likewise a sudden obstruction 
 in the circuit, Fig. 2, as for instance, parting the wire at 
 A, producing an air gap which has a high resistance to 
 the passage of an electric current, has a similar effect. 
 The tendency of the current is to continue flowing. Its 
 inertia will have a Jendency to break down the obstruction 
 and to continue flowing towards z. It is impossible to 
 break the circuit quickly enough to prevent a momentary 
 continuation of the current through the short air gap pro- 
 duced at the first parting of the circuit. The passage of 
 the current through this obstruction produces heat, owing 
 to the high resistance of the gap, and a spark results. If 
 a portion of the circuit, c o z, consists of a coil of wire 
 surrounding an iron core, the inertia at the moment of 
 breaking is heightened to a considerable degree, and the 
 spark is larger in consequence. Such a coil is that used 
 with the ordinary make-and-break igniter, and is known
 
 8o 
 
 as a "spark coil." It will now be seen that anv obstacle in 
 electric circuit reduces the amount of current flow, and 
 that the circuit must be a complete one, not only outside 
 the source of energy, but within it. It has been shown 
 that resistance causes heat and loss of energy, and that 
 sudden parting of the circuit produces a spark, which is 
 intensified by the use of an instrument like a spark-coil. 
 
 Obstructions to current flow may be produced in many 
 ways, and the reader must remember that in order to get 
 the greatest efficiency out of this apparatus he must have 
 the fewest possible number of obstructions in the cir- 
 cuit. It necessitates a certain amount of current and 
 pressure to produce a spark at the gap of sufficient in- 
 tensity to ignite the charge of gas and air in a gas engine. 
 Any obstruction in the circuit in the form of resistance, 
 no matter of what nature, reduces the amount of current 
 flow. For this reason the greatest of pain.s should be 
 taken to use wire of ample size, to employ the least pos- 
 sible number of connections, and to have all of these as 
 good as they can be made. Every reasonable precaution 
 should be taken against loose connections, and they should 
 at all times be kept bright and clean, for the reason 
 that the outsides of the metals are poor conductors.
 
 8i 
 
 Both in order to make the resistance of the circuit low 
 and to decrease the liability to breakage, it is advisable to 
 use No. 14 copper wire for all connections; weather- 
 proof insulation or covering for the wire of the very 
 best quality should be employed, in order to avoid leak- 
 ages of cvirrent. 
 
 In order to obtain a spark across a gap in a circuit in 
 which the pressure is not a very great one it is necessary 
 to first close the circuit and then to open it, so as to 
 produce an air gap. That is to say, there must be first 
 an unobstructed path for the current, and then an air 
 gap must be introduced in this path in ordtr to get a 
 spark. When there is a spark coil in the circuit the cir- 
 cuit must be closed for a time, depending upon the coil 
 itself, in order to get the largest possible spark, for the 
 following reasons : In an electro-magnet the magnet does 
 not reach its full power at the instant the circuit is closed. 
 The magnetic strength is built up gradually, and although 
 this building up takes place in a very small fraction of a 
 second, this time element must be considered in the 
 operation of an electric ignition device. A change in the 
 strength of a magnet around which is wound an electric 
 conductor will cause a current to flow in the wire if the
 
 1 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 JO 
 
 
 C
 
 ends are joined, making a complete circuit, of which the 
 coil is a part. The pressure generated by this change in 
 the magnetic strength depends both upon the magnitude 
 of the change and the rapidity with which it is made. 
 
 Suppose a magnet, A B, Fig. 3, to be surrounded by 
 a coil of wire as indicated, and that by some means the 
 strength of the magnet is suddenly altered from its full 
 strength to nothing, a current of short duration will be 
 induced in the wire in one direction. If the strength of 
 the magnet is made to rise suddenly from zero to the 
 same strength as before the magnetism was taken away 
 a current will be made to flow in the wire equal in amount 
 to that when the strength was reduced, and the direction 
 of flow will be opposite to that produced when the 
 strength of the magnet was taken away. 
 
 Suppose that A B is simply a bundle of soft iron wires, 
 and that a current is made to flow through the wire from 
 an external source as the battery, D, Fig. 4. The cur- 
 rent flowing in the wire induces magnetism in the core, 
 A B. If after the magnetism has risen to its full strength 
 the circuit be broken at E, the magnetism in A B makes 
 a sudden drop to zero, and this change tends to produce a 
 flow of current in the coil, and greatly increases the
 
 8 4 
 
 inertia effect over that manifested when there !s no coil in 
 the circuit. 
 
 Since the strength of the induced current depends 
 upon the magnitude of the change, it is evident that 
 the magnet must be allowed to reach its full strength 
 before breaking the circuit, in order to get the maximum 
 inertia effect. As the pressure produced by the coil 
 depends also upon the rapidity of the change, it may be 
 seen that it is necessary to have a quick break at E in 
 order to get as large a spark as possible. The shorter 
 the core, A B, the quicker will the magnetism reach its 
 full strength, and the shorter will be the time necessary 
 for the circuit to be closed in order to get the magnetism 
 built up. It is for this reason on high-speed engines, 
 where the sparks occur at frequent intervals, that a short 
 spark coil is necessary. This interval between sparks is so 
 small that, if a long core is used, the circuit cannot be 
 closed long enough for the magnetic strength to reach its 
 maximum. Hence the effect of the spark coil is reduced, 
 weakening the spark. This is a matter which has been 
 recognized by engine-builders, and spark coils are now to 
 be seen only six inches in length, where several years 
 ago ten or twelve-inch spark coils were used.
 
 There is another feature of electrical induction as 
 this effect of a magnet upon an electric conductor is 
 called which it may be as well to point out to the reader 
 in connection with the above discussion. In the first 
 place, a coil of wire without a core has a similar reaction 
 upon itself when there is a change in the current strength, 
 although this reaction is not so great as when a core is 
 present. A coil of this kind, or, in fact, any coil wound 
 in a helix, as the winding shown in Fig. 3 and 4 is called, 
 is known as an inductive resistance. Any inductive re- 
 sistance is a greater obstruction to a current of varying 
 strength than when the pressure on the line is constant, 
 or when the conductor is comparativelv straight. This 
 obstruction to the current flow is also called inductive 
 resistance, but in this case it means an effect upon the 
 circuit, and not a portion of the circuit itself. 
 
 If two inductive resistances are placed in the same 
 circuit, and their time element does not happen to be the 
 same, one will, to a greater or less extent, annul the 
 action of the other. For this reason it will not do to 
 place two spark coils in the same circuit, as the strength 
 of the spark is generally reduced by such an arrange- 
 ment. If it is found necessary to reduce the amount of
 
 L 
 
 TIG 5
 
 87 
 
 current flowing through the circuit in order to save burn- 
 ing the igniter point, what is known as a non-in luctive 
 resistance should be used. A non-inductive resistance is 
 usually made of two coils of wire, in which the current 
 flows in opposite directions in either coil. This kind of 
 a coil can be most readily produced by the method shown 
 in Fig. 5. Take the amount of wire necessary to make 
 the coil and double it, as shown at A, then begin winding 
 the wire around a core, say a wooden spool, beginning at 
 the loop L. The winding opened out will then appear 
 as shown in the lower portion of the figure, and the cur- 
 rent in contiguous wires will be flowing in opposite direc- 
 tions, as indicated by the arrows, and the current in one 
 wire will annul the inductive effect of that in the other. 
 
 If in Fig. 4 a great many turns of fine w'ire were to 
 be wound on the outside of the coil through which the 
 current from the battery, D, is allowed to flow, every 
 fluctuation in 'the strength of the magnet, A B, produced 
 by a variation in the strength of the current in the battery 
 circuit will induce a current of a much larger pressure 
 in the coil of one wire. If, in order to get a practically 
 continuous current in the coil of fine wire, the battery cir- 
 cuit be rapidly opened and closed, the apparatus becomes
 
 88 
 
 what is known as a Ruhmkorff coil, which is illustrated in 
 cross section in Fig. 6. The circuit of coarse wire is 
 what is known as the primary circuit, and the coil of wire 
 through which the battery current flows is called the 
 primary winding. The fine wire coil which is usually 
 wound upon the outside of the coarse wire is known as 
 the secondary winding, and this becomes the source of 
 energy for secondary circuit. If there are a suffiient num- 
 ber of turns in the secondary, as compared with those in 
 the primary winding, the current in the secondary wind- 
 ing will be at such a high pressure that it will arc or jump 
 across a small air gap without the circuit being closed 
 beforehand. This secondary spark is what is called a 
 "jump-spark," and this form of coil is now generally 
 known in gas engine parlance as a "jump-spark coil." It 
 has become very popular because of the simplicity of 
 the timing mechanism and because it lends itself more 
 readily than the primary or make-and-break spark to the 
 requirements of engines running at high rotative speeds. 
 Its popularity has manifested itself since the advent of 
 the automobile, and is used quite extensively on motor- 
 cycle engines. 
 
 In Fig. 7 is illustrated the principles of operation of the
 
 9 o 
 
 mechanism used for the make-and-break igniter. As 
 explained before, the idea is to gef'a closed circuit for the 
 proper length of time, and then to break the circuit with 
 a quick movement. In the figure, B represents the source 
 of energy, 5 the spark coil, a and b wires from the spark 
 coil and the battery respectively. The wire, a, is con- 
 nected to the insulated electrode, c, and b to a binding 
 post, d, attached to the framework of the engine, At- 
 taching a wire in this manner is called "grounding" it 
 upon the engine. 
 
 Those parts of the igniter which are intimately con- 
 nected with the production of the spark are usually in- 
 serted in a taper plug, as shown at a, and this plug is 
 placed in an opening in the engine cylinder wall, as indi- 
 cated in the figure. The plug is made gas-tight by mak- 
 ing it a perfect fit in the opening in the wall. It is held in 
 place by two or more studs, as shown at E and F. The 
 electrode, c, is separated from the metal in the plug by a 
 non-conducting material, mica being the material most 
 generally used for this purpose. The movable electrode, 
 H, does not require insulation, for the reason that its side 
 of the circuit is grounded on the engine. It is by means
 
 9 1 
 
 of this movable electrode that the circiut is opened and 
 closed. 
 
 About the outer end of H is a spring S, one end of 
 which is connected to H and the other to the movable 
 arm, G. The rod, r, carrying the collar, t, is reciprocated 
 by an eccentric on the engine, and, on moving to the left, 
 T strikes G ; but the swing of the eccentric on the return 
 stroke causes the collar T to pass G without touching it. 
 When collar, t, strikes G it first brings the points x and y 
 in contact, and further movement of G winds the spring. 
 The tension of the spring forces x hard against y, insuring 
 good contact. A still further movement of G causes it to 
 slip off the collar, t, when it flies back against the pin, 
 p, opening the circuit with a jerk, and making a spark 
 between x and y. While the mechanism shown is not 
 employed with every electric igniter, the same principles 
 are involved in practically all of those employed upon 
 marine engines. 
 
 In the care of an igniter of the make-and-break variety, 
 the following precautions should be observed : The spark 
 coil should be kept dry at all times. It is a good idea 
 to keep the coil on a shelf near the top of the cabin, or, 
 if the boat is an open one, to put it near the top of the
 
 9 2 
 
 locker, and to enclose it in a perfectly water-tight box. 
 A source of electrical energy, giving at least four volts, 
 should be employed, and the generator or battery should 
 be capable of giving ample current. Electric cells of the 
 sal-ammoniac type, such as ordinarily used for electric 
 bells, and known as open circuit cells, are not suitable 
 for the purpose. Cells that will keep up a steady cur- 
 rent and not run down when connected in a circuit of low 
 resistance are the best for this purpose. Of the primary 
 cells, the caustic soda type is the best. As the pressure 
 given by these cells is low, being less than one volt for 
 each cell, four or five cells should be used for the battery. 
 When a source of electric current for charging them is 
 located at a convenient point a storage battery of two 
 cells, having a normal discharge rate of three or four 
 amperes, would be found a very good source of energy. 
 There is no mussing with chemicals when they are to be 
 re-charged, and the expense of re-charging is only a 
 matter of a few cents. The first cost is also but little if 
 any more than that of a caustic soda battery. It is a 
 good plan to test the igniter always before starting on a 
 trip, to see if the spark is made at the proper time of the 
 stroke. This should be when the engine is compressing,
 
 93 
 
 and the proper distance of the ignition point from the end 
 of the stroke should be determined from the makers of 
 the engine, and care should be taken to keep the igniter 
 set for this sparking- point. 
 
 When the ignition takes place before the end of the 
 stroke, it is said to have lead. The higher the speed of the 
 engine and the longer its stroke the greater will be the 
 distance of the piston from the end of its stroke at the 
 time when the ignition takes place ; /. c., the greater will be 
 the lead. It is a good plan to make a mark on the fly-wheel 
 rim that cannot be obliterated, and also to make a similar 
 mark somewhere on the engine. Then have these marks 
 placed in such a position that when they are opposite one 
 another the piston will be at the proper distance from the 
 end of its stroke for ignition to take place. After these 
 marks are once properly located, they will be found very 
 convenient to use when setting the igniter. Presuming 
 that the marks have been made, it is now necessary only 
 to make sure that the arm, G, Fig. 7, slips off the collar, 
 T, just as these marks coincide. It is advisable to oc- 
 casionally test the spring, S, by swinging the arm, G, with 
 the finger in order to determine if it has a sufficient 
 degree of stiffness. The plug, A, should be removed once
 
 w 
 
 lu
 
 95 
 
 in a while to see if points x and y are not worn out, and 
 also to clean of soot those portions of the igniter which 
 project into the cylinder. 
 
 Jump-spark ignition is but very little used on marine 
 engines at the present time, and only the diagram of con- 
 nections will be shown here. The system of wiring for a 
 jump-spark igniter is shown in Fig. 8. The switch, S, 
 upon the valve shaft of the engine closes the circuit of the 
 battery, B, through the primary winding of the induction 
 coil, R. The current is compelled to pass through a mag- 
 netic vibrator, M, which rapidly opens and closes the cir- 
 cuit during the time that the switch, 5, is closed. This 
 pulsating current induces a pressure in the secondary 
 winding, as explained in connection with Fig. 6, and the 
 high pressure of the secondary causes a spark to jump 
 between the terminals of the plug at P, inside of the gas 
 engine cylinder. There are two methods of connecting 
 the secondary circuit. In one of these both sides of the 
 circuit are insulated, as shown in the figure. In the other, 
 only one of the secondary terminals is insulated, and the 
 other is grounded on the engine.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 WEIGHT IN GAS ENGINES. 
 
 'TpHE author has frequently been asked the question, 
 " Why are gas engines so heavy ? " The purpose of 
 the present chapter is not only to answer this question, 
 but to point out ways and means to the future designer for 
 obtaining the lighest practical engine within keeping with 
 strength and efficiency. The author might as well mention 
 that the observations here made in regard to reducing 
 weight to the lowest point consistent with strength are 
 many of them the outcome of observations made while in 
 the service of Mr. Hiram S. Maxim in England on his 
 experiments in flying machines. While to the non-scien- 
 tific the mention of flying machines may be productive of 
 smiles, to the engineer of *to-day it means but a fascinating 
 problem all the more attractive because of the apparently 
 unsurmountable difficulties. 
 
 In return to earth, or rather to the gas engine, it may 
 be said that the principal reason for the great weight of 
 gas engines as compared with steam engines is due in the 
 main to the fact that the impulses in the steam engine cyl-
 
 9 8 
 
 inder occur at more frequent intervals during the same 
 number of revolutions than in the gas engine. As com- 
 pared to the four-cycle gas engine the steam engine gives 
 four impulses to one of the gas engine. In the two-cycle 
 engine the ratio is two to one. The engine must be 
 designed to withstand a greater pressure for the same 
 horse-power, and again the maximum pressure in the gas 
 engine is considerably greater than in the steam engine 
 operating under the same average pressure, and the ratio 
 of strength must be made greater than four to one or two 
 to one, as the case may be. A further allowance of strength 
 for the shock produced at the moment of explosion must be 
 made, although this is not so great as some designers have 
 been led to think. 
 
 In spite of this increased weight the fact that the gas 
 engine isits own pressure generator, doing away with all 
 devices analogous to the steam boiler, makes it more than 
 the equal of the steam engine when comparing the weights 
 necessary for the same power. Notwithstanding the ad- 
 vantage in weight possessed by the gas engine in its 
 present form, there is still much room for improvement, as 
 has already been shown to a certain extent in engines de- 
 signed for driving automobiles. 
 
 In the present competition between the owners of craft
 
 99 
 
 driven by gasoline engines comes the demand for speed, 
 and hand in hand with this demand goes another, *. <?., the 
 call for engines possessing the greatest amount of power 
 with the smallest amount of weight. Mr. Maxim's rule, 
 which was so successfully followed in the design of his 
 flying machine, and which was indelibly impressed upon 
 the author, is as follows: 
 
 " Take off every superfluous ounce in all parts of the 
 device." Cut down the weight at every point, not only by 
 reducing the part to the smallest section compatible with 
 strength, but use the material which is the strongest, weight 
 for weight. 
 
 If it is desired to design an engine for a racing yacht 
 the designer should keep the following points in mind at 
 all times: An engine will give double the horse-power at 
 double the speed, provided the same average pressure in the 
 cylinder is obtained in each case. With precisely the 
 same amount of weight in the engine, the power is doubled. 
 Actually, however, the increase in speed of the engine per- 
 mits of a reduction of the weight of the flywheel, which 
 comprises a considerable fraction of the total weight. 
 Doubling the speed of the engine permits of the use of a 
 flywheel one-fourth the weight required at the slower 
 speed. Thus a three-horse-power engine running at 350
 
 revolutions per minute would require for a single cylinder 
 engine of the four-cycle type a flywheel weighing about 
 two hundred pounds. Double the speed of the engine, 
 making it run at 700 revolutions per minute, and it be- 
 comes a six-horse-power, while the necessary flywheel will 
 weigh but fifty pounds. 
 
 Taking up the first catalogue I can lay my hands on, I 
 find the weight of a three-horse-power engine given as 570 
 pounds, or 190 pounds per horse power. Following out 
 the suggestions in the last paragraph, the engine becomes 
 a six-horse-power, weighing 420 pounds, or 70 pounds to 
 the horse power. Such a radical change would make 
 almost any designer hesitate, and he would probably be 
 horrified at the mere suggestion. The author would hardly 
 care to make such a change himself without careful exper- 
 imenting before placing the engine in a boat. He has, 
 however, given what might be considered an exaggerated 
 example in order to make the point the more apparent. 
 
 Still another means of reducing the ratio of weight to 
 horse power is to increase the number of cylinders working 
 on one crank shaft. It is practicable to run engines with 
 multiple cylinders at higher speeds, for two reasons. In 
 the first place, the cylinders are smaller, and this -in itself 
 permits the use of higher speeds. Again, the more perfect
 
 101 
 
 balancing that may be obtained in a multiple-cylinder 
 engine permits a higher speed to be used than for a single- 
 cylinder engine with the same size cylinder as used for 
 those in the multiple engine. Here again comes an oppor- 
 tunity for a reduction in the weight of the flywheel The 
 greater frequency of the impulses reduces the amount of 
 inertia that is necessary to store in the flywheel. 
 
 Taking the solution of a sample case, suppose the 
 single-cylinder engine considered previously was coupled 
 on the same crank shaft with another engine of the same 
 size. The engine, if running at the same speed (350 r. p. m.), 
 would now develop six horse power. As the engine now 
 has two impulses where the single-cylinder engine had one, 
 the flywheel is required to store energy for a period only 
 one-half as long as for the single-cylinder engine. There- 
 fore, instead of a 2oo-pound flywheel, one weighing 100 
 pounds would be sufficient The engine is, however, a 
 six-horse-power, and if it were a .single-cylinder six-horse- 
 power engine running at 350 revolutions per minute it 
 would require a 4oo-pound flywheel. Thus it will be seen 
 that by either doubling the speed of the engineer doubling 
 the number of cylinders the weight of the flywheel required 
 is materially reduced. The reduction in total weight of 
 the engine is, however, considerably greater when the
 
 speed is doubled than when the number of cylinders is 
 doubled. Turning again to the catalogue, I find the weight 
 of a two-cylinder six-horse-power engine running at practi- 
 cally the same speed as the three-horse-power to be 900 
 pounds. A single-cylinder engine of the same power 
 would weigh approximately twice what the three-horse- 
 power weighs, or 1,140 pounds, and the gain by multiplying 
 cylinders is, therefore, 240 pounds. 
 
 The gain in multiplying cylinders is not all in the fly- 
 wheel. Much of it is in the framework of the engine, and 
 in such parts as may be utilized for both cylinders without 
 increasing their size. The crank-shaft, for instance, need 
 not be larger in diameter for a two-cylinder six-horse- 
 power engine than for a single-cylinder three-horse- 
 power. 
 
 Both the crank-shaft and the connecting rod of an 
 engine may be decreased in weight by making them tubular, 
 *and the use of steel in the place of wrought iron will 
 allow of a smaller cross section being employed. Cast- 
 steel for the frame of the engine, instead of cast iron, 
 will permit of reducing the weight materially, and it will 
 answer as well as, if not better than, cast iron. Cast iron 
 should be used for both the cylinders and the piston of 
 the engine unless a particularly close-grained steel casting
 
 103 
 
 can be obtained. Cast steel has been tried for this purpose, 
 but as far as the author is aware it has invariably fallen 
 short of the requirements. This has been presumably 
 because an inferior grade of casting was employed in 
 those instances which came under the author's observation.- 
 Another objection to steel is that it is more liable than 
 cast iron to be scored by the hot gases As an example of 
 what may be done in the reduction of weight in cylinder 
 walls, the author would state that the cylinder walls of 
 Mr. Maxim's flying-machine engines were only three-sixty- 
 fourths of an inch thick. The diameters of these cylinders 
 were five and eight inches respectively for the high and 
 the low-pressure sides. The material was gun-lock steel, 
 the cylinders being bored and turned from a solid ingot. 
 The engines were operated with a steam pressure of from 
 300 to 350 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The weight of the cylinder could be reduced by the 
 use of steel, making the walls correspondingly thinner and 
 also by using a thin brass tube for the outer wall of the 
 jacket. This is usually cast with the cylinder, but it is 
 quite practical to make the jacket wall of a thin sheet of 
 brass or wrought iron, as the water pressure on a marine 
 engine is at no time very great. The wall of the cylinder 
 head jacket could also be made in the same manner.
 
 IO4 
 
 The reader is warned against the use of aluminum in 
 any part of the engine where strength is desired. In order 
 to obtain an equal amount of strength, a weight- of the metal 
 equal toihat of a piece of steel that would answer the same 
 purpose must be employed. For such parts as are not ex- 
 posed to heat, or liable to be underpressure at anytime, an 
 aluminum casting would be found a convenience, perhaps. 
 In the design of an engine that would not justify the 
 extra cost of steel castings, much unnecessary weight 
 may be saved by the use of brackets in locations where 
 there is great strain to resist, instead of making a heavy 
 casting and omitting the brackets. These will add to the 
 cost of the patterns, but there the expense ceases, and 
 should there be a number of engines to be built from the 
 same design, the extra cost for the pattern would soon be 
 overbalanced by the saving in iron. Much iron could also 
 be saved by an intelligent design of the engine base. In 
 small engines particularly, making a set of lugs on the side 
 of the crankcase or frame would save much of the iron 
 that is so often seen put into a heavy foot at the extreme 
 limit of the frame. Long brackets on the sides of the cyl- 
 inder must be made heavy in proportion to their length, and 
 are best avoided wherever it is practicable to do so. 
 
 Many engines on the market to-day most of them being
 
 the product of amateur designers are loaded down with 
 several auxiliary shafts, appurtenances of various kinds, 
 and quite often with a multitude of piping that is quite 
 uncalled for. The author has in mind a design of this 
 kind which was sent to him for criticism and suggestions. 
 The engine was a two-cycle, but from one point of view 
 the engine was almost hidden with pipes. On another 
 engine which he made a trip down into New Jersey to see 
 was supplied with two camshafts, one on each side of the en- 
 gine. Needless to say, the engine never appeared on the 
 market. And now that I think of it, this engine was sup- 
 plied with two mufflers as well, one for eacft cylinder. 
 Another case of unnecessary weight was that of a two-cycle 
 engine with an auxiliary cylinder for pumping air. This cyl- 
 inder was supplied with a separate piston, driven by a second 
 connecting rod. Strangest of all, the two last engines 
 were designed for automobiles. Both lie in the scrap heap 
 to-day. In fact, the author could describe many more 
 such engines, a number of them being among the old iron. 
 Returning to the flywheel, it may be pointed out that 
 the energy-storing power of a marine flywheel is much 
 less, weight for weight, than the wheels used on stationary 
 engines. This is because it is necessary to put the center 
 of the crankshaft as low in the boat as is practicable, and
 
 io6 
 
 increasing the diameter lessens the weight in proportion to 
 the square of the diameter. It is unusual, however, to find 
 a marine flywheel larger in diameter than three times the 
 stroke of the engine. Quite often they are less than this. 
 Widening out the rim in a direction parallel to the axis of 
 the crankshaft will help matters a little, but there is a 
 limit to this. The designer, when considering the reduc- 
 tion in flywheel weights permissible with increase of speed, 
 should consider the engine as occasionally running at a 
 reduced speed, and make some allowance on that score. 
 If the boat is to be used almost entirely for a racer 
 the limit may be given to the weight. But if it is also to 
 be run at a reduced speed much of the time, he should 
 design the flywheel to suit the average conditions. 
 
 Recent developments in gas enginery have again 
 brought forward the double-acting gas engine taking in 
 impulse at either side of the piston, as does the steam 
 engine. This has been accomplished with promises of 
 good results by making the piston rod hollow and forcing 
 a stream of water through it. With a double-acting four- 
 cycle engine an impulse is obtained once in each revolu- 
 tion. This is also accomplished in the two-cycle engine, 
 which, while single acting, receives an impulse at each 
 revolution. For some unaccountable reason these engines
 
 do not as a rule give more than fifty per cent, greater 
 power than a four-cycle engine of the same dimensions, 
 running at the same speed. They are usually lighter, how- 
 ever, than the four cycle engine of the same power, and 
 their simplicity makes them find favor among a great many 
 gas-engine users. If well designed, they will give good 
 service, and are practically as reliable as a four-cycle. A 
 poorly-designed or poorly-constructed two-cycle engine is 
 much more likely to be cranky than a four-cycle that has 
 been poorly built or designed. 
 
 Another opportunity for decreasing the ratio of the 
 weight to the power obtained is to increase the compression 
 before ignition. There is a limit to the compression that 
 may be used in a gasoline engine without giving trouble. 
 Gasoline ignites at a lower temperature than many of the 
 fixed gases, and about 85 to 90 pounds is the practical limit. 
 Ordinarily, gasoline engines are designed to compress to 
 pressures of from 45 to 60 pounds. Increasing the com- 
 pression from 45 to 85 pounds means a gain in power of 
 nearly 40 per cent ,and by increasing the compression from 
 60 pounds to 85 pounds the power of the engine is aug- 
 mented over 20 per cent. Increase in compression neces- 
 sitates more careful attention on the part of the designer to 
 details, in order to avoid premature ignition. Many of
 
 io8 
 
 them do not know how to design an engine which will not 
 ignite prematurely at these high compressions, and they 
 keep to the low compressions. The use of high compres- 
 sions means not only an increase of power for an engine of 
 a certain size, but it means an increase in the efficiency of 
 the engine and a reduction of the fuel consumption per 
 horse power. 
 
 The purchaser of gasoline engines for marine uses may 
 wonder in what respect the foregoing discussion concerns 
 him. The author trusts he will find it of value in the se- 
 lection of an engine to suit his purpose. It will be espe- 
 cially valuable if he desires to buy an engine for racing 
 purposes. Again, the amount of cast-iron in an engine has 
 some effect on its price. The discussion will show many 
 of the requisites for reducing weight, and will, the writer 
 trusts, enable the buyer to know where to look for unneces- 
 sary metal. 
 
 The designer, especially if he be experienced in gas 
 engines, would do well to bear in mind the points brought 
 out when designing gas engines. Don't be afraid to speed 
 the engine up to a point a little above what other engines 
 have run at. In order to do so with some show of suc- 
 cess it is necessary to be careful about the port openings, 
 and to make them ample for the higher speed. While it
 
 109 
 
 may not always be desirable to build a racing engine, 
 there is ample room for reduction in weight on many of 
 the marine engines in use to day, a large number of them 
 weighing ten to twenty per cent, more than is really 
 necessary.
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 fiUDDEft NAVTOTYPES 
 
 NEXT to books, the most companionable of man's inanimate 
 friends are pictures; but in order to give continuous pleasure 
 they must harmonize with his sympathies and tastes. To be- 
 come a necessary part of his surroundings they must represent 
 something that he admires or likes. The horseman takes delight 
 in seeing pictures of his favorite animal, to the sportsman 
 sketches of game appeal, and the yachtsman, in order to be happily 
 environed, should have hanging on his wall spirited illustrations of his 
 favorite craft. A house without pictures is a barn; a room without them 
 a stall. Aside from their constant cheering presence they always furnish 
 a happy subject for conversation, and many a pleasant memory is refresh- 
 ened by a glance at a photograph of a flying schooner or drifting sloop, 
 and every sight of wave and sail recalls our affection for the sea and the 
 winded rovers, that throughout the kindly summer haunt its broad and 
 ever changing surface.
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 THE RUDDER NAUTOTYPES 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS 
 
 YACHTSMAN'S SERIES 
 
 Getting Under Wa> . Deck scene. Amorita 
 
 The Finish. An interesting view from the deck of a committee steamer 
 
 Reaching- for the Finish. English yawl Sabyrita 
 
 Start of the Half-Raters 
 
 Schooner Constellation. Storm rig 
 
 Sloop Cartoon. Wind abeam 
 
 Will If a 'Wing. Sloop Cartoon 
 
 Oneness. Champion i8-footer, 1898 
 
 Shark. HerreshofF 51 -footer 
 
 Yawl \Vu\veiio- 
 
 Hatldbaggers. Racing on Lake Geneva 
 
 Knockabout Amananta. Champion ot Buzzards By 
 
 8. Y. Freelance 
 
 S. Y. Klreba 
 
 Reflection. The fleet at White Bear Lake 
 
 RaceabOUtS Off L,archniont. Snapper, Raider, CollM 
 
 8. Y. Xiatcara 
 
 Launch of Escape. A novel launching 
 
 Youth and Old Age. Romonaa..a Amorita 
 
 Snow' Cloud. Ice Boat Champion 
 
 Sloop Constitution. Starboard side 
 
 Rocking-Cbair Fleet. With verses 
 
 Start of the jo-footers. Newport class 
 
 Shamrock II. Port side 
 
 Independence. From the lee bow 
 
 The Start. Columbia and Shamrock 1 
 
 OLD SALT SERIES 
 
 Squall off Sandy Hook Maii-o'-\Var School Ship 
 Spinning a Twister St. Marys 
 After the Gale Full-Rigged Ship 
 Maii-o'-\Var Constitution llenj. F. Packard 
 Shipping a Beam Sea 
 
 CUP-DEFENDER SERIES 
 
 Sloop Columbia Sloop mischief 
 
 Defender Schooner Madeleine 
 
 Vigilant Sappho 
 
 Volunteer Columbia 
 
 Mayflower Magic 
 
 Puritan *^_ America 
 
 A ny of the above subjects 25 CENTS EA CH by express prepaid, securely packed 
 to avoid breaking, 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
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 THE RUDDER X 
 
 '"THE policy of THE RUDDER is to give to yachts- 
 men a thoroughly practical periodical, deal- 
 ing with the sport of yachting in all its phases, 
 and especially to furnish them with the designs 
 and plans of vessels adapted to their wants 
 in all localities. 
 
 In each issue is a design of a sailing or power craft, and at least four 
 times a year a complete set of working drawings is given, so tha; the un- 
 skilled can try a hand at building with a certainty of making a success of 
 the attempt. 
 
 In the last two years over 500 boats have been built from designs 
 printed in the magazine, and in almost every case have given satisfaction. 
 
 Outside of the strictly practical, the magazine has always a cargo of 
 readable things in the way of cruises and tales, while its illustrations are noted 
 for their novelty and beauty. 
 
 The editor desires to increase the size of the magazine and to add to its 
 features. In order to do this it is necessary that it be given the hearty support 
 of all who are interested in the sport. The cost of a subscription, $2 a year 
 rolled or $2. so mailed flat, is as low as it is possible to make it and furnish a 
 first-class publication, and he asks yachtsmen to subscribe, as ill that way 
 they can materially assist him in keeping the magazine up to its present 
 standard of excellence. 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 How to Build a 
 Motor Launch 
 
 By C. D. Mower 
 Designing Editor of THK RUDDER 
 
 A simple and practical work in every de- 
 tail, showing how to construct a launch hull 
 suitable for use with any description of motor. 
 
 Each step of the work is clearly and thoroughly ex- 
 plained, both by text and drawings, so that a man who has 
 never even seen a boat built will have no difficulty in 
 understanding the process. 
 
 The author, a self-taught boat builder, thoroughly 
 comprehends what a novice does not know, and is, there- 
 fore, able to point out the hard places, and to show the 
 amateur builder how to get over or around them. 
 
 In the after part of the book are given the designs of 
 several launches, from 18 to 50 feet in length. 
 
 The whole is heavily illustrated, and is the most 
 complete treatise on launch building yet published. 
 
 THE RUDDER PUB. CO. 
 
 9 Murray St. New York, U. S. A. 
 Bound in cloth, price $r 
 
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 Build a Racer for $50" 
 
 When possible, please remit by Express Money Order 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 TO glJILD A J^ACER FOR $50' 
 
 SIMPLEST, safest and fastest boat that can be built. The working plans are such tha' 
 a boy can build from them. The plans were published in 1898, and since then some 
 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY, 9 Murray Street, New York.
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 TECHNICAL AND 
 PRACTICAL 
 
 TECHNICAL books are tools. No man can ex- 
 cel in a trade unless he has good tools, neither 
 can a man expect to excel in a sport unless 
 he has at hand ready for reference a good 
 collection of books relating to its theory and 
 practice. We have in this list, gathered for the first time, 
 all the obtainable books on the subject of yachting and 
 .its kindred sports. The yachtsman will find here those 
 books which are invaluable as guides to a higher know- 
 ledge of yachting, and which no yachtsman's library is 
 complete without. Any book not here listed, if in print, 
 we will obtain, no matter in what language or land it is 
 printed. 
 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING CO. 
 9 MURRAY STREET 
 NEW YORK 
 U. S. A. 
 
 How to Remit: The cheapest way is to send post-office or express money order, 
 payable to THE UDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY. If bank check is more 
 convenient, include 10 cents for bank exchange; if postage stamps or bills, letter must 
 be REGISTERED, OTHERWISE AT SENDER'S RISK.
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 i 
 
 On Yachts 
 
 
 
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 and Yacht 
 
 
 
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 Handling... 
 
 ^^E^MgMMMMn4Mls9 
 
 
 
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 BY THOMAS FLEMING DAY 
 
 
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 TN this book Mr 
 
 . Day has dropped 
 
 
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 | all technical terms that are apt to 
 
 
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 be confusing to the novice and 
 
 
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 i i 
 
 151 
 
 has made a simple 
 
 explanation of the 
 
 
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 handling and care of a boat. The book 
 
 a 
 
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 is written in a most interesting way 
 
 
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 the chapter on 
 
 anchors alone is 
 
 
 
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 worth more than the price of the book 
 
 "^1 
 
 E 
 
 1 CONTENTS : On Sails as An Auxiliary 
 
 
 TJ 
 
 a 
 
 On Seamanship On Reefing 
 
 
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 On Boats in General On Anchors and Anchoring 
 
 
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 On One-Man Boats On Rigging 
 
 
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 On Seagoing Boats On Stranding f[3 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 HwTo BUILD A KNOCKABOUT 
 
 The most wholesome type of boat for all-around cruising and racing. 
 Stanch, ta^t and powerful. Easily handled by one man. Full work- 
 ing dinwines and plans, with descriptive illustrations and instruc- 
 tions for building. Now in press, ready January ist, 1901. 
 
 Uniform in style with How to Build a Skipjack 
 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 9 MURRAY STREET, NEW YORK
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 What 
 Light 
 
 is 
 
 That? 
 
 READ YOUR ANSWER IN 
 
 Stebbins' Coast Pilot, 
 
 PRICE $1.00. BY MAIL $1.25. 
 
 OVER 400 ILLUSTRATIONS: FROM EASTPORT TO RIO GRANDE. 
 
 Published by 
 
 THE RUDCER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 9 Murray Street, New York csa
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 HOW TO BUILD A SKIPJACK 
 
 Complete plans and directions for building a ig-ft. sloop, the material 
 for which will cost less than $100 ; and pictures of numerous boats that 
 have been built in all parts of the world from these plans. Bound in 
 blue cloth and gold, uniform with "How to Build a Racer for $50." 
 
 PRICE ONE DOLLAR POSTPAID 
 
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 g Murray Street, New York
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 HOW TO BUILD 
 A RACING SLOOP 
 
 THE WIDE-WORLD WINNING SWALLOW 
 
 DESIGNED BY C. D. MOWER 
 
 'OST successful small racing machine ever de- 
 signed. Been built in every clime; has 
 won on every sea. A prize-winner in Am- 
 erica, Europe, Asia and Australia. Has de- 
 feated boats designed by Herreshoff, Gardner, Payne, 
 and a host of other designers. 
 
 Easy to build and easy to win with. Has been a 
 success wherever tried. No trouble to build if directions 
 are followed. Materials cost about $100; sometimes 
 less. Book contains full set of plans and story of what 
 Swallows have done. Cannot be beaten for the price; 
 cannot be beaten for any price. 
 
 Bound in Cloth, Price $1.00 
 
 Uniform in style with How to Build a Skipjack 
 
 Address THE RUDDER PUB. CO., 9 Murray St , N. Y.
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 Yacht Etiquette 
 
 WHAT TO DO AND HOW TO DO IT 
 
 A NEW BOOK 
 
 By CAPTAIN HOWARD PATTERSON 
 
 IT CONTAINS 
 
 Exhaustive chapters on yacht discipline, ceremonies and courtesies for 
 any and all circumstances. 
 
 A full treatise on the duties and responsibilities of yacht officers, 
 from the captain down. 
 
 Observances in detail for the reception of presidents of republics, 
 
 royalty, nobility, governors, members of the cabinet, diplomatic 
 
 corps, army and navy officials, and other distinguished 
 
 visitors ; colors in general ; salutes ; harbor 
 
 and sea routine, etc., etc. 
 
 Red marginal notes afford means of immediate reference to any subject 
 requiring to be dealt with on the spur of the moment. 
 
 Captains should not only provide for themselves, but should furnish one 
 of these books to each and every officer on board of their yachts, 
 so that sailing masters, mates, engineers, quarter- 
 masters, etc., may familiarize themselves with 
 those sections which deal with matters 
 in their respective departments. 
 
 A book that is as necessary and as applicable in parts for the small 
 yacht as for the palatial pleasure craft. 
 
 Beautifully printed and bound, and of convenient size for the pocket. 
 
 $1 
 
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 9 MURRAY STREET, NEW YORK
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 -* And How to Handle Them*- 
 f 
 
 CAPTAIN HOWARD PATTERSON 1 
 
 4 A Comprehensive Treatise on Working 
 % and Racing Sails; How They are Made; 
 The Running Rigging Belongingto Them; 
 The Manner in Which They are Confined 
 to their Respective Spars, Stays, etc. ; The | 
 Way They are Bent and Unbent, etc. | 
 
 A BOOK AS APPLICABLE FOR THE SMALL 
 
 J 
 
 iBOAT AS FOR THE LARGE YACHT. 
 | 
 i It should be in the Library of every 
 
 Corinthian sailor. 
 
 i ILLUSTRATED \ 
 
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 A Convenient size for the pocket. <T f~\(~\ 
 
 Mailed posipaid upon receipt of price, *p vJvJ 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 ELEMENTS OF 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 BY W. J. HENDERSON. 
 
 * * * * This little book, a very clever abridgement 
 and compilation of the heavier works of several authorities, 
 is one that has had quite an extensive sale, and has met. 
 with universal approval. It is very clearly and very care- 
 fully written, and the explanations of the problems are so 
 lucid that no man should be forgiven who fails to under- 
 stand them. I have seen many books of this kind intend- 
 ed for beginners, but to my mind this is the best of the lot, 
 and I recommend it to those who are anxious to study 
 navigation. EDITOR OF THE RUDDER. 
 
 PRICE, Postpaid - - $1.OO 
 
 Address: THE RUDDER PUBLISHING CO,, 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 Self Instruction 
 
 In "the Practice an d theory of 
 
 "Diagrams, Ejeerctses, Gables. Etc. 
 In 2 tJols.. cloth. 8*)o. 7 net 
 
 By the EARL o/ DUNRAVEN, Extra Master 
 
 A treatise intended for men who have never been trained 
 in mathematics and astronomy, yet are intelligent and 
 possess a certain amount of elementary or general 
 education. Practical, Simple, and Clear. 
 The first volume covers the necessary Arithmetic, 
 Logarithms, the Sailings, a Day's Work, the use of the 
 Compass, some chart work, and the simpler nautical 
 astronomical problems. 
 
 The second volume treats of other nautical astronom- 
 ical problems and magnetism ; gives further informa- 
 tion as to charts, and shows how working formulas are 
 deduced; and it contains numerous exercises, with the 
 necessary data lor their solution from the Nautical 
 Almanac of 1898, etc. 
 
 15he RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 9 Murra.y Street New York City
 
 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 THE STORY OF THE 
 
 Americas 
 Cup 
 
 By CHAS. P. TOWER 
 
 How it was won at Cowes in 1851 and how 
 it has been successfully defended for half a 
 century by the New York Yacht Club 
 
 A DAINTY little book, pocket size, of 
 /% about 128 pages, in which the entire 
 / % history of racing for the America's 
 / % Cup is told in brief yet comprehen- 
 "^ sive style, in ordinary language. It 
 is essentially a book for the multi- 
 tude of people who have little time to give to 
 yachting matters, but who share in the uni- 
 versal interest aroused by an international race. 
 It is as entertaining and easy to read as a story 
 book ; and as faithfully correct as to facts and 
 figures as a gazetteer. The author is well 
 known among yachting circles as an authority 
 on yachting matters. 
 
 PRICE 
 POSTPAID 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 TWELVE NAUTOTYPES 
 
 All the N 
 C\ip Defenders 
 
 AMERICA TO COLUMBIA 
 
 A TECHNICALLY correct and complete set of pic- 
 tures of the five schooners and eight sloops that 
 have defended the America Cup from 1851 to 
 1901. The first set of CORRECT pictures that have ever 
 been issued. The earlier yachts are drawings reproduced 
 from the original sail plans ; the later yachts are from the 
 most characteristic photographs obtainable. This set has 
 not been selected so much for its picturesque representa- 
 tion as for its technical fidelity and historical interest value. 
 
 The pictures are printed on heavy- coated paper in 
 Columbian Brown, a beautiful soft vaporous color that 
 brings out in a marvelously perfect manner the details of 
 rig and the shadow and light effects of the sails. 
 
 The pictures are excellently proportioned for framing, 
 and will make an attractive set for the library of any home, 
 or for cafes, reading rooms, bars, etc. 
 
 The set of thirteen nautotypes are furnished bound up 
 in album form measuring 9^2 x 12 inches. 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 The Yachtsman's Kedgc Anchor, 
 
 OR. 
 
 Every Man His Own Boatswain. 
 
 The Second Book in the Series by 
 
 CAPTAIN HOWARD PATTERSON, 
 
 Principal of the New York Nautical College. 
 
 Formerly Commander of the New York School Ship "St. Mary's," 
 Master of Various Sail and Steam Yachts. 
 
 A Full Treatise on Marlinspike Sea- 
 
 The 
 
 manship, The Rudiments and Theory 
 Yachtsman's of The Rudder, Anchor, Lead and 
 Kedge Anchor Line, etc. ; Directions for Laying Up 
 
 . . and Fitting Out a Yacht, Valuable 
 
 Conjatn-s : 
 
 Recipes, etc. .'. 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 ffV/7 bf ^failed Postpaid upon Receipt of Price, $1.00. 
 
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 YACHTSMAN'S LIBRARY 
 
 of 
 Sea an& Sail 
 
 BY THOMAS FLEMING DAY 
 
 A selection of forty -two ol 
 Mr. Day's Sea Poems, some 
 ol which have never hereto- 
 fore been published, being 
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 bound in Green Buckram 
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 making it a handsome vol- 
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