PT 2432 Z9 T3 1909 MAIN UC-NRLF BRARIES iLbc University of (Tbicaoo FOUNDED BY JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER |\ STUDY OF THE TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN A DISSERTATION [UBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (department of GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES) V BY MARION LEE TAYLOR CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1909 i^^ia!i'k^ii»^1i XTbe "Clntversit^ of Cbicago FOUNDED BY JOHN O. ROCKEFELLER A STUDY OF THE TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (department OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES) BY MARION LEE TAYLOR CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1909 tlbe mnivetsit^ ot Cbicago FOUNDED BY JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER A STUDY OF THE TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (department of GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES) BY MARION LEE TAYLOR CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1909 . a^U, Copyright 1909 Bv Thk University of Chicago Published June 1909 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE I I. Introduction Discussion of the term technique. Meyer's starting-point in the char- acters. II. Characterization Classes of characters: Central character — Main and subordinate char- acters — Simple and complex characters — Developing or self-revealing characters — Abnormal characters — Individual or typical characters — Female characters. Methods of portrayal: Circumstantial description — Colored by inner character — External description suggestive and accumulative — Physiog- nomy — Typical names — Epithets — Sectional and national traits — Professional traits — Characters drawn according to the role they play — Dramatic characterization — Psychological — Mental traits — Use of par- enthetical phrases — Pantomime and gesticulation — Use of comparisons. Relation to action: Moral unity — Action springs from the characters. Introduction of characters: Prepared — Symbolic — Abrupt. Contrast of characters: Angela and Lucretia Borgia — Henry II and Becket. Grouping: Self-revelation of the characters through speech and through acts. Interplay of character. Objective presentation versus analysis or comment. III. Plot Motivation: In Der Heilige— In Jurg Jenatsch — Plot structure and dramatic line in Jiirg Jenatsch — Use of accident — Motivation in Die Leiden eines Knaben — Initial action — Point of view — Time of the stories — Double interests in plot— Love interest— Threads of plot— Incidents of plot — Type of plot — Illusion. Suspense: Mystery — Secret observation — Prophecies, visions, dreams, forebodings— Developed by repetition of words, referring to denoue- ment, serving as Leitmotiv, emphasizing point at issue or fate idea; of scenes; of action — Special reference to Jurg Jenatsch, including repetition of words and sounds— Use of short sentences— Suspense in Angela Borgia. Unity: Intercalations — Digressions — Repetition. Frame-stories: In Die Hochzeit des Monchs— The narrator. IV. Modalities of Composition 55 Symbolism— Suggestiveness and compression— Parallelism— Objectiv- ity— Subjectivity — Romantic features — Realism — Interpretation of his- tory— Picturesqueness— Plasticity— Dramatic features— Characteristics of stories as Novellen. 30 185338 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS V. Settings 73 Time: Organic relation to plot — Shifts in time and place. Place: Interiors — Architecture. Landscape: as background, connected with the motive, to create atmosphere, emphasizing pathos and unity. Circumstantial: Contrast — Brevity of nature descriptions. Purpose. VI. Style 82 Vocabulary: Objective phrases — Combination of objective and sub- jective phrases — Epithets — Felicitous and dynamic phrases — Color words and onomatopoeia — Alliteration and hendiadys. Sentences: Long and balanced — Short — Interrogation and exclama- tion. Paragraphs. Figures of speech: Similes — Metaphors — Allegory — Antithesis — Climax — Personification — Allusions. Epigrams. Qualities of style: Clearness and strength — Humor — Pathos — Irony — Sarcasm. Adornments of style. Kinds of composition: Description. Narration: Dialogue — Exposition. VII. Conclusion 103 Bibliography . . . . . 105 OF I. INTRODUCTION Note. — The names of the authors and the titles of their several works which are referred to throughout this thesis are given in full in the appended Bibliography. Hence it has not been thought necessary to make any fuller reference in the footnotes than by the use of the words "op. cit." in connection with the author's name, which should be taken as a direct reference to the work cited in the Bibliography. Die Fakta betrachten wir als etwas Zufalliges, als etwas, das mehrem Per- sonen gemein sein kann; die Charaktere hingegen als etwas Wesentliches und Eigentiimliches. Mit jenen lassen wir den Dichter umspringen, wie er will, so lange er sie nur nicht mit den Charakteren in Widerspruch setzt; diese hingegen darf er wohl ins Licht stellen, aber nicht verandem; die geringste Veranderung scheint uns die Individualitat aufzuheben und andere Personen unterzuschieben, betriigerische Personen, die fremde Namen usurpieren und sich fiir etwas aus- geben, was sie nicht sind. Aber dennoch diinkt es mich immer ein weit verzeihlicherer Fehler, seinen Personen nicht die Charaktere zu geben, die ihnen die Geschichte gibt, als in diesen freiwillig gewahlten Charakteren selbst, es sei von seiten der innem Wahr- scheinlichkeit oder von seiten des Unterrichtenden, zu verstoszen. Denn jener Fehler kann vollkommen mit dem Genie bestehen, nicht aber dieser, .... nicht der erworbene Vorrat seines Gedachtnisses, sondem das, was es (das Genie) aus sich selbst, aus seinem eigenen Gefiihl hervorzubringen vermag, macht seinen Reichtum aus.' These are the words of Lessing, the critic who revolutionized the old ideas of tragedy and established a new basis for modern dramatists. He undertook to prove to his contemporaries that, whether in the historical or non-historical drama, the chief emphasis was to be laid on character, and that the motivation of the plot and all other matters of form were to be in harmony with and determined by the conception of character.^ Basing our conception of technique, then, on Lessing's observations, a study of technique should be primarily a consideration of the characters as presented. Having discovered the character-relations in the works under discussion, the next step should be to show how every other constituent element of the composition and style is dependent upon these relations and flows naturally from them. Konrad Ferdinand Meyer had an inherent dramatic turn of mind. He said of himself that he could express his inmost truest nature only in the 1 Hamburgische Dramaturgie, Stiick 33, end, and beginning of Stiick 34. 2 Cf. ibid., St. 30, p. 2, Cotta ed., p. 222. 2 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN dramatic form.^ That is, he entered into his characters, saw with their eyes, heard with their ears, and was moved by the same mental and spiritual struggles as they. Having started with his characters, he proceeded to study the time-setting in which they were to be placed, to consider the historical facts which would reveal the characters or interpret their develop- ment, to invent the necessary links in the plot showing the motives hidden within the character, and, lastly, to embody the whole in a form which should be in keeping with this same central idea. The external form of Meyer's work is especially praised by critics. It has been said that his work is artistic, but that this quality predominates to such an extent that the whole makes no deeper appeal, and is to be con- sidered rather as a luxury (Luxuskunst) than as a necessity. Immer wieder wird sich der feinere Sinn an der auszerordentlichen Plastik der Schilderung, an der bewuszt kunstvollen Fortfuhrung der Handlung, an dem gewissen latenten Pathos, das alles atmet, erbauen. Aber Konrad Ferdinand Meyer ist zu sehr Kiinstler. Wohl hat er in seiner Werkstatt Becher gehammert und Schwerter geschmiedet, aber es waren nicht Becher fiir die Durstigen und Schwerter fiir die Kampfenden, es waren goldene Zierrate fiir satte Herzen Ich wiederhole: er ist durchaus Phantasiedichter. Aber es hebt ihn vor anderen, dasz seine Phantasiegebilde nicht nur tote Glitzerdinge sind, sondem wie der Schatten in dem Lethe-Gedicht, "mit einem Schein von Blut" gefarbt und lebendig gekiiszt von der wilden Sehnsucht des Herzens.^ In spite of the beauty of the form and the admiration it excites for its own sake, I hope to show that it is dependent on the conception of character which was Meyer's starting-point. It is not, however, conceded by all that Meyer did start with the char- acters. One writer, Stoessl, seems to me to contradict himself in regard to this point. After making a statement to the effect that Meyer's work is picturesque but not plastic, that it lacks depth, Stoessl says: In der Personlichkeit ist jedes Gebahren der Zeit sichtbarer, mit symbo- lischer Bedeutung festgestellt und zur Erscheinung gebracht. Aus der bewuszten und heraustretenden Tat eines heroischen Individuums laszt sich die treibende Kraft der Gesamtheit, ihre Not, ihr Entschlusz am sichersten erkennen und gestalten. But he further says that the result of Meyer's aesthetic point of view is — dasz ihn in der Regel nicht die unmittelbaren, seelischen Probleme zuerst auf- suchen, fur die er historische Gleichnisse wahlt, sondem vielmehr die Erschei- I "Wahr kann ich nur unter der dramatischen Maske al fresco sein. Im Jenatsch und im Heiligen (beide urspriinglich dramatisch konzipiert) ist in den verschiedensten Verkleidungen weit mehr von mir, meinen wahren Leiden und Leidenschaften, als in dieser Lyrik " — Letter to Luise von Franfois, Langmesser, op. cit., p. 126. ' Busse, op. cit., pp. 8, 21. INTRODUCTION 3 nungen der femen Zeit selbst in Kostiim und Stimmung. Von ihnen menschlich ergriflfen, erhebt er sie wieder und sucht erst im Vorgang des Schaffens nach ihrer menschlichen Tiefe, nach ihrem geistigen Inhalt.^ It is only necessary to cite the example of a writer of historical novels whose chief interest is in the historical background, namely Scott, to show by contrast that this is not Meyer's method. It is the problem presented that gives Meyer's Novellen vital interest. Luise von Francois observes this quality in Meyer's work in her first letter to him : In einem Briefe eines Langvergessenen — Solger — habe ich einstmals uber Walter Scott gelesen und mir gemerkt, well es mir aus der Seele geschrieben war: wie wenig fehlte diesem Autor um ein groszer Dichter zu sein, und wie macht doch just dieses Wenige den groszen Dichter! Dieses Etwas pulst in Ihren Dichtungen, eine Shakespearische Ader: der Tiefsinn, wie ich es nenne, ein Problem, wie Sie selbst es nennen. Ihr Problem ist nicht die halbe Kraft, sondem eine dopi)elte " This comparison with Scott is interesting because it touches on just the point made here — that Meyer, instead of writing from a vague general interest in the past, or even a local national interest, as did Scott, made every detail hinge upon the idea of the personality he wished to present. We shall notice the national element in Meyer's work, too, but it appears only as an explanation of the character, whereas in Scott there is no organic connection between the character and the setting. A more accurate state- ment is that of Greinz: Nirgends finden wir bei ihm das Bestreben uns in groszeren Schilderungen ein Bild der Zeit zu geben, sondem dieselbe entwickelt sich frei und unmittelbar aus dem Charakter der handelnden Personen, den Handlungen derselben und gliicklich gewahlten, scheinbar nur absichtslos skizzierten Nebenumstanden.3 Again, another writer says: AUes ist bei ihm auf die Handlung abgesehen .... es ist blosz die Psycholo- gie der Handlung, auf die es ihm ankommt.'* I Stoessl, op. cit., pp. 26, 27. » Langmesser, op. cit., pp. 122, 123; letter of May i, 1881. Cf. also Saitschik, op. cit., p. 304: "Einen unvergleichlich scharferen und iiberwaltigenderen Ausdruck erhalt der Kampf des Individuellen mit den gesetzmaszigen Sitten der Gesellschaft in den No- vellen, Die Richterin und Die Hochzeit des Monchs. Meyer behandelt hier Probleme, wie sie nur im Kopfe eines Shakespeares auftauchen konnten. Diese scharf gemeiszelten Gestalten, diese verwickelten Seelenkampfe, diese dramatische Auffassung der Kollision stehen uniibertroffen in der modernen Literatur. Meyer hat hier die geheim- sten und verworrensten Falten der menschlichen Seele mit einem tiefbohrenden Spaherblicke durchforscht. Er musz sich selbst alle diese KolHsionen durchgekampft haben, ehe er sie mit solcher packenden Wahrheit wiedergeben konnte." 3 Greinz, op. cit., pp. 141, 142. 4 Saitschik, op. cit., p. 216. 4 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN This is the same as saying that Meyer is concerned primarily with the characters; for it is on them that the "Psychologic der Handlung," i. e., the motivation, rests. But the final word is spoken when the author describes his own method of work: Wenn ich eine Novelle schreiben will, besteht die erste Arbeit darin, den Stoflf, der behandelt warden soil und der sich in allzugroszer Fiille aufdrangt, ziemlich genau abzugrenzen. Den so eingeengten StoflF mochte ich am liebsten mit einem Ackerfeld vergleichen. Dieses musz gepflugt werden, und das ist sodann die Hauptarbeit, das Erdreich dergestalt zu durchwiihlen und zu pfliigen, dasz die Bedingungen einer moglichst hohen Ertragsfahigkeit erfiillt sind, und dasz kein allfallig vergrabener Schatz, auch nicht das kleinste Kleinod entgeht. Bei dieser Art von Tatigkeit kommen mir die historischen Personen mit der Art ihres Denkens, mit den Anschauungen ihrer Zeit, mit ihrem Fuhlen, ihren Schwachen, ihren Leidenschaften raenschlich naher. Die kleinen Ziige, die wir oft zufallig finden, haben manchmal den groszten Wert; sie machen uns vielfach darauf aufmerksam, dasz gewisse Handlungen geschichtlicher Personen, die uns zu ihrem sonstigen Charakter nicht zu passen scheinen, aus andem Motiven, als den durch die Zeitgeschichte ihnen zugeschrieben, hatten herflieszen konnen, und die blosze Moglichkeit geniigt dem Dichter — denn dazu hat er ein Recht — beispielsw. seinem Helden seiche andere, aus seiner ganzen geistigen Individualitat begreifliche Beweggriinde unterzuschieben und ihn dadurch zu individualisieren.^ Meyer's favorite theme is the study of problematic characters, of personalities in which opposing forces fight for the ascendency, a theme previously expressed in Hutten in the words: ich bin kein ausgekliigelt Buch. Ich bin ein Mensch mit seinem Widerspruch. If not a conflict of dififerent emotions in the same individual, the theme becomes the struggle of the individual personality either alone or as one of a class against opposing forces of higher power, prevailing customs or conditions. Thus, in many instances Meyer presents the principle of individual, religious, or national freedom. Life demands strength, and the individual must bring to expression those impelling forces he feels within him. If there is failure to attain the desired goal, it is because of some hidden element of weakness, which, revealed, furnishes an explanation of the character's final insufiiciency. Thus each of his stories presents a universal ethical problem such as must form the foundation of every great literary work. We may contrast Meyer's method with that of Tourgenieff who, it is I Frey, op. cit., p. 283. INTRODUCTION 5 said,^ started with his characters and queried what he could make them do. To a certain extent the actions of Meyer's characters are already- determined. He asks how they came to do what they did. The result is a species of motivation which shows keen observation and sympathetic insight into the workings of the human mind and hidden springs of character. His ability to read character and to win the confidence of those with whom he came in contact was remarkable.^ 1 James, Partial Portraits, pp. 314, 315. 2 "Dabei hatte er eine wunderbare Feinfiihligkeit f iir das jedem Menschen Eigen- tiimliche. Trat ihm eine komplizierte, problematische Personlichkeit entgegen, so machte es ihm ein sonderliches Vergniigen, den Kern ihres Wesens zu ergriinden. Und merkwiirdig, dem Seelenkundigen enthiillten auch sonst verschlossene Menschen ihr Inneres." — Langmesser, op. cit., p. 115. "Hirten und Matrosen, Professoren und Gelehrte der verschiedensten Facher, Kantonsrate und Nachbarn vom ziircherischen Seeufer kehrten ihm gegeniiber ihr Inneres heraus, verwickelten sich unversehens in Lebensfragen oder erzahlten ihm seltsame Stiicke ihrer eigenen Biographie. Jeder eigentiimliche Zug interessierte ihn und erweckte in ihm unabweislich den kiinstlerischen Trieb, sich daraus den ganzen Menschen deutlich auszubilden." — Betsey Meyer, op. cit., pp. 2, 3. II. CHARACTERIZATION CLASSES OF CHARACTERS Central character. — Knowing Meyer to have so strong an interest in the individual personality, it is not surprising to find that he limits the main characters in each Novelle to a very small number. Each story^ contains a central character, a hero or a heroine, to whom the other characters are related. Sometimes, in a case where two characters are contrasted with one another or when the relations between two characters form the main theme, the two characters seem to be of almost equal rank, as, for example, Auguste Leubelfing and Gustavus Adolphus in Gustav Adolf s Page. The central character is not always "das Auge durch welches der Autor die Welt sieht."^ In the frame-stories the story-teller fills this office, and in Jiirg Jenatsch, Waser is an interpreting character. "Zwar finden wir ihn kaum als treibende Kraft, aber stets als verstandnisvollen Zuschauer," says Sahr.^ His presence and judgment help to rationalize those experiences which are held by the credulous to have a supernatural origin. He alone appreciates the hidden impulse from which all Jurg's actions spring. "In einem Stiicke wenigstens uberragt Georg Jenatsch unsere groszten Zeitgenossen — in seiner iibermachtigen Vaterlandsliebe. . . . . Sie ist der einzige iiberall passende Schliissel zu seinem vielgestalti- gen Wesen."4 But the central character is the bearer of the idea of the piece. Thus, in Jiirg Jenatsch, we have a study of a powerful character torn by strong conflicting emotions, patriotism, loyalty, love, and revenge. The hero changes from a sturdy, straightforward, fearless lad into a mur- derer and traitor, but moved by the sole desire of freeing his country from a foreign yoke. Yet such deeds are shown to meet the reward they merit, no matter what the motive. Meyer considered Jenatsch a scoundrel, but he has shown how a man with Jenatsch's natural tendencies and in his circumstances could so change, and through him Meyer has illustrated his Own ethical views. 1 As there is no English equivalent for the German term, Novelle, the words story, novel, etc., will be indiscriminately alternated with the German word for the sake of variety. In the discussion of the classification of Meyer's narratives as Novellen, the German word is preserved throughout. 2 Spielhagen, Beitrdge z. Technik des Romans, p. 72. 3 Sahr, op. cit., p. 7. 4 Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 327, 328. 6 CHARACTERIZATION 7 Main and subordinate characters. — It was necessary to introduce in Jiirg Jenatsch other characters to bridge the gulf between Jenatsch's tower- ing figure and those whom his profession made his associates. Neverthe- less, of the characters so introduced, only two others may be called main characters, Lucretia and Rohan. They are the heroine — the woman whom Jenatsch loves and whose love for him helps the reader to appre- ciate the good qualities he possesses in spite of his sins — and the man against whom Jenatsch sins most deeply. All the other characters belong to a group subordinate to one of these three main characters. In Das Amulet, the only Novelle published previous to Jiirg Jenatsch, there is not the same limitation in the number of main characters and concentration on the central figure. The germ of this story is the group of incidents connected with the medal of the Virgin which saves an unbelieving Protestant but not the devout Catholic. It tells the events of the days immediately preceding and including the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. The real essence of the story is the struggle of the Protestants foi^ liberty of worship. The hero is ignorant of the state of affairs in the capital city. His experience must be broadened, he meets many people who are representatives of many different classes, he learns of the intrigues of the court and of Coligny's great plans. Some of his knowledge comes to him through his friend Boccard. These two are the main characters. Yet the other characters are given a broad treatment, causing the interest to be di- vided. Meyer's purpose was to illustrate the spirit of the time from all points of view. Thus we find such different figures as Montaigne and Pater Pani- garola. But the figure of Coligny and, in a lesser degree, the reminiscences of his brother Dandelot, dominate the story. To see how Meyer mastered the problem of infusing the life of the period into his story and at the same time concentrating the interest on the central character unknown to history, we have but to refer to Die Leiden eines Knaben. Meyer never reverted to the manner of Das Amulet after having mastered the problem of concentration in Jurg Jenatsch. ''Er begniigt sich, nur wenige Personen in die Handlung seiner Novellen einzufuhren; was ihm nicht individuell genug erscheint, laszt er einfach weg."^ This aspect of form is, then, but a means of emphasizing the individual element. Simple and complex characters. — The number of minor figures pre- sented in the Novellen is remarkable. There are kings and queens, lesser rulers, diplomats, scholars, poets, physicians and priests, ladies and cour- tiers, soldiers, men and women of other classes, servants, peasants, fools, bandits, the aged and youth of every rank — princes, pages, girls of the ^ Saitschik, op. cit., p. 273. 8 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN Swiss mountains and of the Italian courts, sailor boys, school boys, and a merchant's son — orientals, and representatives of no less than nine European countries. Each one helps to throw light on the chief character. Of such a large number it is evident that but few can be selected for intensive psychological study. The number of complex characters is small; those characters not so closely studied, remaining simple rather than manifesting problematic natures. ~:^'' Developing or self-revealing characters. — Again, while Meyer wished to show how the characters came to do what they did, he was aware that in the majority of cases people simply reveal certain traits which are latent in their natures rather than express a definite change. Accordingly, we "^ find that many of the complex characters reveal themselves, but that very few really show a change during the progress of the story. I Hmit these y i few to Jenatsch, Astorre {Die Hochzeit des Monchs), and Giulio {Angela Borgia). We follow Jenatsch's development from Waser's recollection of him as a lad at school through his experience as a Protestant pastor, as a soldier, and as the chief representative of his countrymen. Die Hochzeit des Monchs shows us Padua in the time of Ezzelino da Romano. The motif is the story of a monk, Astorre, compelled by piety to renounce his vow. He thus becomes faithless to himself more than to the church which he forsakes. Having broken one vow, it seems easy to break still others. He deserts the woman he is pledged to marry for another whom fate has brought once more across his path. The downfall of a noble and pure spirit is portrayed, with its pernicious influence upon the people whose edi- fication the monk had once been. Thus the one step taken by the monk brings a train of calamities, all originating in the effect of the act on the monk's character. Giulio d'Este in Angela Borgia is bhnded by his brother, the Cardinal Hippolyte, who is jealous of Angela's admiration of Giulio's eyes. When Giulio hears from Angela of her share in his mis- fortune, he rashly joins in a conspiracy against another brother, the reigning duke. He is seized, tried, and condemned to death. At last, the Cardinal, urged by his conscience, intercedes for Giulio, whose sentence is changed to imprisonment. Under the influence of Angela, who is burdened by a sense of her share in his misfortune and marries him, and because of the years of imprisonment necessarily spent in reflection on the past, resignation and moral purpose are developed in the character of Giulio. ' On the other hand, in Meyer's story of such a complex character as that of Thomas Becket in Der Heilige, the author does not show Becket to us as a developing character as much as a man about whom we are constantly learning more facts which illumine what we previously knew of him CHARACTERIZATION 9 and prepare us for future events. His mother was a Saracen and his father a Saxon. He himself is the Norman king's trusted counselor and friend, officially his chancellor. The king wrongs him grievously by robbing him of his most precious treasure, his daughter Grace (Gnade). Becket's diplomatic talents are so great that the king elevates him to the primacy. The king wishes to have as the head of the church one who will also advance the highest interests of the state. Becket's oriental instincts appear in his devotion to the master he serves, and when he becomes head of the church, he works for her interests as opposed to those of King Henry. Moreover, the power he now holds is supreme, and he is tempted to use it 'to satisfy his oriental implacability. Thus the event of Grace's death has not produced a change in Becket's character, but has brought to light traits which have heretofore been inactive. Abnormal characters. — Although Meyer was interested in problematic characters, he did not turn his attention to the study of abnormal charac- ters. But few examples of this class are to be found in the Novellen: Charles IX in Das Amulet, Agostino and Blasius Alexander in Jurg Jenatsch, Olympia in Die Hochzeit des Monchs, and Ferrante in Angela Borgia complete the list. But how vividly are the indecision of Charles, the fanaticism of Alexander, Ferrante's lack of principle, the rapid alter- nations of Olympia's lucid and frenzied states portrayed! Individ^ual or typical characters. — Meyer's characters are individual. He has made them concrete and real. His understanding of the manifold aspects of human nature finds adequate and sympathetic expression. His differentiation of the four brothers d'Este in Angela Borgia may serve as an example of his talent in this direction, as well as the portrayal of the characters mentioned in the preceding paragraph. He makes each character an individual by first taking into consideration the influences of heredity and environment, by a study of the motives which govern the acts of the characters in particular instances. The character may be passionate like Jenatsch, subtle like Becket, conscientious and talented, though slightly pedantic, like Waser, manifesting the traits of a tyrant in embryo hke Ezzelin, or born with a talent for intrigue like Morone — not one is distorted into a caricature. That is, no one of these person- ages, however real his presence, fails to exhibit such typical qualities as are essential to the normal human being. ^ ' "If the personage be drawn as to convey a vivid sense of reality, his individual characteristics will be firmly outlined; and if he gives to the reader an impression of moral unity, there is little doubt that he will in the true sense contain the type. For the type, so far as it is of any artistic value, is implicit in the individual." — Bliss Perry, op. cit., p. 123. |y lO TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN jl Female characters. — Meyer's female characters are divisible into two groups. Those in the one group are dominated by a strong purpose and show firmness in executing it. Having once entered upon a course of action, they carry it through to the end, even if the so doing may involve the greatest sacrifice, that of life. The "Richterin" Stemma is an example of this group, and also Angela Borgia, who by her strong moral nature is able to conquer all opposition. The other group of women com- prises those with less defined characteristics. They are charming but shadowy creatures, beautiful, and winning the affection of brave men, though not performing any definite action. Their simplicity is their chief charm. The women of the former group are they whose complete por- trayal was a primary concern of the author. When the female characters fl do not have one of the chief roles to play, they are sketched in more lightly, yt the author's attention always being given to the enigmatical personahty. METHODS OF PORTRAYAL Circumstantial description. — The Novellen rarely contain circumstan- tial descriptions. Among the most detailed is that of the abbess in Plautus im Nonnenkloster: "In der weiszen Kutte mit dem hochge- roteten Gesichte, den dumm pfiffigen Aeuglein, dem kaum entdeckten Stulpnaschen und dem davon durch einen ungeheuern Zwischenraum getrennten bestialischen Munde."^ Here we behold without comment on the part of the author the physical embodiment of the inner traits to be revealed. Poggio, the speaker of the preceding, is thus portrayed: "Ein scharf geschnittener, greiser Kopf; an dessen beredten Lippen die Aufmerksamkeit der lauschenden Runde hing. Der Ausdruck dieses geistreichen Kopfes war ein seltsam gemischter: iiber die Heiterkeit der Stim, die lachelnden Mundwinkel war der Schatten eines triiben Erleb- nisses geworfen."^ This is more suggestive of the inner nature of the man than furnishing details from which an accurate picture could be made. The strange figure of the Swiss in Die Versuchung des Pescara is described quite minutely as he is reproduced in the painting over the altar: "Der auf einem Stiernacken sitzende Kopf, kleine, blaue, krystall- helle Augen, eingezogene Stumpfnase, grinsender Mund, blonder, krauser, knebelbart, braune Farbe mit rosigen Wangen, Ohrringe in Form einer Milchkelle, und ein aus Redlichkeit und Verschmitzheit wunderlich gemischter Ausdruck."^ The last particular gives the essence of the I Plautus im Nonnenkloster, p. 229. » Ibid., p. 217. 3 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. i8o. CHARACTERIZATION II man's character. We have this description because we are to meet the man again and recognize him by his appearance. Aside from these ex- amples, only the descriptions of Coligny in Das Amulet and of Fagon in Die Leiden eines Knaben are circumstantial, the reason being that they are interesting figures. But it is the minor figures that receive the greatest amount of circumstantial description, the main figures being described by their inner traits of character. Colored by inner character. — As a rule the external characterization is colored by the idea which the character represents. An excellent illustra- tion of this is the description of the burgomaster in Jiirg Jenatsch: In der Mitte der Ratsherm fiel der Amtsburgermeister Meyer als wahrhaft imposante Erscheinung ins Auge. Nie hatte eine biirgermeisterliche Kette mit ihrer groszen runden Schaumiinze bequemer gelegen und selbstzufriedener geleuchtet, als die auf seiner breiten Brust ruhende; nie hatten ein seidener Strumpf und ein Rosettenschuh knapper und schoner gesessen ais heute an seinem wohlgebildeten, feierlich vorgesetzten Beine. Bei naherer Betrachtung jedoch verriet die Befangenheit des gewohnlich gesunden und ruhigen Gesichts und der bangliche Ausdruck der irrenden Augensteme einen geheimen Widerspruch seines Innem mit der magistralen Sicherheit seiner voUkommenen Haltung.' Further reference may be made to Waser whom Meyer has drawn with great care. As he comes on the scene from time to time, we see the changes in his outward bearing with just those features in the brightest light which reveal his mental attitude. At first he is a simple citizen at the beginning of his upward career. Er trug stadtische Tracht, und was er auf sein Felleisen geschnallt hatte, schien ein leichter Ratsdegen und ein Ratsherrenmantelchen zu sein. Dennoch scbritt er jugendlich elastisch bergan und schaute sich mit schnellen klugen Blicken in der ihm fremdartigen Bergwelt um.* Jenatsch's impression of his former friend is favorable. Jenatsch seinerseits war von der fertigen und saubem Erscheinung seines ziircherischen Freundes, der mit klug bescheidenen Blicken, doch in seiner Weise sicher vor ihm stand, sichtlich befriedigt, und oflFenbar erfreut, mit einem Vertreter stadtischer Kultur in seiner Abgeschiedenheit zu verkehren.3 The suggestion of pedantry in Waser's nature appears next, as he visits St. Mark's with Rohan and the duchess. Leicht zu erkennen an seinem vomehmen, hagern Wuchs und der wurde- vollen, aber anmutigen Haltung war der mit calvinistischer Schlichtheit in dunkle Stoffe gekleidete Herzog. Die schlanke Dame, die er fiihrte, war nach alien Seiten in bestandiger Bewegung. Jetzt neigte sie sich gefallig einem kurzen I Jurg Jenatsch, p. 287. » Ibid., p. 5. 3 Ibid., p. 41. 12 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN untersetzten Herrn zu, der ihr mit einiger Gravitat die gotische Architektur des Doms zu erklaren bestrebt war.^ The contrast between Waser and Grimani is effective: Zwei Mannergestalten in Staatstracht, die sich in ausdrucksvoUer Silhouette vom hellen Hintergrunde der glanzend erleuchteten Halle abhoben. Die eine zeigte den feinen Bau und die ruhige, geschmeidige Bewegung des vornehmen Venetianers, die andere, von behaglicher Fulle und deutschehrbarem Ansehen, weigerte sich mit etwas kleinstadtischer Hoflichkeit den Vortritt zu nehmen.^ Lastly, we see him wearing the highest honors of his native city: Ein Ilauch von Jugendlichkeit schwebte auf seinen vom Gastmahle geroteten Ziigen, deren friihere bewegliche Feinheit sich zum, behabigen Ausdruck einer wohlwollenden, aber ans Schlaue streifenden Klugheit ausgepragt hatte.^ External description suggestive and cumulative. — The external, then, as well as the inner characterization is suggestive and cumulative, the two always going hand in hand. Attention is called only to a few salient points with the point of view clearly fixed. The facts given the reader regarding Jenatsch's appearance leave much to the imagination, but they are suffi- cient to show his outer aspect in harmony with his character. As a boy he has a "breit ausgepragte Stirn und kraftige Handgelenke." Later we hear of his "eiserne" or "wuchtige Faust," "starke," "kraftige," "feste Hand," his "eiserne Stirn," "seine breite Brust" and "athletische Gestalt;" he is "ein Kriegsmann von gewaltiger Statur und herrischem Blicke," a "Holofernesgestalt," "der staathche Fremde;" his shoulder is "machtig gebaut," his face is bronzed, and his voice is powerful. "Sein gewaltiger Korperbau und sein feuriges Antlitz machten ihn noch immer zum Machtigsten und Schonsten unter alien." After his return to Biinden, his presence is recognized by the sight of a " Scharlachkleid " and a "hochragende blaue Hutfeder."4 Physiognomy. — Physiognomy plays its part as a means of character- ization. Hans has an "energische Stirn," a "breit vorragende Stirn," "feste eckige Zlige," and "funkelnde Augen." These, together with his "feste Gestalt" and "kriegerische Haltung," show his outward appearance to be in harmony with his "Treue" and his reputation as a " verlaszHcher Mann." Julian, "der Unbegabte" has "wenig Stirn." Stemma, who judges both herself and others severely, has a "strengen Mund." Angela Borgia, who differs from those about her in the possession of a sensitive conscience and the will to live up to its demands, is thus portrayed : I Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 115. ' Ibid., p. 141. 3 Ibid., p. 325. 4 Ibid., pp. 14, 41, no, 173, 256, 209 ff., 340. CHARACTERIZATION I3 In den feurigen von flattemdem Kraushaar beschatteten Augen wohnte Wahr- heit und auf dera weichen Munde neben einem kindlichen Zuge der Trotz der Liebe, ja eine gefahrliche Entschloszenheit.' References to the eyes. — Indeed, the references to the eyes or the observa- ^ tions of their change of expression are very many, a fact which cannot fail to strike even the casual reader. Meyer is fully aware of the importance of the eye as the "most expressive part of the face" and as "the mimetic center of thought."^ It will be interesting to note the statements about the eyes, both for the immediate purpose here, and to illustrate Meyer's com- mand of language in a definite point. Color. — As regards the color of the eyes, they are: "grosze blaue ^ Augen," "blaue unschuldige Kinderaugen," "leuchtend blaue Augen," "wasserblau," and "verklart blaulich schimmernden ; " "scharfe" or "schnelle graue Augen;" "von grlin schillerndem Blick;" "vertrauens- volle braune Augen," "warmen lichtbraunen Augen," "auflfallende dunkle Augen," "kluge dunkle Augen bald wehmutig, bald spottisch, immer geistvoll," "dunkeln mandelformigen," "sanft schwermlitigen Augen;" "glanzend schwarz und sehr klug," "grausame schwarze Augen." The use of such limiting words as "unschuldig," "vertrauensvoll," "grausam," are evidence that it was not merely the color that Meyer thought it worth while to tell, but that he had made a distinct association between the color or appearance and the individuality which so looked out upon the ^ world. 3 Don Giulio. — The beauty of the eyes is the theme in Angela Borgia. ^ The following statements are applied to Don Giulio's eyes: "Die unver- gleichlichen und verbrecherischen Augen;" "seine Augen, die wirklich in ^ ihrer tiefen Blaue unter dem edeln Zuge der dunkeln Brauen von seltenem Zauber waren;" "in den Born dieser wunderbaren Augen;" "aus den sanften Augen ;" "Deinenzauberischen Augen;" "Ichhatte Gotteraugen ;" " Himmelsaugen."-* Coligny; Gustavus Adolphus. — The similarity of Coligny's eyes and ' Angela Borgia, p. 113. 2 Raymond, Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture as Representative Arts (New York, 1895), p. 167; quoting Mantezza, Physiognomy and Expression, epitomized in Werner's Magazine, January and February, 1895. 3 "The beautiful soul plays over the countenance, unifying all its wondrous ele- ments into a symbol of itself. It concentrates itself in the eye .... for when the soul would act directly upon another soul, it finds that other through these windows, and the other shows itself through the same." — Kedney, The Beautiful and the Sublime (New York, 1880), p. 77. 4 Angela Borgia, pp. 18, 21, 22, 49, 59, 118, 149. 14 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN ^ Gasparde's "wunderbar strahlende blaue Augen" is emphasized in Das j Amulet. Gustavus Adolphus also has beautiful, though short-sighted, 1 eyes. The latter fact is emphasized to account for his failure to detect the I deceit of his page. Even Jenatsch speaks of this hero by a reference to 1 his eyes.^ j^ Lucretia Borgia. — The color of Lucretia Borgia's eyes was peculiar. (Cf. Blaser, op. cii., p. 119.) Meyer has reproduced this quality, making it agree with his notion of her personality: Die seltene Farbe ihrer hellen Augen (p. i). Ein blelcher Blitz schosz aus ihren blaulichen Augen (p. 18). Ihr bleiches Auge erstarrte zu einem Meduscnblick (p. 27). Farblose Augen (p. 46). Ihre blassen und doch feurigen Augen schauten grosz und geisterhaft unter der Kapuze hervor (p. 152). Doch die groszen lichten Augen starrten versteinemd, wie die der Medusa (p. 172). Die zartblauen Augen brannten feurig (p. 182). Sie starrte den Richter mit bleichen Augen an und alle Lieblichkeit war von ihr gewichen (p. 190). Henry II. — Every mood of King Henry II is visible in the expression of his eyes. Seine blauen unbeschatteten Augen brannten wie zwei Flammen (p. 43). Mit listigen Augen (p. 51). Aus leuchtenden Augen (p. 68). Seine lusttrunkenen Augen (p. 76). Der Konig zwinkerte schalkhaft mit den Augen (p. 126). Mit freudestrahlenden Augen (p. 131). Seine blauen Augen quoUen aus den Hohlen (p. 155). Mit rollenden Augen (p. 20c). War der Herr mit starren, hervorquellenden Augen an mich herabgetreten (p. 221). It is significant that Catherine de Medici awaits the signal for the Massacre of St. Bartholomew "mit halbgeschlossenen Augen." Compare "das schalkhafte Licht der halbgeschlossenen Augen"^ of Gustavus Adolphus and the statement that Pescara "schlosz die Augen, wie um besser zu belauschen."^ The characters meet or avoid the reproaches and questions in the glance of others. Pfannenstiel "beichtete den klaren braunen Augen." Lucretia Planta's eyes "begannen unternehmend zu I Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 128. ' Custav Adolfs Page, p. 295. 3 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 104. CHARACTERIZATION 1 5 leuchten."^ Thus interest, truth, and judgment are expressed uncon- sciously in the glance even of such wary leaders, and in each case in a thoroughly characteristic way. Expression. — The expression may be: "feurig," "brennend," "lodemde Fackeln," "siidlich," "hell," "flammend," "durchdringend," "furchterlich," "trotzig," "lebhaft," ''ernsthaft," ''mild," "klar," "himmlisch," "red- lich," "streng kritisch," "kaltruhig," "unruhig," "irre," "holde," "erlo- schen," "toll," "oflfene stiere Augen," "lachend," "suchend," "dunkeldro- hend," "unheimlich," "finster," "melancholisch," "mutwillig," "entzuckt," "voU gluhender Wonne," "besturzt," "fragend," "glaubig," "erstaunt," "befremdet," "erschrocken," "bewundernd," "unbescheiden," "neugie- rig," "aufgerissen," "teilnahmsvoll," "aufmerksam," "geiibt und weit- tragend," "schmerzlich," "tieftraurig," "andachtig," "festlich," "lauter," "selig," "voUer Sonne" (Wonne), "sonnenhell," "jubelnd," "schwar- merisch," "erglanzenden," "eroberungslustig," "kampflustig." These words show the mental attitude of each personage, and also Meyer's ability to represent the wide range of conscious and unconscious expression. Inner characterizations: Typical names. — Meyer does not give his characters typical names with the intent to reveal thereby their inner char- acteristics. The use of the name of Diana in Die Hochzeit des Monchs is the only example of such a correspondence between the character's name and personality. He does use names symbolically, like Gnade and Palma Novella.^ The Cardinal's bandits in Angela Borgia have names taken from Dante, which fittingly express their business and incHnations. Malherbe, Lasnier, and Graciosus are compared with the German forms of Veit Unkraut, Eseltreiber, and Gnadenreich. The author also makes associa- tions with the names of Victoria,^ Lucretia,-* and Gabriel, s The use made of the name Astorre is poetic: "'Dein Name, Astorre,' sagte er dann halb scherzend, 'schmettert wie eine Tuba und ruft dich zum Kampfe gegen dich selbst.'" .... "Der Mutige (Ascanio) begann zu zittern. 'Astorre, du bist mit ihr vermahlt.' Der schallvolle Name drohnte im Echo des Gewolbes wie die Tuba jenes Tages."^ By such means does Meyer render his theme objective. The recaUing of the monk to the con- sciousness of his weakness by using his name, the resonant tones of which had already been commented upon, brings his situation before the reader in its true light. Epithets. — On the other hand, epithets are employed to such an extent ^ J iirg J enatsch, p. 24$. * Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 145. ' Die Richterin, p. 377. s Die Richterin, pp. 346, 347. 3 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 161. ^ j)ig Hochzeit des Monchs, pp. no, 137. l6 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN that they often seem to take the place of the characters' names. They emphasize some prominent trait of the character or his relation to other characters. Ezzelin is called "der Tyrann" 33 times; Wulfrin (Richterin) J is called "der Hofling" 22 times; Don Giuho after the loss of his sight is most frequently called "der Blinde." The attention is so called to his condition 55 times. Again, while the use of the name is not dropped and an epithet sub- stituted, yet emphasis is often laid on particular characteristics of certain individuals. So, Mirabelle {Leiden eines Knaben) is "blau" and "kiihl." Pere Amiel is '*der Nasige," Pere Tellier "der Wolf," the German Gertrude (Plautus im Nonnenkloster) is "eine Barbarin" to the humanist Poggio. Lucretia Borgia is "die Kluge." However, the epithet applied to a given person varies according to the situation. Jenatsch is "geistesgegenwartig," "der Gotteslasterer," "der Gereifte und Welterfahrene," "der sonst vor nichts zuriickschreckende," "der Abtriinnige," "diesen auf eine gefahrliche Weise auszerhalb aller Regeln Fechtenden."^ Sectional and national traits. — The portrait of Grimani is a signal. example of characterization by sectional traits. He has "den feinen Bau und die ruhige, geschmeidige Bewegung des vornehmen Venetianers." He is "dieser Meister der Verstellungskunst " and "undurchdringlich," "der umstandliche alte Herr." He has "des Venetianers grausame Logik," "menschenverach tender Scharfsinn." When he speaks, we hear "die feine, uber das GewohnUche mit Geist und Anmut hinspielende Unterhaltung."* National traits appear in Serbelloni. "Die Haltung dieses Edelmannes war aus italienischer Urbanitat und spanischer Grandezza gemischt, aber nicht zu gleichen Teilen, denn wenn der Herzog Serbelloni von seinem beriihmten Ahn, dem Feldherrn Carls V. die imposante Adlernase und die diplomatische Geschicklichkeit ererbt hatte, so war ihm dessen elastische italienische Menschenbehandlung nicht zu Teil geworden. Seine Mutter, die eine Mendoza war, hatte ihm mit ihrem Blute — neben dem rothchen Haar und der hellen Hautfarbe — einen Zug von spanischer Hochfahrt und Unnahbarkeit gegeben, den er zu verbergen wuszte, der aber ins geheim sein ganzes Wesen durchdrang."^ Heredity is seen to be important here, I as it is in many other cases. The Parisians are "ein wildes und neidisches Volk." The Duchess Rohan is a French lady in her every act. Lucretia Planta may be dressed in Venetian fashion, but her mountain home is manifest in her walk.'* I Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 162, 186, 192, 331, 307. a Ibid., pp. 141, 155, 176, 163, 172, 153. 3 Ibid., p. 300. 4 Ibid., p. 103. CHARACTERIZATION 1 7 Lucas has "Jageraugen." The religious parties are likewise distinctly drawn. Professional traits. — It has already been observed how Waser's pro- fession is discovered in his outward appearance. Doctor Fortunatus Sprecher and Marschall Boufflers are embodiments of their respective pro- fessions. The latter is so absorbed in his duties that he neglects the ordinary obHgations to his family. His wife is troubled by this and has reason to fear for her son's future. She says: Er hat den Krieg im Kopf, die Grenzen, die Festungen Selbst iiber der Mahlzeit ist er in seine Geschafte vertieft. Der dem Konig und Frankreich unentbehrliche Mann laszt sich plotzlich eine Karte holen, wenn er nicht selbst danach aufspringt, oder argert sich iiber irgend eine vormittags entdeckte Nach- lassigkeit seiner Schreiber, denen man bei der um sich greifende Pflichtvergessen- heit auch nicht das Geringste mehr iiberlassen diirfe. Geht dann durch einen Zufall ein Taszchen oder Schalchen entzwei, vergiszt sich der Reizbare bis zum Schelten. Gewohnlich sitzt er schweigend oder einsilbig zu Tische, mit gerun- zelter Stim.' Such a description never occurs for its own sake but because the develop- ment of the narrative is dependent on the character so portrayed. Julian's su£ferings are due to his father's absorption in his own afifairs and indifference to the welfare of his son. Role to he played. — Some persons are characterized from the point of view of the role they are to play. Rohan is one of those. He fails by the very goodness of his heart and the nobleness of his mind. Thus the epithets "edel" and "gut" are constantly applied to him. Indeed, because of the prominence given to this idea, the last book of JUrg Jenatsch is called "Der gute Herzog." The word "edel" occurs 21 times; "gut" 17 times; "fromm" and "christlich" are also repeated. His patient sufifering is shown in his outer appearance. In diesem Augenblicke zeigte ihm der Herzog seine scharf gezeichneten Ziige im Profil und der Ausdruck langgeiibter Selbstbeherrschung und schmerzlicher Milde, der auf dem etwas gealterten geistvollen Gesichte unverkennbar vorherr- schte. [Note the recurrence of similar sounds.] Ein tieft eingegrabener Zug verschwiegenen, hoffnungslosen Grames, der peinlich hervortrat, wenn der Herzog seinen lautem strahlenden Blick zeitweise senkte.^ But the duke does not lose our sympathy because of his weakness. Rather, it is the very reason of his influence. "In Chur war er der Abgott I Die Leiden eines Knaben, p. 188. ' JUrg Jenatsch, pp. 115, 217. 1 8 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN aller Stande."' His death awakens the deepest sorrow in the hearts of all who knew him. Dramatic characterization. — The dramatic nature of the characterization of one character by another is seen particularly in the fact that epithets so applied differ from those used by the author himself. Perhaps the best illustration of this are the names applied ^to Jenatsch. Planta calls him "der Unhold," "ein nichtswurdiger Bube," "Euer gelehrter Freund, der Blutpfarrer." Fausch exclaims "herrlicher Jlirg" and "mein Stolz." To Grimani, he is "heuchlerisch," "ruchlos," ''rankevoU," and "ehrsiichtig," while Rohan asserts that he is "unbandig und ehrlich wie eine Naturkraft." In Wertmiiller's opinion, he is an ostentatious adven- turer.* Jenatsch appears to Sprecher ''wie ein boser Geist," "ein gesetz- und gewissenloser Mensch." Another fine example of this species of characterization is to be found in the appellations used concerning Morone, although all the speakers^ hold him in much the same regard. Sforza calls him "du unermiidlicher Zettler" and "du Strafe Gottes." Bourbon does not take him seriously, but says, "Adieu, Pantalon, mon Ami !" Even the Pope whispers to Victoria Colonna, "Morone, Buff one." Moncada deprives him of all honor, remarking, "Dieser Mensch ist ein Abgrund von Liige, in welchem der Blick sich verliert." Psychological. — The inner characterization leaves less room for the imagination of the reader than the description of the outward appearance, for Meyer almost invariably reveals the deep-lying psychological forces which govern the actions of his characters. The figure of Jenatsch illus- trates what Guyau says, that characters are not controlled by a single tendency but by many with but one dominant, which is the diagonal of the parallelogram of forces.^ So the clue to Jenatsch's character, as interpreted by Waser, is his patriotism. The fact that so many of the people in the Novellen are " verschlossene Menschen" explains the difficulty of their associates in understanding them. Planta discovers this quality in the boy Jlirg. Waser, too, cannot gain his confidence. Dann wurde sein Ausdruck immer ratselhafter, verschlossener, und hartete sich zur Undurchdringlichkeit Aber Waser erfuhr weniger und minder Wichtiges, als er erwartetc* Even Victoria Colonna finds Pescara "undurchdringlich und sein Denken und Glauben verschlossen."5 To these men may be added Alphonse d'Este, I Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 199. 4 JUrg Jenatsch, pp. 19, 54, 57. ' Ibid., p. 174. 5 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 63. 3 Guyau, op. cit., p. 122. CHARACTERIZATION IQ Julian, Hans, Wallenstein, Moncada, Dante, and even an unimportant character like Blauling in Der Schusz von der Kanzel. Mental traits. — But these characters are not merely "verschlossen;" they have unusual powers of observation and of co-ordinating their experiences. Their mental powers are the secret of their attraction. Observe Guicciardin's description of Pescara: Zuerst miissen wir uns fragen: war ist Pescara? Ich will es euch sagen: ein genialer Rechner, der die Moglichkeiten scharfsinnig scheidet und abwagt, der die Dinge unter ihrem wahren Wert und ihre reale Macht zu untersuchen die Gewohnheit hat.' And Morone says: "Dieser Pescara ist das Ratsel der Sphinx."^ Thomas Becket is "der sonst nach alien Seiten Umblickende und das Keimen der Dinge Belauschende."^ Herr Burkhard recognizes in Hans "einen welt- imd menschenkundigen, auch weitgewanderten Mann schnellen Geistes."-* Jenatsch has "Scharfsinn" and is "der dem Cardinal [Richelieu] an kluger Berechnung gleichstehende Bundner."s Frau Stemma enjoys a similar reputation among the mountaineers over whom she exerts her sway. Frau Stemma liebt das Richtschwert und befaszt sich geme mit seiten und verwickelten Fallen. Sie hat einen groszen und stets beschaftigten Scharfsinn. Aus wenigen Punkten errat sie den Umrisz einer Tat und ihre feinen Finger enthullen das Verborgene. Nicht dasz auf ihrem Gebiet kein Verbrechen began- gen wiirde, aber geleugnet wird keines, denn der Schuldige glaubt sie allwissend und fiihlt sich von ihr durchschaut. Ihr Blick dringt dutch Schutt und Mauem und das Vergrabene ist nicht sicher vor ihr. Sie hat sich einen Ruhm erworben, dasz femher durch Briefe und Boten ihr Weistum gesucht wird.^ But in each of these cases, with the exception of Pescara, there is an inherent weakness in the character, a failure to act or to hold out at a crisis, which is the cause of the final surrender. Parenthetical phrases. — By far the largest part of the characterization takes the form of parenthetical phrases, somewhat analogous to an "aside" to the reader. How much we learn of Henry II from these explanations of Hans : Er war im gemeinen Wesen ein gerechter Mann (p. 102). Denn er war ein Freund der Ordnung und der Gerechtigkeit (p. 120). Denn Herr Heinrich hatte ein weiches Herz (p. 135). Der kein feines Ohr besasz und deshalb die geflusterten Worte iiberhort hatte (p. 137). 1 Ibid., p. 34. ■♦ Ibid., p. 4. 2 Ibid., p. 218. 5 JUrg Jenatsch, p. 213. 3 Der Heilige, p. 81. ^ Die Richierin, p. 288. 20 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN Stemma thus speaks of herself: "dennich bin eine genaue Frau." . . . . "Ich bin eine kirchliche Frau. Was ich tue, tue ich gross."^ Meyer does not enter into analyses of his characters but shows them in action. Where an explanation is necessary, it is condensed into the parenthetical form, thus retaining the dramatic efifect of the whole. ^ Pantomime and gesticulation. — Pantomime and gesticulation are used to reveal the inner mental states. Gertrude shows her desire to be freed from keeping her vow, and her feeling of being forced into the narrow limits of a monastic cell: "Und sie machte eine Geberde, als risse oder wickelte sie sich eine Schlange vom Leibe los."^ Note the desire of possession in Krachhalder's gesture: "Der Krachhalder war wahrend dieser Mitteilung auszerlich ruhig geblieben, nur die Nasenflugel in dem iibrigens gelassenen Gesichte zitterten ein wenig und seine Fingerspitzen hatten sich um ein Kleines einwarts gebogen, als wolle er das Geschenk festhalten."^ Knowing the changeableness of Wertmiiller's mood, we sympathize with the villager's desire to make sure of the bequest. The significance of a probably unconscious expression of St. Simon, the self-appointed critic of the court of Louis XIV, is seen in the following: "Das Zucken eines Paares hochmiitiger Brauen verriet mir, wer ihn (den Beinamen) dem Knaben beschert hatte.""* The honest Hans does not feel entirely free from blame as regards his relations with Becket, and shows it in his attitude when beginning his story. "Hans der Armbruster faltete mechanisch die starken, alten Hande, als hatten auch sie mit dieser Schaufel gegraben."s Instances of connecting characteristic traits with certain individuals are also to be observed. Ezzelin "wiihlte — seine LiebHngsgeberde — mit den gespreizten Fingern der Rechten in dem Gewelle seines Bartes.'"^ Morone "schiebt den Leib auf eine gewisse Weise, die sich schwer verleugnen laszt."^ Hans describes the laugh of Prince John: "Wie er lachte! Ich habe Tag meines Lebens, auch in Schenken und auf Markten, nicht gemeiner lachen horen." Henry II's love of justice is evidenced by his gesture on hearing a tale of wrong. "Mein Herr und Konig ballte seine auf der Lehne des Stuhles liegende Hand."^ These statements are all in keeping with Meyer's concentration, saying as much as possible in the fewest words. The most striking delineation of expression is surely that of Jenatsch's ^ face on three different occasions: after Lucia's death, when Wertmiiller tells of Lucretia's danger in Milan, and again, after Jenatsch has performed great services for his country, but with a price known only to himself. 1 Die Richterin, pp. 331, 333. s Der Heilige, p. 62. 2 Plautus im Nonnenkloster, p. 256. ^ j)ie Hochzeit des Monchs, p. 32. 3 Der Schusz von der Kanzel, p. 208. 7 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 83. 4 Die Leiden eines Knaben, p. 179. 8 j^gy Heilige, pp. 61, 128. CHARACTERIZATION 21 Waser konnte trotz der Gefahr der Stunde den Blick nicht verwenden von diesem Nachtbilde sprachlosen Grimms und unversohnlicher Trauer Das braune Antlitz des in der Gondel Zuruckgelehnten, das er im Laufe dieses Tages immer belebt und bewegt gesehen hatte von der verschiedensten Aeusze- rungen eines feurigen Temperamentes und geschmeidigen Geistes, es war wie auserstorben und erkaltet zu metellener Harte. Unverwandt staunte es vor sich hin auf die dammemd geroteten Wellen und erschien fremdartig verzogen und drohend in seiner Erstarrung Waser konnte seinen Blick von der Erscheinung des Jugendfreundes nicht verwenden. Er hing wie gebannt an dem starren Ausdrucke des metallbraunen Angesichts. Auf den groszen Zugen lag gleichgultiger Trotz, der nach Himmel und Holle, nach Tod und Gericht nichts mehr fragte. Das Auge blickte fremd iiber den erreichten Triumph hinweg — welches unbekannte Ziel ergreifend ? . . . . Und wieder tauchte dem Biirgermeister eine alte Erinnerung auf: der Brand von Berbenn. Er sah Jiirg, die schone Leiche in den Amien, mit jenem aus Glut und Kalte gemischten Ausdrucke, den er nie hatte vergessenkonnen.' Jiirg himself is conscious of not having attained the height of happiness possible to human experience and of being constantly driven away from this goal. Use of comparisons. — Often the characterization is made more vivid by a comparison, either a metaphor or a simile. Palma Novella is called "diese behende Gems,"* and the reader sees her as a fearless mountain girl, full of life and sure in her movements. Jenatsch has a " Holofernesgestalt,"^ and conducts himself ''wie ein ausschweifender Nero."'* Of Coligny, who tried to lead his people safely amidst present dangers and to lay plans for the future, we are told " Er schaute wie ein Richter in Israel."^ Hans describes the knightly Becket as "fUrstlich wie Konig Salomo."*^ Possibly the most telling are those comparisons applied to Wertmiiller. He is "eine Brennnes- sel die keiner unbestochen beriihrt."' He "schien, wie ein kampfiustiger Sperling seinen Raub, eine These gegen alle gewandten Angrifife seiner jugendlichen Genossen zu verfechten."* Jenatsch heeds not his audacious remarks, "wie die grosze Dogge, die in ihrer Hiitte liegt, ungem, aber nur mit leisem Knurren die Neckerei eines unterhaltungslustigen kleinen Klafifers ertragt, der als uberlastiger Gast zu ihr hineingekrochen ist."^ Each comparison used makes the figure stand forth in relief against the general background of the story. It is one of the author's methods of gaining plasticity. I Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 80, 139, 331. * Der Heilige, p. 38. ' Die Richterin, p. 347. 7 Der Schusz v. d. Kanzel, p. 124. 3 Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 256. 8 Jurg Jenatsch, p. 115. 4/Wd., p. 329. 9 /6iU, p. 133. 5 Das Amulet, p. 38. 22 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN Relation to action: Moral unity. — Meyer's experience and philosophy of life would not permit him to overtook the necessity of giving his charac- ters moral unity. This is discoverable in the action. Although we feel the charm of Jenatsch's personality, yet we acknowledge the inevitableness of his death. He has overstepped all bounds. On the other hand, the sudden changing of his mood and his violence are accountable for all his unusual acts. There is no poetic necessity. The course of his develop- ment is entirely in harmony with the outcome. His death is felt to be so just a punishment that no effort is made to find the murderers. Starting-point of action. — The action springs from the characters, as has been said. Some find the fact of Lucretia's kiUing Jenatsch incredible. But this, too, is in keeping with her character as Meyer has drawn it. Her father has been murdered by the man she loves. Piety demands vengeance. Her countrymen expect her to' execute this. But her country needs a powerful leader, who is to be found in Jenatsch alone. Lucretia belongs to a family prominent in the affairs of the country; she has also seen something of other countries and has experience enough to know the value of Jenatsch's life to Biinden, and she spares his life. Now she begins to feel a bond of union existing between them. She listens to his request to go as his messenger to the foreign power. This completes the link between her fate and his. Although she still loves him, she may not marry him. His life is threatened by others who are inferior and cowards. He belongs to her alone, and she, with her understanding of the situation and her native courage, saves him from the humiliation of meeting death at their hands. Thus even this act does not seem to be a case of poetic necessity. Introduction of characters: Prepared. — In the majority of instances the first appearance of the chief character is prepared for by the dialogue between other characters. This is the case in Jiirg Jenatsch. Jurg makes his appearance somewhat after the manner in which the principal character of a drama comes on to the stage. We have heard from Planta of his violent deeds, and overhear with Waser the plans against his hfe. We discover him sharpening his sword and singing a war-song. However, his bearing at first is calm and peaceful, as we see him in his domestic relations. Only gradually does his headstrong dis- position manifest itself. When it does, we are not unduly surprised because this has been the keynote struck in all previous mention of him. We watch the development of this trait through the influence of untoward circumstances as it supersedes his gentler impulses. The same preparation is found in Der Heilige. Becket's reputation has been painted in glowing colors before Hans finally allows us to see him on horseback in the midst of his CHARACTERIZATION 23, )' retinue. He is thought by the people to represent the wisdom of the age,! and there is always the feeling of aloofness and superiority evident in his bearing. The conspirators in Die Versuchung des Pescara entertain similar thoughts about Pescara. Don Giulio's appearance in Angela Borgia and Angela's attitude toward him are likewise prepared for in Ferrante's mocking recital of his brother's history and in Angela's indignation at recalling Caesar Borgia's recommendation of Giulio to her. Stress is laid on the fact that it is Giulio's beautiful eyes that are his misfortune. Other characters are introduced with the utmost ^mplicity, as is Rohan on the occasion of Jenatsch's first meeting with him. He is not described at all. In fact, the details given concerning Rohan's appearance throughout the novel are exceedingly few. He thus becomes a greater contrast to Jenatsch, never being introduced with a view to the efifect his appearance will cause. Symbolic. — Occasionally a symbolic significance is given to the intro- duction of a character, as in Angela Borgia. Don Ferrante informs Angela about the peculiarities of his brothers. He applies the name of "Geier" to the Cardinal.' We first see the Cardinal under the following circum- stances: "Ein schreiender Raubvogel erhob sich aus dem Walde und kreiste iiber den Wiesen. Zugleich rauschte es im Gebiisch, und ein hagerer, in Purpur gekleideter Mann trat auf Angela zu."^ The word "Geier" is used in two other places with reference to the Cardinal.^ This introduction is in harmony with the presentation of the Cardinal's character throughout the book. He threatens the happiness of Angela, tries to gain satisfaction for his own passion by an inhuman act toward his brother, and is watchful and wary in the conduct of political intrigue. Abrupt. — On the contrary, Jenatsch's presence is revealed to others dur- ing the course of the story in an abrupt and somewhat sensational way. They see his towering figure or hear his resonant voice, neither of which character- istics is shared by any other personage in the book. This emphasizes the unusualness of his conduct. The man who tramples all conventions of honor and diplomacy under his feet and is possessed by one idea solely, must appear sensational and romantic to his fellows. Ezzelin, the tyrant, approaches unseen and unheard. It is his pleasure to surprise his subjects in conversation about himself and his government. He thus succeeds in suppressing criticism and the expression of popular sentiment. Becket is often seen on horseback as on his first appearance. His movements are leisurely and deliberate, suited to the man who is seldom taken by surprise. Even when taunted by his murderers, he preserves this air of calmness. I Angela Borgia, p. 17. » Ibid., p. 31. 3 Ibid., pp. 51, 76. 24 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN He is a fatalist, whereas astrology has no meaning to Jenatsch, who will move heaven and earth to gain the accomplishment of his desires. Contrast of characters. — The most effective method of characteriza- tion is by foiling. In Jiirg Jenatsch various pairs of contrasting figures are to be observed: Waser and Blasius Alexander, Lucia and Lucretia, Rohan and Jenatsch, WertmuUer and Jenatsch, Rohan and Grimani, Blasius Alexander and Fausch, Jenatsch and Rudolph Planta, Waser and Pancraz. Each one gains individuaUty by this contrast. Jenatsch is a clever military leader like Rohan, but he lacks the latter's self-control. He is devoted to the duke, like Wertmiiller, but lacks the latter's faithfulness. He is not a coward like Rudolph Planta, though the usual interpretation of his acts makes him Rudolph's equal. In Plautus im Nonnenkloster the figure of Gertrude is imposing and convincing beside that of the hypocritical abbess. The climax of Gustav Adolf s Page is the scene between Corinna and Auguste, where the moral condition of the two women is shown to be so different. Julian in Die Leiden eines Knaben becomes a more pathetic figure because of the contrast between his lot and abilities and those of his friends Victor and Guntram. The comments of Fagon and of Louis XIV show the absolute disparity in their relative points of view. We feel far more sympathy with Antiope {Die Hochzeit des M'dnchs) because she is the rival of the cold and some- what bitter Diana. And yet the scales are so nicely balanced that Diana wins the reader's support of her claims on the ground of her successive misfortunes and her disadvantage in contending with a woman like Antiope. Thus does Dante avoid offense to either of his listeners, Diana or Antiope. Angela and Lucretia Borgia. — The most conspicuous contrast of female figures, however, is that of Angela and Lucretia Borgia. The Novelle, Angela Borgia, opens with the entry of Lucretia Borgia into Ferrara as the bride of Alphonse d'Este. On this occasion she excites the admiration of the stern young jurist, Hercules Strozzi. He is warned by Alphonse of the danger of yielding to Lucretia's influence. Nevertheless, he goes to the aid of Caesar Borgia. Returning after the latter's death, he is urged by Lucretia to flee, but he refuses. Angela hears the cry which tells of his death at the hands of the duke's servant. At the same time she learns that GiuHo d'Este, whose loss of sight and imprisonment have already been mentioned,^ is confined in a near-by tower. Wishing to offer and receive sympathy, Angela is astonished to find Lucretia peacefully sleeping. Angela is secretly married to Giulio by his confessor, and] the prince is finally set free through the intercession of the conscience-stricken Cardinal. I See above, p. 8. CHARACTERIZATION 25 Throughout the story Lucretia is "die Kluge," Angela "die Fromme." Lucretia's character is the result of her environment and heredity; Angela's rests upon a certain innate fearless purity as its keynote. Both are charm- ing. Lucretia exerts a most indescribable influence upon those about her just as her father did before her. Angela we know to have charm, for we see its effect upon the Cardinal, maddened by his passion, and upon Giulio, converted by her reproaches and her sorrow for her own guilt to a more temperate manner of life. She is upright, sensitive, earnest, proud in the best sense of the word. Lucretia's motto is: "hoch und hoher zu streben und durch verborgene Klugheit das Leben zu beherrschen."^ While Angela becomes the innocent cause of another's crime, Lucretia ^ just as involuntarily becomes the tool of others. She has not the strength to resist Caesar's influence nor does she realize the serious consequences to follow. Her attitude is revealed in her interpretation of the Roman Tullia's act.^ With coolness and deliberation she sends to his death the man she has ruined. And knowing thiat she has done this, she can never- theless retire to peaceful slumber. Angela, who would fain tell her cousin her own secret, finds her smiling in her dreams. The girl recognizes the difference between them: "Wie bin ich eine andere!"^ are her words. Grieving for years because she has uttered a single unconsidered word, Angela would even brave the discomforts of imprisonment to share and lighten the lot of him whose suffering she has thus caused. ^ Becket and Henry II. — The most artistic contrast of male figures is that i» of Becket and Henry H in Der Heilige. This is largely developed by means of symbolism. The tjqDical traits of Becket's character are his knightliness and wisdom. He is often shown us as a knight on his Arabian horse, and Prince Henry compares to him this fine animal in contrast to his father whose lower instincts are more prominent. Only once is a definite animal symbol appHed to the king, and that very indirectly: "den gewaltigen Leib und den Lowenkopf des Einen, die feine Gliedmaszen des Andem." In Meyer's exposition of the motivation of this book, he uses the antithesis "Lowe und Schlange."^ Yet we are constantly aware of the king's physical qualities of strength and power as opposed to the mental power typified by Becket. The chancellor is compared to a serpent, a symbol which may be given two interpretations, as the symbol of wisdom and of treachery. This corresponds to the basic idea of Becket's enigmatical character. He is "ratselhaft," "zweideutig," and "doppelsinnig." This contrast of spiritual and physical qualities may also be noticed in the figures of Rohan and Jenatsch. 1 Angela Borgia, p. 233. 3 Ibid., p. 200. 2 Ibid., p. 142. 4 See below, p. 31. 26 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN The conflict between the king and his archbishop coincides to a certain extent with that between Saxon and Norman. Becket is the only Saxon in power. As a diplomat, he would not have the Saxons oppressed too severely. He would evade the appointment to the primacy through his lack of affiliation with either party. The king feels he has favored Becket in opposition to both parties. Tracy says, the king has made him (Becket) from a Saxon into a man. On becoming primate, Becket at once sides with the weaker Saxons, and is willing to forgive the king for the sake of the Saxons. It is the suspicions of the Normans that make it impossible for the king to yield. Finally, Becket dies for the Saxons and works miracles among them. We may note further contrasts, not symbolic, between the king and Becket, such as their feelings with regard to executions, their manner of receiving bad news, and of meeting their fate. Becket's power continually L increases, while that of the king is gradually broken. / Grouping. — Grouping, too, may serve to emphasize previous impressions of a character. Jenatsch may risk his life and reputation for B linden, but we feel his alliance with the people most definitely when we see him in close touch with them, joking with them, advising them, and sacrificing his wealth for them. Again, in order that our idea of Gustavus Adolphus may not be too incomplete, it is necessary that we see him in his dealings with the German nobles. Self -revelation of the characters through speech and acts. — The persons also reveal their characteristics both by their words and acts. An instance of this revelation of personaUty through speech is to be found in Grimani's opinion of Jurg Jenatsch.^ The wary, intriguing Venetian, who mistrusts everyone, is cleverly drawn. Becket's power of winning all hearts is exemplified in his remark to Hans when examining the bow made by the latter: "Ich liebe das Denken und die Kunst und mag es leiden, wenn der Verstand iiber die Faust den Sieg davon tragt und der Schwachere den Starkeren aus der Feme trifift und uberwindet."^ Observe, too, the forecast in this remark. Jenatsch's freedom from all littleness of mind is manifested in his advice to Lucretia to keep Lucas with her as a protector. He knows that Lucas regards him with bitter hatred, yet he says: "Diesen grauen Baren vergisz mir nicht auf die Fahrt mitzunehnem, seine Treue ist alt und seine Tatzen sind noch gefahrlich."^ On the other hand, he expresses positive admira- tion for great characters, as for Gustavus Adolphus. ^ I Cf. Jurg Jenatsch, pp. i6i S., 167 ff. 3 Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 247. ' Der Heilige, p. 44. 4 Ibid., p. 128. f,:. CHARACTERIZATION 27 Germano's lack of tact and of aflFection are unconcealed in his wooing of Antiope: "ohne Vater wie du bist und bei einer solchen Mutter."^ Certain characters are also known by their use of a peculiar expression. The schemer Wertmiiller in Der Schusz von der Kanzel puts various mean- ings into his exclamation of "La, la."* The comet in Gustav Adolfs Page, on the other hand, really shows the poverty of his vocabulary, when he remarks on all occasions, "Hoi' mich! Straf mich!"3 We shall also find a relation existing between the mental power and racial attributes of the characters and the figurative language used or the assump- tion of an ironical attitude. Thus, the comparisons used by Hans are all more or less homely, being drawn from his occupation or the animals and objects with which he is chiefly busied, while Becket's subtler mind, his Saracen blood and training, demand a corresponding eloquence and alle- gorical expression. Standing as he does for mental power, he often appears ironical and sarcastic. On the other hand, Hans makes many shrewd com- ments on life and is fond of using proverbs. Waser is characterized by what he does. His fastidious neatness is shown even at the moment of escape from threatening danger. "Herr Waser aber klopfte den Staub des Handgemenges aus seinen Kleidem und zog Manschetten und Halskrause zurecht. 'Pfaflfentrug !' sagte er, diesem Geschafte mit Sorgfalt obliegend."'^ His precision and painstaking appear in his attention to the remarks of the caretaker at St, Mark's about the painting, in his ofifering his tip carefully wrapped in paper, and his preser- vation of the schoolmaster's thesis, which had been treated so contemptu- ously. 5 In fact, the treatment of Waser's portrait verges on the humorous. The use of a single act as peculiar to a character is shown in representing Ezzelin as having a fancy for closing the eyes of the dead, the thought caus- ing the shudder associated with the mention of the tyrant's name. This was probably suggested to Meyer by Baron Riccasoli's fondness for attend- ing funerals.*^ Interplay of character. — Not one character stands forth alone; there is constant expression of fascinations and antipathies. The pictures of Henry H and Becket in sympathy and of the king and Becket in hostility are vividly drawn. Here we have a true case of tragic conflict between characters. There is not a real bond of friendship I Die Hochzeit des Monchs, p. 1 20. " Der Schusz v. d. Kanzel, pp. 161, 171, 200, 201. 3 Gustav Adolfs Page, pp. 284, 349, 351. * Jurg Jenatsch, p. 50. s Ibid., pp. 118, 123, 164. ^ Cf. Frey, op. cit., p. 128. 28 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN existing between Becket and the king. The difference in the ideals of the two men is too great for that, Becket's tastes are more refined and Henry enjoys everything that shows his power and is too impatient to use the diplomatic methods of his chancellor. Becket is useful to him; therefore he overestimates his affection toward this one of his subjects. Yet his chancellor or his primate is merely chief among his subjects and is not to oppose a^y measure of the king's. On the other hand, while Becket works for the king, he does not give the latter his confidence. His faithful performance of duty is returned by faithlessness. He, the man with the brilliant mind, recognizes now clearly the breach that exists between them. They have but been deceiving themselves. Becket fascinates all that come in contact with him, Hans, the princes, and the Saxons: it is the influence of a strong character which inspired so great faith, that, even after his death, \__ he was credited with working miracles, and canonized. Objective presentation versus comment or analysis. — Wertmiiller is hostile to Jenatsch from the first. He expresses this in his letter to his cousin in Milan, at the same time giving an insight into his own character, and ridiculing the sentimental duchess.'' Two others fail to yield to Jenatsch' s magnetism, Planta and Grimani. Among the people, on the contrary, his fame "wurde zur Legende." He is "die schwer glaubliche Sage der friiheren Volkskampfe."^' " Auf den larmenden Zunft- stuben der Handwerker gait damals Jiirg Jenatsch als ein volkstumlicher Held, in den landesvaterlichen diplomatisch gefarbten Kreisen als ein gewissenloser, blutbefleckter Abenteurer."3 He wins Rohan's unbounded confidence, and we see him later "den niitzlichsten Ratgeber des Herzogs und den Liebling des Volkes."^ A glance over the material presented reveals the use that Meyer has made of all the means of characterization known to novelists. It will also be discovered how very Httle of this material could be classified as comment or analysis. But one division, that of parenthetical phrases, is of this nature. Meyer presents his characters in action. He does not tell us Jenatsch's soul struggles, just how the latter brought himself to betray his leader and to change his faith. Meyer does not dissect the personality of Becket and name the elements of which it is composed. But we follow Becket's devoted service to his master, and perceive the tenacity of his nature, that he is unable to forget and forgive an injury. We see him act on the promptings of inexplicable impulses, and so appreciate the mystery of his nature, which was even greater in reality. 1 Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 174. 3 Ihid., p. 126. 2 Ihid., p. 197. 4 Ihid., p. 252. CHARACTERIZATION 29 Pescara acts. Knowing that his death cannot be long postponed, he makes necessary arrangements, but the reader is not given a glimpse into his heart nor into that of his wife when she has learned the truth. , This does not mean that Meyer's characters are cold and bloodless. On the contrary, there is not one that does not, in a greater or less degree,, reproduce something of the author's own experience. All show a definite 1 moral standpoint gained through struggle. But Meyer knows how to present his story so that the reader may draw his own conclusions, that he may experience the tragic katharsis as he would from a drama, as each character is in his own way an expression of the central idea. Meyer does not voice his own conflicts and desires in order to gain sympathy for himself, but it is in each case the individual character for whom he bespeaks our interest. All the details of characterization which have been noted here are but means of bringing the typical individual before the reader. This is true also of the use of the situations and episodes in the narrative, that is, the relations which the characters have with one another; each serves to render the characteristic feature more distinct. III. PLOT MOTIVATION As the "Psychologic der Handlung" was the part of his work of chief concern to Meyer, it is of interest to observe how his insight into character has come to his aid in the construction of his plots. His general method of working has already been quoted. ^ He did not start to work without having considered every detail. But his reference of each thing to the idea of the characters which he wished to represent has prevented the results from seeming mechanical or labored. The author has revealed his plan of motivation for one of the Novellen, Der Heilige, which in its three main divisions shows the idea of character as the starting-point of the narrative. Source of "Der Heilige." — The source of Meyer's material for this work was Thierry's Conquete de I'Angleterre, which he had translated years before at Vulliemin's instigation. Here he found the legend of Becket's Saracen birth, which he so skilfully combined with the historical material in the manner he describes in the following letter to Lingg:^ [Motivation in" Der Heiligen."] — "Was gibt der geschichtliche RohstoflF ? Eiji normannischer Konig iiberhauft einen sachsischen Giinstling und macht ihn aus politischen Griinden zu seinem Primus. Dieser wendet sich plotzlich gegen ihn, und es entsteht zwischen Konig und Bischof ein entsetzliches Ringen. Der Konig hat sich also griindlich und furchtbar in seinem Giinstling enttiiuscht. Wie habe ich das motiviert ? " I. Charakter von Thomas Becket : i . Orientalisches Blut (Benutzung der Legende); 2. Hochste Bildung und griindliche Verachtung seiner rohen Zeit; 3. Ueberlegene Ruhe, hochster Verstand, aber (als Sachse oder Orientale) ein Unterdriickter, daher durch und durch Diplomat; 4. Human, sittlich rein, eine vornehme Natur; 5. Ein Zug von Ehrgeiz oder vielmehr ein Gefiihl enormer geistiger Ueberlegenheit ; 6. Orientalisch nachtragend, ich will nicht sagen: rachsiichtig, aber doch (gegen Laster und Gewalttat) feingrausam. Er spieltmitdem Konig von Anfang bis zu Ende wie die Katze mit der Maus. Alle diese Ziige sind, trotz der Bekehrung des Thomas, von Anfang bis zu Ende streng fest gehalten. "II. Charakter des Konigs das gerade Gegenteil: starkes Tempera- ment, gutmiitig, durchaus naiv, dabei griindlich unsittUch (in der Geschichte I See above, p. 4. « Quoted in Langmesser, op. cit., p. 324. 30 PLOT 31 verbrach er noch Schlimmeres als die von mir erfundene Zerstorung Graces). Er kennt seinen Kanzler stellenweise nicht ubel, obwohl er sich immerwahrend in ihm tauscht. "III. Der Konflikt: Der Konig verdirbt in fiirstlichem Leichtsinn Thomas Beckets Kind. Ich lasse das Kind gleich sterben, weil es ja doch einmal ruiniert ist. Er hat, als Autokrat, kein Gefiihl von der Schwere seiner Tat und kennt iiberdies den 'feigen' (wie Herr RoUo sagt) Charak- ter des Becket, von dem er (Konig Heinrich) keine Rache furchtet. Wie soUte er auch ? Aber der sanfte Becket unter seiner ruhigen Miene ist unversohnlich, und auch der erzahlende Armbruster, der den gesunden Menschenverstand personifiziert, nennt die Tat eine Todsiinde, wie sie auch, f iir den Vater wenigstens, sein musz. "Problem: Racht sich Thomas Becket und wie? Eristzuvor- sichtig und vielleicht zu edel, um seinen Konig auf gewohnliche Weise zu verraten. Er verhalt sich passiv i. aus Frommigkeit, die aus dem Gefiihl seines Elends entspringt, 2. aus Klugheit und Fatalismus zugleich, 3. aus der unbestimmten Ahnung, die Stunde der Rache werde kommen. Aber er schwebt liber dem Konig wie ein Geier. Da giebt ihm dieser eine furcht- bare Waffe in die Hand, "den Primat," Becket erschrickt, er braucht nur ein "wahrer Bischof " zu werden, so identifiziert er seine Sache mit der Gottlichen Gerechtigkeit (die damals gleich Kirche war). In dem Akt seiner Bekehrung durchdringen sich Rachsucht und Frommigkeit auf eine unheimliche Weise. Dann verzweifelter Kampf des brutalen Konigs mit dem uberlegenen Kopf (Lowe und Schlange). Versuch einer Versohnung, absolute Unmoglichkeit. Bischoflicher Zug des Ehrgeizes in Thomas Becket. Endlich Zorn des Konigs und Martyrium. Grosze Szenen! Das Lacheln Beckets auf seinem Grabmal ist reine Phantasie. Becket ist jatot! Die Einrahmung mit dem Armbruster notwendig: i. als Idylle, das Schreckliche mildernd, 2. als Angabe des Kostiims, 3. als naiver Augenzeuge eines einzigartigen Charakters (Thomas). Reichtum der Nebenfiguren. Dramatischer Gang. Groszer Stil." Becket's character is his fate. It is not outer circumstances or some supernatural, extramundane power that are to be held responsible for the calamity that overtakes him. It is by reason of what he is that he first finds favor with the king and finally advances to the position of primate. It is in his nature to feel disgust at the pleasures of the king, to feel a certain amount of contempt for his simple bluntness and lack of penetration into the motives of others, and to feel bitterly the injury he has received from such a man whom, while his master, he considers in every other way his inferior. It is also part of his character that he nevertheless feels so strong 32 TECHNIQUE EST KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN an attraction to the king that he cannot cut the bond between them definitely and absolutely, but remains passive and allows the man with the greater decision and violence in action to destroy hiny/ It lies also in the character of the king that he should be more deeply attached to Becket, a man so much cleverer than himself, and that even while conscious of the fact that he has injured this friend most deeply, his simple egotism should yet demand forgiveness. He finds, however, that he cannot hold his friend and his children by affection merely, since he has lost their respect and they have gained the power to resist him. Motivation in "Jiirg Jenatsch." — In Jiirg Jenatsch the central character is a traitor. Jiirg becomes successively pastor, patriot, soldier, murderer, chief counselor of his general, leader of his people, and finally, traitor. There are certain events, which seem to be the turning-points in his life, but it is the way he has allowed them to influence his actions that shows him to us as the man he is. Meyer had certain historical data as a basis: Jenatsch' s part in the trial and death of Rusca, the conflict between the Catholics and the Protes- tants of Berbenn, the death of Planta, Jenatsch's Venetian service, his relations to Rohan, and his own death. Meyer follows tradition in making Lucretia Planta the slayer of Jiirg. These events extend over a period of nineteen years. The proportions of the story must be carefully planned and events of lesser importance subordinated to those of greater value. The chief interest lies in Jenatsch's relations to Rohan in Blinden, which form the content of Book III, the last half of the volume. The prepara- tion in Books I and II occupies the first half. In Book I we have first the contrast between Jiirg as a daring schoolboy and as a young man who is beginning to feel his influence over others. The author invents a meeting between Jenatsch and Rohan which is made the deciding influence causing Jiirg to lead his persecuted flock, among whom is his own wife, as a military protector rather than as a shepherd. Meanwhile, at the instigation of Planta, whose power has heretofore been undisputed, and whose religion has now been attacked, the Catholics of Berbenn attack the Protestants, and Jiirg's wife is killed. Stunned by this first hard experience of life, Jiirg follows his instincts of revenge and rids the country of this dictator, although Planta is his former benefactor and the father of the girl he has loved since childhood. Here, then, are the first manifestations of Jenatsch's ability as a leader, his venturesome spirit, lack of restraint, and the forecast of future events in the meeting with Rohan and in Lucretia's warning to Jenatsch. Book II shows him in the Venetian service but desirous of fighting for PLOT 33 his own country. He offers his services to Rohan who is then in Venice. By the unfortunate outcome of a duel with a superior officer which Jenatsch is forced to fight against his will, he has, by the laws of Venice, forfeit his life. Rohan saves him by appealing to Grimani, the Proweditore. The latter with the suspicion characteristic of the Venetian warns Rohan against Jenatsch. This is the preparation for the action of Book III. Rohan's power is also invoked by Lucretia Planta, who has been compelled to leave Milan where she has been living. She wishes safe conduct to Biinden that she may there devote herself to avenging her father's death. Jenatsch, who is a witness of her interview with the duke, makes her the arbiter of his destiny, to execute vengeance or to save him to fight for his country. She, too, like Rohan, preserves his life. Jiirg's fate is now definitely connected with that of Biinden. He is thoroughly imbued with the patriotism which is the sole spring of his actions from now on, and convinced of his ability to accomplish that upon which he has set his heart. Rohan is not strong enough to accomplish the task he has undertaken. The weakness in his relations to France has been foreshadowed in both Books I and H.^ In Book III it is revealed to Jenatsch. For the sake of freeing his people, the latter betrays his general and even changes his religion. Lucretia goes as his messenger to Milan to negotiate with Spain. He is, nevertheless, obliged to meet Serbelloni personally. But he so transcends all diplomatic etiquette that the latter determines his death. Finally, the news of Rohan's death gives force to the change of popular sentiment toward Jenatsch, caused by his treachery. His enemies threaten him but Lucretia intervenes and gives the death-stroke herself. Jenatsch accomplished great things for his country, but he could not gain the fulfil- ment of his highest wish for himself: to make Lucretia his wife. His violence and his unscrupulous change of faith prevented this. Two other characters, Lucretia and Waser, are associated with Jenatsch to make the influence of his personahty more credible. That a woman Hke Lucretia should love him is a proof of the real worth of his character. There is the deepest sympathy existing between them. She recognizes his voice and form at a distance.* She, too, is a patriot and is wiUing to sacrifice both family pride and her integrity to help him in his work for Biinden. Waser is the interpreting character and stands in relations with all the important personages of the story. Yet his position is so skilfully managed that he is able to give an unbiased judgment regarding every event. He is present at every chmax or turning-point of the action.^ Book I receives its name, I Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 66, 170. 3 Cf. Sahr, op. cit., p. 7. ' Ihid., p. 241. 34 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN "Die Reise des Herm Waser," from the role which Waser is to play through- out the story. Only two persons fail altogether to yield to Jenatsch's charm, and they are themselves devoid of enthusiasm. Wertmiiller and Grimani misjudge him. Yet Jenatsch is not understood by those about him. Facts that are revealed to the reader remain unknown to the people and so his power is regarded as marvelous. On the other hand, he is one with his countrymen in his relations with them, moved by sympathy rather than by ambition. The manner of building up the plot in the first book is well worth atten- tion. Lucretia's fears for Jenatsch's safety and Planta's anger toward him are signs of the coming tragedy. Five years before, Waser had overheard, and understood, Planta's opinion of Jlirg, although spoken in Italian. His statement that Jlirg ought to become a soldier amounted almost to a prophecy. Even Kuri Lehmann, the fisher boy, is allowed to predict Planta's death at Jenatsch's hands. Pater Pancraz, by making use of the popular superstition, helps his Protestant friends to make their escape. The part played by so unimportant a character as Agostino deserves notice. "Agostino fiihrt Waser ins Veltlin hinab; er ist der Bote der Mutter des Blasius Alexander und der Bruder und Morder der Lucia ; fur diesen Mord biiszt er durch die Hand Blasius Alexanders mit dem Tode."^ Each of the two first books contains seven chapters, while Book III has fifteen chapters. In the first edition it had but fourteen, the present twelfth chapter having been inserted in the second edition. Moreover, the proportion in these fifteen chapters agrees with the general arrangement. The first seven chapters are devoted to Jenatsch's relations to Rohan up to and including his change of attitude. Chaps, viii to xiv deal with his open defiance of Rohan, and the last chapter makes the reader acquainted with the death of both. Book I contains the exposition, giving the time- and place-settings and necessary facts in the history of Blinden. With the sixth chapter we reach a climax of the events narrated in this book, all of which up to this point have taken place within forty-eight hours. The seventh and last chapter of this book opens with the events of five days later. The closing pages give a rapid account of the next two years. Between this and the second book there is an interval of thirteen years. All that is told in Book II takes place within two days. The book is entitled " Lucretia," and presents the principal female character in her development into womanhood. Two themes are here treated: the contest between Grimani and Rohan for the possession I Sahr, op. cit., p. ii. Compare the full and excellent discussion of the plot- structure given by this author, pp. 1-20. PLOT 35 of Jenatsch, and Lucretia's struggle between her love for Jurg and her hatred toward the murderer of her father. The first is decided in this book, with foreshadowing of a reversal of judgment in Book III. The decision in the case of the second theme remains in suspense and is not settled till the last chapter of the whole novel. This book has a double climax in chap. v. The resolution of the first theme is prepared for in chap, vi and resolved in chap, vii ; the second theme is not suggested again till in Book III. Four chapters (i, ii, iv, vi) of Book II are devoted to the exposi- tion and the connection with intervening history, and three (iii, v, vii) present the action. But a few months intervene before the occurrences narrated in Book III. This book covers the period of time from the summer of 1635 to February 1639. The first two chapters are transitional and prepara- tory. The highest points of interest in the following come in chap, vi, where Jenatsch wins Lucre tia as his messenger to Milan, and chap, xii, where he gains Serbelloni's signature to the articles securing Biinden's freedom. The latter chapter also motivates the death of Jenatsch. The artistic gain to the composition from the insertion of this chapter is evident. The events related in chaps, iii to vi take place on one day; those of chaps, viii and ix in the time between March 19 and May 5, 1637; those of chaps, xiii to XV mostly on one day in February, 1639; those of chaps, vii and xi, which present parallel action, in the winter of 1636-37. Dramatic line. — The emphasis of important steps in the action and the subordination of minor parts are readily observable. The climactic develop- ment of the whole with the falling action in the last chapters of the third book, and the final suspense in the last chapter resulting in the death of Jenatsch and striking the note of finality, all proclaim the dramatic nature of Meyer's work of which this plot is a typical example. This quality is also manifested in the abundant use of dialogue for conveying information rather than deliberate exposition on the part of the author. There is rapid movement throughout and acceleration at the end of the novel. There is concentration of all illustrative material and subordination of the minor characters to throw greater light on the chief character. This is a product of Meyer's training gained from the study of the style of French writers. I cannot agree with Stoessl in his criticism of Meyer's method as revealed in this book: "Der Dichter tiirmt immer neue Kombinationen auszeren Geschehens auf, die das Innere nicht erleuchten, sondem verschlitten, und dies fuhrt zu einer fast unertraglichen Gewaltsamkeit, zu einer barocken Ver- starkung der Charaktere."^ Every part of the story serves to develop or illustrate the main theme, the study of the character of Jenatsch. I Stoessl, op. cit., p. 48'. 36 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN Chance. — All the events happen with the highest degree of naturalness. Nothing seems to be due to chance. Take as an example the fact that Pancraz hears the French priest discuss the treaty of Chiavenna, and that Pancraz' letter reaches Jenatsch in the moment of his greatest mental struggle. It is natural to suppose that these topics were constantly being discussed by those concerned in the issues. Jenatsch was a conspicuous figure. His services would be desired by Milan, if ever, at just such a critical moment. Again, take the matter of the duel with Ruinelli, an accident that gives deep significance to the following events. From what we know of the character of the colonel as well as of Jenatsch, the working of the law of cause and efifect is evident here too. There seems to be one case of the use of chance in Die Hochzeit des Monchs, which is, I believe, the only such occurrence in Meyer's Novellen. It is the ring episode which gives rise to Olympia's misunderstanding of the monk's intentions. It would have been possible, perhaps, to have brought about the meeting between the monk and Antiope and the mother's misapprehension by employing a more deeply laid design. Motivation in "Die Leiden eines Knaben." — Meyer has also developed the sUghtest suggestion into a story with dramatic arrangement of plot, as in the case of Die Leiden eines Knaben. He found his material for this story in the memoirs of St. Simon in the account of the events of the year 1711. The passage is quoted by Langmesser: Wenige Tage nach dem Tode Boileaus traf den Marschal von Boufflers ein grausames Ungliick. Sein alterer Sohn war vierzehn Jab re alt, hiibsch, gut gebaut; er versprach alles und hatte vortrefflich bei Hofe reiissiert, als ihn sein Vater dort dem Konig vorstellte, damit er diesem seinen Dank aussprache fiir die ihm verliehene Anwartschaft auf den Gouverneurposten von Flandem und speziell fiir Lille. Er kehrte dann ins JesuitenkoUegium zuriick, wo er in Pension war. Ich weisz nicht, welchen Jugendstreich er dort mit den zwei Sohnen d'Ar- gensons beging. Die Jesuiten wollten zeigen, dasz sie niemanden fiirchteten und auf niemanden Riicksicht nehmen, und peitschten den Knaben, da sie wirklich vom Marschall nichts zu fiirchten hatten; sie hiiteten sich aber wohl, ebenso gegen die beiden andern zu verfahren, die gleich schuldig v/aren, wenn man uberhaupt diesen Ausdruck gebrauchen darf; denn die Jesuiten hatten jeden Tag wegen der Biicher, der Jansenisten und allerlei Dinge und Geschichten, die ihnen wichtig waren, mit dem gut angeschriebenen Polizeiminister d'Argenson zu rechnen. Der kleine, mutige Boufflers, der sich nicht mehr als die zwei d'Ar- gensons hatte zuschulden kommen lassen, und zwar in ihrer Gesellschaft, wurde von einer solchen Verzweiflung ergriffen, dasz er noch am selben Tage krank wurde. Man brachte ihn ins Haus des Marschalls, wo es sich als unmoglich herausstellte, ihn zu retten. Sein Herz war angegriffen, sein Blut verdorben, das Fleckfieber trat hinzu, und in vier Tagen war es mit ihm zu Ende. Man kann PLOT 37 sich den Zustand seines Vaters und seiner Mutter denken. Der Konig, von dem Geschehnis bewegt, sandte einen Edelmann zu ihnen, um seine Anteilnahme an ihrem Verlust auszudriicken, und teilte ihnen mit, dasz er dieselbe Anwartschaft dem jungeren Sohne verleihen wiirde. Die allgemeine Entriistung iiber die Jesuiten war ungeheuer; aber es blieb alles beim alten.' Meyer transforms this incident in giving it artistic shape. The interest felt for the boy must be deepened and the punishment he suffers must appear more cruel. Thus he is portrayed as utterly lacking genius and acumen, but with a sense of his honor as a gentleman. He is conscious that his defects are known and ridiculed by the majority of those about him, and his father alone fails to recognize them. The latter keeps him in school, although the boy has military talent and yearns to follow his father in the field. More- over, the father, by his unbending will and inflexible purpose, has offended the Jesuits, in whose school he has placed his son. Therefore the boy suffers from the revenge they have so long harbored against the father. Thus the whole tragedy lies in the character of the boy in conflict with the char- acters of his father and Pere Tellier. Initial action. — Meyer begins his stories in medias res, and makes necessary reversions either in his own character, or through the interpreting character or story-teller. Five of the Novellen are related by one of the actors in the events narrated, the only exception being the story of Die Hochzeit des Monchs told by Dante and represented to be a pure invention. The interest either in the story-teller or the story to be told is awakened at the start. In the former case note the more detailed description of the external appearance of the narrators. Dialogue begins after a few paragraphs; in Die Versu- chung des Pescara it begins in the second. Point of view. — Meyer identifies himself completely with the characters of the Novellen, making the point of view that of the actors even when he does not withdraw his own personality behind that of another personage as the fictitious narrator. The reader gathers all necessary information from the characters themselves in the course of the narrative. The author never stops to give explanations. Time. — Each Novelle presents a moral conflict implying the desire of the individual for self-assertion. Therefore it is not surprising to find that the scenes of four of the stories are laid in the Renaissance period when the human spirit was asserting itself most strongly. Im Mittelalter lagen die beiden Seiten des Bewusztseins — nach der Welt hin und nach dem Innem des Menschen seibst — wie unter einem gemeinsamen Schleier traumend oder halbwach In Italien zuerst verweht dieser Schleier I Langmesser, op. cit., pp. 344, 345. 38 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN in die Liifte; es erwacht eine objektive Betrachtung und Behandlung des Staates . und der samtlichen Dinge dieser Welt uberhaupt; daneben aber erhebt sich rait voller Macht das Suhjektive; der Mensch wird geistiges Individuum und erkenrft sich als solches. ^ Or again, we find the central figures of the great Protestant leaders, Coligny and Gustavus Adolphus; we live in the stirring times of Henry II, when the races in England refused to unite at the loss of their national traits; in the time of Charles the Great, the great promoter of enlightenment and civihzation; and, by way of contrast, in the reign of Louis XIV, when all consideration of the individual was subordinated to the prevailing uniformity of the imperial regime. Plots with more than one interest. — Three Novellen have plots with more than one interest. Jiirg Jenatsch resembles Schiller's Wilhelm Tell to a certain extent in the interweaving of the different interests involved: the love interest of Jenatsch and Lucretia, the incidents connected with Jenatsch's personal, political, and religious relations, and the political condition of the people of Blinden. We get from this interweaving a more definite sense of the many-sidedness of life. The real interest is the development of Jenatsch's character as affected by his political and personal relations. The story of Lauenburg and Corinna in Gustav Adolfs Page forms a secondary interest. The character of the Swedish king is revealed in his manner of dealing with the pair, and this adds an element of suspense to the progress of the Cmain theme. In Der Heilige there is a subplot centered about the character in the frame-story who narrates Becket's history. It runs parallel with the main plot. It shows Becket's lack of sympathy with the Saxons, foreshadows his own sorrow, and Hans' superstition construes the influence of Becket's blood on Hilde as another instance of the primate's implacability. Double interest in "Angela Borgia." — Again in Angela Borgia there is question of the relative prominence of the action centering about Angela and that in which Lucretia Borgia is the central figure. Langmesser says: Zwar die strenge Komposition, die der Ruhmestitel der Versuchung des Pescara ist, suchen wir in der Angela Borgia vergebens. Die Novelle fallt merklich in zwei Teile auseinander: steht im ersten Teil Angela und ihr Verhalten zu Giulio im Vordergrund, so tritt sie im zweiten Teil, von der Blendung des Este an, auffallend hinter Lucrezia zuriick, die mit ihren Machinationen zugunsten Cesares unser ganzes Interesse in Anspruch nimmt. Erst gegen den Schlusz der Novelle dominiert wieder Angela. Das ist eine unleugbare Schwache der Kom- position, die freilich durch den Stoff entschuldigt werden kann: die faszinierende Papsttochter hat auch den Dichter gefangen genommen. Die Zeichnung ihrer * Burckhardt, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (Basel, i860), p. 131. A PLOT 39 problematischen Seele nahm ihn schlieszlich mehr in Anspruch als die der ein- facher gearteten Angela. Diese Schwache wird jedoch vom rein dichterischen Standpunkt aus zur Starke: der Schwanengesang Meyers hatte nicht so erschiit- temde Kadenzen, wiirde die damonische Gestalt Lucrezias weniger plastisch hervorgetreten sein.' Although Meyer confesses in a letter to Luise von Franjois that the novel in question treats of Lucretia Borgia as much as it does of Angela,^ and it may be contended that he was unduly interested in the character of Lucretia,^ yet the narrative is so managed that Angela remains ever the heroine and Lucretia is treated typically as a product of the age as a contrast to Angela who is so different from her associates. Laying aside the question of the relativity of the character interest, the strict composition, the development of the two threads toward the final situation is obvious. I agree with Blaser who says that the strict and intentional development of the action usual with Meyer is here carried to an extreme because of the fataUstic idea employed as foreshadowing. 4 In order, however, to show that the story is unified rather than divided, I submit a table showing in parallel columns the development of the two main threads of the action, chapter for chapter, omitting all sub- ordinate material. Comparison of the Two Main Threads A ngela Lucretia I. Introduction of Angela and Introduction of Lucretia and Giulio. Strozzi. II. DiscussionofAngela'sbetrothal. Bembo warns Lucretia about yield- Cardinal admits his passion, hints at ing to Caesar's influence. her love for Giulio. III. Giulio's feeling for Angela, Hint of Strozzi's feelings for Lu- dreams of being blinded by her. cretia. IV. Danger threatens Giulio. Alphonse and Bembo warn Strozzi. V. Cardinal shows his hate before the duke. VI. Blinding of Giulio. VII. Giulio conspires with Fer- rante. VIII. Imprisonment and trial of Hints of Caesar's escape, the brothers. I Langmesser, op. cit., p. 406. ' Bettelheim, op. cit., p. 264, letter of October 25, 1891. 3 Cf. Frey, op. cit., p. 335, and Betsey Meyer, op. cit., p. 207. 4 Cf. Blaser, op. cit., p. 143. 40 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER* S NOVELLEN Comparison of the Two Main Threads — Continued Angela Lucretia IX. Angela's efforts to aid Giulio, Caesar's note to Lucretia. Strozzi his pardon. falls in Lucretia's net. X. Angela's surprise at Strozzi's Caesar free. Strozzi goes to him. going to Caesar. C.'s death. L.'s cleverness. XI. Contrast of Angela and Lu- Lucretia indifferent to Strozzi's cretia. A. sees Giulio. fate, his death. XII. Giulio in tower. A.'s mar- Lucretia retires to the convent, riage. G. freed. Discovery of A.'s marriage. Examining this outline we find that the chapters which deal with the Caesar Borgia and Strozzi episode are the ninth, tenth, and eleventh. In the ninth the interest is certainly equally divided with that in the Angela thread, as is also the case in the eleventh chapter. Chap, x contains the main exposition of this episode which brings out the peculiar traits of Lucre- tia's character. It gives Meyer's interpretation of her as a type of personality produced by the Renaissance movement. But even here a reference is made to Angela, emphasizing the portrait of Lucretia as a contrast to that of the heroine, and making us behold Lucretia through Angela's eyes. Further- more, the last chapter of the book is devoted almost exclusively to the Angela theme. Angela is a more real figure than Lucretia and holds the reader's attention, even though we have such a careful analysis of Lucretia's character. The theme of the Novelle and its inner unity is well stated by Heine :^ Nun aber wird in dem schmahlich geblendeten Giulio durch furchtbares Leiden die tief verschiittete Giite und Wahrheit seiner Natur erzogen; und mit ihm verbindet sich Angela Borgia, der Lucrezia Gegenbild, in der der Borgia Kraft sich zu sittHcher Grosze entwickelt. So stehen die beiden lichten Gestalten in furchtbarer Umgebung: der Bose, der sich zum Guten durchdringt, und die Barmherzige, die den Sunder mit starken Armen emporzieht, und in diesem Gegen- satz der beiden zu ihrer Umgebung liegt die kiinstlerische Einheit des Werkes. Love interest. — There is a love interest in each of the Novellen, though it is far more prominent in some than in others. In Der Heilige it is used merely as motivation. In Die Hochzeit des Monchs, Die Richterin, and Angela Borgia it forms the dramatic conflict. Yet in none of these cases does the love-conflict constitute the chief problem to be solved; it gains its solution by the settlement of the higher psychological struggle. Guilt and atonement form the principal motif. Corinna in Gustav Adolfs Page is the only female figure in which Meyer portrayed sensuous love.^ Even in Die Hochzeit des Monchs the tragic result of ^ G. Heine, op. cit., p. 84. 2 Cf. Saitschik, op. cit., p. 299. PLOT 41 Astorre's love for Antiope is the penalty of his guilt in breaking his vow. He is unable to contend against the current of affairs in the busy world in which he is a stranger. Threads of plot. — Jiirg Jenatsch, Der Heilige, and Angela Borgia contain several episodic threads, which are usually motivating or illustrative. In Jiirg Jenatsch, for example, the parts played by Lucia, Agostino, Blasius Alexander, Kuri Lehmann, the Spanish lieutenant, Ruinelli, the Venetian schoolmaster, Grimani, Serbelloni, are necessary either for the development of the action or to throw light on the character of Jenatsch, enabling us to see what he is or to draw inferences concerning him. Other episodic threads are connected with the main threads of Lucretia and Rohan. The persistent characters are joined in pairs to the three main characters. Die Hochzeit des Mdnchs has a large number of threads in the frame-story owing to the peculiar circumstances under which the story itself is shaped by the narrator, Dante. His aim is to make us acquainted with the characters of his hearers by this means. The number of main and persistent threads, which in most cases is coincident, is small. Thus Meyer concentrates all the light on the character to be presented. When he does use a variety of illustration, it is because of the greater complexity of the character and the need of illuminat- ing it from many points of view, which he does through the action of the characters and not by his own comment. Incidents of plot. — The incidents in Meyer's plots are usually closely interwoven with the dialogue, which is present in about an equal amount. In general it may be said that the incident is massed about the dramatic turning-points. In type they are dramatic. Jiirg Jenatsch and Der Heilige follow the historical incident most closely. Die Versuchung des Pescara and Angela Borgia contain a larger proportion of idealized material. The other Novellen are most accurately classed as ideal. The individual and psychological type predominates in all, though not to the exclusion of objective incident, even in Die Leiden eines Knaben, which contains the least proportion. In Das Amulet, Jiirg Jenatsch, Der Heilige, and Die Versuchung des Pescara there are incidents distinctly social in type. The incidents both determine and reveal character, and do not retard the action. They are used for foreshadowing and climax; many times for contrast, less often for parallel illustration. The relation between the inner and outer action in the Novellen is that expressed in the following: But the best novel, surely, like the best play, is that in which inner character and outward action are developed simultaneously; in which the growth of mind and heart and will are expressed through tangible and striking scenes.' ' Bliss Perry, op. ciL, p. 55. 42 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN Type of plot. — The plot of Meyer's Novellen is always unified, simple, and climactic. The interest in character which, in the hands of many novelists, would cause a predominance of situation over movement, because of their yielding to the desire to make the most of the situation by adding their own comment, is here given such an objective treatment that these two elements are equally balanced. Although the setting is historical, the author has united both real and imaginary characters and real and fictitious events, but based to such an extent on actual facts that they may almost serve as sources of information. Illusion. — Meyer's method of beginning at a point in the action necessitating reversion to past events as well as allowing rapid forward movement is an aid to illusion. The element of reversion is, however, comparatively slight, and the shifts are few and clearly marked. The historic realism, his individuahzation of characters, and the objective manner of his procedure, a special manifestation of the latter being his use of the frame-story, all strengthen the illusion. Among the formal devices used may be mentioned Hans' explanations to Herr Burkhard how he came into possession of his knowledge of the incidents he describes, the assertions of the characters that they are speaking the truth, and Meyer's fond- ness for alternative explanatory sentences, which may be connected with his balanced and antithetic style. The following examples will serve as illustrations : War es die Aufregung der Raise, war es ein die heimlich aufsteigende Furcht bekampfender rascher Entschlusz, oder war es einfache Neugier, was den jungen Ziircher vom Lager trieb ? . . . . Entweder wuszte er nichts, oder er fiirchtete von mir verraten zu werden.' His use of foreshadowing adds to the dramatic character of his work. As already suggested, this may weaken the illusion, which it, to a certain extent, undoubtedly does in Angela Borgia. But the fact that much of the material in the Novellen is based on Meyer's own experience, including not merely external events in his life, but, to an indeterminable degree, the conflicts and struggles of his own heart, must of necessity cause conviction in the mind of the reader. SUSPENSE Mystery. — Otto Ludwig has said that suspense may be of two kinds, that of sympathy or that of curiosity.^ The suspense of sympathy is that felt in following the career of a problematic character. This kind is not absent I Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 32, 67. ' Otto Ludwig, Schr. VI, or Stud. II, p. 98. PLOT 43 from any of Meyer's Novellen. The second kind, the suspense of curiosity, would be felt where there is mystery. Mystery plays a part in each of the Novellen. In Das Amulet there is first that of Gasparde's birth, then of her marriage to Schadau (unknown to Boccard), and Schadau's ignorance of what was being done during the massacre. In Jiirg Jenatsch the duel in Book II is a means of prolonging the suspense throughout the book, as the decision of Jenatsch's fate is not reached till the end of the book. It is presented from Jenatsch's own point of view, from that of eyewitnesses, of Waser, of Grimani, and of Rohan. Mystery has a large part in Die Richterin and in Die Versuchung des Pescara. Secret observation. — Another method of arousing both curiosity and sympathy is that of allowing one person to overhear the conversation of others. Schadau has the unique privilege of beholding the royal conspir- ators when the signal for the massacre is struck. Hans is so moved by Becket's speech to Grace that he turns away his attention from watching them to carrying out the king's commands. A real appreciation of Julian's situation is gained when Fagon sees him at his painting lesson with Mouton. Wallenstein's communications to Gustavus Adolphus so excite the fears of the listening page that he thinks to escape detection only by flight. Stemma acknowledges her guilt in the presence of Palma Novella. Prophecies, visions, etc. — Other devices for securing suspense of one of these kinds are foreshadowing by the use of presentiments, prophecies, dreams, visions, emphasis of the fate idea, and, finally, jn the highest degree by the idea of retribution which, in demanding atonement for guilt, preserves the moral unity or the operation of universal law, and repetition in different forms. Here, as before, the chief illustrations will be drawn from Der Heilige and Jiirg Jenatsch and, by way of contrast, from Angela Borgia, in which the amount of foreshadowing is somewhat too great. In '^Der Heilige." — The ballad of "Young Beichan" hummed by Hans in Der Heilige is a preparation for the story as well as the prophecy of the nun concerning this union of the Saracen with the Saxon: "In der Brautnacht der Sarazenin aber hatte eine prophetische Nonne zu London ein Gesicht und sah aus dem neuen Ehebunde eine weisze Lilie, dasz ist einen Heiligen, entsprieszen und gen Himmel wachsen."^ Both help us to appreciate more clearly the age in which Becket lived and the attitu le of the people toward a man whom they felt to be so greatly their suj, erior. They would feel either abject admiration or envy at his undeserved success. The Saxon master's words to Becket: "Schade, Pfaffe, dasz du kein Kind hast, das dir ein Normanne verderben kann!"^ expresses this I Der Heilige, p. 33. 2 Ibid., p. 41. 44 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN perception of the gulf between himself and this Saxon who has risen to power only by ignoring the existence and claims of his countrymen. It amounts to a prophecy of Becket's loss. Hans has a vision of Grace's guardian angel grieving.^ He dreams of her marriage to Richard;^ but as dreams go by contraries he knows evil and not happiness will be the outcome. He knows something of the strength of will of both Becket and the king, and dreads the collision which the death of Grace will certainly cause. Bertram de Born is allowed to foretell Becket's death in connection with an expression of his hatred for Henry II,^ whom he considers as the enemy of both himself and Becket. Becket's own belief in fate is shown in his feeling that his star stands in close relation to that of the king.^ } The king's state of mind after he has lost Becket's friendship is revealed I most subtly in his recalling instances of ingratitude, misusing both his i dogs and Hans, and in his significant manner of shooting the hunted stag after first addressing it as Thomas Becket.s A man of Henry's tempera- ment must give vent openly to his resentment, in contrast to Becket whose grief at Grace's death we are never permitted to behold except on the occa- sion of Hans' finding him beside her casket. His tears are shed in secret. Here, it is suggested that the king, who is subject to sudden and violent fits of passion, will give orders for Becket's death in one of these outbursts. The king's ruin is likewise prepared for, besides in the ways already men- tioned, by Hans' vision of a sword suspended over his head.*^ The break- ing of the state seal as it passes from Becket's hands to those of the king indicates the breach to exist henceforth between them.^ Repetition: Of words. — The repetitions intensify the effect and give unity to the artistic form. The repetition of words may be related to the structure of the novel, its function being to arouse curiosity. It has a distinct , reference to the denouement. Note the use of the word "Gnade" and the \ play upon it; also the direct allusions to Becket's death and the smile with which he met it: Und sein Lacheln sehe ich noch, das, .... heilige Hohnlachein (p. 14). ' Denn ich erblicke ein blutiges, totes Haupt vor mir und den gegeiszelten Riicken meines Konigs (p. 168). Sah ich ein Blutmeer vor meinen Augen und darin ein sterbendes, lachelndes Haupi (p. 216). Eii\ Sachsischer Steinmetz hatte ihn abgebildet, still lachelnd (p. 220). Herr Thomas aber auf seinem Grabsteine lachelte (p. 221). I Der Heilige, p. 78. ■♦ Ihid., p. 136. ^ Ibid., p. 191. » Ihid., p. 90. 5 Ibid., pp. 160, 161. 7 Ibid., p. 152. 3 Ibid., p. 176. PLOT 45 The repetition of the adjectives "dunkel" as applied to Becket's eyes and of "blasz" as applied to his face is so marked as to approach the function of a Leitmotiv and produce suspense. I give instances of the latter, which is the more characteristic: Vor seinem blaszen Antlitz (p. 45). In den blaszen, traumenden Ziigen (p. 72). Der Blasze (p. 73). Der ..... nochblasseralssonsterscheinende Kanzler (p. 49). Dieses .... Antlitz, das .... gleich blasz war (p. iii). Dieser blasze Memme (p. 142). The synonyms "bleich," "farblos," "leblos" are also found. The sound impression of the word "blasz," thus repeated, produces a sensation of ominous expectancy. Of point at isstie. — Again, such a repetition may call attention to a point at issue. In this story the reader is made aware of three such points: the "geistige Gerichtsbarkeit," the words being repeated six times; the kiss of peace, repeated three times; the ban, four times, besides synonyms. Of fate idea. — Similarly, the fate idea may be introduced. Some e.xternal symbol may be used, as here the crucifix. There was no crucifix in Grace's villa nor in the chapel where her casket stood. Its portrayal of sufifering was distasteful to Becket. Finally he holds counsel with it and addresses it, and meets his death-blow with his arms extended like the beams of the cross. Becket's fate is also prepared for by the use of analogy. He com- pares himself to a shepherd, and the word "Heerde" is used several times referring to the Saxons. The Normans are likened to wolves. But stronger than this is the reference to Christ's kissing Judas. Bertram de Born employs a similar comparison.' Such a case of repetition as this is of a psychological nature and creates suspense by enlisting our sympathy with the character. Repetition of the moral idea also occurs.* Of scenes, and of action. — There are three scenes in which the king expresses his anger toward Becket, the first two of which are a means of securing suspense as to the final outcome.3 The fact that Hans, the keen observer, is three times deceived in regard to impor- tant points adds to the mystery surrounding Becket's character.^ Other instances of repetition of action are Becket's references to serving a higher master and those to the king's death. s Suspense in '^Jiirg Jenatsch." — Dreams play a minor part in Jurg ' Ibid., pp. 121, 197, 199, 176. 4 Ibid., pp. 67, 106, 331. » Ibid., pp. 85, 131, 154, 188. s Ibid., pp. 46, 196. 3 Ibid., pp. 155, 167. 46 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER' S NOVELLEN Jenatsch. They are iriore like the dreams of real life in mingling past and future events in a confused scene. ^ Neither Waser nor Jenatsch is superstitious or inclined to fatalism. Waser is too orthodox a Protestant and Jenatsch says he can make nothing out of it.^ There are happenings in the external world which seem ominous to the people. The bell-tower of St. Luzi falls when Jenatsch rides through the gate. The fierceness of the rare spring lightning is held to be "der Strahl des Gerichts."^ Even Waser wishes Jenatsch to lead a quiet life "um den Neid der Gotter und der Menschen nicht zu reizen."4 The foreshadowing of Jenatsch's treachery has already been noted, s Rohan's confidence is not great enough to prevent forebodings of misfortune.'^ Wertmiiller has his sus- picions of this strange man. 7 The general misunderstanding and doubt regarding Jenatsch's conduct produces greater suspense in proportion as it increases toward the end of the book. In view of the catastrophe, Lucretia's simple words about her fears for Jiirg when captured by the Span- ish soldier: "Hatf ich dich lieber mit eigner Hand getotet,"^ become sig- nificant. It is one of the glimpses of her hidden strength and of her love for Jenatsch, which make her dare anything for his sake. Definite allusions to the fate idea are quite unimportant. The word "Schicksal" is used but few times, only three times with any deep import. ^ Jenatsch's own consciousness of the arbitrary way in which he has gained his ends, as shown in his reminiscent conversation with Waser, ^° is a preparation for the final scene. Repetition: Of words. — As a case of repetition of minor import the references to the powder horn in Book I may be noted." It secures a bed for Waser, who carries it to Blasius Alexander. It is recognized by Jenatsch, left at Alexander's before the popular uprising, and he uses it when loading his musket to fire at the people. The frequent allusions to Richelieu form an external means of motivation." Of point at issue. — Repetition of the words "Verrat" and "Verrater"^^ with the allusions to Judas emphasize the theme: I Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 29, 31-33, 67, 182, 319. " Ibid., p. 67. 3 Ibid., p. 331. 4 Ibid., p. 332. s Ibid., pp. 167-72, 201, 211, 232, 235, and Lucretia's remark, p. 244. 6 Ibid., pp. 203, 218 ff., 223. 9 Ibid., pp. 150, 156, 192. 7 Ibid., pp. 252, 253, 256. 1° Ibid., pp. 305, 306, 333, 334. 8 Ibid., p. 321. " Ibid., pp. 30-31, 34, 43. 59. 76- i» Ibid., pp. 169, 170, 171, 198, 203, 219, 222, 226, 227, 228, 243, 266, 270, 273, 278, 280, 304, 309. 13 In all II times: pp. 228, 257, 261, 271, 273, 279 (2), 280 (2), 290, 316, 327. ^ IRSiTY Of PLOT 47 Und es trat ein Judasgedanke aus seiner Seele und stand plotzlich in so naher Haszlichkeit vor seinem Angesichte, dasz ihn schauderte. Aber er sagte sich mit einem sichem Lacheln: "Der gute Herzog wird mich nicht durchschauen, wie sein Gott den Judas" (p. 222). Pfarrer Saluz preaches on the text : Den Verrat des Judas Ischariot. Matthaus am sechsundzwanzigsten ! (p. 261). Aus Euem Judasarmen (p. 271). Hat erst einmal der Judas seinen Lohn empfangen (p. 280). Of moral idea. — Again, running through the whole story is the idea of retribution, to which attention is called by the word "Rache" repeated ten times, besides such compounds as "Blutrache" and " Rachegedanken, " and "Siihne" five times. Rohan's words to Lucretia give the Christian standpoint : Anders verhalt es sich mit dem, was Ihr Siihne nennt. Bedarf es einer sol- chen, so, glaubt es, wird sie nicht ausbleiben. Unser ganzes Leben, ja das Leben der Menschheit seit ihrem Anfange ist eine Verkettung von Schuld und Siihne. Schwer aber ist es dem menschlichen Kurzblicke die richtige Vergeltung zu wahlen, und sicherer in jedem Falle, Frevel durch Opfer der Liebe zu tilgen, als Gewahtat durch GewaUtat zu rachen und so Fluch auf Fluch zu haufen. . . . • Denn: Ich will vergelten, spricht der Herr! Another case of word repetition is that of "Beil," either alone or in com- pounds such as "Todesbeil." It is repeated seven times. This fascinates our curiosity till we behold the final catastrophe with a feeling of both horror and relief. Of situation. — Most suggestive is the change of Lucretia's feeling for Jenatsch: Sie fragte ihr Herz, wie es denn moglich sei, dasz Jiirg in seiner wildesten blutigsten Zeit ihrem Gefiihle und Verstandnisse weniger fremd gewesen, als jetzt, da er in den Raten des Landes und im Heerfolge des franzosischen Herzogs unter die Geachteten und Angesehenen zahlte. She concludes that his early feelings for her have changed (p. 239), Auch Georg Jenatsch erschien ihr in einem andem Lichte; ihr Vertrauen auf seine reine Vaterlandsliebe wurde von dem allgemeinen Ekel, den sie empfand, angefressen und ihr Glaube an die Einheit seines Wesens erschiittert, ohne dasz sie augenblicklich sich ganz bewuszt wurde, wie durch diese Zweifel ihr Verhaltnis zu ihm sich innerlich triibe (p. 294) Noch einmal war eine Verwandlung mit ihm vorgegangen ! Was heute aus seinen Augen blitzte war nicht mehr der jugendliche Uebermut von friiher, war nicht die vor keinem Hindernisse zuriickweichende Sicherheit, mit welcher er, seit sie ihn wieder kannte, ihr entgegen getreten, es war etwas Maszloses in seinem Wesen, eine gereizte Gewaltsamkeit in seiner Stimme und Haltung, als hatte 48 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN eine iibermenschliche Kraftanstrengung ihn aus dem Geleise und uber die letzten seiner Natur gesetzten Marksteine hinausgeworfen (p. 295). What more convincing proof of Jenatsch's deterioration could there be than this admission wrung from the heart of the woman who loves him, 0/ sounds. — Other formal elements of style may aid the suspense, as, for example, the repetition of sounds, which reveal the emotion of the speaker. Note the pectorals and aspirates in the following: "Gerechter Gott! Und Ihr habt Beweise dafiir ?" rief Waser, dem es schwiil wurde, sprang auf und schritt in dem kleinen Gemache besturtzten Gemiits auf und nieder.' and "O Schmach," brach Jenatsch los, "von einem solchen Schurken zu Seines- gleichen gezahlt zu warden!"* Observe the variety and range of sounds repeated in the next: In Verzweiflung richtete sie sich auf, sah Jiirg schwanken, von gedungenen Mordern umstellt, von meuchlerischen Waflfen umzuckt und verwundet, rings und rettungslos umstellt. 3 Mark the mixture of craft and fear expressed by the aspirates in this sentence : Du Stab und Stecken meines Alters wirst mir nicht zwischen diesen zittem- den Handen zerbrechen.'* There is also quick passionate movement in this: Er stiesz einen Schrei aus, ergriff, schleuderte sie, sah sie im Gewitterlichte gegen den Felsen fahren, taumeln, tasten und ihre Kniee unter ihr weichen.s Use of short sentences. — Short sentences may also aid the suspense, as in this case: Die Truhe war leer. Lucretia erbleichte.^ The reader sympathizes with Lucretia' s anxiety for Jenatsch. Some- times such a sentence constitutes a paragraph: Jetzt entschlosz er sich dazu.' This contains in concentrated form all that this decision meant to Jenatsch, and is an example of Meyer's suggestiveness. Suspense in "Angela Borgia." — It has already been suggested that in Meyer's last work, Angela Borgia, there is a manifest weakening of his I Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 159. s Die Richterin, p. 370. * Ihid., p. 284. ^ Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 320. 3 Ibid., p. 351. 7 Ihid., p. 232. 4 Die Hochzeit des Monchs, pp. 28, 29. PLOT 49 powers: that the fate idea is too prominent. That is, the characters, par- ticularly Duke Alphonse and Bembo, have too clear a prophetic vision. The Strozzi-Borgia episode is thus foreshadowed: Das Wiederkommen Casars ist Eure Schicksalsstunde (p. 29). Und habt Ihr menschliche Werkzeuge angewandt, um Euch mit dam Bruder zu verbinden, opfert sie unbedenklich und gebet sie der Rache des Herzogs preis (P- 30) • Unserer erlauchten Fiirstin, fiir deren einziges Lacheln der verliebte Grosz- richter Herkules Strozzi Ehre und Seele verkauft (p. 34) . Dasz ich die Gesetzlose lieben musz, ist Schicksal (p. 46). Offenbar hatte er es eilig, aus der Nahe eines Menschen wegzukommen, der nach seiner fasten Ueberzeugung einem dunkeln Schicksal verfallen war (p. 60). After predicting Strozzi's relations to Caesar Borgia, the duke says : Ich werde Euch richten, nicht oflFentlich, denn es ist eine Familiensache und eine Staatssache, die beide das Geheimnis fordem. Man wird Euch tot auf der Strasze finden (p. 71). This unusual power of prophecy weakens the illusion although there is no question as regards its effect in securing greater unity. Yet it is to be remembered that this was an age when people held all manner of fatalistic beliefs. Lucretia's reputation was widespread and the Borgia fascination was already known to be fatal. Moreover, these lesser rulers exercised absolute sway in their own jurisdiction, and that Alphonse d'Este should in this cold-blooded way set forth his course of action is quite in keeping with his character as the governor who would render strict justice. In each case, then, whether by arousing the reader's curiosity or by evoking his sympathy, the means of securing suspense are derived from the conception of the characters and of their interrelations.^ UNITY Intercalations. — The various Novellen present some instances of inter- calations. These take the form mainly of letters and lyrics. The few stories inserted have an organic connection with the Novelle in which they occur. That told by Ben Emir in Angela Borgia is used to motivate the main action and is interpreted by each of the characters to suit his own mood. The story of Prince Moonshine in Der Heilige is an instance of Meyer's employment of parallelism, and serves to emphasize the main idea. \ The outer appearance and mental qualities of the prince resemble those of Becket so closely that the reader, like Hans, pursues the analogy to the | I Cf. Otto Ludwig, Schr. V, or Stud. I, p. 251: "Alles musz von der individuellen I Gestalt ausgehen und wiederum auf sie ausmiinden; selbst die Spannttfig musz an das \ Charakteristische der Gestalt sich kniipfen." 50 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN conclusion that evil will befall the king who is forsaken by so wise a counselor. The author has given in Jilrg Jenatsch an excellent imitation of a broad- side. It is the announcement of Rohan's death, read by Sprecher to the people. Its introduction has a dramatic effect. By describing Rohan's heroic end, it also counteracts the effect of his weakness shown in Chur and shows him as a martyr for his principles. This book likewise contains the articles of the various treaties about which the plot turns and several letters, but all have an essential connection with the main theme. Sometimes Meyer reproduces parts of actual letters written by the historical characters, as in the case of Caesar Borgia's letter to Lucretia. This secures additional realism. Among the many lyric passages inserted, every one is used symbolically. As evidence may be cited the sonnet written by Pietro Aretino to Victoria Colonna, and even the line quoted by Jenatsch just before the catastrophe, when Fausch asks for his text: Selig lebt und freudig stirbt Wen die Lieb' umfangen!^ The reversions found in the narratives are concise, explanatory of the characters and situations, and introduced at the points where they fit most naturally. Waser's recollection of Jenatsch as a schoolboy shows us Jiirg's character before it is distorted by ambition and desire for revenge. There are no independent episodes or digressions. Such an episode as Hans' meeting Bertram de Born while accompanying Richard to seek Becket is treated artistically but entirely subordinate to the main theme, which it foreshadows. Situations are used to illustrate the motives of the characters.^ Repetition. — There is, then, practically no force which would weaken the unity. Positive aids are the maintenance of a persistent point of view, un- broken motivation, and the converging action. Repetition also strengthens the unity. This may consist of words, as in the use of epithets, or of longer phrases. Thus in Jilrg Jenatsch, the repetition of "Auf Riedberg wird kein Hochzeit gefeiert"^ emphasizes the bounds set to Jiirg's accomplish- ment of his desires. The repetition of scenes and of actions is of more value. I Jilrg Jenatsch, p. 349. » "The stronger a man's nature is, the more apt are the deep, unconscious motives to come to the surface. The writer who divines the circumstances which bring into action motives of this obscure character attains the highest unity, because there is a harmony between the actions of his characters and the more complex laws of human nature." — ^Johnson, Elements 0} Literary Criticism, p. 41. 3 Jiirg Jenatsch, pp. 296, 348. ' ' I PLOT "51 Thus Jenatsch is twice represented as left standing alone in the midst of the people:' once when Rohan leaves Chur with his army, and again after the death of the duke has been announced and Jenatsch persists in demand- ing his fete. This is an effective representation of his separation from all that had been his. From the emphasis on similar parts through the use of repetition and parallel illustration the idea of the whole is discovered. ^ Meyer manages the historical material, likewise, in a way to secure unity. The main action is connected either with the imaginary characters as in Die Hochzeit des Monchs and Die Richterin, or the historical events form the central thread and fictitious characters are kept subordinate as in Der Heilige. Frame-stories. — Another device adopted by Meyer for securing unity is that of the enveloping frame. As this form occurs so often, it will repay closer scrutiny. By choosing the "story within a story" form of narration, the author is enabled to hide himself behind the narrator. Thus it becomes an aid to objectivity, since it allows the author to incorporate his own experience and philosophy of Ufe without the intrusion of his own personaUty. He has a greater command of the means for suggestive characterization, contrast, parallelism, and repetition, all artistic devices which give form and finish to the story as a work of art. Moreover, it affords enrichment of the historical background, the use of color being harmonized to the dominating tone and the light varying with the mood of the narrator. The alternation between the parts of the frame-story and of the story proper is so cleverly managed by Meyer as to add considerably to the beauty of the whole. In the hands of an inferior writer the attempt might prove disastrous. This interweaving has been likened to the ivy which, growing up along the side of a building, enhances its beauty and seems to become a part of it. As Meyer himself has explained, it creates an idyllic atmosphere. 3 The participation of the narrator adds a sense of animation and the manner of telling the story is made a characterization of the story-teller. Frame-Story in ^'Die Hochzeit des Monchs." — Die Hochzeit des Monchs is an admirable example of this form of narration. The author has introduced the enveloping frame at points which are the natural divisions of the actual story, and these pauses are a distinct aid in creating suspense. 1 Ibid., pp. 289, 343. 2 "In order to convey an impression of unity, the mind groups complex wholes by putting those together that produce like partial effects." — Raymond, Rhythm and Harmony, p. 177. 3 See above, p. 31. 52 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN As it has been said: "There is no music in a pause, but it renders great service in giving proper emphasis to music that goes before and comes after it."^ The place-setting of this Novelle is Verona at the court^of Can Grande della Scala, who has extended his hospitality to Dante. Seeking to warm himself, the exiled Florentine comes into the hall where the court is assembled about the fireplace, passing the time by teUing stories. The theme is that of the monk who has renounced his vows. After a glance about the com- pany, Dante accedes to their request to join in the diversion. The starting- point of his narrative is a simple inscription read upon a gravestone; his characters he models after the members of his audience. This is a most happy invention, since it gives individuality to the persons of this group, and arouses greater expectancy with regard to the denouement of his story. It also serves to give distinctness to the figure of Dante himself, who, by scarcely concealed scorn or admiration of his own creations, gives expres- sion to the bitterness of his experience, under the guise of this recreation. The interruptions in Dante's narrative, marking off the stages of his story, are at once an illustration of his method of constructing his plot and of Meyer's own method. Dante discovers new faces in the company before him, and determines how he can best combine these forces with the others already in operation. Note the truth of the followingasapplied to Meyer: "Seine Fabel lag in ausgeschiitteter Fiille vor ihm ; aber sein strenger Geist wahlte und vereinfachte,"^ and again: "Dante schopfte Atem. Dann endigte er in raschen Satzen."3 This may be compared to Hans' criticism of his haste to reach the end of the story, when he says: "Die Gaule laufen rascher, wenn es dem Stalle zugeht."^ The interest mani- fested by the characters in the development of Dante's tale is made both a revelation of their mental states and of the keenness of the poet's penetra- tion. The fact that the story is actually told and that his hearers interrupt with questions, admits comment by the poet on his own invention. He suggests the question of the propriety of soliloquy; he expresses his resent- ment at his banishment; and even interprets what he has said about histori- cal characters in the "Inferno" — all of which make his appearance more real. The narrator of the frame-story. — Surely no more significant person than Dante could be chosen to tell a story. It might be said that this method has the disadvantage of presenting a great personality from the point of view of an inferior personaUty. Unquestionably, that danger is I Knowlton, How to Write a Novel, p. 66. 3 Ibid., p. 153. * Die Hochzeit des Monchs, p. 90. 4 Der Heilige, p. 223. PLOT 53 always threatening in the treatment of great historical figures; the author must be equal to the task he sets himself. But an author who really has something to say will be likely to choose as the narrator of his story one suited to the position. If he expresses his own views, he would create a character of such worth that he (the author) would not be ashamed to speak through him. Should the author deliberately choose a story-teller with only a limited or prejudiced conception of his theme, it must be that his motive for so doing would be made as plain to the reader as it is in his own mind. Let us consider the other story-tellers Meyer has given us: Poggio, the humanist and author of "Facetiae," and Fagon, the physician of Louis XIV, versed in the etiquette of that court./ They are certainly worthy of the place. On the other hand, there ia^llans in Der Heilige'^ simple Swabian archer, but one who has been/i monk and gained a little learning, and who does not tell his story till the close of his nearly Hfelong association with two such men as Becket and Henry II. And again, his relations to the two men have been and remain such, that his "Empfinden" is "zwei- spaltig" and his "Gedanken bleiben" "wie vor einem Abgrunde stehen." He is also one who can in no wise be partisan, for the same reason that he was an acceptable servitor to the king: he was neither Norman nor Saxon. This enables Meyer to do full justice to both the chief characters. He presents Hans as having a subtle bond of sympathy with Becket while faithfully serving the king; having even a sense of personal injury from the archbishop, yet admitting the wrongs of the latter and his final victory. The details of Becket' s early life, his rise and pride in his exalted position, are reproduced in the form of rumors which reach Hans on his arrival in / England; the reader is at liberty to believe as much or as little as he will. - Hans says it is difiicult to find the " Goldkom der Wahrheit." / > There is a purely artistic question to be raised as to the relation between 1 the frame and the inclosed story. A frame with such a great figure as that of Dante' may cause the story set within it to seem insignificant, while one with such ordinary constituents as Hans and the priest in the simple room in Der Heilige reintroduced as a conclusion to the story of the marvelous Thomas Becket may seem an anti-climax. According to a letter written to . his sister in 1877,^ Meyer had concluded to tell the story in propria persona. His reasons for doing otherwise have been quoted. 3 The principal reason is the one he has numbered three — to have the testimony of an eyewitness as to the greatness of this unique character. We gain the iCf. Bettelheim, op. cit., p. 128. 3 See above, p. 31. ' Cf. Frey, op. cit., p. 272. 54 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN knowledge of the way in which Becket is regarded as well as the glimpse of his deeds in an objective way. By this frame device Meyer has also succeeded in maintaining the mediaeval spirit throughout. We may compare the story as a closely woven fabric with Thackeray's Henry Esmond, which purports to be the memoirs of this man who lived in the preceding century and presents its warrant for historical coloring in this way. But in either case, the later history of the principal actors must at least be indicated, and we find this in Der Heilige nicely intermingled with the frame, so that there remains actually but a page at the end devoted solely \ to the setting. Analogous to this arrangement of material is the correspondence and balance to be observed in the first and last chapters of the other stories giving the frame e£fect. These chapters of Die Richterin present the appeal of Stemma to Charles the Great, and his appearance in person to answer it. Die Versuchung des Pescara opens in Milan with the portrayal of Sforza's fears and at the close shows him defeated, yet protected by Pescara. Das Amtdet contains an introduction, after which the hero tells his story in the first person. Unity of action implies consistency with the character in each case, and the attempt has been made to show that this is true even in the case of a book like Jurg Jenatsch which has been criticized as having too many complications in the action.^ I See above, p. 35. IV. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION Meyer's plot with its essential elements of motivation, suspense, and unity manifests certain characteristic features of presentation which are here grouped under the name of modalities of composition. It will be found that some examples of these characteristics have already been noted in the discussion of other topics. But each is of so frequent use by Meyer as to render separate mention of it necessary. Symbolism. — Meyer makes frequent use of symboUsm for making his thought vivid and significant. The manner in which he has directed the comprehension of his characters by giving them symbolic names has been illustrated.' The Christian symbolism in Der Heilige has already been observed under suspense.* We know that Becket's biographers were fond of comparing him to the Saviour, and their accounts are often un- trustworthy for this reason. Meyer has made artistic use of this material. Similar to this is Auguste Leubelfing's impression of Gustavus Adolphus' appearance in Naumburg.3 Angela Borgia bears the mark of the cross on her forehead as indicative of her meek and sincere desire for atonement. Victoria Colonna refers to Michelangelo's prophets and sybils in order to pro- voke an expression of Pescara's attitude toward Morone's mission. As he asks: "Was predigen und weissagen diese ?" she replies: " Sie bejammem die Knechtschaft Italiens und verkiindigen den kommenden Retter und Hei- land I"'* Thus Pescara and Gustavus Adolphus are shown us as men who could raise the people, whose leaders they are, to victory over their enemies, while Becket suiBFers persecution for his loyalty to the church. The whole of Die Versuchung des Pescara, however, is symbolic, and in a double sense, as Rodenberg wrote Meyer, "im profanen und heiligen Sinne."5 Lucretia Borgia's new attitude in life is emphasized both by her own thought on seeing the rope dancer perform in celebration of her entry into Ferrara and by the interpretation of the figure of Cupid bound and with torn wings, having lost his arrows. The widening stream of the mountain brook is representative of the breach between Jenatsch and Lucretia which can never be entirely stopped.^ The "Becher" and the "Hifthom" in Die Richterin are organically connected with the main theme. Wulfrin tells 1 See above, p. 15. 4 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 157. 2 See above, p. 45. 5 Cf. Langmesser, op. cit., p. 154. 3 Gustav Adoljs Page, p. 340. ^ J'Hi'g Jenatsch, p. 191. 55 56 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN US the meaning of the horn's note,^ and this becomes the explanation of Stemma's shrinking from its blast and throwing it away. It is when hearing it again, apparently sounded by supernatural agencies, that she reveals her secret almost mechanically, as if answering to its summons to judgment. The Cardinal's jealousy in Angela Borgia calls up the image of the bird of prey. This is likewise a sign for Lauenburg's revenge in Gustav Adolf s Page.^ The symbolic significance of the lyrics and of Ben Emir's allegory in Angela Borgia has also been remarked. ^ The moral of the allegory is applied to Lucretia's life, to Giulio, and by Angela to the Cardinal himself who does not conform to the doctrine he professes. This element is poeti- cally used to awaken the reader's emotion in Die Versuchung des Pescara. Victoria Colonna and Pescara have spent a holiday in the harvest fields listening to the reapers' song and each binding a sheaf. When Pescara finally succumbs to the efifect of his wound, he resembles "einem jungen, magem, von der Emte erschopften und auf seiner Garbe schlafenden Schnitter."4 A similar efifect is produced by the description of Mouton's illustration of Ovid in which he unconsciously gave to the victim of the Furies the features of Julian, s Even Mouton, the unlearned, had a dim perception of Julian's inner struggles. This mystery and suggestive power is also manifest in Schadau's dream on the eve of St. Bartholomew,^ a poetic germ which the author later developed in the ballad "Die Karyatide." Ich meinte mich noch an die Eisenstabe zu klammem und hinaus zu blicken auf die rastlos flutende Seine. Da plotzlich erhob sich aus ihren Wellen ein halb- nacktes, vom Mondlicht beglanztes Weib, eine Fluszgottin auf ihre sprudelnde Ume gestutzt, wie sie in Fontainebleau an den Wasserkiinsten sitzen, und begann zu sprechen. Aber ihre Worte richteten sich nicht an mich, sondem an eine Stein- frau, die dicht neben mir die Zinne trug, auf welcher die drei fiirstlichen Ver- schworer gestanden. " Schwester," frug sie aus dem Flusze, " weiszt vielleicht du, warum sie sich morden? Sie werfen mir Leichnam auf Leichnam in mein strommendes Bett und ich bin schmierig von Blut. Pfui, pfui ! Machen vielleicht die Bettler, die ich abends ihre Lumpen in meinem Wasser waschen sehe, dem Reichen den Garaus ? " "Nein," raunte das steineme Weib, "sie morden sich, weil sie nicht einig sind iiber den richtigen Weg zur Seligkeit." Und ihr kaltes Antlitz verzog sich zum Hohn, als belache sie eine ungeheure Dummheit I Cf. Die Richterin, pp. 281, 339, 349. 4 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 222. ' Gustav Adoljs Page, p. 341. s Die Leiden eines Knaben, p. 229. 3 See above, p. 49. ^ Das Amulet, p. 98. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION 57 Symbolic paintings and statuary are frequently accompaniments of scenes and actions of corresponding import. The perplexity of the Itahans who gaze on the chess players,^ Pescara and Victoria, and the doubt regard- ing Pescara's move make the sphinxlike temperament of the soldier more real. Abraham sacrificing Isaac looks down upon the elder Leubelfing who has ofifered up his son to satisfy his boastfulness.^ These are examples of harmony. The IsraeHtes eating manna in the wilderness form a con- trast to the famished condition of the people of Milan. 3 It is fitting that the figure of Justice beholds Jenatsch killed at her feet. Meyer fully realized the value of this kind of illustration. It is vivid, emphatic, and suggestive. Whatever the response made by the reader, there is certain to be association made with a wide range of other experi- ence, enriching the context immeasurably. The symbol and the thing signified then become indivisible, one implying the other. But the sense of mystery and inexplicableness abides. Suggestiveness and compression. — This suggestive quality and compres- sion in Meyer's work deserve further attention. His careful selection of details to promote the development of the theme gives a sense of rapid movement which is also sure. A succession of happenings, the sequence of cause and eflfect, are often stated with great brevity, making an impression by the very lack of emphasis. In telling of the wounding of Trustan Grim, which is not the important thing at all and must be hurried over, the words used, however, convey a vivid picture, "Ein Schwerthieb, ein Blutstrahl, und der vom Leibe getrennte Arm sank mit dem Kreuz auf die Erde."'* A long sentence with a rapid succession of verbs produces this eflfect of simultaneous action. The king tries Hans' bow with his characteristic quickness: "Nahm, spannte sie, legte den Pfeil, trat an das geofifnete Fenster und schosz nach einer Krahe."^ Short sentences may be used to give the same result. "Argenson zog mich mit sich fort. Wir stiegen ein und rollten."^ The employment of brief, even incomplete expressions in the speech of the enigmatical Wertmiiller' and of the busy executives like Argenson and Coligny is more properly noted in the discussion of dialogue. Again, a few words may invoke a long train of thought or summarize a situation completely. Henry II enters into Becket's thought and mood 1 Die Versuchung des Pescara, pp. 15, 16, 17, 41. 2 Gustav Adolf s Page, p. 272. 3 Die Versuchung des Pescaraj'pY'-^i 2- 4 Der Heilige, p. 215. s Ibid., p. 43. ^ Die Leiden eines Knaben, p. 247. 7 Der Schusz v. d. Kanzel, pp. 138, 162, 163, u. s. w. 58 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN as follows: '"So laszt er sich leichter handhaben,' ging der Konig auf den Gedanken seines Kanzlers ein.""^ Schadau's simple statement: "Der Tote lag mir auf der Seele,"^ needs no amplification. Pere Tellier's attitude toward the world is significantly expressed: "Ein Unrecht bekennen und siihnen! Der Jesuit knirschte vor Ingrimm."^ Jenatsch's sudden anger is anticipated by the comment on Serbelloni's speech: "Das war ein unzei- tiges Wort."'* Wulfrin's horror at his own thoughts and his audacious utterance is attributed to the echo : " ' Palma mein Weib !' Das Echo entsetzte sich und verstummte."5 The imagination is able to supply the details of the carnage in Paris, when Schadau says: "Blutgeruch erfiillte das Haus.'"^ Sometimes this ellipsis occurs in the form of a succession of nouns, as in the description of Auguste Leubelfing's emotions in her proximity to the king: Eine Jagd, cine Flucht siiszer und stolzer Gefuhle, qualender Befiirchtungen, verhehlter Wonnen, klopfender Pulse, beschleunigter Atemzuge, soviel nur eine junge Brust fassen und ein leichtsinniges Herz genieszen kann in der Vorstunde einer totenden Kugel oder am Vorabend einer beschamenden Entlarvung!^ Parallelism. — Meyer takes cognizance of the habit of the imagination to look out for resemblances rather than for differences, and that it is not satis- fied with likenesses between parts but seeks to find similar wholes. Many instances of paralleUsm are to be found in the Novellen. In Der Heilige j/Hans tells the story of his own life as an introduction to that of the new saint, ^ because of the close connection of his life with Becket. He, too, has been a monk and has a knowledge of literature, has traveled and lived among the Moors. The fate that overtook his sweetheart is but a forerunner of that which causes Becket's anguish. He is moreover characterized by loyalty even as Becket is. Hans and his rival, Trustan Grim, become the followers of the king and the archbishop respectively. Both are witnesses of the latter's death and both try to save him. Later both go on a pilgrimage. The fable of Prince Moonshine is but an epitome of our novel. Hans' immediate application of the story is to his own departure from Cordova. The story is compared to that of Becket's father and mother in point of improba- bility. It is also to be noted that the immediate events of Becket's death are told by Hans at the same hour at which he died and on the anniversary of the event. The risk of exposure which Auguste Leubelfing runs is shown objectively I Der Heilige, p. 127. s Die Richterin, p. 374. » Das Amulet, p. 72. 6 Das Amulet, p. 108. 3 Die Leiden eines Knaben, p. 255. 7 Gustav Adolf s Page, p. 291. 4 Jilrg Jenatsch, p. 305. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION 59 through her knowledge of Gustavus Adolphus' feelings regarding such cases and his treatment of Corinna. His unconscious habit of repeating for her benefit tales that would interest a girl rather than a boy makes the danger seem more imminent. His own daughter, too, deceives him as Auguste does. Stemma's force of will, which upholds her so long, could not be appre- ciated without the story of Faustine. There is also a suggestion of parallel situation between Wulfrin and Faustine. The comment of Fagon on Julian's death as an echo of JuHan's speech about his friend Guntram^ forms an artistic conclusion to the story in its simplicity, brevity, and utter absence of straining after effect. Just as in life one gets a new sense of the triviality or falseness of his aims and views by hearing them uttered by others, so in literature a truer, firmer appreciation of what a character stands for is gained from this objective method of explanation. Objectivity. — Features of Meyer's style thus far mentioned, symbolism, parallelism, and the representation of mental states by the use of dreams and visions, conduce to a rare objectivity of treatment. He aimed to hide his own personahty completely behind that of his characters. He could not give utterance to his inmost thoughts simply for their own sake; even his lyrics have this objective quality. He has expressed the feeling that his lyrics were not true in their essence, that only under the dramatic mask could he be true; where he objectivates his experience into action rather than dis- closes its incompleteness.^ Thus, as in the case of Kleist, his modesty has been the force which has stamped his stories with the dramatic impress. He does not comment on the events he depicts or on the actors in them. He adopts the vieAvpoint of the characters. They express opinions, but such as are appropriate to their nature. It is because these characters are creations and have each his peculiar individuality that we are able to see them in action and hear them speak. We get information about characters and events only as they themselves do. Meyer's nature responded to a wide range of stimuU. We have already observed this in his understanding of the people with whom he came in contact. It was as true of his emotional and imaginative experience. This response, however, did not express itself as emotion, but by giving to the characters he created the hue and trend of his own mind. Holzamer expresses this idea in the words: "Sie [the characters] tragen die Handlung wie ein Gewand, und das Gewand I Die Leiden eines Knaben, pp. 223, 267. ' " Wahr kann ich nur unter der dramatischen Maske al fresco sein. Im Jenatsch und im Heiligen (beide urspriinglich dramatisch konzipiert) ist in den verschiedensten Verkleidungen weit mehr von mir, meinen wahren Leiden und Leidenschaften, als in dieser Lyrik." — Letter to Luise v. Franjois; quoted by Langmesser, op. cit., p. 126. 6o TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN macht die Personlichkeiten aus ihnen, als die sie erscheinen,"^ While they are individual, they make, nevertheless, a universal appeal. For this embodiment of the typical features of the age and of human experi- ence, it has been said that Angela Borgia is the most objectively treated of any of his works.* The characters are here shown in their relation to the natural milieu. The author has shown us in his plan for Der Heilige his method of making the individual case universal. His problems are none the less vital because he clothes them in mediaeval garb. Subjectivity. — When it is said that Meyer's characters utter thoughts appropriate to their own experience, it must, on the other hand, be admitted that, inasmuch as they embody various sides of Meyer's own nature, the words they speak may often voice his sentiments and their attitude is quite probably his own attitude. He is express- ing his own feelings when he says that Ariosto abhorred "jedes fremde Eingreifen in einen Seelenvorgang als Gewalttat," and, "Denn der Quell echter Reue, das wuszte er, sprudelt in heiUgen Tiefen, und nur in der einsamen Stille seines gottlichen Ursprungs waschen sich schuldige Hande und Seelen rein. "3 This trait appears in Hans, in Becket, and in the king, with a slight variation,4 as well as in many others already mentioned, s The frame-stories contain observations of the story- tellers, particularly Der Heilige, where Hans' reflections detract somewhat from the distinctness of the tale. Dante and Fagon both voice a slightly fatalistic view: "Das Gesprach — giebt es beschleunigende Damonen, die den Steigenden stlirmisch emporheben und den Gleitenden mit grausamen Fuszen in Tiefe stoszen;'"^ "Oft zeigt uns ein prophetisches Licht den Rand eines Abgrundes, aber dann kommt der Witz und kliigelt und lachelt und redet uns die Gefahr aus."' Although some of the characters show us Meyer to a greater degree than others, yet he has put himself into all. We have his own words to prove that he is to be found in Morone as well as in Pescara.^ He could not have depicted the violent passions of Henry H, had he not felt the sweep of passion within himself. Becket unites the qualities of the active diplo- mat and of the passive idealist which the author possessed. s" Meyer's objectivity "wurzelte" in his subjectivity.'" 1 Holzamer, op. cit., p. 41. ■♦ Der Heilige, pp. 15, 131, 172. 2 Ibid., p. 51. 5 See above, p. 18. 3 Angela Borgia, p. 106. ^ Die Leiden eines Knaben, p. 262. 7 Die Hochzeit des Monchs, p. 79. 8 Letter to Bovet, quoted by Holzamer, op. cit., p. 10. 9 Cf. Holzamer, op. cit., p. 9. ^° Ibid., p. 41. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION 6l It is very seldom that the author can be discovered using a form of expres- sion which reveals the viewpoint of an outsider. The designation of a remark as "aberglaubisch"^ or a comment upon the "wunderbar freien Sprache des Jahrhunderts"^ are found, but such cases could be counted on the fingers. All of the Novellen have ethical significance and several present the theme of retribution, as in Jiirg Jenatsch, Der Heilige, and Die Richterin. But none has this tendency so developed as to place the story in the class of didactic novels. It is rather a matter of his general philosophy of life. Meyer learned to symphathize with the Protestant confession while living in VuUiemin's family. Again, the Reformation manifested itself most fully in Switzerland. Thus the Protestant tone which pervades Das Amulet, Jiirg Jenatsch, Die Leiden eines Knaben, and Gustav Adolf s Page is partially the reflection of the national history. The national element in the author's work is evident to one who remembers Das Amulet, Jiirg, Jenatsch, Der Schusz von der Kanzel, Die Richterin. Likewise, Zurich ) is the setting of Der Heilige. The Swiss spirit of independence, of pre- serving existing privileges intact, is revealed. The geographical position of \ his country between France and Germany and Meyer's own relations to the [ two peoples caused a certain feeling of conflict. But the triumph of the 1 Germans led him finally to ally himself with their cause. Auf diese groszen Begebenheiten, deren Wurzeln und Vorzeichen ihn seit seiner Jugendzeit beschaftigt batten, sind die Grundziige der allermeisten seiner Novellen und vieler seiner poetischen Erzahlungen zuriickzufuhren. Sie ent- standen aus dem Wunsche, die geschichtlichen Menschen der Vorbereitungsepo- chen in ihrem Kampfe und siegreichen Untergange lebensfahig und so, dasz ihr poetisches Bild der Wirklichkeit gerecht wiirde, darzustellen, wie es die groszen Meister der Renaissance in Malerei und Skulptur getan batten.^ Romantic features. — The very themes of the Novellen, the conflicting and confused feelings in the human heart, the test of loyalty to a higher power or to an ideal, are romantic. His characters have ambitions and desires that cannot be satisfied, as Julian's to be a soldier, Jenatsch's to marry Lucretia. The development of the action must needs be through romantic situations. Of these there are many. We find unexpected meetings with old acquaintances or enemies, as of Schadau with his former fencing-master through whose aid he effects his escape, and of Jenatsch with the Spanish lieutenant and the brother of the man he had thrown down in the church in Berbenn. He meets Lucretia at I Jiirg Jenatsch, p. 330. 3 Betsey Meyer, op. cit., p. 75. ' Angela Borgia, p. 43. 62 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN Rohan's. Hans finds Trustan Grim as one of Becket's followers. Astorre meets Antiope on the bridge. Then certain critical situations occur, as the death of Boccard by the shot from his friend's pistol, Jurg's killing the father of the girl he loves, her freeing him when he is arrested as a spy, Lucretia's act of self-defense at Milan, Pescara's treatment of the Swiss who has given him his mortal wound. The author is also fond of horror scenes. We see Paris drenched with Huguenot blood, Chatillon crushed on the pavement, the death scenes of Planta, Jenatsch, Grace, Becket, Gustavus Adolphus and his page, Stemma, Pescara, Antiope and Astorre, and the general confusion at the end of Die Hochzeit des Monchs, as well as the blinding of Giulio d'Este. "Bei Meyer findet das tragische Motiv in einer Todesscene seinen Hohepunkt. Diese Todes- scenen sind bei ihm stets kiinstlerisch durchgebildet und von einem gesunden Realismus getragen."^ These scenes are used both as the final situation in a chain of tragic complications and as an element of release from suffering. He does not use them solely for their own sake but to complete the idea of the character. He did not like what would be called a sensation.^ We know, for example, his real opinion of Jenatsch, yet he was able to enter himself into what might have been Jenatsch's interpretation of his own character, and make the reader see him in the best Hght possible and as a man with a great deal of magnetism. Other romantic material is the use of the past, the love of Italy as the land of promise for the artist, references to oriental wisdom, the love of beauty and color, the supernatural, fatalistic, and miraculous elements, the many allusions to works of art and descriptions of them, the preference for evening as a time-setting, and the use of storms and sudden changes in weather, and the frame-story form. The prevailing tone in his vocabulary will be discussed later. The descriptions of paintings, as already noted, are intro- duced symbolically, as is the representation of the Roman TuUia, or of Pescara playing chess with Victoria Colonna. The purpose is to give an understanding of the essence of the character or the situation, as, for example, the description of the " Schlangensaal " where Mw-one is detained as a prisoner. This symbolism is a romantic feature. ^^«v. Meyer did not refuse to admjt the existence of inexplicable and myste- rious occurrences in human experience. Helets Poggio say: Ich weisz nicht, main Cosmus, wie du vom Wunderbaren denkst ? Ich selbst denke laszlich davon, weder aberglaubisch, noch vermessen; denn ich mag die absoluten Geister nicht leiden, welche, wo eine unerklarliche Tatsache einen I Greinz, op. cit., p. 147. ' Cf. Betsey Meyer, op. cit., p. 9. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION 63 Dunstkreis von Aberglauben um sich sammelt, die ganze Erscheinung, Mond und Hof — ohne Priifung und Unterscheidung entweder summarisch glauben Oder eben so summarisch verwerfen.' But as already suggested, Meyer has the classic sense of form; his work is distinctly organized and concrete. He preferred "edle Einfalt und stille Grosze," even as Becket preferred to gaze upon his statues of marble than upon the jealous and passionate Queen Eleanor. He gives rather a "real- ism of motives and emotions."* His characters do not, like those of the Romanticists, lack character. They possess in the highest degree the sense of their own worth and self-reliance. The motives which influence Stemma may not be those of ordinary people, but they imply a decision and resolute- ness which with her practical concealment of her guilt without giving way to vain regrets is not to be paralleled in romantic literature. The atmos- phere of the fable pervading the book is in harmony with the characters, as this was a time when superstition and personification of the forces of nature was common. We are, then, led to the conclusion that Meyer has given a realistic treatment to romantic material. So far as I know, the only expression of this is to be found in a letter of Rodenberg to Meyer: Ich habe etwas .... in Ihnen gefunden, namlich: .... wie der roman- tische Zug in Ihnen so ganz eigenartig in Ihrer voUkommen realistischen Behand- lung gestaltet Ich mochte Sie keinen Romantiker nennen, sondern einen Renaissanzdichter, genahrt an der Quelle der Alten, wiewohl alles in das modeme Leben hineinpaszt.^ Yet in spite of any subjective and romantic traits found, it must be granted that in general the words of Betty Paoli to Meyer are true: Das sind nicht die Anschauungen und Empfindungen eines einzelnen — es ist gleichsam die Stimme der Menschheit, die wir in Ihren Worten vemehmen. Das ist auch eines der Merkmale, an denen Sie erkenntlich sind: die Abwesenheit alles nur Personlichen bei so groszer, scharf ausgepragter Eigentiimlichkeit die Sie auch eine nur Ihnen angehorige Sprache finden liesz.'^ Realism. — In discussing the question of realism in Meyer's work, it is necessary to remember that the Novellen have historical sulsjects, and a consideration of the way in which the periods treated are portrayed, will sup- port t^*e statement that his work has realistic features. With the exception of the niodern phraseology — for which older forms could hardly be substituted and the novels remain intelligible — the matter of the Novellen is a perfect I Plautus im Nonnenkloster, p. 238. ' Frank Norris, The Responsibilities 0} the Novelist, and Other Literary Essays (London, 1903), p. 18. 3 Quoted by Langmesser, op. cit., pp. 226, 227. 4 Ibid., p. 226. 64 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN mosaic of historical fact. The whole forms an exquisite picture and the bits and colors fit and blend so imperceptibly that the mind perceives it only as a whole, close scrutiny being demanded to detect the separate parts. It is the atmosphere pervading the story which is most appreciated rather than the correct and varied use of detail. But the illusion could not be so felt, were the details not so carefully wrought into the picture. When Das Amidet appeared, the critics ascribed to the matter of the story beauties which in reality belonged to the work of the artist.^ Among the variety of details are the descriptions of architectural features and of interiors colored by national characteristics, to be considered in connection with the other settings; the references to important events contemporary with the action of the story, the character, accomplishments, or death of celebrated people, the popularity of the works of certain authors, the completion of prominent buildings, the names of bridges and streets, the descriptions of wedding and funeral customs, and the attitude of the people. Civic and national conditions are introduced. Niirnberg, we are told, is a " kunstf ertige Stadt" and Leipzig is said to be "aufbliihend." Hans speaks of the progress of the arts and sciences among the "heathen," and by contrast the ignorance of them in Germany is suggested; Herr Burkhard has seen no sculpture. The court of the Estes is "pracht- liebend." The conduct of the Italian tyrants is easily imagined from the account of the prisoners in the dungeons whose sighs are wafted upward to the merrymakers on the balcony above. The religious dissensions become concrete through Poggio's picture of Pope John's behavior during the session of the Council of Constance, and through the conspirators' discussion of the great German heretic, Fra Martino.^ We also note Hans' references to the brotherhood of the Beghards which prospered in the Low Countries in the twelfth century: "Mit keiner beleidigenden Rede oder langweiligen Beghardenpredigt verdarb er seine Sache."^ Herr Burkhard says: "An jenen Klisten wimmelt es, wie verlautet, von Ketzem jedes Irrtums, besonders von hartnackigen Manichaern."^ Even a sense of the comparative position of America is gained from Pescara's reference to Cuba and Mexico, s and we learn Coligny's plans to establish an American colony. Fashions in dress, in speech, and in pets form part of the picture. Becket's long pointed shoes are mentioned several times, the men wear their ladies' colors, Morone's chain is a Lionardo. The favorite meta- I Frey, op. cit., p. 267. ■♦ Ihid., p. 178. » Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 19. s Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 148. 3 Der Heilige, p. 103. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION 65 phor of the seventeenth^ century is said to be the "zuckender Blitz."' Dante is disgusted with Can Grande's fool, Pescara's and Bourbon's dogs are ''Windespiele," which were then "Modesache." Even the language is realistic to a certain extent, inasmuch as there is interspersion of phrases from the French, Italian, or Latin, and use of historical speeches such as Becket's protest against accepting the primacy and the king's speech which gives authority to the murderers to depart on their errand.' Quota- tions from the Koran and Hans' Saracen greeting to Becket are realistic bits. The oaths employed are characteristic of the time. But they are used moderately as can be seen from a comparison of those found in Der Heilige with Henry's habitual ejaculation, "By God's eyes!" In the Renaissance Novellen we find classical allusions. But all of this material is kept in the background and not allowed to intrude on the interest in the characters. 3 The historical conflicts represented, as, for example, that between the king and the clergy in England, are made so vivid that the reader has a lively interest in them as dynamic forces. The themes treated are vital and there is an awakened sense of the universality and recurrence of experi- ence in different times and among different peoples. The working of natural laws is discovered in their effects and human nature is manifest in its most varied types. The peasant and the courtier are portrayed with equal insight. Motivation is to the author the important thing; the char- acters are always the result of their milieu. He leaves it for the reader to pronounce judgment on their acts. Truth and idealism are revealed in the treatment throughout. Although his work is realistic, Meyer also keeps it on a high level, giving his themes purity of form and ethical significance. Insofern er das Stoffliche zu groszem, reinem Stil gestaltet, ist seine Kunst Idealismus; insofern sie mit Entfemung alias Subjektiven nach klarer Sachlichkeit und Dinglichkeit strebt, Realismus.* Interpretation of history. — The love of history which Meyer inherited from his father, and his own later reading and employment in translating historical works had their effect in his interpretation of the periods in which the scenes of the Novellen are placed. He says of himself: Ich habe damals unendlich viel gelesen, mich leidenschaftlich, aber ohne Ziel und Methode in historische Studien vertieft, manche Chronik durchstobert und mich mit dem Geiste der verschiedenen Jahrhunderte aus den Quellen bekannt I Gustav Adoljs Page, p. 296. ' Der Heilige, pp. 133, 200. 3 Cf. remarks on Charles Reade's The Cloister and the Hearth, by Besant, The Art of Fiction, p. 23. 4 G. Heine, op. cit., p. 80. 66 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER's NOVELLEN gemacht. Auch davon ist mir etwas geblieben: der historische Boden und die maszig angewendete Lokalfarbe, die ich spater alien meinen Dichtungen habe geben konnen, ohne ein Buch nachzuschlagen.' It is precisely the "Geist der Jahrhunderte " which breathes forth from his pages, especially from the Renaissance Novellen. The Renaissance appears to have been an embodiment of Meyer's inmost feelings and aspira- tions. The varied expression of the personality, power, culture, love of beauty, and appreciation of the intrinsic worth of whatever claimed the attention of this age, appealed to Meyer and awakened a response in his own heart. His insight into character enabled him to sympathize with all the different types and minor gradations to be met with in an age of such individual expression. He has shown us the mental characteristics of his people. Meyer's dramatic sense and his historical sense were equally strong; we know that many of the Novellen themes were first put into dramatic form. So he has not shown us his characters merely as the product of the historical forces which were in operation but has likewise made their respec- tive fates the result of their characters. This gives his work unity. Actual historical events are used as naturally as fictitious ones. Some inaccuracies exist, but in every case the unity of the historical character is preserved. The majority of these instances are to be found in Angela Borgia,^ the work of his declining powers. On the other hand, legendary material may be used to render a known historical character more intelli- gible, as in the case of Becket. The combination of conflicting motives in the real man was strange and scarcely comprehensible; Meyer's version shows the influence of oriental birth and instincts. The author's demon- stration of the mutual influence between character and event, his uniting particular facts with universal and eternal truths, joined with his intensive knowledge of history, make his novels thrill with the Hfe of the period. We feel that these men and women were actually flesh and blood, had aspirations, happiness, misfortunes, and sorrows like ourselves. The genuineness of the author's representations is generally admitted. 1 Langmesser, op. cit., p. 23. 2 Some of these inaccuracies are: Giulio d'Este was blinded in 1506; Meyer lets Ludovico Sforza rule in Milan at the time, whereas he had already been in the power of the French six years; Ferrante did not die till after 34 years in prison; Giulio was freed after 53 years, and died two years later at the age of 83; Angela married Count Alessandro Pio of Sassuolo. Cf. B laser, op. cit., pp. 117, 118. On the other hand, Meyer made very careful preparation for writing Pescara, consulting Professor Rahn about the aspect of Milan and of Rome at the time, architectural features, costumes, etc. Cf. Langmesser, op. cit., p. 150. MODALITIES OF COMPOSITION 67 The court of Louis XIV is as truthfully pictured as the contest between church and state in England; the ruder times of Charles the Great as those of Poggio and the Borgias. His romantic instincts found ample material and liberty of treatment in the general character and the actual events of these times. The motif of the hero's death in the prime of his powers has been mentioned, but, with few exceptions, these catastrophes are actual occurrences, which possess an inherent interest and allowed a certain free- dom of treatment. The prevalent ideas of this age are reproduced: the emphasis laid upon personality and culture, a pagan and skeptical attitude, and superstitious consultation of astrologers and others who claimed to interpret signs and visions. The value of the personality is repeatedly referred to in Angela Borgia, sometimes with a prophetic insight on the part of the speaker, which is a further evidence of the dechne of Meyer's powers in this book. The Cardinal speaks of "einer Zeit des Zerfalles, wo die Personlichkeit alles ist."^ Victoria Colonna's " Selbstgef lihl und mehr noch der Stolz auf den Wert ihres Gatten"* seem to her to justify the acceptance of the offered crown. Morone is an example of double personality which was to be found in the Renaissance, as it has existed ever since, but which would have been impossible in t!ie Middle Ages. Poggio says the century "iiberquillt von groszen MogUchkeiten und weiten Aussichten ! Unser die Flille des Da- seins I"^ The consciousness of one's own power accompanies a compre- hension of the total greatness of the age in which one lives. The Floren- tines, to whom Poggio has told his "facetia inedita," begin to discuss "die Grosze des Jahrhunderts."'* Charles the Great is said to be "Der Iphalt und Hohe des Jahrhunderts ! Wer bewundert ihn genug?"5 Morone tells Pescara what he will gain by accepting his offer: "Du beutest alle Mog- Uchkeiten und Begiinstigungen des Jahrhunderts aus.'"^ But these men are also aware of the follies of their time. Giulio d'Este exclaims: "O Jahr- hundert unverschamter Wahrheit und griindHcher Liige'.''^ The group of Poggio's listeners is a " Freundeskreise, wo die leiseste Anspielung ver- standen und der keckste Scherz verziehen wird."^ The conspirators in Die Versuchung des Pescara " waren die Sohne eines Jahrhunderts, wo jede Art von Verrat und Wortbruch zu den alltaglichen Dingen gehorte."' Pes- cara calls the Italians "sittenlos."'° These people become careless of human I Angela Borgia, p. 75. ^ Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. iii. 'Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 57. 7 Angela Borgia, p. 69. 3 Plautus im Nonnenkloster, p. 88. * Plautus im Nonnenkloster, p. 218. 4 Ibid., p. 268. 9 Die Versuchung des Pescara, p. 32. s Die Richterin, p. 358. 'o Ihid., p. 17. 68 TECHNIQUE IN KONRAD FERDINAND MEYER'S NOVELLEN life and discuss the fate of those about them with unconcern. Lucretia Borgia says: "Schenkst du mir den Strozzi, Alfonso ?"' and Giulio pleads: "Nicht wahr, Bruder Du totest mir meinen alten Mirabili nicht ?"^ The national greatness of Venice is due in Grimani's opinion to the long- prevailing culture. 3 The Italians regard the Germans as barbarians. Poggio, the humanist, with his love of antique beauty, his culture, and his fatahstic theories, is an excellent type of this period. He is fitted to tell his story of deceit in the monastery at a time when the worth of this type of life was being considered. The wavering spiritual attitude of the people because of the introduc- tion of classical learning and ideas is evidenced in the account of Victoria Colonna's prayer in the pantheon: "Sie fiehte in den christlichen Himmel hinauf und nicht minder zu dem Olympier, der iiber ihr donnerte, zu alle dem, was da rettet und Macht hat, mit der wunderlichen und doch so natiirlichen Gottermischung der Uebergangszeiten."^ Poggio's prayer is similar: "Wer du seist," betete ich mit gehobenen Handen, "die Weisheit, wie die Einen sagen, die Barmherzigkeit, wie die Andem behaupten — gleichviel, die Weisheit uberhort das Gelobnis eines weltunerfahrenen Kindes und die Barm- herzigkeit fesselt keine Erwachsene an das torichte Versprechen einer Unniundigen. Lachelnd losest du das nichtige Geliibde. Deine Sache fiihre ich, Gottin. Sei mir gnadig."5 Pescara says: Ich bin wie du und wir alle ein Bewohner der Wirklichkeit, ein Kind der Helle, das mit der antiken Weisheit iiber das Ende hinaus nichts sieht als I