CHSBLES— «
tfALMERn
GIFT Of
Charles •". Marsh
to I'u Lartifeda
ORAL ENGLISH
OR
THE ART OF SPEAKING
BY
ANTOINETTE KNOWLES
INSTRUCTOR IN PUBLIC SPEAKING, HIGH SCHOOL
SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA
" There can be no greater imputation on the in-
telligence of any man, than that he should talk
from the cradle to the tomb and never talk well."
— G. J. HOLYOAKE.
* ■» * • •
' . ' • • • •
••>', tilt''
• •"' • •• • »
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
Copyright, 1916,
By D. C. Heath & Co.
116
I 1 ^ •
• . • . . ■•
Si
^ PREFACE
^ This book has been written to supply a need. The
cj vocational and civic importance of the ability to speak
<: has been recognized by teachers of English throughout
the country, but as yet the meaning of "Oral EngHsh" is
1 rather vaguely and variously understood. We are con-
's scious of our goal, but we lack method in our efforts to
i attain it. It is true that we no longer imagine that the
J art of speaking can be taught in a half-dozen lessons to
the commencement speaker or the interscholastic debater,
^ but we still lack that systematic basis of instruction which
"^ has already been furnished for the older subjects and which
■^ is necessary to a well-directed activity.
^ This text is the outgrowth of ten years of experiment
^ and research and in its present form is the result of many
^ careful revisions. It is hoped that it may prove to be
a useful guide in the oral work of the regular four years'
^ English course as well as in the work of the special course
in Public Speaking. Suggestions as to ways in which its
^ usefulness may be increased will be cordially accepted.
(j Certain features of the work are original; the chief of
{j these are the general {)!un of presentation, the handling
of the four forms of discourse, and the word-outline method
u. of oral i)reparati(jn described in Chapters VII and VIII.
^_ As to the remainder, the writer pleads guilty as docs
n Kipling in the following verse:
ni
258515
iv PREFACE
"When 'Omcr smote 'is bloomin' lyre
'E'd 'card men sing by land and sea;
And wol 'e thot 'e might require
'E went and took, the same as me."
For all that which has been contributed, either con-
sciously or unconsciously, the author is duly grateful, and
especially to those who have courteously permitted the use
of extracts from copyrighted material.
San Jose, California, June 26, igi6.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER PAGE
I. Our Purpose in Studying the Art of Speaking i
PART I — DELIVERY
II. Voice Training 8
III. Re.U)ING 22
IV. Declamation 42
PART II — COMPOSITION
V. A Speaker's Use of the Four Forms of Dis-
course 58
VT. The Speaker's Equipment 68
^ VII. How to Plan a Speech 79
VIII. Oral Preparation 88
IX. How to Plan a Story or Description .... 102
X. The Art of Phrasing no
PART III — ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION
XI. The Game of Debate 120
Xn. The Question 127
XIII. H(jw to Use a Liukaky 132
XIV. Analysis of the Question 144
XV. Proof and its Tests i.=;5
XVI. The Hkikf 166
XVII. Development of a Speech from a Brief . . . iSi
X\III. Tm. Handling of Refutation ig2
V
vi CONTENTS
XIX. Teamwork 197
XX. Attitude 204
XXI. Introductions and Conclusions 215
XXII. The Persuasive Speech 226
PART IV — SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
XXIII. The Oration 245
XXIV. Speeches of a Presiding Officer 264
XXV. Speeches for Social Occasions 282
APPENDIXES
I. Specimen Outline for a Two-Minute Speech .... 291
II. Subjects for Argumentative and Expository Speeches 293
III. Subjects for Narrative and Descriptive Speeches . . 309
IV. Specimen Introduction to a Debate 317
V. (a) Clash of Opinion and Brief on " Student Gov-
ernment " 319
(b) Brief Arranged for Two or Three Speakers . . 324
VI. List of Debatable Questions with References . . . 326
VII. Subjects for Persuasive Speeches S33
VIII. List of Eulogies for Study 33.5
IX. List of Birthdays for Anniversary Celebrations . . 338
X. List of Addresses Commemorative of Historical
Events 340
XI. Oration Subjects 342
Bibliography 344
Index 355
ORAL ENGLISH
CHAPTER I
OUR PURPOSE IN STUDYING THE ART OF SPEAKING
Introduction. — A life without a purpose does not count
for much. The sooner we decide on our aim in Hfe the
more hkely are we to win success. What is true of one's
Hfe is true also of any particular work that one may
undertake. If our goal is in sight, if we know just what
it is we are working for, our energies are aroused and,
almost without knowing it, we do harder work and so get
better results. Let us, at the start, then, ask and answer
this question: " Why should we study the art of speak-
ing? " Perhaps some one will say, "I do not need to
learn to speak well for I do not expect to become a lawyer,
a preacher, or a statesman." I hope, however, that
when you have fmished reading this chapter you will
agree that everyone, rich or poor, brilHant or stupid,
boy or girl, should study the art of speaking.
Earning a Living. — In the first place, it will help you
to earn a living, and most of those for whom this book
is written will have to do that very thing. It may be
that you have decided to take an engineering course.
You have thought that an engineer does not need to know
how to talk; that he needs merely to know how to i)lan
and how to work. But the head of the University of
2 ORAL ENGLISH
Pittsburgh, when he asked a body of engineers what they
considered the most important part of a college course,
received a reply about as follows: " You cannot empha-
size too strongly the advantages that come to men from
the ability to think on their feet, to express a well-thought-
out proposition extempore, to adapt themselves and their
conversation instantaneously to changing conditions as
they arise." ^ The young man who wishes to be a suc-
cessful engineer should study mathematics, it is true, but
he should study also that art which will enable him to
enlist the cooperation of capitalists, whose funds will
be necessary to the promotion of his enterprises. Of
two engineers, one may have the better plan for the
building of a bridge; but, if he is unable to present its
merits clearly before the city council, the other may
secure the contract.
The boy or girl who intends to enter the business
world has even greater need for skill in the expression of
thought. The Director of High Schools in Pittsburgh
addressed a circular letter to the business firms of
the city, asking them to state what is most necessary in
order to fit boys for success in business. Ninety-nine
per cent laid stress on the advantage of being able to
write and speak the English tongue accurately and for-
cibly. The general manager of an international business
house which employs thousands of salesmen said, " I
never can get enough men for the more important positions
of the firm because there are so very few men who can
present their own arguments clearly and overcome the
1 This testimony, as well as that which follows from business men,
has been adapted from an article written by Allan Davis and published
in Tkc Speaker, No. 21.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 3
arguments of the other side without giving offence. I
have three positions paying $5000 per year and I am
unable to get men of the personality to fill them." No
matter what you have for sale, be it ribbons or real estate,
your success will depend somewhat upon the way in which
you present its worth.
Do not make the mistake of thinking that you will
learn to talk after you have made your start in business.
The fact that you are unable to speak for yourself may
destroy your chance to make the start. The employer
of to-day, whether he be a banker or a member of a school
board, is not satisfied with a written application. He
desires a personal interview, and that candidate is most
successful who, other things being equal, is best able to
present his case. If, then, we wish to belong to that class
which is wanted, if we wish to keep out of the ranks of
the unemployed, we must not only be capable but we must
also know how to make our capabilities recognized.
Self-mastery. — While the ability to earn a livelihood
is of primary importance and should be given first con-
sideration in planning our education, there is scarcely a
human being who does not wish to be something more
than a mere healthy animal. We desire the full develop-
ment of our powers. We covet that self-mastery which
will place us at case in all the circumstances of our social
life. Self-command and the use of well-chosen words
are marks of culture which may be exhibited in conversa-
tion as well as before an audience. This is well illustrated
by the story of a poor French youth who once went in
mean attire to call upon one of Napoleon's statesmen.
He was received with coldness, but he showed so much
intelligence in conversation that the statesman accom-
4 ORAL ENGLISH
panied him to the door, saying, " My young friend, we
receive an unknown person according to his dress; we
take leave of him according to his merits."
When we first attempt to speak before our classmates,
we usually discover that we are not masters of ourselves.
Our bodies are not our faithful servants. Our knees
tremble, our eyes fear to meet those of our listeners, and
our hands seem too large for the pockets in which we seek
to hide them. Even our minds are rebelhous and refuse
to act freely.
But, if we continue to practice, we shall see, both in
ourselves and in others, fear giving place to confidence
and awkwardness to ease. It may even be that a few
who read this chapter to-day will become the Wendell
Phillipses and the Henry Ward Beechers of tomorrow.
Through a mastery of self they may gain the power to
arouse multitudes to right action and to convert howls
and hisses into applause and support. Such power can
come only as a result of special gifts and dihgent study.
The debater who wins a few victories over a rival school
has made only a beginning. The study of the art of
public speech, like that of painting and music, may well
be made the work of a hfetime.
Citizenship. — Although many of us have neither the
abihty nor the desire to become orators, we can all develop
our powers so as to make of ourselves valuable citizens;
and it is in this aim rather than in the winning of personal
success that we shall find our highest motive for effort.
Each one should wish to take an active and useful part in
the life of his community and state. In our democratic
nation, the one who can speak for himself and his fellows
in clear, concise Enghsh will have innumerable oppor-
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 5
tunities for service. Much of the work of the world is
now done through organizations. If we desire to promote
the interests of a certain class or group of people, we
form a labor union, a grange, a lodge, a woman's club, or
a medical association. If we wish to help humanity in
general, we organize a church, a Y. M. C. A., a Salvation
Army, an Associated Charities, or we call a mass meeting
to raise money for those who suffer from flood, famine, or
war. In order that our government may be of, hy, and
for the people, we form civic and political clubs and call
meetings to discuss the need of a better road, a larger
schoolhouse, or a new charter. Large bodies of men and
women must be moved to action. If those who are wise
and good do not help to form public opinion, the unwise
and the evil will do so in order to advance their own
selfish interests. The mere talker, it is true, will always be
held in contempt, but the man who can both act and
influence others to action will be justly counted a most
worthy citizen. Could an Abraham Lincoln or a Woodrow
Wilson have given so large a measure of service to his
country if he had failed to study the art of pubHc speech?
Every group of people, large or small, young or old,
must have its leaders. Each one who desires the largest
usefulness should so prepare himself that when the oppor-
tunity comes to cast his influence on the side of what is
wise and right he can do so with effectiveness. Oppor-
tunities will not be wanting even in the hfe of the school.
It is evident from the nature of the case that this influ-
ence can be exerted most advantageously in the public
assembly. The man who can think only when he writes
will be of little use in a crisis when important measures are
to be decided. It has been said that the pen is mightier
6 ORAL ENGLISH
than the sword, but it is not mightier than the tongue.
As Professor Charles Sears Baldwin of Yale University
says, " The greatest practical achievement of expression
is still, and always will be, a great message by a great
speaker."
Conclusion. — Why, then, should you study the art
of speaking? Why should you study it with earnestness
and perseverance, although you labor under great handi-
caps and are often discouraged? If you are poor, it will
help you to self-support; if you are well-to-do, it will
enable you to use your influence as well as your money
to some good purpose. If you are brilliant, it may gain
for you the privilege of molding public opinion at some
great crisis in your nation's history; if you are stupid in
the use of language, even the slight power which you will
acquire may be the means of giving you a chance to show
what you can do in other lines. If you are a boy, it will
help you to live a man's largest and richest life; if you
are a girl, you may be thankful that you live in an age
when it is no less womanly to speak in public than it
is to embroider or to cook, and that, with these larger
opportunities, come greater responsibilities and greater
usefulness.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Our Purpose
Introdh
idion.
I.
Value of a purpose.
II.
The question which we should ask.
Body.
I.
Help in earning a living.
A. The engineer.
B. The business man.
C. The one who seeks a position.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 7
II. Help in acquiring self-mastery.
A. Our desire for self-mastery as a social grace.
B. Our present condition.
C. Our future.
III. Good citizenship.
A. Opportunities open to a good speaker in a demo-
cratic nation.
B. The influence of a speaker as compared with that of
a writer.
Conclusion.
I. Value of a knowledge of the art of speaking to
A. The poor or the well-to-do.
B. The brilliant or the stupid.
C. The boy or the girl.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able in class to recite from
the topical outline.
PART I — DELIVERY
CHAPTER II
VOICE TRAINING
Introduction. — Part I of this text aims to teach the
student how to acquire a good dehvery. A speaker is
said to have a good dehvery when he is well poised be-
fore his audience and when he can use his vocal organs so
as to produce an audible and pleasing tone. Since ease
and power in the use of the voice and body cannot be
gained except by patient and diligent practice, it is well
for the student to learn at the outset the principles which
govern good delivery and to strive to apply them through-
out his course in the art of speaking.
It is a mistake to think that one's voice, like the color
of one's eyes, cannot be changed. A bad voice is, in the
great majority of cases, merely a bad habit. Everyone
has in his voice a musical instrument of great value. He
needs only to learn how to play upon it. He may over-
come the wrong habit of using his vocal instrument, as
other wrong habits are overcome, by learning how to
establish a correct habit.
A voice of power and charm is much to be desired.
There is a general impression that the voice is an index
to character. It is suspected that the boy with the
breathy or high-pitched voice is lacking in manly qualities.
It is thought that the girl with the harsh or nasal tone is
VOICE TRAINING 9
less feminine than her soft-voiced sister. Whether or not
this is always true, we must admit that it is particularly
disappointing to hear discordant tones issue from the lips
of a beautiful girl or woman. If we notice the tones
which we hear on the street-car, in the shops, and in the
homes, we find that, unfortunately, very few people have
formed the habit of using their voices correctly.
I. The Voice-Machine and the Organ
The human voice-machine has been compared to a
single reed-pipe of a church organ.^ This instrument
consists of three parts, a wind-chest, a reed, and a pipe,
or resonance chamber. The reed is an elastic plate in
which there is a narrow sHt. The air, which is pumped
into the wind-chest by bellows, tries to escape through
the narrow sHt, thus causing the edges of the elastic plate
to vibrate and produce sound. The tone so created is
set free in the pipe, where it resounds and grows louder
before it is permitted to reach the outer air.
The lungs may be compared to the wind-chest, the
vocal cords to the reed, or the edges of the elastic plate,
and the tone passage, composed of the cavities of the
throat, mouth, and nose, to the resounding chamber, or
pipe, of the organ.
Although these two instruments, the human voice and
the organ, are very much alike, there is one great differ-
ence. Our human reed-pipe has a marvelous power of
adjustment which is impossible in the organ. We can,
by a slight change in the shape of the resonance chambers,
change the quality of the tone so that it may express fear
or courage, sorrow or joy. It is because of this wonderful
• W. A. Aiken, The Voice, p. 6.
lo ORAL ENGLISH
power to respond to the thought and feeling of its owner,
that we may consider the human voice the greatest of
musical instruments.
II. Conditions Necessary to Good Tones
If we wish to secure tones which are musical and pleas-
ing, and at the same time strong and audible, we must
establish certain tone conditions.
Control of the Breath. — In the first place, we must
learn to control the breath, or, in other words, to manage
the wind-chest. The primary requisite for a good tone
is a sufficient supply of air. The power to use the lungs
to their full capacity depends very largely upon the main-
tenance of a correct bodily position. One simple direc-
tion, " Draw the chin in and up," will, if kept in mind,
enable the student to maintain a correct poise. If he
will follow this direction, he will notice that the head is
brought to an erect position, the chest is raised, the
shoulder blades are flattened, the hips are drawn back,
and the weight is thrown upon the balls of the feet. This
position should be maintained as the student walks to
and from his seat, and, in fact, on all occasions, if it is to
become natural to him as a speaker. In
order to retain it while reading, it is neces-
sary to hold the book or notes on a level
with the shoulders. If the speaker, when
standing, will place his feet as in the ac-
companying illustration, he will have not only a genteel
appearance but also a good balance. The line a-b should
not be longer than three inches.
Having taken the correct position, the speaker should
use his entire lung capacity at each inhalation. If one
VOICE TR.\INIXG ii
uses only the upper portion of the lungs, the chest and
even the shoulders will rise and fall with each breath; on
the other hand, when one breathes correctly, the chest
remains firm and high and the body expands and contracts
at and just above the waist line.
The student must next learn how to hold and use this
supply of air so that it will not escape too rapidly. After
the breath has been taken in, there should be a feeling of
tension about the whole torso, or central body. It may
be helpful to think of the body as an elastic balloon which
collapses very gradually. This sense of firmness, or elas-
ticity about the torso, is called by singers " support of
tone," " column of air," or " breath control." When
speaking or reading, the student should never allow the
chest to fall, but should exhaust the air from the lower
part of the lungs first, renewing the supply frequently.
The habit of speaking with a full chest results in a " chest
tone," as distinguished from a " breathy " voice.
The Open Tone Passage. — In the second place, we
must learn to open and relax the tone passage in such a
way that the tones produced by the passage of the air
over the vocal cords may have a chance to resound and
increase before they reach the outer air, as do the tones
in the pipe of an organ.
The resonance chamber of the mouth should be made
as large as possible. The teeth should be separated in
front about an inch, or the width of two fingers. The
back part of the mouth should be enlarged also; that is,
the muscles and membranes in the region next to the
throat should be drawn back. If the student will follow
these directions, he cannot fail to notice an increased
volume and richness of tone.
12 ORAL ENGLISH
Moreover, by keeping the mouth well open, he will be
able to avoid poor articulation, or " mumbling." This
common fault is due to inactivity of the lips. If, how-
ever, the jaws are held far apart in the production of the
vowel sounds, the lips are forced to discharge their duty
in the formation of the consonant sounds and good artic-
ulation is a result.
The throat must be kept open. A tense, closed throat
will cause a rasping or " throaty " voice. This not only
produces unpleasant sounds but also wearies the speaker
himself. It is the cause of what is usually called " minis-
ter's throat." A tight throat can easily be recognized by
a " click " which is most noticeable in words beginning
with a vowel. In order to open the throat and prevent
this " click," which is caused by the tension of the swal-
lowing muscles, vocal teachers give various instructions,
such as, " Make a tunnel of your body; feel as if about
to yawn; stretch the circular muscles of your throat."
The nasal passages, also, must act as resonators. We
must learn to secure nasal resonance and, at the same
time, to avoid nasal " twang." The former can be secured
by an attempt to " feel the tone through the whole face."
The latter, nasal " twang," is caused by drawing down
the soft palate and raising the back part of the tongue.
This position prevents mouth resonance. It can be cor-
rected by an attempt to keep down the back part of the
tongue.
Prolonging the Vowel Sounds. — In the third place,
we must not only learn to retain the breath and enlarge
the tone passages, but we must apply these tone conditions
to the vowels; that is, we must learn to prolong the
vowel sounds.
VOICE TRAINING 13
As the consonants have very little sound value, the
" carrying power " of the voice depends largely upon the
quaUty of the vowel sounds. The habit of cutting off
the vowel sounds is a common defect among untrained
speakers. Their voices lack " carrying power " because
they lack resonance. Even singers, who, in song, nat-
urally prolong the vowels, sometimes have poor speaking
voices for this very reason. They fail to maintain an
openness of the tone passage long enough to enable the
vowel sounds to be reinforced. Thus, in an attempt to
secure loudness, they strain the throat muscles and pro-
duce a harsh rather than a " singing " tone.
The habit of holding the vowel sounds will, on the
other hand, make the voice audible even when it is lacking
in strength. Whenever we halloo to some one at a dis-
tance, we unconsciously apply this principle. The farther
we wish to send our voices, the longer we hold the vowel.
Those who are accustomed to addressing large audiences
in the open air, speak with great slowness for this reason.
The best actors, who use this method, can make even their
whispered words heard in every part of the theater.
III. Skill as the Result of Continued Practice
Skill in the use of the vocal organs, like skill in boxing,
tumbHng, or piano playing, is a matter of slow growth
anrl cannot be acquired in a day.
Method of Practice. — Although it is necessary for the
student U> understand the vocal mechanism as described
in this chapter, it will not be wise for him, in trying to pro-
duce good tones, t<j center his thought primarily upon
the voice-machine and its workings. The effort to remem-
ber so many movements to which he is unaccustomed
14 ORAL ENGLISH
will in itself create a tension of the nerves that will
defeat his purpose. He should, rather, let his ear assist
him. He should train his ear to recognize the difference
between good tones and poor tones. When about to
produce a tone, he should fix his mind on the ideal tone,
and his vocal mechanism will, to some extent, adjust
itself to meet the mental demand. He should then listen
to his own tone and compare it with his ideal. When he
has discovered his fault, he should exaggerate it, noticing
the sensation in his vocal instrument. In this way, he
will recognize in his own body the cause of the incorrect
tone. He should then try again to imitate the good tone
and again notice his bodily sensations. By this method,
his ear will become more and more sensitive to tonal
quahties and his muscles will gradually become more and
more responsive to his will.
Need of Time and Perseverance. — It always requires
time and perseverance to substitute a good habit for a bad
one. It is not sufficient that we use our voices rightly dur-
ing the period set aside for practice in the art of speaking.
The pianist who practiced with the correct movement
for one hour of the day and then allowed himself to
use the wrong movement for three hours would be consid-
ered extremely foohsh. Every recitation, every bit of con-
versation, should be made an opportunity to cultivate good
vocal habits. The student who uses his vocal instrument
rightly on all occasions will be able, without special atten-
tion to the matter, to use it rightly on an important occa-
sion. The more frequently he makes the effort, the more
quickly will he be able to win success without effort.
All Defects can be Overcome. — Although some have
larger natural endowments than others in the matter of
VOICE TR.\IXIXG 15
voice, experience has proved that there is no defect which
cannot be overcome. Demosthenes, the greatest of
ancient orators, had a weak chest and an impediment in
his speech. According to the old story, he cured the for-
mer by reciting to the waves and running up hill, and
the latter, by speaking with pebbles in his mouth.
Henry Ward Beecher, who excelled all his contempo-
raries both in the pulpit and on the platform, suffered,
when a child, from enlarged tonsils and a small throat.
His aunt says that when he came to her house on an
errand, she was obhged to ask him to repeat his message
several times before she could understand him. For nine
years he gave constant attention to his voice. Of this
period, Mr. Beecher himself says, " There was a large
grove lying between the seminary and my father's house
and it was the habit of brother Charles and myself to
make the night and even the day hideous with our voices,
as we passed backward and forward through the wood,
exploding all the vowels from the bottom to the top of our
voices." Later, he was able " to bewitch his audierices
out of their weariness by a voice, not artificial, but made,
by assiduous training, to be his second nature."
These two famous examples show us that the human
voice is a musical instrument which will not only respond
to the skillful player, but which will grow stronger and
more flexible as a result of proper use and treatment.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (1)
that the human voice may be compared to the reed-pipe
of a church organ; (2) that if we wish to secure good tones,
we must learn to control the breath, keep the tone pas-
sage open, and prolon.i; ihe vowels; and (3) that skill in
the use of the vocal organs is a matter of slow growth.
1 6 ORAL ENGLISH
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Voice Training
Introduction.
I. Reason for beginning with the study of delivery.
II. A bad habit.
III. Desirability of a good voice.
Body.
I. The voice-machine and the organ.
A . The parts of a reed-pipe.
B. Their likeness to the parts of the voice-machine.
C. The main difference.
II. Conditions necessary to good tones.
A. Control of the breath.
1. Necessity of a large supply of air.
(a) Bodily position as related to air supply.
(h) Wrong and right way to breathe.
2. Right use of the air supply.
B. The open tone passage.
1. The open mouth.
(a) Its relation to articulation.
2. The open throat.
(a) Bad results of a closed throat.
(b) Symptoms.
(c) Cure.
3. Nasal resonance versus nasal "twang."
C. Prolonging the vowels.
1. Ill effects of cutting off the vowels.
2. Power to be gained by holding them.
III. Skill as the result of continued practice.
A. Method of practice.
1. Danger of centering the mind on the vocal
mechanism.
2. Method of training the ear.
B. Need of time and perseverance.
C. Possibility of overcoming all defects.
VOICE TIL^INING 17
III. C, I. Demosthenes.
2. Henr>' Ward Beecher.
3. Difference between the human voice and other
musical instruments.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read in the text as far as the topic, "The Open
Tone Passage" and be able to recite from the topical outHne.
N. B. — All vocal exercises may be taken either
in a sitting or standing position (head erect, chest
high, feet flat on the floor, and hands at waist).
Exercise II. — For Deep Breathing, (a) Inhale quickly through
the nose, expanding the middle of the body. Do not raise the shoul-
ders. At the same time, relax all parts of the tone passage (throat,
tongue, jaw, separating the teeth but not the lips).
(b) Exhale through the mouth, the middle of the body gradually
collapsing like a balloon. The chest should remain high.
Note. — If you find it difficuU to learn this method of breathing,
practice it frequently after going to bed or before rising, as you can do
it more easily when Ij^ng down.
Exercise III. — Read in the text as far as Division III, and be
able to recite from the topical outline.
Exercise IV. — For Open Mouth, (a) Repeat syllable fa four
times in one breath. Open the mouth as wide as possible.
(b) Inhale ^ fa — a — a — a
(f ) Inhale fa — 1 — e — i — e
(d) Inhale fii — o — u — 6b
In exercises b, c, and d, do not change the position of the jaw after
giving fii. If necessary, insert two fingers between the teeth to pre-
vent it. The variations in the vowel sounds are caused by changes
in the shape cf the tongue. Greater resonance is secured if the jaws
are held open.
(e) We, wick, wack, walk. Repeat three times in one breath,
opening the mouth as wide as possible.
Exercise V. - For Open Throat and Breath Retention. (</) 00 —
* far, fall, ind, ate, ice, 6nd, In, even, open, put, cool.
1 8 ORAL ENGLISH
oh — ah. Repeat as many times as breath will permit. The sound
"oo" has a tendency to open the throat.
(b) ah — ah — ah — ah — ah — ah. Before giving this exercise,
let the throat feol as if about to yawn. The first five syllables should
be short and rapidly given. The sixth should be sustained as long
as possible but should not be prolonged beyond the point of comfort.
Listen to the tone, trying each time to make it more resonant. If
there is a "click" at the beginning of each syllable, precede the
exercise with the "humming" sound m; then gradually make the ni
less prominent. The m sound has a tendency to draw the tone
forward and open the throat. If this device is not successful, place
the tongue forward as if to pronounce th at the beginning of the
exercise. Listen to your tones. When you secure a particularly
good one, notice the bodily sensation and try to reproduce it.
(c) Repeat Ex. (b) using the vowel sounds given in Ex. IV, b, c,
and d.
(d) Thou — and — thou — and. If the throat is closed, the
sound a is apt to be particularly flat and lacking in resonance. In
this exercise try to keep all parts of the mouth and throat in the
same position for a as for on. Prolong each as much as possible.
(e) Give each of the following words four times in one breath:
man, land, and, after, apple.
(/) Compose a sentence for each word in e. Try to get a resonant
quality for all words but particularly for those which contain the
sound a.
Exercise VI. — ■ For Nasal Twang, (a) Inhale through the nose
with the mouth open (soft palate is puUed down) ; exhale through the
mouth (soft palate is raised).
(b) ng — ah — ng — ah — ng — ah — ng — ah. There are but
two nasal sounds in the English language; viz., n and ng. In this
exercise, the soft palate and the back of the tongue should come
together as closely as possible in the pronunciation of ng and should
separate as far as possible for ah. If the latter direction is not ob-
served, ah will have a nasal quality. The purpose of these exercises
is to increase the agihty of the soft palate and reveal the cause of the
nasal twang.
Exercise VII. — Using the knowledge which you have gained in
this chapter, explain the following quotation: "The orator is Hke a
VOICE TRAINING 19
gun-barrel, which must be straight, must have a bore as large as the
bullet, and must have powder below the ball."
Exercise VIII. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able
to recite from the topical outline.
Exercise IX. — For Pitch, (a) Sing up the scale using any vowel
sound in Ex. I\'. Inhale again and sing down the scale. This
exercise will help to make the voice more flexible. Many voices
have an average pitch which is too high ; a very few have an average
pitch which is too low. The voice which is pitched too high is found
most frequently among women. Nerve strain or the effort to speak
loudly has a tendency to raise the pitch. B below middle C is an
average pitch which is pleasing for a female voice. The average
pitch for a male voice should be an octave lower.
(b) Try to find the average pitch which you habitually use;
strike middle C on the piano (male voices one octave lower) and with
that tone as your average pitch, repeat a short sentence. Experi-
ment with several tones above and below middle C in the same way.
If you find that your average pitch is either too high or too low, try
to correct it.
Exercise X. — Applicalinn of All Tone Conditions. The following
phrases and sentences contain thoughts which cannot be adequately
expressed except by a full, rich, resonant tone. Many of the vowels
are broad and for this reason easily lend themselves to conditions of
resonance. The student should practice before a mirror to be sure
that the teeth are an inch apart in front. If there is a tendency to
cut off the vowel sound, each phrase should be chanted on one tone
first; then the phrase may be repealed with the same length of tone
but with speaking inflections. Practice on each until you can apply
all tone conditions; viz., deep breathing with economy in exhalation
and sustained resonance in throat, mouth, and nasal passages.
Roll on, thou deep and dark 1)1 uc ocean, roll!
Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky!
Thou too, sail on, O ship of State!
Sail on, O Union, strong and great!
God of our fathers, known of old —
Lorfl of our far-flung battle line —
right on, thou brave true heart.
Milestones mark the march of lime.
20 ORAL ENGLISH
Exercise XI. — For Articulation. One should articulate with
nicety, but without affectation. In public speech, however, articu-
lation must be slightly exaggerated. If you speak distinctly,
you will be able to make yourself heard even if your voice is not
strong. In order to improve articulation, the phrases in Ex. X may
be repeated in a whisper.
Exercise XII. — Vowel A . The following phrases contain a fre-
quent repetition of the vowel a, which is given with a very flat,
unpleasant quality by those who have a tendency to a tight throat
or a nasal twang. Repeat, giving special attention to the vowel
sound a:
The happy man is the free man.
Dr. Talmage has drawn for you with a master hand.
I am glad that he held the balance of battle in his almighty hand.
Standing hand to hand and clasping hand.
Exercise XIII. — For Stammering. Place the tip of the tongue
back of the upper teeth. Take a deep inhalation, relaxing the whole
body. Know w^hat you want to say. Speak slowly, holding the
vowels.
Exercise XIV. — For Enlarging Conversational Tone. Professor
E. D. Shurter says that public speaking is simply sustained and
heightened conversation. There is a tendency, however, on the
part of young speakers, to drop all natural inflections when they
attempt to make their voices carry in a large room.
Repeat each of the following sentences: ^ first, as if to one person
near by, entering as much as possible into the spirit of the thought;
second, as if to one thousand people, trying to reach the man on the
back seat, and retaining the same intonations used in the first repeti-
tion.
I never listened to such beautiful music in all my life!
I stood by you through thick and thin, and now you turn around
and abuse me.
My advice is, gentlemen, to throw this whole thing up.
Let us make this the greatest organization in America. We can,
we will.
' Taken from Natural Drills in Expression, by Arthur Edward
Phillips.
VOICE TRAINING 21
I appeal to j-ou, sir, was it fair?
I can assure j-ou I appreciate your kindness.
Don't give up. You have any number of chances yet.
I entreat you, I beg of you to give me a fair hearing.
Note. — As has been previously stated, every conversation and
every recitation should be regarded as an opportunity to cultivate right
vocal habits. But, in addition, each student should set aside from five
to ten minutes a day for special exercises until the voice is well under
control and defects have been overcome. One should not hesitate to
practice because of cold or hoarseness. The athlete does not fail to
e.xercise his muscles because they are stiff or lame. In fact, the correct
use of the voice, including deep breathing and absence of strain, will
act as a curative agent.
Exercise XV. — Writien Review. Be able to write in class upon
any of the following subjects:
1. \'alue of Studjing the Art of Speaking.
2. Comparison of the Voice with the Organ.
3. Breath Control.
4. Vocal Resonance.
5. Training the Ear.
6. Necessity of Practice.
7. Possibility of Curing All Defects.
CHAPTER III
READING
Value of Learning to Read. — Let us look at the matter
first from the standpoint of one who would learn to speak.
There is no quicker or easier way to train the voice than
by practicing reading aloud. When we read, our minds are
more at liberty to give attention to correct tone produc-
tion than when we make an original speech, for both the
thought and the words are furnished to us by the author.
Many great orators have developed their voices in just
this way. Webster began very early to read aloud and
often delighted the neighbors with his ability. Rufus
Choate, during a large part of his life, read aloud daily
from some English author.
But aside from this consideration, the abihty to read
well is, in itself, of value to everyone. Those who enter
public Hfe make almost daily use of this power. The
clergyman must read the Bible; the lawyer must often
read long passages from previous court decisions; the
legislator must read certain clauses in the bill which he
wishes to discuss. Even the ordinary man or woman
finds frequent use for this accompHshment. He may be
called upon to act as secretary for an organization, and
we all know that the secretary who does not read the
minutes of a meeting so that he can be understood is a
nuisance. Again, one who is a good reader may furnish
an unlimited amount of pleasure to others in the home and
READING 23
in social circles. But perhaps of more immediate impor-
tance is the fact that the student who reads well derives
vastly more enjoyment from the study of literature than
one who has not this ability.
A Set of Rules Unnecessary. — We do not need to
study a set of rules in order to learn to read well; all that
we need is to learn to read as we talk. If we raise our
voices in reading because some one tells us to do so, we
are mere machines instead of human beings. The ma-
chine moves when some force is applied from without;
the human being moves because of Hfe within.
Dr. S. S. Curry defines the art of reading aloud as " the
art of turning cold, monotonous print into the living move-
ment of conversation." It is quite evident that we do
not need a rule to tell us when to raise or lower the voice
in conversation. We modulate our voices unconsciously
in accordance with our thoughts and feelings. We are
using daily in our conversation all the inflections and
qualities of tone which are necessary in our reading. If
we ask a question which demands " yes " or " no " for
an answer, we lise the rising inflection: for example,
*' Did you go to town? " If we ask a question which
demands some other kind of an answer, we use the falHng
inflection: for example, "Why did you go to town?"
The quality of tone which we use is affected by our feel-
ings. If we should hear voices in an adjoining room,
even though we could not see the faces or distinguish the
words, we should know, by the quality of the tone, whether
the speakers were gay or sad, friendly or angry.
One Rule Only. — Professor S. H. Clark of the Univer-
sity of Chicago gives but one rule to his students of read-
ing: "Get the thought; hold the thought; give the
24 ORAL ENGLISH
thought." When we examine this rule closely, we find
that it expresses exactly what one does in conversation.
Let us take an example of a conversation which would re-
quire deep thought. If a boy should try to explain a
problem in algebra to a friend, he would gci an under-
standing of the problem himself before he began to explain
it; he would hold that understanding in his mind while he
was explaining it; and he would desire to give that under-
standing to his friend. Let us take an example of a con-
versation which would require the use of the imagination.
If a boy wished to describe to his brother how Tom made
a home run, he would be obhged first to get a mind picture
of Tom making a home run by going to the game; he
would then hold the picture in his mind while describing
it; and he would desire to give the same mental picture
to his brother. Again, let us take an example of a bit
of conversation which would express feeling. If a girl
should say to her mother, " I think that Mary is the
nicest girl in our class," she must have had a feeling of
admiration before she spoke; she would hold the feeling
while she spoke; and she would desire to give that feeling
of admiration to her mother.
We see, then, that a good reader is merely an inter-
preter', or a " go-between," revealing to his hearers the
thought or emotion of the author. The reason that we
are not all good readers is that we see only words on the
page and do not follow Professor Clark's rule.
I. How TO Get the Thought
Necessity of Study. — In order to get the thought, we
must study the selection which we expect to read aloud.
Even an experienced reader cannot render a selection
READING 2
■":)
perfectly at sight. The best actors spend many hours in
studying the meaning and in trying to get the spirit of
the lines which they recite.
General Study. — Our study should be, at first, of a
general nature. We should seek to get the main thought
of the whole selection. Before we can do this, it will be
necessary to look up all doubtful words in the dictionary
and to search for the meaning of historical allusions. We
should next try to get the atmosphere or pervading spirit
of the whole. Some knowledge of the life of the author
will often assist us in this matter, as will also the circum-
stances under which the thought was first written or
delivered. After having made these researches, we
should test the strength of our grasp upon the author's
thought by condensing the idea of each paragraph into
a sentence expressed in our own words. This test should
be used in the study of poetry as well as of prose. We
shall not always be able, however, to express each stanza
in a separate sentence, for it sometimes requires two or
more stanzas or parts of stanzas to express a single thought.
Phrasing. — We should follow this general study by a
special study of each sentence. In the first place, we
should give particular attention to phrasing. This is
a term applied to the division of a sentence into thought-
groups. Notice that- there are five thought-groups in
the following sentence, and that each group adds one
more detail to our picture of the situation: " When war
broke out/betwcen Spain and the United States, /it
was very necessary/to communicate quickly/ with the
leader of the insurgents."
If we were telling this story in conversation, we should
naturally pause between these thought-groups. Some
26 OR.\L ENGLISH
pauses, it is true, would be longer than others. The pause
after " United States " would probably be the longest,
while that after " quickly " would be the shortest. In
general, the greater the break in the thought, the longer
the pause.
Although pauses often occur at punctuation marks,
these signs cannot be depended upon as reliable guides
in the division of sentences into thought-groups, for
punctuation is used primarily to indicate grammatical
structure. For instance, in the sentence given above the
pauses occur at three points where there are no punc-
tuation marks. On the other hand, in the sentence,
" He is a bright, pretty, little child," a pause after pretty
would be quite unnatural, although it is followed by a
comma. The character of the thought, and that only,
should determine for us the position and length of the
pauses.
A reader who " minds his pauses " is said to have good
phrasing. The term is used also in music, where it means
the grouping of tones into musical phrases, or thoughts.
If one is to have good expression either in reading or in
music, he must first of all have good phrasing.
Emphasis. — In the second place, we must decide
what is more important and what is less important in
each sentence. If the mind really grasps the relative
importance of words or thought-groups, the voice will
express that importance by what is called emphasis.
Let us first consider the relative importance of words.
Read, for example, the following simple conversations.
Notice that the same five words, " I saw your father to-
day," are found in the last line of each conversation, but
that in each case a diflerent word is emphasized.
READING 27
Conversation I
John: "Did you see my father to-day, Mary?"
Mary: "No, I did not, John."
Teacher: "I saw your father to-day, John."
Conversation II
John: "Did you talk with my father to-day, Mary?"
Mary: "No, but I saw your father to-day, John."
Conversation III
John: "Did you see my father to-day, Miss Blank?"
Teacher: "No, John, but I saw your father to-day, Mary."
Conversation IV
John: "Did you see my mother to-day, Miss Blank?"
Teacher: "No, but I saw your father to-day, John."
Conversation V
John: "Did you see my father yesterday, Mary?"
Mary: "No, but I saw your father to-day, John."
In reading these conversations, you have probably
found that, when you wished to emphasize a word, or
make it important, you raised the pitch of your voice on
that word. If the word had more than one syllable, the
rise in pitch occurred on the accented syllable. Should
you translate one of these conversations into German,
French, Spanish, or any other language which you are
studying, you would fmd the same to be true in a foreign
tongue; that is, although the word order might be
changed, the voice would stress the accented syllable of
the important word. Sometimes the emphasis is distrib-
uted over several words; as, for example, in llic sentence,
28 ORAL ENGLISH
" I have brought you a nice roasted chicken to-day." Since
the three italicized words are necessary to bring out the
important picture, the pitch is high on all of them. Again,
some words are important because they express a con-
trast: as, " It rained yesterday, but to-day it is bright.''^
Thought-groups. — We shall next consider the relative
importance of thought-groups. A less important or
subordinate thought-group is naturally pitched in a lower
key: for example, " During the vacation, which lasted
three weeks, I went to Chicago." If the thought-groups
are arranged in the form of a climax, each more impor-
tant than the preceding, the voice becomes higher on
each group: for example, "I would not sell it for ten
dollars, nor for fifty dollars, nor even for one hundred
dollars." The Greek word KXlfia^, from which our word
climax is derived, means " a ladder." This very aptly
suggests the climbing movement of the voice when we
read a climactic series of thought-groups.
Color. — In the third place, we should study each sen-
tence to discover the feeling that it is meant to express.
If we really experience a certain feeling, it will give life,
or color, to our tones. In real life, we do not describe
a sunrise in the same tone in which we describe a thunder-
storm; neither should we do so in reading. One author
has well said, " Words represent what the speaker puts
into them. If he utters bright dully, he contradicts truth;
if he pronounces loved coldly, he robs it of the human
warmth of itself; if he mumbles lovely, he dwarfs beauty." ^
Many readers who express the thought well fail to express
the feeling. Dr. S. S. Curry in reference to this fault has
humorously asked, " Why do men read the twenty- third
^ Mary Angela Keyes, Stories and Story-Telling, p. 60.
READING 29
Psalm as if it were a matter of grief that the Lord is their
Shepherd? "
The foregoing illustrations must have made it clear to
the student that a great deal is involved in the first part
of Professor Clark's rule, " Get the thought." It means
that we must not only grasp the thought in its entirety,
but that we must grasp it in its parts and must under-
stand the relation of each part to the other parts. Further-
more, the word thought, as applied in this rule, has a very
inclusive meaning; so that the rule might well read, " Get
the picture," or " Get the feeling."
II. How TO Hold the Thought
In order to hold the thought, we must take plenty of
time while we are reading. A student is apt to think that
the more rapidly he pronounces the words, the better he
shows his ability to read. But this is a mistaken attitude.
It makes no difference how well a student understands the
thought; if he fails to give the thought sufficient time to
express itself in his voice, his efforts, for the purposes of
oral rendition, are practically wasted. He should linger
over each group of words as he reads aloud, trying to
realize each impression intensely and living in the enjoy-
ment of one idea at a time. It has been said quaintly
but very truly, " When thou readest, look steadfastly
with the mind at the things which the words symbolize.
If there be question of mountains, let them loom before
thee; if of the ocean, let its billows roll before thy eyes.
This habit will give to thy voice pliancy and meaning."
It is, pcrhai)s. needless to say that the reader cannot
form this habit unless he forms first the haljit of reading
slowly. The reader should not only take plenty of time
30 ORAL ENGLISH
in the actual utterance of the words themselves, but he
should also allow sufficiently long pauses between thought-
groups. If he is intensely realizing each idea as he utters
it, it is only at the pausing places that he is able to look
ahead and grasp the next idea.
III. How TO Give the Thought
The student may feel that if he has studied and under-
stands the thought, he has made sufficient preparation
for reading. In order to give the thought to others, how-
ever, he must practice the selection aloud over and over
again. It frequently requires many repetitions of a
difficult sentence before one can express the idea as if it
were his own. One cannot grip the thought and feel the
emotion, and, at the same time, be struggling with diffi-
culties of tone, articulation, and pronunciation. He
must remember that the words are the words of others,
and that if he would make them the medium of expression,
he must first make them his own.
The best results will be obtained if the student will
continue to work on one sentence until he has overcome
all of these mechanical hindrances and is able to hold the
mind actively on the thought while he reads it. Anyone
who has learned to play a musical instrument will reaUze
the value of this advice. If one wishes to learn a musical
selection in the shortest possible time, he should master
it in sections, giving an especial amount of time to the
more difficult portions. To play the whole selection
through several times in a bungling and inaccurate way
is a waste of time.
Finally, the student who would give the thought must
cultivate the attitude of giving. He must learn to forget
READING 31
himself and to desire only that his hearers may receive
and enjoy the thought of the author. If he notices that
he has failed to express the thought clearly, he should stop
and try again. Only in this way can he become a real
interpreter.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
that in order to get the thought, we must study; (2) that
in order to hold the thought, we must take time while we
are reading; and (3) that in order to give the thought, we
must practice until we have overcome all of the mechanical
difficulties.
The following quotations show that one who has mas-
tered the art of reading is not without honor. The
selections may well be memorized.
"Like music, literature needs to be re-created. Without the
interpreting voice the printed page is as incomplete as the score with-
out the orchestra." — Isabel Goeghill Beecher.
"We are all poets when we read a poem well." — Carlyle.
"A poem is only half a poem until it is well read." — Tennyson.
"Of equal honor with him who writes a grand poem is he who
reads it grandly." — Longfellow.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Reading
Inlroduclion.
I. Value of learning to read.
A. A better method of training the voice than actual
speaking.
B. Value to the man in public life, to the ordinary man or
woman, and to the student.
J I. A set of rules unnecessary.
A. The machine and the human being.
B. Definition of the art of reading.
I. Supported by examples.
32 ORAL ENGLISH
C. One rule only.
1. Examples of thought, imagination, and feeling.
2. Difference between good and poor readers.
Body.
I. Method of getting the thought.
A. General study.
B. Special study.
1. Phrasing.
(a) Meaning of phrasing.
(b) Pauses.
(i) Variation in length.
(2) Relation to punctuation.
(c) Phrasing in music.
2. Emphasis — what it expresses.
(a) Relative importance of words illustrated.
(i) The way to emphasize a word.
(2) Distribution of emphasis.
(3) Contrast.
(b) Relative importance of thought-groups.
(i) Subordinate groups.
(2) Climax.
3. Color.
(a) Definition.
(b) Examples of failure to express feeling.
II. Method of holding the thought.
A. A mistaken attitude
B. Necessity of taking time on the words.
C. Necessity of taking time between thought-groups.
III. Method of giving the thought.
A. Need of practice.
B. The best way.
C. Attitude.
Conclusion.
I. Summary.
II. Quotations.
Exercise I. — Read the text as far as the topic " Emphasis,"
and be able to recite from the topical outHne.
READING 33
Exercise II. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able to
recite from the topical outline.
Exercise III. — Prepare this exercise and all other exercises in
reading as follows:
1. Read the whole paragraph through silently.
2. Look up and copy in your notebooks the pronunciation and
meaning of any new words.
3. Look up the historical allusions.
4. Look up the life of the author.
5. Write one sentence, using your own words, which will give the
substance of each paragraph. Do not say, "Emerson says," but
write it as if you were expressing the idea yourself.
6. Divide the sentences into thought-groups, indicating the
pausing places by vertical lines.
7. Underline the words which you think require emphasis.
8. Distinguish between instances in which the emphasis should
be given to one word and those in which it is distributed over two or
more words.
9 Notice and check any examples of words which are empha-
sized because they express a contrast.
10. Decide what feelings should be expressed.
11. Take the correct standing position and read each sentence
aloud until you can read it as t"he author would have said it. Imagine
that you are reading these selections to a very large audience and try
to put into practice all of the instructions given you in Chapter II
on how to use the voice. You must practice your reading lessons aloud.
A student cannot learn to read aloud by reading silently, any more
than he can learn to play the piano by. sitting and looking at one.
12. Become so familiar with the text that you can look at your
audience while you read the last half dozen words of each sentence.
If the sentence is long, be able to look ofT for several words preceding
the longer pausing places. Do not merely glance from the book, but
really look into the eyes of your listeners.
13. As you read, try to hold the thought, the picture, or the
feeling.
14. Forget yourself and try to give to others the thought, the
picture, or the feeling.
34 ORAL ENGLISH
1. From Henry Grady's The New South:
" Some one has said, in derision, that the old men of the South, sit-
ting down amid their ruins, reminded him of "The Spanish hidalgos
sitting in the porches of the Alhambra and looking out to sea for the
return of the lost Armada." There is pathos, but no derision in this
picture to me. These men were our fathers. Their lives were stain-
less. Their hands were daintily cast, and the civilization they builded
in tender and engaging grace hath not been equalled."
2. From Ralph Waldo Emerson:
"There is a time in every man's experience when he arrives at the
conclusion that envy is ignorance; that imitation is suicide; that he
must take himself, for better or for worse, as his portion; that, though
the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come
to him but through his toil bestowed upon that plot of ground that is
given him to till. The power that resides in him is new in nature,
and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know
until he has tried. Therefore, my text is. Trust thyself. Is it not
an iron string to which vibrates every heart?"
Exercise IV. — i. From Henry Grady's The New South:
" Surely, God, who had stripped him of his prosperity, inspired him
in his adversity. As ruin was never before so overwhelming, never
was restoration swifter. The soldier stepped from the trenches into
the furrow; horses that had charged Federal guns marched before
the plough; and fields that ran red with human blood in April were
green with harvest in June."
2. From Webster's Address to the Jury at the White Murder Trial:
" Gentlemen, your whole concern in this case should be to do your
duty, and let consequences take care of themselves. Your verdict,
it is true, may endanger the prisoner's life, but then it is to save other
lives. If the prisoner's guilt has been shown and proved beyond all
reasonable doubt, you wiU convict him. If such reasonable doubt
of guilt still remains, you will acquit him. You are the judges of the
whole case. You owe a duty to the public as well as to the prisoner
at the bar. Doubtless we would all judge him in mercy. Toward
him as an individual the law inculcates no hostility; but toward him,
READING 35
if proven to be a murderer, the law, and the oaths you have taken,
and pubHc justice demand that you do your duty."
Exercise V. — The following selections contain examples of
thought-groups which are subordinate and of thought-groups which
are arranged in the order of climax. Prepare to read them accord-
ing to directions already given. In addition, place parentheses about
each subordinate thought-group. Read the sentence, at first omit-
ting the part in parentheses. If you have made no mistake the sen-
tence will "make sense" without the subordinate group. Be able
to point out in Selection 2 the examples of climax.
1. From Henry Grady's The New South:
'' Let me picture to you the footsore Confederate soldier, as, button-
ing up in his faded gray jacket the parole which was to bear testimony
to his children of his fidelity and faith, he turned his face southward
from Appomattox in April, 1865! Think of him as ragged, half-
starved, heavy-hearted, enfeebled by want and wounds; having
fought to exhaustion, he surrenders his gun, wrings the hand of his
comrade in silence, and lifting his tear-stained and pallid face for the
last time to the graves that dot the old Virginia hills, pulls his gray
cap over his brow, and begins the slow and painful journey. What
does he find? — let me ask you who went to your homes eager to find,
in the welcome you had justly earned, full payment for four years'
sacrifice — what does he find when, having followed the battle-stained
cross against overwhelming odds, dreading death not half so much as
surrender, he reached the home he left so prosperous and beautiful?"
2. From Webster's Address lo the Jury at the White Murder Trial:
"The secret which the murderer possesses soon comes to possess
him, and, like the evil spirits of which we read, it overcomes him and
leads him whithersoever it will. He feels it beating at his heart,
rising to his throat, and demanding disclosure. He thinks the whole
world sees it in his face, reads it in his eyes, and almost hears its
workings in the very silence of his thoughts. It has become his
master. It betrays his discretion, it breaks down his courage, it
conquers his prudence. When suspicions from without begin to
embarrass him, and the net of circumstance to entangle him, the
fatal secret struggles with still greater violence lo burst forth. It
36 ORAL ENGLISH
must be confessed; it will be confessed; there is no refuge from con-
fession but suicide and suicide is confession."
Exercise VI. — The following selections are full of pictures. As
you practice reading them, try to hold the pictures in mind. The
selection from Robert Browning contains, according to the judgment
of Edwin Markham, one of the finest lines in the English language.
The thought includes about three lines. Which of the lines do you
like best?
1. From Graves:
"I have seen the gleam from the headlight of some giant engine
rushing onward through the darkness, heedless of opposition, fear-
less of danger; and I thought it was grand. I have seen the light
come over the eastern hills in glory, driving the lazy darkness
before it, till leaf and tree and blade of grass glittered in the myriad
diamonds of the morning ray; and I thought that was grand. I have
seen the light that leaped at midnight athwart the storm-swept sky,
shivering over chaotic clouds, 'mid howling winds, till cloud and dark-
ness and shadow-haunted earth flashed into midday splendor; and I
knew that was grand. But the grandest thing, next to the radiance
that flows from the Almighty Throne, is the light of a noble and
beautiful life, wrapping itself in benediction round the destinies of
men, and finding its home in the bosom of the everlasting God."
2. From Robert Browning's Home Thoughts from Abroad:
" Oh, to be in England now that April's there.
And whoever wakes in England sees, some morning unaware
That the lowest boughs and the brushwood sheaf
Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf.
While the chaffinch sings on the orchard bough
In England — now!
And after April, when May follows
And the white-throat builds, and all the swallows!
Hark, where my blossomed pear-tree in the hedge
Leans to the field and scatters on the clover
Blossoms and dewdrops — at the bent spray's edge —
That's the wise thrush: he sings each song twice over
Lest you should think he never could recapture
READING 37
The first fine careless rapture!
And, tho' the fields look rough wdth hoary dew,
All will be gay when noontide wakes anew
The buttercups, the Httle children's dower
— Far brighter than this gaudy melon-flower!"
Exercise VII. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on any
of the following topics:
1. Value of Learning to Read.
2. Relation between Reading and Conversation.
3. General Study of a Reading Lesson.
4. Phrasing.
5. Emphasis.
6. Color.
7. How to Hold the Thought.
8. How to Give the Thought.
38 ORAL ENGLISH
READING LESSON I
The following address was delivered on the field of Gettysburg.
To speak to a throng of people out in the open air is the most
severe test to which the voice of an orator can be subjected. In the
reading of this speech, the student should try to picture the situa-
tion clearly and should attempt to make his voice reach the out-
skirts of the crowd. Remember that this will be accomplished not
by straining the throat but by a prolonged and resonant tone.
Lincoln's Gettysburg Address
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that
nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.
We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to
dedicate a portion of it as the final resting-place of those who here
gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting
and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate — we cannot consecrate
— we cannot hallow — this ground. The brave men, living and dead,
who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to
add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what
we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us,
the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which
they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is father
for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us —
that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that
cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion;
that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in
vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom;
and that the government of the people, by the people, for the people,
shall not perish from the earth.
READING 39
READING LESSON II
Poetry differs from prose in that il is the expression of thought
in rhythmical form. As the true poet does not sacrifice thought to
form, so the true reader of poetry should not sacrifice the expression
of thought to the beat of the measure. Most young readers, and some
old ones, think that they must pause at the end of each line of poetry
and that they must emphasize words at regular intervals. This
results in a "sing-song," monotonous rendition. It is possible to
feel oneself and to convey to others the rhythmic beauty of poetry
and yet retain a natural expression of the thought. To accomplish
this, however, one must give even more care than in prose to the
division of the words into thought groups, and must make an even
more earnest attempt to see the pictures and to realize the emotions.
The emotions as well as the thought in the following selection should
be carefully analyzed. Place in a separate sentence the thought of
each of the following groups of couplets: 1-2, 3-6, 7-8, 9-11, 12-15,
16-18, 19-21, 22-25, 26-27, 28-30.
Barbara Frietchie
By John Greenleaf Whittier
1. Up from the meadows rich with corn.
Clear in the cool September morn,
2. The clustered spires of Frederick stand
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland.
3. Round about them orchards sweep,
Apple and peach tree fruited deep,
4. Fair as the garden of tlic Lord
To the eyes of the famished rebel horde,
5. On that pleasant morn of the early fall
When Lee marched over the mountain wall,
40 . ORAL ENGLISH
6. Over the mountains winding down,
Horse and foot, into Frederick town.
7. Forty ilags with their silver stars,
Forty flags with their crimson bars,
8. Flapped in the morning winds; the sun
Of noon looked down, and saw not one.
g. Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then,
Bowed with her fourscore years and ten;
10. Bravest of all in Frederick town,
She took up the flag the men hauled down;
11. In her attic window the staff she set.
To show that one heart was loyal yet.
12. Up the street came the rebel tread,
Stonewall Jackson riding ahead.
13. Under his slouched hat left and right
He glanced; the old flag met his sight.
14. "Halt!" — the dust-brown ranks stood fast.
"Fire!" — out blazed the rifle-blast.
15. It shivered the window, pane and sash;
It rent the banner with seam and gash.
16. Quick, as it fell, from the broken staff
Dame Barbara snatched the sflken scarf.
17. She leaned far out on the window-sill.
And shook it forth with a royal will.
18. "Shoot, if you must, this old gray head.
But spare your country's flag," she said.
READING 41
ig. A shade of sadness, a blush of shame,
Over the face of the leader came;
20. The nobler nature within him stirred
To Ufe at that woman's deed and word:
21. "Who touches a hair of yon gray head
Dies like a dog! March on!" he said.
22. All day long through Frederick street
Sounded the tread of marching feet.
23. All day long that free flag tost
Over the heads of the rebel host.
24. Ever its torn folds rose and fell
On the loyal winds that loved it well;
25. And through the hill-gaps sunset light
Shone over it with a warm good-night.
26. Barbara Frictchie's work is o'er
And the Rebel rides on his raids no more.
27. Honor to her! and let a tear
Fall, for her sake, on Stonewall's bier.
28. Over Barbara Frietchie's grave.
Flag of Freedom and Union wave!
29. Peace and order and beauty draw
Round thy symbol of light and law;
30. And ever the stars above look down
On thy stars below in Frederick town!
CHAPTER IV
DECLAMATION
Introduction. — Declamation is memorized reading.
The practice of declamation is another step in the direc-
tion of actual public speaking. The student continues
his practice in the use of the voice and in the expression
of the thoughts of others; he also meets new difficulties
which are similar to those that confront a speaker. He
cannot look at a book or manuscript; he must, therefore,
learn to face his audience bravely. His hands are no
longer occupied with the holding of a book; so he must
learn to make them useful in other ways.
Since declamation is memorized reading, it is very nec-
essary that the student learn to read a selection perfectly
before he attempts to memorize it. If he does not do so,
he will memorize with wrong methods of expression
which it will be almost impossible to overcome.
In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to memorize
a selection in the best way; (2) how to be well-poised
before an audience; and (3) how to use the body as a
means of expression.
I. How TO Memorize
Wrong Method. — The method of repeating each sen-
tence until it goes by itself, which is the method used by
most students, is faulty in several respects. The student
who memorizes in this way needs frequent prompting;
decla:\iation 43
for, although he has learned each sentence separately, he
has failed to estabhsh connections between them. He
wastes time, also, in preparation, for his mind is apt to
wander while his tongue is repeating the words. Again,
he is very likely to acquire a ''sing-song" or mechanical
form of expression. This is due to the fact that he repeats
the words in a thoughtless way; whereas the secret of
good expression, as set forth in Chapter III, is to hold
the thought.
Any method of memorizing is defective which is not
based upon the laws that govern the action of the mind.
The three most important laws of memory are as follows:
1. The law of association. — We can memorize ideas
more easily if we associate them, or link them together.
2. The law of intensity. — We can memorize ideas more
quickly if our minds are intense, or concentrated.
3. The law of repetition. — We can memorize ideas
more perfectly if we repeat them often.
It is evident that the faulty method described in the
preceding paragraph used only one of these laws, that of
repetition.
The Best Method Described. — The student should
divide the thought to be memorized into a few large
groups, not more than three, if possible. He should then
choose a word which will suggest the idea of each group,
placing these words below each other at the left side of a
sheet of paper, and drawing a brace after each. He
should next subdivide these large groups of ideas into
smaller groups, not more than three in each, and place
after each brace a word that will represent the thought
of the group. It may be that this second series of words
will represent the paragraph thoughts. If so, he should
44 ORAL ENGLISH
continue this method of subdividing and choosing key
words until he has chosen a word for each sentence; or,
if the sentence is long, a word for each clause. If possible,
the student should choose a word that is actually found
in the selection to be learned. Again, it has been found
that verbs and adjectives are usually more suggestive than
nouns. Not more than three words should follow a
brace, because of the difficulty of remembering more
than three words in a list. Moreover, the outhne must be
so arranged that the ideas suggested by the words which
follow a brace really elaborate on the idea suggested by
the word which precedes the brace. This last point is
of the greatest importance. The scattering of words and
braces at random on a piece of paper will be of no assist-
ance whatever in the process of memorizing. The posi-
tion of the words on the paper must represent the relation
that exists between the ideas in the selection, and this
relation must exist also in the mind of the student. A
word outhne representing the thought of the Gettysburg
Address may be found in Exercise II, at the close of this
chapter. The student should compare it at this point
with the text of the speech itself.
After the outline has been completed, the student should
repeat the entire selection with the help of the suggestive
words. If he cannot express the thought in the words of
the text, he should express it in his own words; that is, he
should force himself to get the thought before he gets the
exact words. He should then turn to the words of the
author and look up those sentences or phrases which he
has failed to remember. This process should be repeated
until he is able to recite the selection correctly with the
help of the suggestive words. It should be continued
DECLAMATION 45
further until he is able to give the text perfectly without
the use of the outline. Finally, he should write the word
outline from memory.
Threefold Value of the Method. — That the method
is of value has been attested by the experience of hundreds
of high-school students who have used it in the past ten
years. Of all these, not one has needed the services
of a prompter. This fact is evidence that the method, if
followed conscientiously, will make one proof against stage
fright. This terror of young speakers is a calamity that
results from the attempt to memorize words without
having memorized the arrangement of the thought. The
tongue goes on while the mind is elsewhere. Suddenly,
the tongue makes a slip and the mind realizes that it is
" lost." The method described prevents this condition
for two reasons: (i) the student, in making an outline,
has used the law of association, or has Hnked the ideas
together in groups; (2) during the preparation, he has
expressed the thought in his own words whenever the
words of the author failed to come to his mind. Conse-
quently, if the exact words escape him on the platform,
he is able to supply his own words and to continue the
expression of the thought.
Again, the method has proved to be a saver of time.
This follows from the fact that it requires concentration
of mind. When we learn a selection sentence by sentence,
our minds frequently wander; but, when we talk from an
outline, we fix our minds more firmly on the thought
and are more likely to exercise our imaginations in vividly
realizing the pictures. In so doing, we use the law of
intensity.
This habit of keeping the mind upon the thought at
46 ORAL ENGLISH
the same time that the words are being learned leads to
the third and most important merit of the method. It
enables the student to retain the conversational style of
delivery which he used when he learned to read the selec-
tion. Students frequently lose this by the old method,
and acquire a monotonous, " sing-song " tone.
II. Poise
Poise may be defined as dignity, ease, and grace of
bearing. It is a matter of considerable importance to
both declaimer and speaker. We shall discuss it under
three heads: (i) at the beginning of the speech, (2) during
the speech, and (3) at the close of the speech.
At the Beginning. — As the speaker leaves his chair
and takes his place on the platform, he should maintain
an attitude which is at once dignified and courteous. An
erect and sprightly carriage will create a favorable first
impression on the audience and will also help to give the
speaker confidence in himself. At the same time, his
bearing should indicate a courteous acknowledgment of
the fact that his auditors are conferring a favor upon him
by their presence and attention.
The speaker should not be in haste to open his speech,
but should first be sure that he has the attention of every
one in his audience. A young speaker, because of lack of
composure, is very apt to begin his speech as soon as he
reaches his place on the platform. The audience has
yielded its attention to a previous number on the program
and each member wishes to applaud, to change his posi-
tion, or to make a remark to his neighbor. As a result,
the audience fails to hear the first words or sentences of
the speaker and the effect of the whole is marred.
decla:\iation 47
During the Speech. — Although the speaker, through-
out the speech, should keep his whole body under perfect
control, this does not mean that he should remain rigidly
in the same position. He should turn his body from side
to side, so that he may address his remarks first to one
part of the audience and then to another. Occasionally,
but not too frequently, he should step forward or back
or to another portion of the platform. These movements
seem most natural when they occur at a transition or
break in the thought.
Perhaps the most important members of a speaker's
body are his hands. The hands of the accomplished
speaker assist his voice in emphasizing and illustrating
his thought, while those of the untrained speaker merely
serve to betray the nervous tension under which he labors.
The inexperienced speaker tries to put his hands every-
where but in the right place. He has a strong desire to
lock them behind his back, a position which has a tendency
to throw the head forward, narrow the chest, and make
the shoulders appear less square. If this is forbidden, he
will try to put his hands in his pockets. If he has some-
thing of the swagger attitude, he puts them in his trousers
pockets; otherwise, he prefers his coat pockets. A girl
will try to hide her hands in her sweater or coat pockets,
or, lacking these, she will play with a button or a chain.
It may be laid down as a safe rule that a speaker should
do nothing with his hands that will serve to call attention
to them. While it is not bad form to rest the hand quietly
on a desk or table, if one is conveniently near, or to
hold a card or paper in the hand, if notes are necessary,
many situations will occur in real life when the speaker
cannot be sui)j)licd. with these aids to composure, and
48 ORAL ENGLISH
he must, therefore, in his practice work, prepare for such
occasions.
The student will be most successful in attaining an ap-
pearance of ease if he will endeavor, while holding the chest
firm and high, to relax every other portion of his body.
The hands will then hang easily by the sides except when
they are being used to emphasize or illustrate the thought.
Let us remember that stiffness of any kind, whether of
the whole body or of the hands, is caused mainly by
self-consciousness. The speaker may rid himself of this
handicap by adopting the attitude of one who desires
to communicate ideas. He should assume earnestness if
he does not feel it. In this way, many of the difficulties
will disappear.
At the Close. — The speaker, in closing, should incline
his head slightly toward his audience. This is a silent
but necessary recognition of the courtesy of his hearers.
The words "I thank you" are necessary only when one
has asked the privilege of addressing an audience for the
purpose of making an announcement, or for other reasons.
III. Gesture
Its Larger Meaning. — The term gesture should apply
not only to motions of the hand, but also to all those bodily
movements which assist in the expression of thought. If
one is really in earnest, or if he has caught the spirit of
the author, that fact will speak in the eye and cheek and
will energize the whole body. It was said of Wendell
Phillips, one of the finest of extemporaneous speakers,
"His pure and eloquent blood spoke in his cheek, and so
distinctly wrought that one might almost say his body
thought."
DECLAMATION 49
The Impulse to Gesture. — All true gesture is the result
of impulse. One should never practice gestures for a
given declamation, for the results are likely to be stiff
and mechanical. It has been well said, "Earnestness is
the best schoolmaster of gesture." If one is really in
earnest, his gestures will be so inevitable that they will
scarcely be noticed by the audience. The speaker should
distinguish, however, between the impulse to express
thought and the mere excitement of the occasion. For
instance, young debaters sometimes argue with their
hands and their heads. Some speakers of large experience,
even, allow themselves to acquire a characteristic, habit-
ual, unmeaning gesture which detracts from rather than
adds to the force of the thought which they are presenting.
Dramatic Gesture. — Gestures in dramatic declama-
tions should be suggestive rather than imitative. Most
students, when they undertake dramatic representation,
overdo it. They try to imitate that which they should
leave to the imagination of the audience. As a result,
the listeners, instead of entering into the spirit of the scene
described, see only a young person wildly gesticulating
before them. A. E. Phillips gives the following excellent
rule: "Leave to the listener's imagination everything
which the speaker's imitation would fail to fully convey,
or would misconvey, or overconvey, or which in itself is
self-evident, and as a corollary to this — decrease imita-
tion and increase suggestion in proportion to the culture
of the listener."
Professor Hiram Corson of Cornell University goes even
farther in his condemnation of extravagant gesture.
He says: "Reading is not acting. It is the acting which
usually accomi)anies the reading or recitation of the pro-
50 ORAL ENGLISH
fessional elocutionist which cultivated people especially
dislike. When they wish to see acting, they prefer going
to the theater. When they listen to reading, they want
serious interpretative vocalization ; only that and nothing
more is necessary, unless it be a spontaneous and graceful
movement of the hands, occasionally, such as one makes
in animated conversation."
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
how to memorize a selection in the best way; (2) how to
be well poised before an audience; and (3) how to use
our bodies as a means of expression.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Declamation
Introduction.
I. Declamation, a step in the direction of public speaking.
11. Necessity of learning to read a selection first.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Method of memorizing.
A. Wrong method.
I . Three ways in which it is faulty ; not based upon
the laws of memory.
B. Best method described.
1. Making an outline.
2. Use of the outhne.
C. Threefold value of the method.
1. Stage fright.
2. Saving of time.
3. Enables one to retain conversational style of
delivery.
II. Poise — its meaning.
A. At the beginning of a speech.
1. Combination of dignity and courtesy.
2. Fault of beginning hastily.
DECLAMATION
51
II. B. During the speech.
1. Change of position.
2. Importance of the hands.
(a) Contrast between those of the trained and
those of the untrained speaker,
(i) Faults of the inexperienced speaker.
(h) A safe rule.
(c) The best cure.
3. Evil and cure of self-consciousness.
C. At the close.
III. Gesture.
A. Its larger meaning — Wendell Phillips.
B. The impulse to gesture.
1. Practice. versus earnestness.
2. Gestures caused by nervous excitement.
C. Dramatic gesture — suggestive.
1. Rule of A. E. Phillips.
2. Quotation from Professor Hiram Corson.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter as far as the topic "Poise," and
be able to recite from the topical outline.
Exercise II. — Memorize the Gettysburg Address according to
the method described in this chapter. Use the following outline,
substituting for any word another which may be more suggestive to
you:
Fathers — Now
Dedicate
Met'
Fitting
/ Struggled
L^'^^^'^i World
Advanced
Be dedicated *
Take
Gave
Remaining jj^^^^j^.^^ Birfh
Perish
I
Exercise III. — The class should be divided into four sections.
One of the following selections in Chapter III may be assigned to each
52 ORAL ENGLISH
section: Ex. Ill, 2; Ex. IV, 2; Ex. V, 2; Ex. VI, i. Make a word
outline of the selection assigned to you and memorize it.
Exercise IV. — The method of memorizing described in this chap-
ter may be applied, not only to the memorizing of a speech, but also
to stories and poems, or to any choice bit of literature which one may
wish to commit. The material in a story may be grouped under such
headings as Setting, Incidents, and Conclusion. Compare the fol-
lowing outline with the poem, Barbara Frietchie (page 39), which is
really a story in rhyme.
, . r^ • / ^\ 1 Town (1-2)
Introduction, betting (i-oj < „ i- / ^\ •
{ Surroundings (3-6)
Initial Incident (7-8)
,- T • , f Act (9-11)
■n. , / , Leading incident < „ , ,
Body (7-21) <! I Response (12-15)
. T -J J Act (16-18)
Climactic Incident -, „ , .
\_ Response (19-21)
^ , . , .J Result (22-25) ( r-1. f c \
Conclusion (22-30) < ,, ^ ,. /, J Change (26-27)
\ Reflections (26-30) I p^^^^^^^3_^^^
This outline serves to reveal the general plan of the poem; it is
necessary, however, in poetry, to suggest the details by a somewhat
different method from that used in prose. The rhyme and meter of
a poem make it necessary to memorize the exact words. The thought
is often so transposed that, if the suggestive words were placed in their
logical relation, as in the outline for the Gettysburg speech, they
would be of very little assistance in suggesting the exact form of the
thought. It has been found helpful, therefore, to choose one word
(a verb if possible) from each line and place it on the page so that it
represents to the eye its position in the original line of the poem. The
method described above, of reciting the thoughts from the suggestive
words, may then be used. The following is an example of the way in
which the first six couplets of Barbara Frietchie may be outlined.
DECLAMATION
meadows
Town
September
(1-2) "
spires
Green-wailed
Introduction.
Setting
(i-6)
Surroundings •
Fair
sweep
fruited
famished
(3-6)
pleasant
marched
winding
Horse
53
Complete the outline on Barbara Friekhic and begin the work of
memorizing the poem.
Exercise V. — Complete the memorizing of Barbara Frietchie.
Exercise VI. — Read the remainder of the chapter and be able
to recite from the topical outline.
Exercise VII. — Review the story of Barbara Frietchie. Tell it
naturally, but let your body as well as your voice have a part in the
telling.
Exercise VIII. — Written Revinv. Be able to write in class on
any of the following topics:
Old Method of Memorizing.
Laws of Memory.
Description of the Best Method of Memorizing.
Threefold \'alue of the Best Method.
Poise.
Gesture.
I.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.
54 ORAL ENGLISH
READING LESSON III
Review the instructions for study in Exercise III, Chapter III
(page ss).
The speech which follows was deKvered by Charles Dickens at
a dinner given in connection with the Anniversary Festival of the
Hospital for Sick Children, Feb. 9, 1858.1
Ladies and Gentlemen: — It is one of my rules in life not to believe
a man who may happen to tell me that he feels no interest in children.
I hold myself bound to this principle by all kind consideration, be-
cause I know, as we all must, that any heart which could reaUy
toughen its affections and sympathies against those dear httle people
must be wanting in so many humanizing experiences of innocence
and tenderness as to be quite an unsafe monstrosity among men. I
suppose it may be taken for granted that we, who come together in
the name of children and for the sake of children, acknowledge that
we have an interest in them. Nevertheless, it is likely that even we
are not without our experience now and then of spoilt children. I do
not mean of our own spoilt children, because nobody's own children
ever were spoilt, but I mean the disagreeable children of our particu-
lar friends. We know what it is when these children won't go to bed;
we know how they prop their eyehds open with their forefingers when
they will sit up; how, when they become fractious, they say aloud
that they don't like us, and our nose is too long, and why don't we
go? And we are perfectly acquainted with those kicking bundles
which are carried off at last, protesting.
But, ladies and gentlemen, the spoilt children whom I have to
present to you after this dinner of to-day are not of this class. I have
glanced at these for the easier and lighter introduction of another, a
ver>' different, a far more numerous, and a far more serious class. The
spoilt children whom I must show you are the spoilt children of the
poor in this great city, the children who are, every year, forever and
ever irrevocably spoilt out of this breathing life of ours by tens of
thousands, but who may in vast numbers be preserved if you, assisting
and not contravening the ways of Providence, will help to save them.
1 Adapted from The Speech fur Special Occasions, by Knapp and
French, pp. 21-31.
READING LESSON III 55
Some years ago, being in Scotland, I went wath one of the most
humane members of the humane medical profession on a morning
tour among some of the worst-lodged inhabitants of the old town of
Edinburgh. Our way lay from one to another of the most wretched
dwellings reeking with horrible odors, shut from the sky, shut out
from the air, mere pits and dens. In a room in one of these places,
where there was an empty porridge pot on the cold hearth, with a
ragged woman and some ragged children crouching on the bare ground
near it, — there lay, in an old egg- box which the mother had begged
from a shop, a httle, feeble, wasted, wan, sick child, with his little
bright, attentive eyes looking steadily at us. He seldom cried, the
mother said; he seldom complained; "he lay there, seemin' .to
woonder what it was a' aboot." God knows, I thought, as I stood
looking at him, he had his reasons for wondering — reasons for won-
dering how it could possibly come to be that he lay there, left alone,
feeble and full of pain, when he ought to have been as bright and as
brisk as the birds that never got near him — reasons for wondering
how he came to be left there, as if there were no crowds of healthy
and happy children playing on the grass under the summer's sun
within a stone's throw of him; as if there were no bright moving sea
on the other side of the great hill overhanging the city. There he
lay looking at us, saying, in his silence, more pathetically than I have
ever heard anything said by an orator in my life, "Will you please
to tell me what this means, strange man?" Many a poor child,
sick and neglected, I have seen since that time in this London; but
at such times 1 have seen my poor little drooping friend in his egg-
box; and he has always addressed his dumb speech to me and I have
always founfl him wondering what it meant, and why, in the name of
a gracious God, such things should be.
Now, ladies and gentlemen, such things need not be, and will not
be, if this company, which is a drop of the life-blood of the great
compassionate public heart, will only accept the means of rescue and
prevention which it is mine to offer. Within a quarter of a mile of
this pkice where I speak, stands a courtly old house, where once, no
doubt, blooming children were born, and grew up to be men and
women. In the airy wards into which the old state drawing rooms
and the family bedchambers of lh;il house are now converted are
such Httle patients that the attendant nurses look like reclaimed
56 ORAL ENGLISH
giantesses, and the kind medical practitioner like an amiable Chris-
tian ogre. Grouped about the little low tables in the center of the
rooms are such tiny convalescents that they seem to be playing at
having been ill. On the dolls' beds are such diminutive creatures
that each poor sufferer is supplied with its tray of toys; and, looking
round, you may see how the little, tired, flushed cheek has toppled
over half the brute creation on its way into the ark, or how one httle
dimpled arm mowed down — as I saw myself — the whole tin soldiery
of Europe. On the walls of these rooms are graceful, pleasant, bright,
childish pictures. At the beds' heads are pictures of the figure of
Him who was once a child himself, and a poor one. Besides these
little creatures on the beds, you may learn in that place that the
number of small out-patients brought to that house for relief is no
fewer than ten thousand in the compass of one single year. In the
printed papers of this same hospital you may read with what a gener-
ous earnestness the highest and wisest members of the medical pro-
fession testify to the great need of it; to the immense difficulty of
treating children in the same hospital with grown-up people, by
reason of their different ailments and requirements; to the vast
amount of pain that will be assuaged, and of life that will be saved,
through this hospital. Lastly, the visitor to this children's hospital,
reckoning up the number of its beds, will find himself perforce obliged
to stop at very little over thirty; and will learn with sorrow and sur-
prise, that even that small number, so forlornly, so miserably diminu-
tive, compared with this vast London, cannot possibly be maintained,
unless the hospital be made better known; I limit myself to saying
better known, because I will not believe that in a Christian com-
munity of fathers and mothers, and brothers and sisters, it can fail,
being better known, to be well and richly endowed.
This is the pathetic case I have put to you, not only on behalf of
the thousands of children who annually die in this great city, but
also on behalf of the thousands of children who live half developed,
racked with preventable pain, shorn of their natural capacity for
health and enjoyment. If these innocent creatures cannot move
you for themselves, how can I possibly hope to move you in their
name? The most delightful paper, the most charming essay, which
the tender imagination of Charles Lamb conceived, represents him
as sitting by his fireside on a winter night telling stories to his own
READING LESSON III 57
dear children, and delighting in their society, until he suddenly comes
to his old, solitary, bachelor self, and finds that they were but dream-
children who might have been, but never were.' The dream-children
whom I would now raise, if I could, before every one of you, according
to your various circumstances, should be the dear child you love,
the dearer child you have lost, the child you might have had, the
child you certainly have been. Each of these dream-children should
say to you, "Help this httle suppliant in my name! Oh, help it for
my sake!" Well! And immediately awaking, you should find your-
selves in the Freemasons' Hall, happily arrived at the end of a rather
long speech, drinking "Prosperity to the Hospital for Sick Children,"
and thoroughly resolved that it shall flourish.
' The people whom Dickens addressed probably knew that Charles
Lamb, although of a cheerful and loving disposition, had never married
because he wished to devote himself to the care of a sister who had
periodical attacks of insanity.
PART II — COMPOSITION
CHAPTER V
A SPEAKER'S USE OF THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE
Introduction. — Part I of this text has dealt with the
subject of dehvery. The student has been given practice
in the delivery of the thoughts of others in order that,
having partially overcome timidity, awkwardness, and
vocal defects, he might be better able to deliver speeches
of his own composition.
Part II deals with the art of composition. It aims to
give the student an insight into the purposes of the speaker
and into the methods by which these purposes can be
attained most effectively.
In the present chapter we shall learn: (i) that, in the
majority of cases, a speaker has persuasion as his object;
(2) that, in the accomplishment of his purpose, he is
likely to use all of the four forms of discourse; and (3) that
he weaves them into a very definite plan. The points
discussed are illustrated by reference to the speech of
Dickens, the text of which is given in Reading Lesson III.
I. The Main Object of Speech
In the majority of cases, a speaker has persuasion as
his object; that is, he wishes to lead others to believe, to
feel, and to act as he thinks they ought to believe, feel, and
act. The Honorable James Bryce, for several years am-
bassador from England to the United States, and himself
an able speaker, says in his Hints on Public Speaking
THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 59
that " the two ends (or purposes) of speaking are to
persuade and to delight."
To Delight is Rarely the Sole Purpose. — When we con-
sider the different sorts of occasions upon which speeches
are delivered, we find that very few are made for the sole
purpose of giving pleasure. For instance, a story may be
told to a group gathered about a campfire; or one who
has traveled may relate his experiences in the form of a
lecture, or travel-talk. These are the most important of
the longer speeches which aim merely at entertainment.
There are also certain shorter speeches which are
made on social occasions: for example, a speech should
accompany the presentation of a gift to a favorite teacher
or leader; a distinguished visitor or a convention of dele-
gates must be received by a few words of welcome; or
toasts are called for at the close of a banquet.
Persuasiveness in Great Demand. — Although occa-
sions such as those mentioned in the preceding paragraph
are decidedly important, they are few in the life of the
average man. On the other hand, situations which de-
mand persuasiveness are almost innumerable. Such occa-
sions are constantly arising in the business world. The
salesman, from the ordinary peddler up to the manager of
a corporation, makes it his daily business to induce some
one to transfer money from his pocket to the salesman's.
One cannot belong to an organization of any kind without
realizing the value of persuasive speaking. It may be the
merchant in the chamber of commerce, the farmer in his
grange, or the citizen in his mass meeting, lodge, or club.
Each is trying to arouse others to belief and action. Even
the high-school student finds use for his persuasive ability
when he rallies his fellow students to the football game,
6o ORAL ENGLISH
when he solicits their subscriptions to the school paper, or
when he urges their support for his favorite candidate.
The same is true of the man in public life. The lawyer
seeks to move a jury; the clergyman tries to convince men
of the value of righteousness; the politician talks to gain
votes for his policy or party.
In view of all these facts, it would seem that Plato was
right when he defined the art of public speech as "the art
of ruling the minds of men."
Union of Both Aims. — The fact that persuasion is so
frequently the chief aim of speech should not, however,
lead us to ignore the great value of making our speeches
delightful. In fact, we are much more likely to succeed
in persuading if we can, at the same time, give pleasure.
Doubtless if we had been present at the London dinner
and heard Dickens' speech, we should have been very
wilHng to contribute to his hospital fund and we should
also have been very wiUing to admit that his speech had
given us pleasure.
II. Use of the Four Forms of Discourse
When we study the method by which Dickens ob-
tained his result, we find that he used all of the four
forms of discourse. All discourse, or composition, has been
separated into four divisions according to the purpose for
which each is used.
Description and Narration. — These two forms of dis-
course are used for the purpose of appealing to the feelings.
Description arouses feeling because it makes the hearer
or reader see a picture. If the picture is beautiful, it
awakens admiration; if ugly, it creates repulsion; if
pathetic, it causes a feeling of sadness. Narration, or
THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 6i
story-telling, goes farther than description and paints the
picture of a series of events. These events are so arranged
as to excite the reader's interest and put him in sympathy
with the characters involved in the story.
Dickens painted vivid pictures of the little children
who needed help. In this way, he made his hearers feel
like subscribing to his hospital fund. The third para-
graph of his speech may be considered either as a descrip-
tion or as a story. If we look at it from one point of view,
he seems to be describing a poor hovel in Edinburgh, with
its cold hearth and hungry, ragged occupants. The
central figure in this picture is the httle sick baby in the
old egg-box. From another point of view, he is teUing
the story of his own visit to this wretched dwelling: how
he came to go; how the mother secured the cradle; and
what the baby seemed to say. It is of little importance
for us to decide whether it is a description or a narration.
Viewed in either light, it awakens our sympathy and so
helps Dickens to accomplish his purpose.
Exposition and Argument. — These two forms of dis-
course are used to appeal to the understanding. Exposition
aims to explain something, or to make it clear to the mind.
Argument seeks to convince the hearer or reader that a cer-
tain fact is true or that a certain course of action is right.
Dickens used these two forms of discourse when he
tried to show that the best way to help these poor little
ones was to assist in maintaining the hospital. In the
latter part of paragraph 4, he stated: (i) that there were
ten thousand out-patients brought to the hospital every
year; (2) that the physicians testified that it was much
better for children to be placed in a separate hospital;
and (3) that there were but thirty beds in which to accom-
62 ORAL ENGLISH
modate the sick children of the vast city of London.
This portion of his speech may be regarded as either an
exposition or an argument. To one who was already
interested in the Children's Hospital, he would seem to be
merely explaining its needs. To those who were indif-
ferent or opposed to the project, his facts would have the
nature of proof. Whichever view we take of it, we see
that this portion of his discourse appeals to the under-
standing rather than to the feelings.
Necessity for All Forms. — Any persuasive speech
which is really effective is likely to contain all four of
these forms. The explanations and arguments usually
form the solid framework upon which the speaker builds,
while short descriptions and stories furnish the ornamen-
tation. If the two former predominate, the speech is
apt to be heavy and lacking in color and interest; if the
two latter predominate, the speech may lack form and
substance. Dickens seems to have provided a very
judicious mixture. If he had given his listeners only the
pictures and the stories, they would have been interested
in the children, it is true, but they might still have objected
to his method of helping them. On the other hand, he
never could have won his audience to his cause by appeal-
ing to their understanding alone; it was only by the
pathetic story of the little Edinburgh boy and by the won-
derful picture of the little tots asleep in their hospital
beds, too tired and sick to play with their toys, that he
extracted from the people their treasured coins.
III. A Definite Plan
Although the persuasive speaker uses the four forms
of discourse, he does not throw them together without a
THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 63
definite plan. A closer examination of the general arrange-
ment of ideas in Dickens' speech will prove this to be
true. In paragraph i, he sought by pleasantry to put
his hearers in a good humor; in paragraph 2, he announced
the purpose of his speech; in paragraph 3, he described
the sufferings of one poor little child; in paragraph 4,
he showed that there were many children in London who
suffered in a similar way and who were in need of hospital
care; and in paragraph 5, he brought the whole matter
home by reminding them, under the name of dream chil-
dren, of the children whom they loved most dearly.
It is quite evident that the pleasantry of paragraph i,
if used in any other portion of the speech, would have
infused an atmosphere of insincerity and would thus have
destroyed the effectiveness of the appeal. By picturing
the sufferings of one poor child and then pointing out the
numerous children in London who suffered in a similar
way, Dickens forced his audience to multiply their
sjonpathy by ten thousand. This could not have been
accompHshed if paragraph 4 had preceded paragraph 3.
It is certain that he could not have referred to the dear
children of our own homes in a more acceptable place than
in his closing paragraph. It is to such considerations as
these, we believe, that the speech of Dickens owes a
large measure of its effectiveness.
Conclusion. In this chapter we have learned: (i)
that the majority of speeches that we shall make in real
life will have persuasion as their object; (2) that, if we are
to be persuasive speakers, we must learn to use all of the
four forms of discourse; and (3) that we must learn to
weave these four forms into a very definite i)!an.
64 ORAL ENGLISH
TOPICAL OUTLINE
A Speaker's Use of the Four Forms of Discourse
Introduction.
I. The purpose of Part I.
II. The purpose of Part II.
III. The subject matter of the present chapter.
Body.
I. The main object of speech. — Hon. James Bryce.
A. Pleasure as the sole purpose.
1. Long speeches of this nature.
2. Short speeches.
B. Great demand for persuasiveness.
1. In the business world.
2. In organizations.
3. In public Ufe.
4. Plato's definition.
C. Union of both aims.
I. Example of Dickens' speech.
II. Use of the four forms of discourse. — Basis of division.
A. Description and narration.
1. Purpose.
2. Definition of each.
3. Used by Dickens.
B. Exposition and argument.
1. Purpose.
2. Definition of each.
3. As used by Dickens.
C. Necessity for all forms.
1. Value of each.
2. Judicious mixture.
III. A definite plan.
A . Dickens' plan in detail.
B. Reasons why it is the best plan.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the entire chapter and be able to recite from
the topical outhne.
READING LESSON IV 65
READING LESSON IV
1. Extract from the speech, Conciliation with the Colonies, by-
Edmund Burke, in which the great Enghsh orator is trying to con-
vince his fellow members in Parliament that it would be to England's
advantage to yield to the demands of the American colonies (March
22, 177s):
"Look at the manner in which the people of New England have of
late carried on the whale fishery. Whilst we follow them among the
tumbUng mountains of ice, and behold them penetrating into the
deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay and Davis' Straits, whilst
we are looking for them beneath the arctic circle, we hear that they
have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold, that they are at
the antipodes, and engaged under the frozen Serpent of the South.
Falkland Islands, which seemed too remote and romantic an object
for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and resting-place in
the progress of their victorious industry. Nor is the equinoctial heat
more discouraging to them than the accumulated winter of both the
poles. We know that whilst some of them draw the line and strike
the harpoon on the coast of Africa, others run the longitude and pur-
sue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what
is vexed by their fisheries; no climate that is not witness to their
toil. Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France,
nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise ever carried
this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it
has been pushed by this recent people; a people who are still, as it
were, but in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone of man-
hood."
2. Extract from a speech by Abraham Lincoln when he was run-
ning for the office of Senator from Illinois against Stephen A. Douglas
(July 9. 1858):
" 'A house divided against itself cannot stand.' I believe this
government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free. I
do not expect the Union to be dissolved, I do not expect the house to
fall, but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all
one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest
66 ORAL ENGLISH
the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest
in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its
advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all
States, old and new, North as well as South."
3. Extract from an address, "The Public Duty of Educated Men,"
delivered by George William Curtis at the commencement exercises
of Union College, June 27, 1877. In the part of the address which
immediately precedes this extract, he says that the educated man
should not only go to the polls and vote, but that he also owes it to
his country to take an active part in the nomination of candidates,
in order that knaves may not be permitted to get control of the
government. He then continues:
'But, Gentlemen, when you come to address yourselves to these
primary public duties, your first surprise and dismay will be the dis-
covery that, in a country where education is declared to be the hope
of its institutions, the higher education is often practically held to be
almost a disadvantage. You will go from these halls to hear a very
common sneer at college-bred men; to encounter a jealousy of edu-
cation as making men visionary and pedantic and impracticable; to
confront a belief that there is something enfeebling in the higher
education, and that self-made men, as they are called, are the sure
stay of the state. But what is really meant by a self-made man?
It is a man of native sagacity and strong character, who was taught,
it is proudly said, only at the plow or the anvil or the bench. He is
Benjamin Franklin, the printer, or Abraham Lincoln, the rail-splitter.
They never went to college but nevertheless, like Agamemnon, they
were kings of men, and the world blesses their memory.
"So it does; but the sophistry here is plain enough although it is
not always detected. Great genius and force of character undoubtedly
make their own career. But because Walter Scott was dull at school,
is a parent to see with joy that his son is a dunce? Because Sir Robert
Walpole gambled and swore and boozed at Houghton, are we to
suppose that gross sensuality and coarse contempt of human nature
are the essential secrets of a power that defended liberty against
Tory intrigue and priestly politics? Was it because Abraham Lincoln
had little schooling that his great heart beat true to God and man,
lifting him to free a race and die for his country?"
READING LESSON IV 67
4. From the eulog\' of General Grant by Horace Porter:
"Outside that house the street was filled with marching men and
martial music. Inside that house the old chief lay on a bed of anguish,
the pallor of death alread)^ beginning to overspread his illustrious
features. The hand which had seized the surrendered swords of
countless thousands was scarcely able to return the pressure of a
friendly grasp; the voice which had cheered on to triumphant \'ictory
the legions of American manhood was no longer able to call for the
cooling draught which slaked the thirst of a fevered tongue. And
prostrate upon that bed of suffering lay the form which in the new
world had ridden at the head of conquering columns; in the old world
had marched through the palaces of crowned heads with the descend-
ants of a line of kings rising and standing uncovered in his presence."
CHAPTER VI
THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT
Introduction. — Equipment is a term applied to that
which a person carries with him to help him accomplish
his work. The woodchopper carries an axe; the artist
carries paints, brushes, and canvas; the speaker must
equip himself with ideas and with words with which to
express those ideas. The equipment of the speaker can-
not be purchased at the shop or studio but must be
gradually gathered and hoarded, one thing here and
another there. It is told of Webster that, after his
masterful reply to Hayne, he was asked how much time
he had given to preparation and he answered, "All my
life." A speaker is rewarded for his effort, however, by
the fact that his equipment will never wear out like that
of the woodchopper or the artist, but will grow richer
and finer with time and use.
If it took a hfetime for Webster to gather his equip-
ment, it is needless to say that the young speaker should
waste no time in making a start. The attitude which a
speaker should take toward this matter has been well
expressed by Nathan Sheppard: "An editor says, 'I
never come upon a thought, a fact, or an incident without
asking myself how I can get an article out of it.' The
speaker says, 'How shall I use it for an audience?' He
should be the most alert-minded man in the world.
He should get into the habit of picking up something
THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 69
from everybody and everything and everywhere. A
robin should not be more industrious in gathering insects
for her young."
In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to gather an
equipment of ideas; (2) how to gather an equipment of
words; and (3) how to preserve our collection.
I. How TO Gather an Equipment of Ideas
An equipment of ideas may be gathered from three
sources: from our high-school studies, from the world-
hfe about us, and from our own minds.
Studies. — The studies which you are pursuing daily
in your high-school course, and which you may have re-
garded as tasks especially provided to deprive you of
your freedom, are the very sources from which speakers
throughout the centuries have gathered material for
their speeches.
Let us consider, first, the so-called culture studies — his-
tory, literature, and languages. The speeches of George
William Curtis are filled with historical facts. In the
brief passage quoted in Reading Lesson IV, he used four
historical facts to support his claim that a lack of educa-
tion and culture is not a cause of greatness. The pages
of history are open to you as they were to him. How
delightfully Dickens referred, in the latter part of his
speech, to the essays of Charles Lamb! You will have the
privilege, during your high-school course, not only of read-
ing Lamb's essays, but also of exploring the whole rich field
of English literature. Perhaps you arc studying Latin or
some other foreign language. Why should not the ideas,
customs, and stories of these other peoples, old yet always
new, provide your speeches with color and ornament?
70 ORAL ENGLISH
Let us consider next the field of science. Notice how
much knowledge of geography and astronomy is shown
in the passage from Edmund Burke. It would seem that
with the wealth of illustration which he had at his com-
mand, he could not have failed to convince the members
of ParHament that the people of New England were an
enterprising people. Learn to levy tribute on your scien-
tific studies in the same way.
The difficulty is that we are apt to look at these lessons
as so many facts to be crammed for an examination,
whereas we should seek to glean from them material for
future use. Washington Irving says of his fat Van Twiller,
"His cheeks had taken toll of all that had gone into his
mouth." Why should not your mind, in the same way,
take toll of these daily assignments?
World-life. — It is not alone from books, however,
that the speakers of the past and of the present have
gathered their equipment of facts and ideas. They have
come into the closest possible touch with the great world-
Hfe about them. Lincoln's biographers say of him, "He
would stop in the street and analyze a machine . . .
clocks, omnibuses, languages, paddle-wheels, and idioms
never escaped his observation and analysis." As a result
of this habit of close study of the things which he saw, his
speeches are full of quaint, homely comparisons. We
have seen that Dickens, also, was very observant. He
noticed that the porridge pot was empty and that
the baby's cradle was not merely a box, but an egg-box.
It is because he saw and recorded these small details
that his word-pictures take such hold on the mind and
heart.
The great majority of us have not yet formed this
THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 71
valuable habit of observation. The best way to cultivate
it is to write each day a few sentences descriptive of what-
ever has arrested one's attention since the preceding day.
Robert Louis Stevenson says of his boyhood, "As I walked,
my mind was busy fitting what I saw with appropriate
words; when I sat by the roadside, a pencil and a penny
version book would be in my hand to note down the fea-
tures of the scene ... I had vowed that I would learn
to write. That was a proficiency that tempted me; I
practiced it as men learn to whittle, in a wager with my-
self. Description was the principal field of my exercise;
for to anyone with sense, there is always something worth
describing, and town and country are but one continuous
subject." Those of us who have read Treasure Island,
Travels "with a Donkey, or any other of his charming
tales, are very glad indeed that Stevenson made this
wager with himself.
Originality. — We have seen that the young speaker
has, in his daily lessons, an almost unlimited supply of
speech-making material; and that if he will but cultivate
the habit of keen observation, he may find all about him
that which will give life and interest to his discourse.
He may also discover a third source of ideas in his own
mind. Perhaps you will say, "I am not original"; but
originality does not mean the production of something
absolutely new; it means the production of new combina-
tions of things. Electricity has always existed, but the
phonograph and the electric car did not exist until a cer-
tain combination was made in the mind of Edison. If a
student will take time to think about that which he reads
and observes, his mind, too, will produce original ideas.
72 ORAL ENGLISH
II. How TO Gather an Equipment of Words
Use of the Dictionary. — One of the best ways to
gather an equipment of words is to study the dictionary.
It is said that when O. Henry was living among the cow-
boys and without access to books in general, he spent two
years in studying the dictionary and in forming its words
into sentences. Although the student, under ordinary
conditions, would not find this an attractive or perhaps a
desirable method of enlarging his vocabulary, he can,
nevertheless, do much more than he usually does, through
its use, to increase his mastery of the English tongue.
When he happens upon a new word, he should look up its
meaning and pronunciation and try to make it a part of
his own equipment. When he is writing a letter or com-
posing a speech, he should try to cultivate a feeling for
the right word. If the one which occurs to his mind is
not satisfactory, he should look it up in the dictionary
and decide whether or not any of its synonyms would be
better adapted to his purpose. Daniel Webster had
cultivated this feeling for the right word, as is shown by
the following story: "Once while addressing an audience,
he had difficulty in finding just the word he wanted. He
discarded one after another until five or six had been
disposed of, when suddenly he found the word he had
been so earnestly seeking. As he gave expression to it,
the audience, who had mentally followed his anxious
search, burst out into spontaneous applause." ^
Usage of Good Authors. — Although we can get the
meaning of words from the dictionary, it is only by read-
1 Grenville Kleiser, How to Develop Power and Personality in Speak-
ing, p. 63.
THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 73
ing good books and listening to good speakers that we can
realize the appropriateness of words. Let us notice a
few of the things worth knowing, which the careful study
of a good writer or speaker can reveal- to us.
In the first place, he adapts his words to the nature of
the idea that he wishes to express. Commonplace things
are described with commonplace words, whereas ideas
that are abstract or dignified in their nature are ex-
pressed by words of an abstract or dignified character.
Dickens, for instance, when he wishes to describe a simple,
homely scene, uses short, homely words: "In a room in
one of these places, where there was an empty porridge pot
on the cold hearth, with a ragged woman and some ragged
children crouching on the bare ground near it, . . ."
When, however, he wishes to express a thought which is
more abstract and dignified, he uses longer words of more
stately quality: for example, ''You may read with what
a generous earnestness the highest and wisest members
of the medical profession testify to the great need of it,
to the immense difficulty of treating children in the same
hospital with grown-up people, by reason of their different
ailments and requirements." Young writers and speakers
are often tempted to use elaborate words to express simple
ideas. The result is a style which is "high-flown" and
ridiculous.
In the second place, a good writer or speaker uses a
variety of words to express the same idea. He does not
make the same word "do duty" too frequently. P'or
exami)le, Dickens, when he first describes the sick child
in Edinburgh, speaks of him ■d'^ feeble and wan, but later
he refers to him as drooping;,.
In the third place, a writer or speaker who succeeds in
74 ORAL ENGLISH
making an impression uses a great many v/ords that create
pictures. Such words are sometimes called concrete, or
specific, as distinguished from abstract or general words:
for example, Mr. Curtis, instead of saying "taught by
hard labor," said, ''taught, only at the plow, the anvil,
or the bench." Instead of describing Sir Robert Walpole
as a profligate, he told us that he "gambled and swore
and boozed." Adjectives that describe motions have
also this quality of calling up mental pictures. For in-
stance, Dickens speaks of "attentive eyes" and "bright
moving sea." Burke, instead of referring to icebergs,
speaks of "tumbling mountains of ice."
III. How TO Preserve a Collection
Although much of what one reads, observes, and thinks
becomes a part of himself and cannot be taken away, yet
it would be quite impossible for the average person to
carry all of this material in his mind and have it ready
for immediate use. It is therefore necessary to make a
collection of words and ideas as one would collect bird-
eggs or postage stamps. Many of the great writers and
speakers, as Hawthorne, Lowell, and Phillips Brooks, kept
notebooks throughout their lives. In these they recorded
such ideas as they had gathered from reading and travel,
together with their own meditations. This, every suc-
cessful writer and speaker must do. The modern student,
however, has evolved a somewhat more useful method of
preserving this material than is found in the old notebook
system.
Form of the Collection. — The student should provide
himself with loose sheets of paper about 3x5 inches or
smaller. One can buy this already cut from a stationer or
THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 75
job printer, or he can utilize old notebooks for the pur-
pose, cutting the paper himself. He should then purchase
a package of manila envelopes large enough to hold the
paper easily. One should be very careful in this matter,
as it will be found very annoying to be obliged to fold the
paper or to crowd it into a small envelope. The collection
should be kept by itself, where it can be distinguished from
algebra papers and unanswered letters. Perhaps very
few students are so fortunate as to own a writing desk
with pigeon-holes. This is of small importance, however,
as a shoe-box or a starch-box will do as well. It is only
necessary that the collection be kept in a definite place
and that it grow.
Method of Collecting. — Just as a collector of bugs
carries a net and a bottle when he goes for a walk, so
the student-speaker should carry an envelope filled with
sheets of paper. When he happens upon a good story, a
humorous anecdote, an apt quotation, an interesting fact,
he should note it down. Each item should be placed on
a separate slip of paper. One sheet of paper may be kept
for words which impress the student as being particu-
larly good words for his own future use. Another sheet
may contain new words which are to be looked up at
some convenient time. Valuable newspaper clippings
also may be kept in this way. When the envelope is
filled with notes, the student should transfer the notes to
his treasure box, refill his envelope with blank sheets, and
begin again.
Method of Classifying. — A collection is of small value
unless the specimens are classified so that the owner can
readily find what is wanted. A few envelopes can be
labeled at the start, as follows: Stories, Facts, Proverbs,
76 ORAL ENGLISH
Quotations, Words, etc. ; another envelope may be labeled
with some subject in which one is particularly interested,
as machinery, wild flowers, musical history, or art. Some
day, when time hangs heavy, it will be a real pleasure to
look over the notes and place them in the proper envelopes.
As the collection grows, it will sometimes be necessary to
re-classify. One envelope will grow more rapidly than
another and will become so crowded as to need division.
Some notes will be discarded later on as of little value.
For these reasons it is best to write the labels in pencil.
The student who adopts the above-described method
of preserving his treasures of thought will find that, while
old notebooks gather dust in garret or cellar, the classified
collection of notes becomes a constantly increasing source
of help and inspiration.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
how a speaker may gather an equipment of ideas; (2)
how he may gather an equipment of words; and (3) how
he may preserve this equipment in the most useful form.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Speaker's Equipment
Introduction.
I. The equipment of the speaker compared with that of the
woodchopper or the artist.
II. The attitude which a speaker should have.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. How to gather an equipment of ideas.
A . Studies — used by speakers of the past.
1. Culture studies.
2. Scientific studies.
3. Wrong and right attitude compared.
THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 77
I. B. World-life.
1. Illustrations of the power of observation.
2. Method of cultivating the habit of observation.
C. Originality.
1. Definition.
2. How to be original.
II. How to gather an equipment of words.
A . Use of the dictionary.
1. O. Henry.
2. New words.
3. Synonyms. — Daniel Webster.
B. Usage of good authors.
1 . x\ppropriateness.
2. Variety.
3. Picture-making words.
III. How to preserve a collection. — Custom of old writers and
speakers.
A. Form of the collection.
B. Method of collecting.
C. Method and value of classifying.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the text as far as the topic "How to Preserve
a Collection," and be able to recite from the topical outline.
Exercise II. — i. Dickens tells us that the little baby should
have been "as bright and as brisk as the Httle birds that never got
near him." Look up brisk in a large dictionar>^ and copy the syno-
nyms. Consider each from the standpoint of meaning, appropriate-
ness, and sowid, and show, if you can, that Dickens chose the
best word.
2. Think of and write some more ordinary word which you would
probably have used for each of the following, if you had been trying
to express Dickens' thoughts: tougltcn its affections, prop their
eyelids, contravening the ways of Providence, humane members,
recking with horrible odors, crouching on the bare ground, courtly old
house, flushed cheek, toppled over, shorn of their natural capacity,
that it shall flourish.
78 ORAL ENGLISH
If you do not remember the connection in which these expressions
were used, look them up in the speech. If you cannot easily supply
a synonym, look up the word in the dictionary.
Exercise III. — Complete the chapter and be able to recite from
the topical outline. Provide yourself with paper and envelopes for
your collection, labeling the envelopes as directed.
Exercise IV. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on any
of the following topics:
1. The Chief Object of Speech-making.
2. How Dickens Used the Four Forms of Discourse.
3. How They are Fitted into a Plan.
4. Our Studies as a Source of Ideas.
5. The World-life as a Source of Ideas.
6. Originahty.
7. Gaining a Vocabulary by a Study of the Dictionary.
8. Gaining a Vocabulary by a Study of the Best Authors and
Speakers.
9. How to Make a Speaker's Collection.
CHAPTER VII
HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH
Introduction. — A good speech, whether it is one
minute or one hour in length, must have three quahties:
(i) unity, which means that the gist or substance of it
can be stated in one sentence; (2) coherence, which
means that each idea leads naturally to the next, so that
it can easily be followed by the audience; and (3) empha-
sis, which means that there is a gradually increasing force
throughout the speech.
In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to lay the basis
for these qualities when we make a plan; (2) the best
way to make a plan; and (3) the difference between the
plan for an argument and the plan for an exposition.
I. How TO Plan for Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis
Unity through Choice of a Subject. — The speaker can
lay the foundation for unity by choosing a subject that
deals with only one thing. A speech on the subject
"Motion Pictures" might have unity, whereas it would be
impossible to present a unified discussion of the subject,
"The Method of Taking Motion Pictures and their Influ-
ence on the Public."
At the same time the subject must not cover too large
a field to be handled effectively in the time allotted. A
speaker could not treat the subject of "Motion Pictures"
successfully in two minutes. , He would be obliged to
8o ORAL ENGLISH
touch on a large number of ideas in such a brief way as to
prevent his giving an impression of unity. With such a
restricted time Hmit, it would be necessary to narrow
the subject, that is, to discuss only one phase of it. One
might, for instance, discuss in two minutes any one of
the following topics: "Methods of Taking Motion Pic-
tures of Wild Animals," "Educational Value of Motion
Pictures," and "A Motion Picture I Have Seen."
Unity of Purpose. — In real life, when a speaker chooses
a subject, he has a definite purpose in view: he desires
either to instruct, to convince, or to entertain. It is
true that he may use instruction and entertainment as
an aid to conviction, — such we found to be Dickens'
method, — but some one purpose will be predominant.
In practice speaking, the student should choose his sub-
ject with a definite purpose in mind. He should test the
unity of his purpose by writing the gist of what he has
to say in a single sentence, called the topic or theme sen-
tence. Let us consider a few illustrations. If a student
were to discuss "Methods of Taking Motion Pictures of
Wild Animals," his purpose would be mainly that of
instruction and his theme sentence might be, "It requires
great patience and daring to take pictures of wild animals."
If a student were to speak on "The Educational Value
of Motion Pictures," his purpose might be to convince
the members of the Parents' Club that they should allow
their children to attend a certain moving picture perform-
ance. His theme might be, "Our moving picture show
will teach your children in one hour more than they
could learn in many days of reading." The theme sen-
tence will be determined largely by the nature of the
material which the speaker has at his disposal, unless he
HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 81
should wish to look up material to illustrate and develop
his theme. It should be clear, however, from the fore-
going discussion, that if the speech is to have unity, the
subject, the purpose, the theme sentence, and the speech
material should coincide.
Unity in Development. — The speech is an elaboration
or a development of the theme sentence. The introduc-
tion furnishes a means of unity in that it either suggests
the main thought or is an actual statement of the main
thought. Since the introduction to a two-minute speech
should not consist of more than one sentence, it is well
in practice work to use some version of the theme sentence
as the introduction. This may in some cases seem abrupt,
but it will help the beginner to secure unity, and a more
artistic method may be studied later.
The body of the speech should be an expansion of the
main idea. The theme sentence may be enlarged upon in
several ways: (i) it may be repeated several times in
different words (See Reading Lesson IV, 2, page 65);
(2) it may be illustrated by facts (See Reading Lesson IV,
I, page 65); and (3) it may be compared with something
else (See Chapter III, Ex. VI, Selection i).
It is very essential in this expansion that not a single
thought be allowed to enter which does not have a close
relation to the main thought. James Russell Lowell has
said very tersely on this point, "The art of writing consists
in knowing what to leave in the ink pot."
The conclusion, if rightly developed, is a further means
of strengthening the unity of the speech. It may be
either a re-statement, in varied language, of the topic
sentence, or it may simply make reference to the main
idea.
82- ORAL ENGLISH
Coherence. — A speech is coherent, as we have already
learned, if each idea leads naturally to the next, so that
the audience can easily follow the line of thought. If
a speaker is to lead his audience, he should first consider
the state of mind of his audience. In a practice speech,
the student should imagine a particular audience, deter-
mine upon an appropriate salutation, and proceed to adapt
his speech to his hearers. The character and arrangement
of one's material should vary with the nature of the
audience. For instance, one would not discuss "Aero-
planes" before a board of engineers in the same way
that he would before a boys' literary society.
After the speaker has considered his ideas from the
standpoint of the experience and intelligence of his
audience, he should arrange them in what seems to be the
most natural order. In so doing, he should take note of
the following rules: (i) A general statement should be
made before the details which illustrate it. (2) The easy
should be stated before the difhcult. (3) The earlier in
time should be. mentioned before the later. We found
that Dickens' speech was so coherent that any change
in the order of his ideas would injure it. The student-
speaker should test the coherence of his speech by trying
various methods of arrangement.
Emphasis. — Frequently the most coherent order is
also the most emphatic order; that is, it results in an
impression of gradually increasing force throughout the
speech. This can be effected, in some measure, by arrang-
ing the ideas in the order of strength, the strongest last.
It is also necessary to develop the important ideas at
greater length than the unimportant ideas.
HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 83
II. The Best Method of Making a Plan
Jottings. — After having chosen his subject, the student
should jot down one key word for each idea as it occurs to
him. The student who has not tried this method will
be tempted to write down quite full notes or at least sev-
eral words for each idea. To do this would be a mistake.
It is not necessary that the exact wording be determined
upon until after the plan has been made. The words
are to be jotted down merely as temporary suggestions
to the speaker himself, and as there is always one word
used in the expression of an idea which is more suggestive
than any other word, several words will merely be cum-
bersome — a fact which will be seen more clearly later.
The speaker should not try to arrange his ideas in order
before he places the key words on paper, for the purpose
of the jottings is merely to reveal to the speaker the nature
and amount of his material. The act of putting down
the words will also help him to concentrate his mind.
The work of arrangement will come later.
Theme Sentence. — The student should next try to
write a theme sentence that includes the ideas suggested
by the words. This will help him to determine his pur-
pose and to unify his material. If there are any ideas
which cannot be included in the theme sentence, the
words which suggest them should be crossed out.
Word-brace Outline, — The remaining words should be
arranged in the form of a word-brace outline.' It will
be found possible to group the ideas under main divi-
sions and subdivisions. In this work, the student should
follow as far as possible the suggestions already made
^ See .•\i)[)cndix I for an example of such an outline.
84 ORAL ENGLISH
with regard to coherence and emphasis. The following
matters of form also should be observed:
(i) There should not be more than three main divisions
nor more than three subdivisions after any brace. A
violation of this rule makes the speech difficult for both
speaker and audience to remember. Four or five divisions
can always be grouped under two larger divisions.
(2) The ideas suggested by the words which follow a brace
should relate to and enlarge upon the idea suggested by the
word which precedes the brace. This is a matter of the
utmost importance. The brace itself by its very form indi-
cates that the words included within its prongs enlarge upon
the word to which it points. - To transgress this rule, then,
is to indicate an untruth. Where but one idea is used to
enlarge upon another, the dash is used instead of the brace.
(3) As far as possible there should be only one word for
each sentence. If a young speaker plans to make several
sentences about one word, he is apt to give insufficient care
to their arrangement and construction. Again, if he allows
himself this freedom, he may fail to keep within his time
limit. If, on the other hand, he uses more than one word
for each sentence, his outline will be cumbersome. If it
were necessary for him to look at it while speaking, the
large number of words would be confusing, while if he
should decide to be independent of an outline, the added
words would make the matter difficult to memorize.
III. Difference between the Plan for an Argument
AND THE Plan for an Exposition
Argument. — Each of the main divisions of an argu-
ment must prove or give reasons for the theme sentence.
Let us take as an example the following simple argument:
HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 85
I. Mary's father should allow her to go to the party, because
A. She has not attended a party for two months.
B. It will not interfere wth her lessons, because
I. It is on Frida)' night.
C. Only very nice young people mil attend.
When a student makes a plan for an argument, he should
write out in form similar to the example given above not
only the theme sentence, but also a complete sentence for
each one of the main subdivisions. In so doing, he must be
sure that each subordinate sentence can properly be joined
to the theme sentence by the word for or because. If they
can be so joined, he will know that his main divisions prove
his theme and that, therefore, his plan is logical.
Exposition. — The main divisions of an exposition need
merely relate to or explain the theme sentence. Let us
consider such a simple announcement as the following,
which might be classified as an exposition:
I. The Girls' Literary Society is going to give a party.
.1. It will be given in the Social Hall on Friday night.
B. The hall has been decorated with the society colors.
C. There will be a literary program followed by dancing.
It can easily be seen that these subdivisions merely
add to and do not prove the theme sentence. Although
it is sometimes helpful to write out the subordinate sen-
tences when one is planning an exposition, it is not abso-
lutely necessary as it is in the planning of an argument.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
how the speaker can lay the foundation for unity, coher-
ence, and emphasis when he makes his plan; (2) how to
make a plan for a speech in the form of a word-brace
outline; and (.V) how the plan for an argument differs
from the i>Ian for an exposition.
86 ORAL ENGLISH
TOPICAL OUTLINE
How TO Plan a Speech
Introdudion.
I. Three qualities of a good speech defined.
II. Advance summary.
Body.
I. How to plan for unity, coherence, and emphasis.
A. Unity.
1. Choice of a subject.
(o) One thing only.
{b) Narrow field.
2. Purpose — Its relation to the subject, theme
sentence, and speech material.
3. Development.
{a) Introduction.
{h) Body.
(i) Methods of expansion.
(2) Relation of thoughts to main
thought. — Lowell.
(c) Conclusion.
B. Coherence.
1. Nature of audience.
2. Natural order — rules.
C. Emphasis.
II. The best method of making a plan.
A. Jottings.
1. One word only.
2. Purposes of the jottings.
B. Theme sentence.
C. Word-brace outline — three rules.
III. Difference between the plan for an argument and the plan
for an exposition.
A. Argument.
1. Relation of subdivisions to theme sentence.
2. Necessity of writing subdivisions.
B. Exposition.
1. Relation of subdivisions to theme sentence.
Conclusion.
HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 87
Exercise I. — i. Study the text as far as the topic "Coherence,"
and be able to recite from the topical outline.
2. A short speech written out would make a paragraph. Choose
from the selections for reading in Chapter III the three best para-
graphs from the standpoint of unity. Choose only those whose topic
sentences are placed first and whose closing sentences either refer to
the main idea or summarize it in different words.
3. Consult Appendix II. Choose from Divisions I or II, or any
other hst which represents material that you have studied in High
School, two topics which you think are too large to be handled in two
minutes. Narrow these subjects; that is, write down two or more
phases of the subject which might be handled in the time allotted.
Exercise II. — i . Complete the chapter and be able to recite from
the topical outline.
2. Review the Gettysburg Address (page 38) and Reading
Lesson IV, 4 (page 67), and be able to prove the following:
a. The ideas arc arranged in the most coherent order.
b. The ideas are arranged in the most emphatic order.
c. ]\Iore time is given to the important than to the unimportant
ideas.
Exercise III. — Select a subject from Appendix II. It may be
one that you narrowed in Exercise I, or any other that you prefer.
Decide upon the nature of your audience, whether it is to be an
assembly of high-school students, grammar-school students, an
organization of adults, etc. Determine upon and write an appro-
priate salutation. Write a theme or topic sentence. If your subject
is argumentative, write a subordinate sentence for each main division
and be sure that each can properly be joined to the topic sentence by
because. Prepare a word outline for a two-minute speech on the
subject. Write this whole exercise on a separate sheet of your
loose-leaf notebook. (See example in Appendix I.)
CHAPTER VIII
ORAL PREPARATION
Introduction. — There are two methods of practice
which are valuable to one who would learn to speak well.
The first is called the impromptu method. This is fre-
quently used in Hterary societies. A member is assigned
a subject and requested to speak without previous notice.
Henry Clay made a very profitable use of this method. It
was his custom to read daily one chapter from some his-
torical or scientific book and then go out immediately to
the cornfield or to the stable, where he would repeat the
selection aloud in his own language.
The merits of the impromptu method are evident.
Such practice cannot fail to quicken the mind and in-
crease one's command of language. Its defects, however,
are quite as obvious. In the first place, it gives little
practice in the arrangement of thought and, if used
exclusively, is apt to lead to a habit of rambling discourse.
Again, there are occasions for which preparation is neces-
sary. As Mr. J. Berg Esenwein says, "Don't wait to dive
for pearls of thought until you mount the platform — it
might be painful to the audience."
Although the speaker should nerve himself occasion-
ally to an impromptu effort, he should rely mainly upon
what has been called the extempore method. This
kind of preparation will be fully explained in this chap-
ter, but it may briefly be described as oral composition
OR.\L PREPARATION 89
based upon a word-outline. It may be used whenever
the speaker is given sufficient time to gather and arrange
his ideas.
The subject of oral preparation will be discussed under
the following headings: (i) description of the extempore,
or oral method of preparation, (2) value of this method
as compared with that of writing and memorizing one's
thoughts, and (3) the written speech as a last step.
I. Description of the Extempore Method
Mental Preparation. — The speaker should / h i n k
through his speech, using an outline prepared as directed
in Chapter VII. His purpose in this should be to phrase
each idea as perfectly as possible. The student may think
that he cannot pohsh his phrases unless he writes them,
but he should remember that whether he composes orally
or in writing, it is his mind that does the polishing and
not his pen. If the student wishes to cultivate a good
style, he should persevere during this part of his prepara-
tion until he gets a satisfactory expression of his ideas.
Not even the greatest among us can without effort
produce what is worth while. That master of style,
Robert Louis Stevenson, once wrote in a letter, "Yester-
day, I was a living half hour upon a single clause and I
have a galaxy of variants that would surprise you." All
of this painstaking has its reward in the end, for, as
Thomas W. Higginson says, "For intellect in the rough,
there is no market."
Oral Practice. — When the student has determined
upon the best way to express each idea, he should practice
the whole speech aloud several times. The exact number
of times will depend upon the experience of the speaker
90 ORAL ENGLISH
and the importance of the occasion. The beginner should
repeat his speech not less than five times. This practice
will accustom the speaker to the sound of his own voice
and give him confidence and fluency.
There are, however, two dangers in oral composition
against which the student must guard himself. He may-
have a tendency to repeat aloud crude or ungrammatical
expressions. To avoid this, he should think a sentence
through before he utters it. The untrained speaker is
afraid that a pause will be considered hesitation, and so
often rushes headlong into the expression of a thought
before it has matured in his own mind. The polished,
extemporaneous speaker, on the other hand, pauses long
between his sentences, well knowing that the audience will
have no quarrel with him for his deliberation. The second
danger is quite the opposite of the first. He may hold so
critical an attitude toward his own work that he will be
led to reconstruct a sentence in the midst of it. To
avoid this, he should compel himself to finish a sentence,
no matter how poorly it may have been commenced. It
will be possible to make mental note of the error and
correct it during the next practice.
The student should not be discouraged if he does not
repeat the speech twice in the same words. In fact, this
may be an evidence of freedom and growth. The purpose
of the repetition is not to memorize a certain phraseology,
but to develop the power of expression. If the student's
mind is active, the speech will gradually assume a some-
what definite shape, which will be the speaker's best
form of expression at the given time.
Outline Memorized. — The last step in preparation is
to write the word-outline from memory. This memorized
OR.\L PREPARATION 91
outline should record any changes which it has been found
necessary to make during the oral practice.
A speaker should be absolutely independent of an
outline; for attention to notes takes his eyes from his
audience and subtracts just so much from the personal
element. In commenting on speeches delivered in the
House of Commons, Charles Seymour says, "The speeches
that were really listened to, that were enjoyed, that carried
the force of conviction, were the speeches that were spoken
without reference to notes." Thomas W. Higginson
discusses this same matter as follows: "Never carry a
scrap of paper before an audience. The late Judge B. R.
Curtis once lost a case in court of which he had felt very
sure — one in which John P. Hale was his successful
antagonist. When asked the reason, he said, 'I had all
the law and all the evidence, but that fellow Hale some-
how got so intimate with the jury that he won the case.'
To be intimate with your audience is half the battle, and
nothing so restricts and impedes that intimacy as the
presence of a scrap of paper." On very important occa-
sions one may have an outline within reach, but he
should strive to be independent of it.
II. Value as Compared with the Memoriter Method
The extempore method of preparation is better than
the method of writing and memorizing a speech in several
respects:
A Saver of Time. - When one writes a speech, he often
fmds that it is necessary to rewrite long passages. When
the speech is fmishcd, he discovers that it is too long and
must be condensed, or that certain portions need elabora-
tion. Perhaps whole paragraphs must be copied verbatim
92 ORAL ENGLISH
in order that these changes may be made. When, however,
one composes a speech by the oral, or extempore method,
the work of correction is a very simple matter. It is nec-
essary only to add, or cross out, or change the position of a
few words in the outline and the revision is complete.
A Better Speech. — Furthermore, a speech prepared
in this way is likely to produce a better impression
upon the audience than one which has been written and
memorized. In the first place, the delivery will be better:
it will be more conversational in tone, since the mind,
during the period of preparation, has been centered upon
the thought rather than upon the words. Again, the
speaker is not likely to become lost and forget his speech
entirely as might be the case with a memorized speech.
The extempore practice has served not only to impress
the organization of his thought upon his mind, but also
to give him confidence in himself so that if he fails on the
platform to recall the prepared words he can supply
others of equal merit.
In the second place, the style of a speech which has been
composed orally has a tendency to be more direct and
forcible and better suited to public utterance. When one
writes, he is tempted to construct sentences which are long
and involved. These, when delivered, give to the speech
an air of bookishness and take from it the appearance of
spontaneity which the speaker desires.
In the third place, the speech is more flexible; that is,
it can more readily be adapted to the occasion. The
speaker may insert ideas suggested by other numbers on
the program, or if the time is short he may omit unneces-
sary portions of his subject. Neither of these things could
he do if he were in the grip of a memorized speech.
ORAL PREPARATION 93
Growth of the Speaker. — Above all, the extempore
method is the only method which insures the growth of
the speaker. A man may spend a lifetime in writing and
memorizing speeches and still be without extemporaneous
power. This power "to think on one's feet," comes
gradually as a result of practice and confidence. As
Sir Francis Bacon says, "Reading maketh a full man,
writing, an exact man, and speaking, a ready man."
This is shown in the lives of great orators. Webster and
Lincoln, very early in life, were members of debating
clubs. Charles James Fox, the greatest debater of his
day, made it a rule to speak once each night in
Parliament.
The ordinary student, however, is not provided with a
Parliament ready to hand and so must furnish himself
with an imaginary audience. This repeated practice
gives the speaker confidence when he appears before a
real audience. As Nathan Sheppard says, "To realize
their presence in an eft'ort of the imagination is to for-
tify against their faces in the flesh." Each time the
student rehearses before his imaginary hearers he gains
power to master both himself and some future audience.
in. When a Speech may be Written
It is safe to say that a speech prepared for the classroom
should never be written before it is dehvered, although to
write it after it is delivered is a very profitable exercise
in written composition.
For important occasions, however, the speech may be
written before delivery, but only as a last step in the
preparation, after all has been done that can be done by
the method of extemporaneous practice. It may be
94 ORAL ENGLISH
possible by writing out the speech at the last to secure
a diction that is more concise and elegant, and at the
same time not to lose the value of the extemporaneous
practice. The speech will then be in form to preserve or
publish.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
how to prepare a speech orally from an outline, (2) why
this method is better than that of writing and memoriz-
ing, and (3) under what circumstances and at what period
of preparation a speech may be written.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Oral Preparation
Introduction.
I. The impromptu method of practice.
A. Use of.
B. Merits and demerits.
II. Extempore method — briefly defined.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Description of the extempore method.
A. Mental preparation.
1. Purpose.
2. Care illustrated.
3. Polishing without a pen.
B. Oral practice.
1. Number of times.
2. Two dangers.
3. Discouragement.
C. Outline memorized.
1. Changes.
2. Value of independence of outHne.
(a) Seymour.
Q)) Higginson.
ORAL PREPARATION 95
II, Value as compared with the memoriter method.
A. A saver of time. — Difficulty of revising a manuscript.
B. A better speech.
1. Delivery.
(a) Conversational «tyle.
(b) Greater confidence.
2. Style — compared with written.
3. Flexibility.
C. Growth of the speaker.
1. Two causes.
(a) Bacon.
(b) Experience of orators.
2. Imaginary and real audiences.
III. When a speech may be written.
A. Classroom work.
B. Important occasions.
Conclusion — Summary.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
Exercise II. — Prepare a. two-minute speech by the extempore
method, using the outline which you made in connection with the
preceding chapter. Time yourself. Be sure to bring the speech
within the recjuired limit. Have your outline ready to hand in at
the beginning of the period.
As the speeches are given in class, each student should make note
of criticisms in his loose-leaf notcljook and preserve ihem until after
they have been discussed in class.
Answer the following questions with reference to each speech:
1. Did it have unity? If so, the critic should be able to state the
main idea.
2. Was it well arranged? If it was, the critic should be able to
give one example of coherence or emphasis.
,3. Did it contain concrete material? If so, the critic should be
able to mention some illustration or some picture-making word.
In these and future criticisms, do not niilkc loo much use of the
words gooil and poor. Say, rather, (hat the speech was eilher
96 ORAL ENGLISH
1. Clear or confused.
2. Smooth or disjointed.
3. Concrete or dry.
4. Direct and conversational, or bookish.
5. Compact or wordy.
6. Earnest or tame.
It is well to give favorable criticisms before adverse criticisms,
for the one who is criticized will listen more willingly, if he knows
that his good points are appreciated. Again, the critic should be
looking for the good in order that he may imitate it.
READING LESSON V 97
READING LESSON V
Narratives
1. "Conservatism," by George William Curtis:
"A friend of mine was a student of Couture, the painter, in" Paris.
One day the master came and looked over the pupil's drawing and said
to him, 'My friend, that line should go so'; and indicated it lightly
on the paper with his pencil. To prove the accuracy of the master's
eye, the pupil rubbed out the correction and left the hne. The next
day Couture came, and looking over the drawing, stopped in surprise.
'That's curious,' said he, 'I thought I altered that. This line goes
so,' he added, and drew it firmly in black upon the paper. Again the
pupil rubbed out the correction. The next day the master came
again, stopped short when he saw the drawing, looked at it a moment
without speaking; then, with his thumb-nail, he cut quite through
the paper. 'That's the way this line ought to go,' he said, and
passed on.
"So the hearts and minds of our fathers marked the line of our
true development. Conservatism rubbed it out. The Missouri
struggle emphasized the line again. Conservatism rubbed it out.
The Kansas struggle drew the line more sternly. Conservatism
rubbed it out. Then, at last, the Divine finger drew in fire and blood,
sharply, sharply, through our wailing homes, through our torn and
bleeding country, through our very quivering hearts, the line of lib-
erty, and justice, and equal rights, and conservatism might as well
try to rub out the rainbow from the heavens, as to erase this, the
decision of the age."
2. From a eulogy of Daniel O'Connell by Wendell Phillips:
"Besides his irreproachable character, O'Connell had what is half
the power of the popular orator; he had a majestic presence. In
his youth he had the brow of a Jupiter or a Jove, and the stature of
Apollo. A little O'Connell would have been no O'Connell at all.
"These physical advantages are half the battle. You remember
the story Russell Lowell tells of Webster when, a year or two before
his death, the Whig party though) of dissolution. Webster came
home from Washington and wcnl down to I'aiu'uil Hall to protest;
98 ORAL ENGLISH
and four thousand of his fellow Whigs went out to meet him. Draw-
ing himself up to his loftiest proportions, his brow charged with
thunder, before that sea of human faces, he said: ' Gentlemen, I am
a Whig, a Massachusetts Whig; a Faneuil Hall Whig; a Revolution-
ary Whig; a constitutional Whig; and if you break up the Whig
party,, where am I to go?' 'We held our breath,' says Lowell,
'thinking where he could go. If he had been five feet three, we
should have said, "Who cares where you go?"'
"Well, O'Connell had all that. There was something majestic
in his presence before he spoke, and he added to it what Webster had
not, — the magnetism and grace that melts a million souls into his.
" Then he had a voice that covered the gamut. Speaking in Exeter
Hall, London, I once heard him say, 'I send my voice across the At-
lantic, careering like the thunderstorm against the breeze, to tell the
slaveholder of the Carolinas that God's thunderbolts are hot, and to
remind the bondman that the dawn of his redemption is already
breaking,' and you seemed to hear his voice reverberating and re-
echoing back to London from the Rocky Mountains. Then, with
the slightest possible Irish brogue, he would tell a story that would
make all Exeter Hall laugh. The next moment, tears in his voice,
like an old song, and five thousand men wept. All the while no
efi^ort — he seemed only breathing, —
' As effortless as woodland nooks
Send violets up, and paint them blue.' "
3. From an Address to the Jury at the White Murder Trial, by
Daniel Webster:
"The circumstances now clearly in evidence spread out the whole
scene before us. Deep sleep had fallen on the destined victim and on
all beneath his roof. A healthful old man to whom sleep was sweet,
the first sound slumbers of the night held him in their soft but strong
embrace. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared,
into an unoccupied apartment. With noiseless foot he paces the
lonely hall half lighted by the moon. He winds up the ascent of the
stairs and reaches the door of the chamber. He enters and beholds
his \actim before him. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned
from the murderer, and the beams of the moon, resting on the gray
READING LESSON V 99
locks of the aged temples, show him where to strike. The fatal blow
is given. Without a struggle or a motion the victim passes from the
repose of sleep to the repose of death. The murderer retreats, re-
traces his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in,
and escapes."
Descriptions
4. The Home and the Republic, from an address delivered at
Elberton, Georgia, in June, 1889, by Henry W. Grady:
"I went to Washington the other day, and as I stood on Capitol
Hill my heart beat quick as I looked at the towering marble of my
country's Capitol. The mist gathered in my eyes as I thought of
its tremendous significance, — the army, the Treasury', the courts,
Congress, the President, and all that was gathered there. I felt
that the sun in all its course could not look down upon a better sight
than that majestic home of the Republic that had taught the world
its best lessons in liberty.
"Two days afterwards I went to visit a friend in the country, —
a modest man, with a quiet country home. It was just a simple,
unpretentious house, set about with great big trees, encircled in
meadow and field rich with the promise of harvest. The fragrance
of pink and hollyhock in the front yard was mingled with the aroma
of the orchard and of the garden. The air was resonant with the
cluck of poultry and the hum of bees. Inside was quiet, cleanhness,
thrift, and comfort. Outside there stood my friend — master of
his land and master of himself. There was his old father, an aged,
trembling man, happy in the heart and home of his son. I saw the
night come down on that home, falling gently as from the wings of an
unseen dove. The old man, while a startled bird called from the
forest, and the trees shrilled with the cricket's cry, and the stars were
swarming in the sky, got the family around him, and taking the old
Bible from the table, called them to their knees, while he closed the
record of that simple day by calling down God's blessing on that
family and that home.
"While 1 gazed, the vision of the marble Capitol faded. lorgotlcn
were its trea.sures and its majesty, and I said, 'O, surely, here in the
hearts of the people at last are lodged the strength and responsibili-
ties of this government, the hope and promise of this Repubhc. '"
loo ORAL ENGLISH
5. Description of Robert E. Lee, by John W. Daniel:
"In personal appearance General Lee was a man whom once to
see was ever to remember. His figure was tall, erect, well propor-
tioned, lithe, and graceful. A fine head, with broad, uplifted brows,
and features boldly yet delicately chiselled, bore the aspect of one
born to command. His whole countenance bespoke alike a powerful
mind and an indomitable will, yet beamed with charity, benevolence,
and gentleness. In his manners, quiet reserve, unaffected courtesy,
and native dignity made manifest the character of one who can only
be described by the name of gentleman."
6. Description of Havana, by Senator A. B. Cummins:
"General Lee, after a cheery conversation, parted the window
curtains and invited his visitors to a tiny balcony overhanging the
the street. The \aew was enlivening. The Prado was bathed in
the effulgence of electric lights, and the statue of Isabella adorning
the oblong park fronting the hotel looked like an alabaster figure.
All was life and activity. A cool breeze came from the ocean. A
stream of well-dressed ladies and gentlemen poured along the Prado —
the dark-eyed sefioras and senoritas with coquettish veils, volunteers,
regulars, and d\n\ guards, in tasty uniforms, and a cosmopolitan
sprinkling of Englishmen, Germans, French, Italians, and other
nationalities, Americans being conspicuous. Low-wheeled carriages
rattled over the pavements in scores, many filled wath ladies eti masque
on their way to the ball. Occasionally the notes of a bugle were
heard, and anon the cries of negro newsboys, shouting 'La Lucha!'"
7. "A Vision of War," by Robert G. Ingersoll:
"The past rises before me like a dream. Again we are in the
great struggle for national life. We hear the sounds of preparation —
the music of boisterous drums — the silver voices of heroic bugles.
We see thousands of assemblages, and hear the appeals of orators.
We see the pale cheeks of women, and the flushed faces of men; in
those assemblages we see all the dead whose dust we have covered with
flowers. We lose sight of them no more. We are with them when
they enlist in the great army of freedom. We see them part with
those they love. Some are walking for the last time in quiet woody
places, with the maidens they adore. We hear the whisperings and
READING LESSON V loi
the sweet vows of eternal love as they lingeringly part forever. Others
are bending over cradles, kissing babes that are asleep. Some are
receiving the blessing of old men. Some are parting with mothers
who hold them and press them to their hearts again and again and
say nothing. Kisses and tears, divine mingling of agony and love!
Some are talking with wives, and endeavoring with brave words,
spoken in old tones, to drive from their hearts the awful fear. We
see them part. We see the ^\'ife standing in the door \Wth the babe
in her arms — standing in the sunlight sobbing. At the turn of the
road, a hand waves — she answers by holding high in her loving
arms, the child. He is gone, and forever."
CHAPTER IX
HOW TO PLAN A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION
Introduction. — A good speaker uses many short
stories and descriptions. These two forms of discourse
are powerful because they make mental pictures. Dick-
ens, as we saw in an earlier chapter, made a deeper
impression by his picture of the sufferings of one little
child in Edinburgh than he did by the statement that
there were thousands of miserable children in London.
A speaker's purpose in using these forms may be to
arouse feeling, as in the case just cited, or it may be merely
to make his idea more clear and impressive. Wendell
Phillips, for instance, quoted the story of Webster for the
purpose of showing that a large man would have more
power over his audience than a small one. Grady used
a description to make it clear that the strength of the
nation is to be found in its homes.
A good story or description has the same three qualities
that are found in a good exposition or argument, namely,
unity, coherence, and emphasis. In this chapter we shall
learn how to get these three qualities when we make a plan.
I. Narration
Unity. — A short story, in order to have unity, must
consist of a single incident. This is merely one way of
saying that it should occur within a brief space of time,
that the action should center about one particular place,
and that there should be a central character.
PLAXXING A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 103
The story should also have a point, or meaning. The
speaker should be able to state this point in a theme
sentence, although it would not be advisable to do so
while telhng the story. This warning is illustrated by
the prayer of Henry Van Dyke: "Lord, let me never
tag a moral to a story, nor tell a story without a mean-
ing." The theme of Curtis's story might be, "The eye
of the master artist is correct." The point in Webster's
story of the murder was, "The deed was prearranged and
committed in a stealthy and cowardly manner." The
story of Barbara Frietchie might be condensed into the sen-
tence, "The courage and patriotism of Barbara Frietchie
compelled even a rebel leader to do her homage."
Coherence. — The problem of securing a coherent
arrangement is not so difficult in a story as it is in the
other forms of discourse, since the time order is the natural
one to follow. The only danger is that some incident
which is not a link in the chain may find a place in the
story. In order that the story should move on toward
the climax, each happening should be a result of some
earlier event and the cause of a later one. Facts which
do not help the story along in this way should be omitted,
for they interfere with its coherence.
Emphasis. — The quality of emphasis, as we learned in
a previous chapter, means gradually increasing force. It
can be gained in a story by reserving the point until the
last. The events should be so arranged as to keep the
listener in suspense until the climax is reached, at which
place the point, or meaning of the story, is revealed. In
the story of Couture, the climax is found in the sentence,
"Then, with his thumb-nail, he cut quite through the
paper." In the story about Webster, "Wc held our
I04 ORAL ENGLISH
breath, thinking where he could go" seems to reveal the
point of the story. In Webster's story of the murder, "The
fatal blow is given" marks the highest point of interest.
II. Description
Unity. — A good description has within it some unifying
idea; that is, it leaves with the listener a very definite
impression. This result is gained by the fact that the
speaker has chosen from among numerous details those
which will tend to deepen the impression that he wishes
to make. The artist in colors does not paint Nature
exactly as it is; he chooses and arranges those features
of the landscape which can be fitted into his conception of
beauty. So with the descriptive artist: he should not
record everything which may be seen, but he should direct
attention to those details which tend to make prominent
a certain idea. Thus Wendell Phillips, in his description
of Webster, might have told us the color of his hair or
eyes, but because his purpose was to give an impression
of power, he mentioned only the lofty proportions and
the brow charged with thunder. In Senator Cummins'
description of Havana, the unifying idea is that of life
and activity, whereas in Robert Ingersoll's "Vision of
War" the central thought is the sadness of farewell.
Again, a good description, like a good picture, contains
a central object of interest. In Dickens' description
of the wretched hovel, it is the child in the egg-box; in
Grady's picture of the country home, it is the old man
with the Bible; in "A Vision of War," it is the wife with
the babe in her arms.
Coherence. — When we studied exposition and argu-
ment we learned that one could gain coherence by men-
PLANNING A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 105
tioning the general before the particular. The same is
true of descriptive discourse. The speaker should give
a general v^iew before going into details. ]\Ir. Daniel,
for example, begins his portraiture of Robert E. Lee with
the sentences, "In personal appearance, General Lee was
a man whom once to see was ever to remember. His
figure, etc." This order is easier to follow and therefore
more coherent, because it is the order in which one gains
a mental picture of an object which is actually before
his eyes. As one approaches a building, for instance, he
notices at first glance the general form, size, and color.
Later, he observes details. Victor Hugo begins his famous
description of the field of Waterloo by stating that it was
shaped Hke a capital A.
In order that the listeners may the more easily follow
the description, the speaker should observe the following
three rules: (i) he should proceed with the details in
some definite order, as, near to far, left to right, etc.;
(2) he should not change his own point of view without
notifying his audience of the change; and (3) he should
not describe details which cannot be seen from the point
of view which he has chosen.
Emphasis. — The quality of emphasis will be present
in a description if the most impressive detail is given last
and treated at greater length. If the student will again
examine Dickens' description of the wretched dwelling
in Edinburgh, Grady's sketch of a country home, and
Ingersoll's "Vision of War," he will fmd that this i)lan
has been followed in each case. The central ligure is
mentioned last and more time and greater care is given
to its delineation.
Conclusion. In this chapter we have learned how to
io6 ORAL ENGLISH
plan a story or a description in such a way as to secure
the three desirable qualities — unity, coherence, and em-
phasis.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
How TO Plan a Story or a Description
Introduction.
I. Picture-making value.
II. Two purposes illustrated.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Narration.
A. Unity.
1. Single incident.
2. Point or meaning.
B. Coherence.
1. Time order.
2. Quality of moving on.
C. Emphasis.
1 . Meaning.
2. Method of gaining. — Illustrations.
II. Description.
A. Unity.
1. Unifying idea, or impression.
2. Central object of interest.
B. Coherence.
1 . General idea before details.
2. Three rules for details.
C. Emphasis.
I. Necessity of two things.
Conchision.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
Exercise II. — Let the class be divided into three sections. Let
each section read one of the following Bible stories: The Sword of
the Lord and of Gideon (Judges, vii., 1-22); Absalom, My Son (2
Samuel, xviii) ; The Handwriting on the Wall {Daniel, v).
PLANNING A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 107
Study the story which has been assigned to you. Be able to tell
it in your own words in not more than three minutes. Make a word
outline of the stor>' and practice from it as directed in the preceding
chapter. The introduction to a story usually includes the time,
the place, and the characters. The body may be divided into initial
incident, rising action, and falling action.
Be prepared to answer the following questions about the story
which you have studied:
1. What is the theme of the story?
2. Is it a single incident, i.e. does it occur within a brief space
of time, at a particular place, and does it center about one character?
3. Is there any event which is not a necessary link in the chain?
4. What is the climax of the story? Is the point reserved until
the last?
Exercise III. — Reproduce some story or description suggested
in the tirst three divisions of Appendix III. Make a word outline
as before. If you cannot handle your subject efifectively in two
minutes, condense it. Write a theme sentence but, if it is a story,
do not use it in the telling.
Exercise IV. — Imagine that the class is gathered around a camp
fire and that each is expected to tell some experience, making it
as entertaining as possible. Look for suggestions in divisions four
and five of Appendix IIL Prepare by making a word outline and
bring the telling within three minutes.
Exercise V. — Present some idea, using a narrative or description
to make the idea more clear and attractive. This was done in Ex-
tracts I, 2, and 4 of Reading Lesson V, (pages 97-98).
io8 ORAL ENGLISH
READING LESSON VI
1. From Macaulay:
"The advocates of Charles the First, Hke the advocates of other
malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced, gen-
erally decline all controversy about the facts, and content themselves
with calling testimony to character. He had so many private virtues!
And had James the Second no private virtues? Was Oliver Crom-
well, his bitterest enemies themselves being judges, destitute of
private virtues?
"And what are the virtues ascribed to Charles? A religious
zeal, not more sincere than that of his son, and fully as weak and
narrow-minded, and a few of the ordinary household decencies which
half the tombstones in England claim for those who lie beneath them.
A good father! A good husband! Ample apologies indeed for fifteen
years of persecution, tyranny, and falsehood!
"We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and we
are told that he kept his marriage vow. We accuse him of having
given up his people to the merciless inflictions of the most hot-headed
and hard-hearted of prelates; and the defense is, that he took his little
son on his knee and kissed him. We censure him for having violated
the articles of the Petition of Right, after having, for good and valu-
able consideration, promised to observe them; and we are informed
that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six o'clock in the morning.
It is to such considerations as these, together with his Vandyke dress,
his handsome face, and his peaked beard, that he owes, we verily
believe, most of his popularity with the present generation."
2. Phillips Brooks, in his address to young men on " The Symmetry
of Life," says that the symmetrical life should have three dimensions,
length, breadth, and height. By length, he means purpose; by
breadth, sympathy for our fellows; by height, love to God. He
closes as follows:
"Do not dare to live without some clear intention toward which
your living shall be bent. Mean to do something with all your might.
Do not add act to act and day to day in perfect thoughtlessness, never
asking yourself whither the growing Hne is leading. But at the same
time do not dare to be so absorbed in your own life, so wrapped up
READING LESSON VI 109
in listening to the sound of your own hurrying heels, that all this
vast pathetic music, made up of the mingled joy and sorrow of your
fellowmen, shall not find out your heart and claim it and make you
rejoice to give yourself for them. And yet, aU the while keep the
upward windows open. Do not dare to think that a child of God
can worthily work out his own career or worthily serve God's other
children unless he does both in the love and fear of God their Father."
3. W. J. Fox before the first meeting of the Corn Law League, in
1843:
"The supporters of the Corn Laws are very fond of complaining of
the long speeches made by the Leaguers against them when they
know they have nothing novel to say. Now, I should be very glad
to effect a compromise with those objectors. I should be very ready
to say to them, 'if you will spare our pockets, we will spare your
intellects. If you will allow the people's mouths to be filled, we will
abstain from filling your ears with their remonstrances. If you will
untax our bread, we will no longer tax your patience.'
"Even the bread that is given in charity must first pay the tax
imposed by these laws; and if, by a royal begging letter, some hun-
dreds of thousands of pounds are collected for the poor of Paisley,
why, the rapacity of this dominant class must needs step in and take
some £30,000 of the money thus bestowed in charity. That Book
which we profess to revere tells us to pray for our daily bread; there-
fore it cannot possibly teach men to tax our daily bread. There is
one precept in that Book with the fulfillment of which these laws
directly interfere; there the young man is told to sell all that he has
and give to the poor. That precept it is impossible to obey in our
day. The Corn Laws have rendered it impossible. It must be altered
and in future it will stand: 'Sell all thou hast, and divide the pro-
ceeds between the richest and the poorest, between the pauper and
the landlord.' "
CHAPTER X
THE ART OF PHRASING
Introduction. — What we have already learned about
unity, coherence, and emphasis has had to do mainly with
the choice and arrangement of ideas. In this chapter we
shall learn further how to secure these artistic qualities
by the choice and arrangement of words.
I. Unity
Meaning of Sentence Unity. — A sentence is said to
have unity when it expresses one and only one main idea.
It is not hard for the speaker to secure unity when he uses
the simple sentence (a sentence with one main clause).
Neither is it difficult if he uses the complex sentence (a
sentence with one main clause and one or more dependent
clauses) ; for the main idea is naturally placed in the main
clause. It is when the speaker uses the compound sen-
tence (a sentence with two or more independent clauses)
that he is likely to violate the principle of unity.
Correct Use of the Compound Sentence. — There are
three sorts of ideas which may be expressed correctly in
the form of a compound sentence: (i) A contrast may be
so expressed, because the idea of difference furnishes the
unifying thought. For example, in the sentence, "You
worked, as a statesman, for the enemy, but I worked for
my country," the main idea is that the two statesmen
worked in different ways. (2) A general idea may be
THE ART OF PHRASING iii
illustrated by two or more clauses of similar construction.
Grady, for instance, said, "Horses that had charged
Federal guns marched before the plow; fields that ran
red with human blood in April were green with harvest
in June." The swift restoration of the South is the
one general idea that is illustrated by each of these
clauses. (3) Ideas which are equal and very closely re-
lated may be united in a compound sentence without mar-
ring its unity. Thus, "Webster went down to Faneuil
Hall to protest, and four thousand of his fellow W higs
went out to meet him." The two acts referred to in this
sentence probably occurred at the same time and were
equally necessary to the situation that formed the basis
of the story.
Incorrect Use of the Compound Sentence. — There are
two ways in which young speakers very commonly form
compound sentences that violate the principle of unity.
In the first place, in telling a story they are Hable to join
that which follows in time to that which precedes by and,
and then, or and so. An event which follows, another in
time may not be closely enough related to it to be placed
in the same sentence with it.
In the second place, students often form into a com-
pound sentence ideas which are related but which are not
of equal value: as, "It was a fine day and we went for
a walk." Since the fact that "we went for a walk" is
the principal information which the speaker desired to
give, it should have been placed in the main clause and
the idea of the fine day in a dependent clause. The result
would have been the comi)lex sentence, "As it was a fine
day, we went for a walk."
112 ORAL ENGLISH
IL Coherence
Connective Words or Phrases. — We have already
seen that a speaker may secure coherence by an orderly
arrangement of ideas. He may also make his speech hang
together by certain tricks of language. Almost every
sentence should contain within it some word or phrase
which makes reference to a preceding idea. Personal
pronouns {them, it, etc.), adjectives {such, these, this, etc.),
and conjunctions {while, therefore, and others hsted in
Ex. Ill) may be so used as to lead the mind easily from
one thought to the next. One may use not only single
words but also phrases to indicate the relation between
ideas. Lincoln does this in the Gettysburg Address
when he says, ^^ But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedi-
cate," etc. By this phrase, we are reminded of the nar-
rower sense in which he treated the subject of dedication
in the preceding sentences.
Parallel Construction. — By giving to similar ideas a
similar or parallel construction, the speaker may help his
audience to follow more easily a desired line of thought.
Ideas are given a similar construction when the parts of the
sentence, such as the subject, predicate complement, and
modifiers, are all in the same relative positions. Chapter
III, Ex. VI, Selection i furnishes an excellent example of
the coherent value of this rhetorical method, which was
a very prominent feature of Webster's style also.
Several illustrations may be found in Chapter III, Ex.
IV, 2, and Ex. V, 2. Let us study one of them.
Webster says, "If the prisoner's guilt has been shown
and proved beyond all reasonable doubt, you will convict
him. If such reasonable doubt of guilt still remains, you
THE ART OF PHRASING 113
will acquit him." In these two sentences the dependent
clause is placed first and the independent clause varies
in only one word. Let us change the order of ideas in the
second sentence, and note the result. "If the prisoner's
guilt has been shown and proved beyond all reasonable
doubt, you will convict him. He should, however, be
acquitted by you if reasonable doubt of guilt still remains."
We see, by this experiment, how much Webster has
gained in force, coherence, and rhythmic quality by the
use of parallel construction.
III. Emphasis
Directness. — Emphasis, or force, may be gained by
directness: (i) A direct quotation is more forcible than
an indirect quotation: for example, " 'Fire!' commanded
Jackson," is more emphatic than, "He commanded them
to fire." (2) The active, or direct form of the verb is
stronger than the passive form: for example, "He dis-
tributed the papers" is more forceful than "The papers
were distributed by him." (3) Conciseness gives strength;
unnecessary words give weakness. For instance, "He re-
turned to the city which he claimed as his birthplace," is
weak as compared with, "He returned to his native city."
Arrangement of Words. — As the important parts of
a speech are at the opening and at the close, so it is with
a sentence: that which the speaker desires to emphasize
should be placed near the beginning or the end of the
sentence. Unimportant expressions such as "I think," or
"he said," should be placed in the middle of the sentence.
Emphasis or force can be gained also by the use of
climax, that is, by the arrangement of a series of words
or phrases in the order of importance, the strongest last.
114 ORAL ENGLISH
This was another favorite device of Webster's. Sev-
eral examples are given in Chapter III, Ex. IV, 2, and
Ex. V, 2.
Variety in Sentence Form. — Just as a voice is monoto-
nous if it lacks emphasis, or variety in pitch, so one's style
is monotonous if the sentences are all built on the same
plan. The speaker, then, who would be forceful, or em-
phatic, should study the different kinds of sentence forms,
together with their adaptability to certain purposes, and
should seek to use as great a variety as possible.
(i) Sentences may be grouped according to grammatical
structure. According to this classification they are either
declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, or imperative.
The declarative form is generally used by young speakers
to the exclusion of all the other forms, with a resulting
monotony of style. The interrogative form is especially
useful to the speaker. He may sometimes use it to intro-
duce a thought. Macaulay does this when he asks, "And
what are the virtues ascribed to Charles?" He then
devotes a paragraph to answering his own question.
(Reading Lesson VI, i, H 2, page 108.) Again, a speaker
may bring a thought to an appropriate conclusion by
the question form. Emerson gains emphasis in this way
when, after amphfying the thought that a man should
develop his own powers and not try to imitate those of
another, he asks, "Is it (the thought) not an iron string
to which vibrates every heart? " (Chapter III, Ex. Ill, 2.)
When a speaker attempts this latter use of the interroga-
tive sentence, however, he must be sure that he has made
his point so clear that his hearers can answer the question
in only one way — the way in which he wishes them to
answer it. The exclamatory sentence finds its proper place
THE ART OF PHRASING 115
in emotional oratory, but is seldom used in ordinary
speechmaking. IMacaulay uses it to express sarcasm.
(Reading Lesson VI, i, ^ 2, page 108.) The imperative
sentence form increases the emphasis because it enables
the speaker to address his hearers directly. It may be
used effectively in exhortation at the close of a speech.
(Reading Lesson VI, 2, page 108.)
(2) Sentences may be classified according to length.
Short sentences give clearness and simplicity of style.
With this purpose in view, they can be used as topic
sentences and as definitions. They also give strength, or
vigor of style. With this purpose in view, they may be
used in the expression of strong feeling or rapid action.
A speaker may sometimes gain emphasis by using a short
sentence as the last expression in the development of a
thought. An excellent illustration of the effectiveness of
a short closing sentence is to be found in Reading Lesson
V, Selection 7.
Long sentences are useful as a means of amplifying a
thought. By a long sentence, a speaker may give the
details which explain a short, general statement. (Read-
ing Lesson V, Selection 6.) He may also modify a short,
extreme statement. Lincoln, for instance, makes the
rather startling claim, "A house divided against itself
cannot stand." Then, by the use of severa,! long sen-
tences, he proceeds to show exactly what he means by
this statement. (Reading Lesson IV, 2.) Again, the
exclusive use of short sentences would result in abruptness,
whereas an occasional long sentence adds a rhythmic
quality which is necessary to a pleasing style.
(3) Sentences may be classified according to the way
in whi( h the ideas are arranged. In a loose sentence, the
ii6 ORAL ENGLISH
main idea is stated first, followed by the lesser, or modify-
ing ideas. One may say that the weight, in a loose sen-
tence, is at the beginning. This kind of sentence is used
frequently in the easy, informal style of address. The
only danger is that one may continue to add ideas until
the sentence becomes rambling.
In the periodic sentence, the main idea is reserved until
the last and is preceded by the lesser, or modifying ideas.
In reading a truly periodic sentence, one is unable to grasp
the main idea until he has reached the period. One may
say that the weight of the sentence is at the end. This
kind of sentence is found more frequently in the formal,
dignified style of address. Since the tendency to use loose
sentences is so strong, it will be well for the student
definitely to practice the periodic form.
In a balanced sentence, there are two ideas of equal
importance. One may say that the weight is equal at
both ends. A balanced sentence is frequently used to
express a contrast. This kind of sentence is pleasing
because of its symmetry.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that
unity, coherence, and emphasis are gained not only by
the choice and arrangement of ideas, but also by the choice
and arrangement of words.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Art of Phrasing
Introduction — Advance summary.
Body.
1. Unity.
A. Meaning of sentence unity.
I. Use of simple, complex, and compound sentences.
THE ART OF PHR.\SIXG 117
I. .6. Correct use of the compound sentence.
1. Contrast.
2. General idea, illustrated.
3. Ideas which are equal and closely related.
C. Incorrect use of the compound sentence.
1. Events which follow in time.
2. Ideas which are equal but not closely related.
II. Coherence.
A. Connective words or phrases.
1 . Words.
2. Phrases.
B. Parallel construction.
1. Definition.
2. Example.
3. Example changed.
III. Emphasis.
A. Directness.
I The direct quotation.
2. Active verbs.
3. Conciseness.
B. .Arrangement of words.
1. Important positions in a sentence.
2. Climax.
C. \'ariety in sentence form. — Voice.
1. Grammatical structure.
2. Length.
(a) Short.
{b) Long.
3. Arrangement of ideas.
((i) Loose.
(Z») Periodic,
(c) Balanced.
Conclusion.
Exercise L — i. Read the text as far as Division II and be able
to recite from the topical outline.
2. Select and check in your book the compound sentences in
Reading Lesson \'.
ii8 ORAL ENGLISH
Exercise II. — Be able in class to repeat one of the narrative
speeches which you prepared in connection with Chapter IX. Re-
vise the outhne if necessary. Give special attention to sentence
unity. Challenge every compound sentence; i.e. watch the ands.
As the speeches are given, the class should make note of any com-
pound sentences which should not have been so.
Exercise III. — i. Read Division II and be able to recite from
the topical outline.
2. Review the Gettysburg Address (page 38) and check all
^vords and phrases which refer to a previous idea or which express
a relation between ideas.
3. The following connectives may be classified according to the
relation that each expresses between the two ideas which it connects.
The relations are: time, result, possibility, comparison, opposition,
concession, addition, illustration, reason, summary, etc. Use each
correctly in a sentence or sentences, and place in parentheses the
name of the relation which is expressed; e.g.:
He is not able to do it; at any rate he will find it very difficult.
(Concession.)
The class may be divided into three sections, each section pre-
paring the sentences for one list.
I II III
even if above all in reality
in conclusion .... also to be sure
secondly yet as well as
while accordingly in spite of
therefore after as a matter of fact
for instance before meanwhile
but as a result because
at least on the contrary of course
in general besides for that matter
moreover indeed rather
nevertheless at the same time still
for example again furthermore
hence on the other hand. . . consequently
when then however
as soon as somewhat later either. . .or
thus it follows that neither. . .nor
although unless for
THE ART OF PHRASING 119
Exercise IV. — Be able to repeat one of the expository or argu-
mentative speeches which you have already prepared. Revise it with
special attention to coherence. Seek to gain coherence by the use
of parallel constructions and connective words. As the speeches are
given, the class should make note of all connective words and ex-
pressions.
Exercise V. — i . Complete the chapter and be able to recite
from the topical outhne.
2. Change to declarative sentences all sentences quoted or referred
to under the topic "Variety in Sentence Form (i)." Notice the
loss in force.
3. Find a periodic sentence in Reading Lesson VI, i (page 108),
and change it to a loose sentence.
4. Check all balanced sentences in Reading Lesson VI, i and 3.
Exercise VI. — Be able to repeat one of the expository or argu-
mentative speeches which you have already prepared. Revise it
with particular attention to variety of sentence form. Try to have
at least one interrogative or imperative sentence. Experiment with
balanced and periodic sentences and thus try to increase the effective-
ness of your speech.
Exercise VII. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on
any of the following topics:
1. How to Get Unity in the Choice of a Subject.
2. How to Get Unity in the Development of a Subject.
3. How to Plan for Coherence.
4. How to Plan for Emphasis.
5. The Best Method of Making a Plan for a Speech.
6. The DifTcrencc between the Plan for an .'\rgumcnt and the
Plan for an Exposition.
7. Description of the Extempore Method.
8. Value of the Extempore Method.
g. The Correct Use of the Compound Sentence.
10. \'aricty of Sentence Forms as a Means of Force.
PART III — ARGUMENT AND
PERSUASION
CHAPTER XI
THE GAME OF DEBATE
Introduction. — Now that we have learned how to
deliver a speech and have studied the fundamental prin-
ciples of composition, we shall be able to apply our knowl-
edge and skill to argument and persuasion, two forms of
speech which are more difficult in their character.
These two processes, if we may call them such, are very
closely related. Persuasion may be defined as the art of
moving men to action. In most instances the persuasive
speaker must first convince men that a certain course of
action is right and then lead them to feel disposed to act
on their convictions. There is occasionally a very success-
ful persuasive speech which appeals strongly to the feelings
and very little to the reason; that is, it contains little
argument. Such might be the speech of a clergyman in
urging his congregation to go to the polls and vote for
good government; for he would know that his hearers
were already convinced as to what was right and needed
only to be aroused to action. If, however, a man wishes
to secure contributions to a cause, he must first convince
his hearers that the cause is a worthy one. If he does not
support his appeal to the feelings by sound reasoning,
the impulse to act is likely to be of short duration. We
see, then, that argument is very frequently the foundation
of persuasion.
THE GAME OF DEBATE 121
In this chapter we shall study (i) the relation of debate
to argument, (2) the relation of debate to life, and (3) the
value of debate as an exercise in public speaking.
I. Relation of Debate to Argument •
Nature of Debate. — Debate may be defined as a game
in which two or more people discuss, according to certain
rules, some question in real life on which there are differ-
ences of opinion. The question may be a simple one,
such as, ''Shall our senior class buy a two-dollar or a three-
dollar pin?" Or it may be more complex, as, "Should our
judges be appointed by the governor or elected by the
people?" Honest differences of opinion occur in real
life, either because Mr. A. recognizes one series of facts
and Mr. B. recognizes another series of facts, or because,
while both recognize the same series of facts, each draws
a different conclusion therefrom. The winner of the
game is the one who is best able to search out the facts
supporting the opinion which he has been appointed to
uphold and to use those facts in such a way as to convince
his audience of their value.
Argumentative Practice. — The game of debate has
been devised to give young people an opportunity to put
into practice their knowledge of the rules of argument.
It is true that one can learn to argue merely by a study of
the rules and by the preparation of individual arguments,
but he will develop his powers more rapidly if he will
engage in the game of debate. Even though a student
does not have the natural al)ility to become a skilled de-
bater, he should study and understand the game. One
who does not understand the game of football sees only a
tumbling mass of boys, while one who does understand it
122 ORAL ENGLISH
watches every move with keen interest. In the same way,
one who does not understand the game of debate looks
upon it as a bore, while one who does understand it gets
from it both pleasure and profit. Because of the fact that
the best way to learn to argue is to study the game of
debate, all of the instruction in argument given in this text
has been addressed to the debater.
II. Relation of Debate to Life
Personal Problems. — The study of argumentation
and the game of debate have a very close relation to life.
We are debating with ourselves every day. We must
decide, for instance, whether to go to the party or to stay
at home and prepare for an examination. Again, the
problem arises, "Shall I take a commercial course and be
a business man or shall I study medicine?" In each
case, we find that the question has two sides. In the
solution of even these practical problems of life, an under-
standing of the rules that govern argument will prevent
us from being led into error, either by our own false
reasoning or by that of others.
Citizenship. — The practice of debate will tend to make
one a valuable citizen in a democratic community. In
the first place, it will furnish him with a wide range of
information on problems which he will be required to dis-
cuss in later life. A student who is interested in debating
throughout his high school course may, by means of de-
bates prepared by himself or of those presented by his
classmates, arrive at a more or less intelligent conclusion
upon all the problems that come before the public mind.
In the second place, debate will assist in the formation
of a judicial habit of mind, or the habit of weighing every
THE GAME OF DEBATE 123
fact before drawing a conclusion. Among those who have
debated under efficient guidance, one will seldom find the
narrow-minded, prejudiced, or partisan. Neither will
he find those who are easily influenced by false political
leaders.
It is sometimes urged against debating that it tends
to make a speaker insincere, in that he may be required to
speak against his convictions. The fact is that the con-
victions which a young person may have on a debatable
question are very likely to be mere prejudices which will
vanish when the light of knowledge is turned on. We
say "on a debatable question" because a question in
which all the right is on one side and all the wrong is on
the other is not debatable. We could not, for example,
debate the proposition, "Resolved, That Mr. A. should
throw his garbage into his neighbor's yard." The major-
ity of debatable questions deal with reforms or policies.
These have their advantages and disadvantages as com-
pared with other reforms and policies; so that a thorough
and conscientious debater may change his opinion several
times before he has exhausted the study of his subject.
Sometimes one newly discovered fact will outweigh all
the plausible arguments on the opposing side. It is only
when we know and have weighed all the facts on both sides
that we may be said to have convictions which are worthy
of the name. As Mr. G. J. Holyoake says, "Controversy
is the pathway to truth and the final test of it."
The practice of debate will also helj) a student to become
a leader among his fellows, because it not only increases
his skill as a speaker, but also gives him the necessary
foundation for persuasiveness. This claim is supported
by the statement <jf the dean of a western law school.
124 ORAL ENGLISH
He says of its graduates, "Those who were athletes en-
joyed a brief period of glory while in college, but it is the
debaters who are now helping to make the history of
the community, state, and nation."
III. Debate as an Exercise in Public Speaking
Self-consciousness. — As a valuable exercise in public
speaking, debating is unsurpassed. It helps to counteract
a tendency to self-consciousness, for the debater's interest
in the contest causes him to forget himself.
Thoroughness. — No other exercise demands so much
thoroughness of preparation; this is especially true of
the pubHc contest. Prof. W. T. Foster says in his Argu-
mentation and Debating, "Often the hard work for a given
debate provides the student's first standard for sounding
the shallowness of his knowledge on other subjects."
Students have sometimes been able to use the thorough
work done on a high-school interscholastic debate as the
basis for a prize essay or discussion at college.
Mental Training. — There can be no better training
for the mind. The practice of debate, more than any
other form of speech-making, compels a wise selection of
material. If a speaker has no opponent, he may occupy
ten minutes with almost any matter that refers to the sub-
ject; but if he debates, he must choose those arguments
which will fill his time most profitably.
Furthermore, it sharpens the wits. The debater must
not only think, but he must think quickly. This whole
matter is admirably summed up by Edmund Burke, the
great parliamentary debater, when he says, "He that
wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our
skill. Our antagonist is our helper. This amiable con-
THE GAME OF DEBATE 125
flict with difficulty obliges us to an intimate acquaintance
with our subject and compels us to consider it in all its
relations. It will not suffer us to be superficial."
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
that the game of debate has been devised to enable stu-
dents to apply their knowledge of the rules of argument;
(2) that the study of argumentation and debate has a
very close relation to life; and (3) that as a valuable exer-
cise in public speaking, debating is unsurpassed.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Game of Debate
Introduction.
I. Relation between Parts I, II, and III of the text.
II. Relation of argument to persuasion.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Relation of debate to argument.
A. Nature of debate.
1. Definition illustrated.
2. Causes of different opinions.
3. Qualifications of the winner.
B. Argumentative practice.
1. Purpose of debate.
2. Value as compared with the individual speech.
3. \'alue of understanding the game.
II. Relation of debate to life.
A. Personal problems.
1. Instances.
2. Prevention of error.
B. Citizenship.
1. Information.
2. Judicial habit of mind.
(o) Definition.
{b) Insincerity.
126 ORAL ENGLISH
n. B. 2. (b) (i) An undebatable question.
(2) Character of debatable questions.
(3) Meaning of "convictions" — Hol-
yoake.
3. Leadership.
(a) Two reasons.
(h) Statement by the dean of a law school.
III. Debate as an exercise in public speaking.
A . Self-consciousness.
B. Thoroughness.
1. Statement by W. T. Foster.
2. Use in college.
C. Mental training.
1. Selection of material.
2. Alertness.
3. Statement of Burke.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
CHAPTER XII
THE QUESTION
Introduction. — The subject for discussion is usually
called "the question." This is allowable for the reason
that there is really a question underlying every debate.
For example, we may debate the proposition, "Resolved,
That High School should adopt a system of student
government." Involved in this proposition is the ques-
tion, "Should High School adopt a system of student
government?" To this, the affirmative side answers
"Yes" and the negative answers "No."
The subject for discussion is always phrased, however,
in the form of a complete statement. In the first place,
for the purposes of formal debating, the statement is more
convenient than the question form. The first, or affirma-
tive speaker, sui)ports or affirms the proposition ; the second,
or negative speaker, denies it; and the remaining speakers
follow alternately, according as they affirm or deny.
In the second place, the statement form can be made
more clear and expHcit than a topic. It would be impos-
sible to debate successfully the topic, "Student Govern-
ment"; for it does not state whether the dispute con-
cerns college, high-school, or grammar-school students,
or whether it concerns all schools or one particular school.
In this chapter we shall learn: (i) that in phrasing a
question for debate, one should seek to throw the burden
of proof upon the affirmative, avoiding, if possible, a
128 ORAL ENGLISH
negative statement; and (2) that he should aim to make
the question evenly balanced; that is, he should try to
give to each side an equal chance.
I I. Burden of Proof
Supported by Affirmative. — The question should be
so worded as to place the burden of proof upon the affirm-
ative. In questions of present-day interest, this can be
done by forcing the affirmative to advocate a change or,
in general, to uphold what is supposed to be the unpopular
side. This arrangement furnishes an incentive to earnest
work on the part of the affirmative, since it is assumed that
the general public is in favor of things as they exist, else
they would already have been changed. The affirmative
has the work of attacking the old and of convincing the
pubhc of the value of the new. To make a speech in
defense of present conditions before they have been
attacked would be a very tame affair. The first affirma-
tive would find it very difficult, for example, to introduce
in an interesting way the proposition, '^Resolved, That we
should make no change in our method of school govern-
ment."
Shifting the Burden. — If the first affirmative has done
his work well, he is said to have shifted the burden of
proof to the negative; that is, he has convinced the public
that a change is necessary. The negative then has the
exhilarating task of trying to shift the burden back again.
He can do this in one of two ways : he may attack the new
plan and defend present conditions, or, as is more com-
monly the case, he may admit the evil of present conditions
and present what he considers a better remedy. If each
speaker does his duty, the burden of proof continues to
THE QUESTION 129
be shifted alternately from one side to the other. The
winners of the debate, from the standpoint of argument,
are those who, in the minds of the judges, have finally
shifted the burden to the other side. Since the burden of
proof rests in the beginning upon the affirmative, the main
speeches are so arranged as to give the affirmative the
first chance to shift the burden to the negative. For
the same reason, the affirmative is given an opportunity
to close the debate. This is accomplished by reversing
the order in which the speakers appear for refutation;
that is, the refutation speeches are so arranged that
negative speakers lead and affirmative speakers follow.
Objection to Negative Statement. — In phrasing a
question so that the burden of proof will fall upon the
affirmative, it is sometimes difficult to avoid a negative
statement. Let us consider the question, "Resolved, That
the Garrison bill providing for a larger army should not
be supported." This statement has its merit and its
demerit. It is good in that it places the burden of proof
upon the affirmative, for it was phrased at a time when
public opinion was strongly in favor of increased prepared-
ness. In other words, it forced the affirmative to advocate
a peace poHcy when there seemed to be particular need
of defense. The negative phrasing of the question, how-
ever, is likely to be a source of confusion to both speakers
and audience. It is necessary constantly to reverse one's
mental machinery; for the affirmative side takes a nega-
tive attitude toward the topic of discussion, while the
negative side takes a positive attitude. Possibly a better
statement of the question would be, "Resolved, That
the Oarrison bill providing for a larger army should be
condemned." It must be admitted that, ev^n with this
I30 ORAL ENGLISH
statement of the question, the negative idea is present, —
this is made necessary by the situation, — but the affirm-
ative phrasing does in a measure lessen the difficulty.
II. Balance
A good question for debate is evenly balanced; that is,
it is so worded that the burden of proof does not rest too
heavily upon the affirmative. The change that is advo-
cated should not be too extreme or radical. Let us take
as an example the question of our jury system. It is
freely admitted that there are many evils in our jury
system. For this reason the following question has
frequently been debated : "Resolved, That the jury system
should be abolished." This radical statement of the prob-
lem is, however, unfair to the affirmative. The change is
too sweeping. It would do violence to our most cherished
guarantee of freedom. A better debate would result from
the consideration of some reform within the jury system:
as, "Resolved, That nine out of twelve men should be
able to render a verdict in all criminal cases." This
proposition, although it provides for a much less radical
change, places a sufficiently heavy burden on the affirma-
tive, for we are all inclined to feel that a man should not
suffer the extreme, or death, penalty unless all who hear
the evidence concur in the verdict. No debatable ques-
tion is absolutely balanced. We can only seek to approxi-
mate a true balance.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that, in
phrasing a question for debate, we should seek (i) to
place the burden of proof upon the affirmative and (2)
to give to each side, as nearly as possible, an equal oppor-
tunity.
THE QUESTION 131
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Question
Introduction.
I. Reason for calling the subject a question.
II. Why phrased as a statement.
A. As compared with a question.
B. As compared \nih a topic.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Burden of proof.
A. Supported by affirmative.
1. How accomplished.
2. Value.
B. Shifting the burden.
1. Two methods of the negative.
2. Winners.
3. Order of speeches.
C. Objection to negative statement.
1. Example.
((7) Its merit and demerit.
2. Partial remedy.
II. Balance.
A. Example of an extreme statement.
B. Example of a less extreme statement.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
CHAPTER XIII
HOW TO USE A LIBRARY
Introduction. — If one is asked to make a speech of
greater length than three or four minutes, whether it be
a debate or some other form of pubhc address, it will
probably be necessary for him to search for material out-
side of his own mind. It is quite common on such occa-
sions for young students to seek help from their older
friends. This is profitable and right, provided that the
student has first done some extensive reading on the sub-
ject. Pubhc spirited men usually count it a pleasure to
assist a bright, energetic student if he knows exactly on
what phases of the subject the student desires information.
The latter should not, however, pester his elders for
"points" until after he has made use of the available
written material.
The most successful speakers give much time to re-
search work. The following quotation from Alexander
Hamilton shows how much drudgery and patient effort
lie back of the pubhc utterances of great men: "Men
give me credit for some genius. All the genius I have Hes
in this: when I have a subject in hand, I study it pro-
foundly. Day and night it is before me. I explore it in
all its bearings. My mind becomes pervaded with it.
Then the effort which I make is what the people are pleased
to call the fruit of genius. It is the fruit of labor and
thought." The material to be studied is often very
HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 133
extensive, especially upon debatable questions. There
are subjects discussed on high-school platforms, the
literature of which might well occupy a student for an
entire year. Because of this, it is usually best to divide
one's time into two parts, giving the first half to research
work and the second half to the arrangement and phrasing
of one's ideas.
Since the time is always Hmited and since the material
is often, seemingly, without limit, the speaker must learn
those methods of research which will secure the best
results with the greatest economy of effort. We shall
learn, therefore, in this chapter: (i) how to find material
in a library, (2) how to select that which is most useful,
and (3) how to take notes in the best way.
I. How TO Find References
References are those books, magazines, or pamphlets
which deal with the subject to be investigated.
General Idea. — The speaker should try first to get
a general idea of his subject. This is quite as necessary
as it is for the artist to sketch in the general outline of his
picture before he fills in the details. In some instances
one may be able to find this general idea in his own mind,
Webster, when asked how he prepared himself on a sub-
ject, said, "I first examine my own mind searchingly, to
find out what I already know about the subject, and then
I read to learn what I don't know about it."
In other cases the speaker may consult general reference
works which handle the whole subject in a brief way. If
the subject is historical, literary, or scientific, lie may
consult the encyclopedia (ir textbooks. If the subject is
debatable, he may use, in addition, books of briefs. (See
134 ORAL ENGLISH
Appendix XII, No. VII, General References on Debatable
Subjects.)
The debater should be warned against using "brief
books" in any other way than to get a general view of
the subject. He should not copy and use the arrange-
ment of ideas; for, in the first place, the arrangement is
seldom ideal and, in the second place, an original plan
helps to give individuality and force to a speech. Again,
the student should never use a book of briefs as authority
for a statement.
Special References. — There are several kinds of ref-
erences which give the detailed facts bearing on a subject
and which we may call special references.
(i) Magazine Articles. — These can be found by con-
sulting the Reader's Guide, which is a continuation of
Poole's Index from the year 1900. The references for each
month are issued in pamphlet form. At the end of the
quarter, the references for the year up to that time are
issued in pamphlet form. At the end of each year and
again at the end of every five years they are issued in
bound form.
The student should look up magazine references in
some regular order. He will then know whether or not
he has found all of the best articles. It is usually well
to begin with the recent ones and work backward, for the
latest articles give more up-to-date and therefore more
valuable information. The speaker should not be de-
terred from this course by the fact that it is often difficult
to secure late copies. New magazines are usually sent to
the bindery in January and in July, and sometimes are
not returned for two or three months. If one is looking
for material about the fife and works of a great character,
HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 135
it is well to find the date of his death and to look for
magazine references in the Reader'' s Guide for that year.
The thoroughness with which the student can search
for and copy references will, of course, depend upon the
amount of time which is allotted to the work. It is
always well to look for references under several different
topics connected with the subject: for example, material
on the "Recall of Judges" may be found under Judiciary,
Courts, Laws, Recall of Decisions, etc. If one has but a
short time for preparation, he should copy only those refer-
ences whose titles indicate that they bear directly on the
subject. If, on the other hand, one is gathering material
for a pubhc debate and has from four to six weeks to
study the subject, he should copy all references. He may
sometimes find, in this way, embedded in a seemingly
irrelevant article, a fact or idea that will suggest an
original line of argument.
(2) Books. — Most of these can be found by consulting
the card catalogue. There will be found, also, on the
reference shelves, books which give valuable statistics,
such as. Census Reports, Statesman's Year Book, World
Almanac, Who's Who, etc. All of the larger libraries
keep files of the Congressional Record. It requires sev-
eral volumes to record the proceedings of each session of
Congress. These are all given the same volume number,
but are designated Part I, Part II, etc. If the student
wishes to find a Congressional debate on his subject, he
should first look in the index, which will be found in the
last part of each volume, or of the set for each session.
The index will state the numbers of the Senate or House
Bills which deal with the subject. He should then turn
to the list of House Bills or of Senate Bills, which are
136 ORAL ENGLISH
•
arranged according to number, to find the pages upon
which the debate is recorded.
(3) Pamphlets. — The United States government issues
in pamphlet form a great deal of material upon debatable
subjects. This, if it is not already in the library, can be
obtained without charge through the Congressman from
one's district. Organizations which have been formed for
the purpose of urging or opposing some reform usually
publish literature which they are glad to distribute.
Material of this kind is very abundant on such subjects
as prohibition, woman suffrage, initiative and referendum,
socialism, ship subsidy, naval increase, labor, etc. The
student can usually secure the addresses of the publishing
houses of these organizations through some one in his
own town who is interested in the subject.
How to Copy References. — Those who have worked
much in libraries have discovered that it saves time to
be systematic in the copying of references. It is well to
copy each reference on a separate card or slip of paper.
These slips will be much more convenient than a note-
book list of references if one is working in a large library,
for the librarian can place the slip in each volum.e as he
secures it. This plan permits the student to proceed with
his reading while the librarian is searching for other
volumes. The separate slips are especially useful to de-
baters. When a student has read a reference, he may
label it Affirmative, Negative, or General, star it if it is
particularly good, and pass it on to his colleagues.
One should copy practically all of the items given either
in the Reader's Guide or in the card catalogue. These
consist of the name of the author, title -of the article,
name of the magazine, volume, page numbers, and date.
HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 137
Nearly all of these items are essential for finding purposes.
The exact date is necessary in the case of all recent and
therefore unbound magazines and of such magazines
as begin each issue with page one. In addition,
some of them help to guide the student as to the order
in which he should read, and are especially necessary if
one wishes to send to a state library for material. The
name of the author will enable the student to read, early
in his study, those authors which he finds to be best
informed. The title often indicates whether or not the
article bears directly upon the subject, and the date will
show whether the material is likely to have become
obsolete by the movement of events.
II. How TO Select Material
The student must next learn to select from a large
mass of material that which will be most»useful to him.
It has been suggested in the preceding paragraph that
the student read his best material first, using as a guide
in this matter the name of the author, the title, and the
date.
Skimming. — Let us now consider the manner of read-
ing a given magazine or book. The student should
learn to skim thoughtfully and systematically. Sir
Francis Bacon says in his quaint way, "Some books are
to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be
chewed and digested; that is, some books arc to be read
only in parts, others to be read but not curiously, and some
few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention."
What Bacon says of books as a whole is true also of parts
of books and of articles. An unpracticed reader will often
plod along through an article in painstaking fashion.
138 ORAL ENGLISH
taking copious notes. Several hours may thus be con-
sumed on some abstruse, unintelHgible, and perhaps irrel-
evant material, while clear, spicy reading matter must be
left untouched for lack of time.
In order to determine whether or not an article is valu-
able, the student should read the introduction, the con-
clusion, and the first and last sentence of each paragraph.
In order to determine whether or not a book is valuable,
the student should read the conclusion and consult the
table of contents and index. When he has found useful
material, he should read it carefully and thoughtfully.
"The careful reader is not necessarily the slow reader, but
he who knows when to slacken his pace and read slowly." ^
III. How TO Take Notes
A speaker must not only learn how to read, but he must
study the art of note-taking. Those who shirk this duty
are likely, in their speeches, to deal in generalities because
they are at a loss for facts to support their assertions.
Substance of the Thought. — Good notes record the
substance of the thought and not the exact words of the
author. To repeat the words of an author without giving
him due credit is literary theft, for, while an author cannot
copyright an idea, he does copyright the mode of its ex-
pression. This does not mean that it is criminal to notice
and incorporate in one's own statements some particularly
apt phrase, for it is only by thoughtful attention to these
matters that the student can improve his own style of
expression. One's speech should not, however, be a
mosaic made up of sentences and phrases culled from the
writings of others.
1 Laycock and Spofford, Manual of Argumentation, pp. 34-35.
HOW TO USE A LIBR-\RY 139
Again, if the exact words of others are copied and
repeated, the speech will lack the personal stamp which is
necessary to a forceful style. Sentences which are read-
able and pleasing when seen on the printed page seem
stilted and bookish when they fall from the Hps of a high-
school boy or girl. If the student wishes to make an
effective speech, he should assimilate the ideas — make
them a part of himself. Dr. R. M. Alden has said on
this point, "The Congressional Record and the North
American Review may reappear in debate in a new form,
just as last week's meat and vegetables reappear this week
in bone and blood and muscle."
Above all, the habit of repeating the words of others
prevents a student from developing originality. As Mr.
Esenwein says, "The young speaker who dares to be him-
self, casting artificiahty to the winds, will begin by making
less brilliant speeches than his companions who copy
and crib, but his power and invention will increase and he
will end far in advance of his less original rivals."
Intelligible although Condensed. — Well-taken notes
have both of these quahties. The members of a debating
team should be able to read and understand each other's
notes. If taken in the correct form, they may be filed and
will be usable many years after they are written. In
order that notes may be valuable in this way, both to
oneself and to others, it is necessary (i) that the penman-
ship be legible, (2) that only such abbreviations be used
as are generally understood, and (3) that each idea be
expressed in a brief but complete sentence.
It is quite possible to write one's notes in complete
sentences and yet condense them. The degree of conden-
sation depends upon the value of the material. One
I40 ORAL ENGLISH
brief sentence may give the substance of a long sentence,
of a paragraph, or of a whole article. Sometimes only
the whereabouts of a fact, story, or illustration need be
noted. This should be done if the speaker is uncertain
as to whether he will be able to use the material. In
making note of an exact quotation, it is desirable to omit
all unnecessary portions, indicating such omissions by
dotted hnes. The student should take care, however, in
making such excerpts, not to misrepresent the thought
of the author.
Written Form. — Certain matters of form, if carefully
observed, will add greatly to the usefulness of one's notes.
The student should take his notes on small slips of paper,
one point to the page, with a keyword indicating the main
idea of the note in the upper left corner. This system
will help him greatly in the arrangement of his speech
material. He can easily shift his slips so as to bring to-
gether all notes on one phase of the subject. It will also
enable him, if a debater, to sort out readily on the platform
any notes which are hkely to be useful to him in refutation.
At the foot of each note should be placed the complete
reference consisting of the author, magazine, volume, exact
page, and date. This should be done for several reasons.
In the first place, the student may wish to re-read the
article, if it should prove later to be of greater value than
he had at first thought, or if some one else should challenge
the accuracy of his statements. In the second place, the
name of the author and the date are often important fac-
tors in determining the value of one statement as compared
with opposing statements.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned (i) how
to find material in a Hbrary, (2) how to select the best
HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 141
and read it with the least possible waste of time, and (3)
how to take notes so that they will be of the greatest
service.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
How TO Use a Libraiiy
Introduction.
I. When to consult one's elders.
II. Time necessar>' for research work.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. How to find references — definition.
A. General idea.
1. Compared to the artist.
2. His own mind.
3. General references.
((?) Encyclopedias, etc.
{b) Books of briefs.
(i) Warning against two'uses of.
B. Special references.
I. IMagazine articles.
2.
(«)
Reader'
s Guide — how issued
ib)
Regular order.
(i)
Recent first.
(2)
Bindery.
(3)
Great character.
{c)
Thoroughness.
(i)
Topics.
(2)
Short time.
'U.nrX
(3)
Long time.
XJOO*
{a)
is.
Catalogue.
(b)
Reference works.
(c)
Congressional Record.
Pamphlets.
(«)
Government.
(b)
Organizations.
142 ORAL ENGLISH
I. C. How to copy references.
1. Use of slips in a library.
2. Use by debaters.
3. Items and reasons for copying them,
II. How to select material.
A. Skimming.
1. Bacon.
2. Fault of unpracticed readers.
.3. How to determine the value of
(a) An article.
lb) A book.
ni. How to take notes.
A. Substance of the thought.
1. Literary theft.
2. Personal stamp — Alden.
3. Development — Esenwein.
B. Intelligible although condensed.
1. Two reasons.
2. Three requisites.
3. Possibility of condensation.
(a) Degree.
{b) Whereabouts.
(c) Exact quotations.
C. Written form.
1. Method described.
2. Usefulness of system.
(a) In arrangement.
{b) In refutation.
3. Complete reference.
(o) Reasons.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Study the text as far as Division II, and be able to
recite from the topical outline.
Exercise II. — Using the Reader's Guide for suggestion, choose
some topic upon which you can find at least three magazine articles.
Copy those references which, from their titles and authors, appear
to be the best. Assure yourself that they can be found in the Ubrary.
Use the Guides of several years if necessary.
HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 143
Exercise III, — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able
to recite from the topical outline.
Exercise IV. — Begin your reading and note-taking. Let each
note resemble the following:
NAVAL WASTE
American na\y during 15 years has cost 45% more than
Kaiser's. Yet his is more powerful.
Geo. W L. Meyer, former Sec'y of Navy.
N. Am. Rev. 201: 248, F, '15.
Exercise V. — Using the material which you have gathered in
your reading, arrange a word outline for a speech of not less than three
and not more than four minutes. Try to follow instructions given in
Chapter \'1I with regard to unity, coherence, and emphasis in arrange-
ment. Do not fail: (i) to write a salutation; (2) to write a theme
sentence; and (3) to write, if your speech is to be an argument, sub-
ordinate sentences for each reason or proof.
Exercise VI. — Be able to deliver the speech arranged in Ex. V.
Notes as well as word outline should be ready to hand in.
Exercise VII. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on
any of the following topics:
1. Relation Between Argument and Persuasion.
2. The Game of Debate.
3. Relation of Debate to Life.
4. Value of Debate as an Exercise in Public Speaking.
5. The Burden of Proof.
6. A Balanced Question.
7. How to Get a General Idea of a Subject.
8. How to Find Special References, as Magazines, Books, and
Pamphlets.
(). Selection of Material.
ID. Characteristics of (iood Notes.
1 I Convenience of Form.
CHAPTER XIV
ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION
Introduction. — Analysis, according to the dictionary,
is the study of a thing in its separate parts and in their
relation to each other. A chemist, for instance, analyzes
a drop of water. He finds that it is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen in the proportion of two to one. The debater,
in like manner, analyzes a question for discussion. In so
doing, he finds that certain facts and arguments have a
bearing on the question and that others do not. He
finds also that some facts and arguments have a more
important bearing than others.
The process of analysis in debate has been divided, for
the convenience of discussion, into two steps. The first
step is to find out what the question means. The second
step is to find the main issue, or main difference of opinion.
The two steps are not, however, separate and distinct,
the one being completed before the next is begun. A
change in the definition may make necessary a change in
the main issue and vice versa. As will be seen more
clearly later on, the process of analysis must be continuous.
The successful debater begins to analyze the question
when it is first presented to him and he does not cease
the process until the public discussion has been completed.
In this chapter we shall learn (i) how to find the defini-
tion of the question, (2) how to find the main issue, and (3)
the value of careful analysis.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 145
I. The Definition
Dictionary. — It is sometimes necessary to look up
certain words in the dictionary. This is, however, only
a beginning. The definition of a debatable question is
usually a much larger matter than the definition of the
words contained in the statement of the question.
Circumstances. — The real definition of the question
is to be found in the circumstances out of which the ques-
tion has arisen. As we learned in a previous chapter, the
aftirmative in most debatable questions is required to
advocate some change. Let us consider again the propo-
sition, "Resolved, That High School should adopt a
system of student government." Evidently, the term
which needs definition in this question is "a. system of
student government." Now there have been, perhaps,
as many systems of student government as there have
been experiments in this line. It is the privilege of the
afilrmative to advocate the very best possible plan, while
it is the duty of the negative to discover the flaws in this
best plan. In order to determine which is the best plan,
the debater must study the history of the question; that
is, he must compare all the plans which have been tried
or suggested and select the best features of each.
If a debater finds his definition in this way, in the his-
tory of the question, it will not be far-fetched, or made
to favor his own side unreasonably. This is an important
point, since an effort to define a question unreasonably
is more likely to injure than to help a debater. (See
Appendix V(a) for a brief definition of student govern-
ment.)
An attcmi)t t(^ answer the following questions will help
146 ORAL ENGLISH
a debater to find this best and at the same time reasonable
plan: (i) What circumstances seem to make a change
necessary? (2) Just what, in detail, is the change which
is generally advocated? (3) Just how, in detail, would
this change work out in practice?
Prepared by Both Sides. — The negative as well as
the affirmative speakers should prepare a definition, for
they cannot attack a plan intelligently until they know
what it is. Again, a question is sometimes so worded that
its meaning is not clear. In such a case, both sides should
come to a previous agreement as to the definition, or
should agree to re- word the question; for a quibble on
the platform about the meaning of the question is very
unpleasant for the audience.
II. The Main Issue
Clash of Opinion. — The first step toward finding the
main issue, or main difference of opinion, is the preparation
of a clash of opinion. This consists of a list of points on
both sides of the question and should be in process of
construction all the time that the debater is thinking
and reading about his question. These points should be
arranged on a large sheet of paper in such a way that the
affirmative points, very briefly phrased, shall appear in
the left-hand column, each with its negative answer op-
posite, in the right-hand column. The clash may con-
sist of from five to twenty-five differences of opinion,
the number depending upon the thoroughness with which
the debater has studied his subject.
The student should be careful to place no point in either
the affirmative or negative list which can be admitted by
the other side, for such a point will be of slight value.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 147
If, for example, the affirmative were advocating a national
prohibition law, the negative might admit the evil effects
of liquor and yet favor another method of abolition. If
the negative should take this position and should advocate
gradual abolition by means of state laws, all discussion
by the affirmative of the evils of intemperance would be
a waste of time.
Again, it is well for the debater, in preparing a clash,
to distinguish between points and proofs, placing them in
separate columns, for a point which lacks proof will have
very little weight in the final discussion.
Statement of the Issue. — When the clash of opinion
is completed, the student should try to decide which is
the strongest point on each side. This will be the one
which is most difficult for the other side to answer. He
should then write a question in which he asks which has
more weight, the strongest point on the affirmative or
the strongest point on the negative. This question will
be the statement of the main issue. Let us again seek an
illustration in the question on student government. The
claim on the affirmative which seems most difficult to
refute is that, even if the experiment is not altogether
a success in itself, it will give to young people a practical
training in citizenship. On the other hand, the strongest
negative point seems to be that there is a likeHhood of
indifference and failure and consequently of the demoraliz-
ing influence of bad government. The main issue, there-
fore, is, "Will the possible benefit from practical training
in citizenship outweigh the danger of the demoralizing
influence of bad government?" (See Appendix V. </.)
The question, "Do the advantages of student government
outweigh its disadvantages?" would not be a good state-
148 ORAL ENGLISH
ment of the main issue, since it does not show that the
debater has analyzed his question and found the strongest
point on each side.
A question occasionally arises in which it seems almost
impossible to reduce the subject matter of discussion to
one main issue. If one can succeed in his attempt, how-
ever, he will be well rewarded for the efifort expended, for
it will help to give to his work unity and definiteness of
aim. If the debater is content to discuss several issues, he
may prove his case from one standpoint and fail to prove
it from the other standpoints. If, however, he can
reduce the matter to one main issue and prove that, he
has won his case, for he has practically shown that the
strongest point on one side is stronger than the strongest
point on the other side. The main issue, then, expresses
what the affirmative must prove or what the negative must
disprove in order to win his case.
III. Value of Analysis
The constant mental sifting and weighing process, called
analysis, which goes on while one is defining his question
and finding the main issue, is of inestimable value to the
debater.
Saves Time. — In the first place, it is a great "time-
saver," for it prevents him from taking elaborate notes on
phases of the subject which are relatively unimportant.
This is true even though he may be unable to arrive at a
satisfactory analysis until near the close of his preparation.
Makes Him a Stronger Match for Opponent. — The
value of studying both sides of the question is not gen-
erally appreciated by young debaters. A successful law-
yer once said that if he should be granted but two
ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 149
hours to prepare for a case in court, he would begin by
studying his opponent's case. This part of the prepara-
tion has been compared to the work of a commander before
a battle. Prof. G. P. Baker says, ''The skillful forensic
worker, like a great general, will wish to know, not only
where all the weak places as well as the strong in his own
lines are, but, as far as possible, the weak and strong places
in the enemy's lines." Another parallel may be found in
football. A team must know not only its own plays but
also those of its opponents, for plays must be anticipated
in order to be blocked.
The finding and presenting of the main issue may also
be compared to the drawing of the lines on a tennis court,
beyond which no contestant may play for gain. If he
sends a ball outside the court, his play merely adds to the
points of his opponent. In like manner a debater may
seek to make his case appear strong by appeals to senti-
ment or by flights of rhetoric, but if his opponent has
clearly and truly outlined the main issue, the false argu-
ments will fall on the audience like the tennis ball in the
outer court, only to add to the score of his opponent.
Unifies Aim. — Clear analysis enables a debater to
know his own main purpose. As O'Connell says, in his
Irish way, "If you aim at nothin', you will be sure to
hit it." To use another figure, the debater who analyzes
well knows which slant the nail must take and can "hit
it on the head" with force.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
that the debater should formulate a reasonable definition
by studying the history of the question; (2) that, in order
to arrive at the main issue, In- sliould make a clash of
opinion, choose the strongest point on each side, and ex-
I50 ORAL ENGLISH
press these two points in the form of a question; (3) that
this sifting and weighing process of the mind is of great
value to the debater.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Analysis of the Question
Introduction.
I.
Definition.
A. Cliemist.
B. Debater.
II.
Two steps.
A. Relation to each other.
B. Continuous process.
III.
Advance summary.
Body.
I.
The definition.
A. Dictionary.
B. Circumstances.
I. The best plan.
2. Reasonable plan.
3. Three questions.
C. Preparation by both sides.
I. Necessity.
2. Previous agreement.
II.
The main issue.
A. Clash of opinion.
I. Description of.
2. Admitted points.
3. Proof.
B. Statement of the issue.
I. How framed.
{a) Illustration.
{b) Incorrect example.
2. Value of one issue as compared with several
III.
Value of analysis.
.4 . Saving of time — notes.
AN.\LYSIS OF THE QUESTION 151
III. B. ]\Iakes him strong match for opponent.
I. Lawyer.
2. Parallel case to
(0) Commander,
(b) Football.
3. Tennis court.
c.
Unifies aim.
I.- O'Connell.
2. Nail.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter as far as Division III and be able
to recite from the topical outline. Read carefully in connection with
this chapter the specimen definition and clash of opinion on "Student
Government." (Appendix V (a)).
Exercise II. — A question from Appendix VI may be chosen for
class study. Each student should read one or more general references
on the class subject and prepare a tentative definition, clash of opin-
ion, and main issue.
Exercise III. — Finish the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline. Copy references on the class question.
152 ORAL ENGLISH
READING LESSON VII
1. From a speech by Macaulay in favor of the Reform Bill of 1832:
"What facts does my honorable friend produce in support of his
opinion? One fact only, and that a fact which has absolutely nothing
to do with the question. The effect of this reform, he tells us, would
be to make the House of Commons more powerful. It was all-power-
ful once before, in the beginning of 1649. Then it cut off the head
of the king, and abolished the House of Peers. Therefore, if it again
has the supreme power, it will act in the same manner. Now, sir,
it was not the House of Commons that cut off the head of Charles
the First; nor was the House of Commons then all-powerful. It had
been greatly reduced in numbers by successive expulsions. It was
under the absolute dominion of the army. A majority of the House
w'as willing to take the terms offered by the king. The soldiers turned
out the majority; and the minority, not a sixth part of the whole
House, passed those votes of which my honorable friend speaks, —
votes of which the middle classes disapproved then, and of which they
disapprove still."
2. From Macaulay:
"Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down
as a self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they
are fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the
old story, who resolved not to go into the water until he had learned
to swim. If men are to wait for liberty until they become wise and
good in slavery, they may indeed wait forever."
3. From a discussion of "Property in Slaves," by William Ellery
Channing:
"But this property, we are told, is not to be questioned on account
of its long duration. 'Two hundred years of legislation have sanc-
tioned and sanctified negro slaves as property.' Nothing but respect
for the speaker could repress criticism on this unhappy phraseology.
We wiU trust it escaped him without thought. But to confine our-
selves to argument from duration; how obvious the reply! Is in-
justice changed into justice by the practice of ages? Is my victim
made a righteous prey because I have bowed him to the earth till
READING LESSON VII 153
he cannot rise? For more than two hundred years heretics were
burned, and not by mobs, not by lynch law, but by the decrees of
councils, at the instigation of theologians, and with the sanction of
the laws and religions of nations; and was this a reason for keeping
up the fires, that they had burned two hundred years? In the Eastern
world, successive despots, not for two hundred years, but for twice
two thousand, have claimed the right of life and death over millions,
and, with no law but their own will, have beheaded, bowstrung,
starved, tortured unhappy men without number who have incurred
their wrath; and does the lapse of so many centuries sanctify murder
and ferocious power? "
4. Patrick Henry in the Virginia House of Representatives:
"Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell [cries of 'Treason,
Treason '3, and let George III profit by their example."
5. From Lincoln's Cooper Union Speech:
"Some of you delight to flaunt in our faces the warning against
sectional parties given by Washington in his Farewell Address. Less
than eight years before Washington gave that warning he had, as
President of the United States, approved and signed an act of Con-
gress enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the Northwestern Terri-
tory, which act embodied the policy of the government, upon that
subject, up to and at the very moment he penned that warning; and
about one year after he penned il, he wrote Lafayette that he con-
sidered that prohiljition a wise measure, expressing in the same con-
nection his hope that we should at some time have a confederacy of
free states.
"Bearing this in mind and seeing that sectionalism has since
arisen upon this same subject, is that warning a weapon in your hands
against us or in our hands against you? Could Washington himself
speak, would he cast the blame of that sectionalism upon us who
sustain his policy, or upon you who repudiate it? We respect that
warning of Washington and we commend il to you, together wilh his
example pointing to the right ;L|)pli( atioii of il."
6. WcbsUr ill ihc While Murder Trial:
"The prisoner's counsel catch at supposed flaws of evidence, or
bad character (jf witnesses, without meeting the case. If I In- fac I is
154 ORAL ENGLISH
out, why not meet it? Do they mean to deny that Captain White
is dead? One would almost have supposed even that, from some
remarks that have been made. Do they mean to deny the conspiracy?
Or, admitting a conspiracy, do they mean to deny only that Frank
Knapp, the prisoner at the bar, was abetting in the murder, being
present, and so deny that he was a principal? If the conspiracy is
proved, it bears closely upon every subsequent subject of inquiry.
Why do they not come to the fact? Here the defense is wholly in-
distinct. The counsel neither take the ground nor abandon it. They
neither fly nor light. They hover. But they must come to a closer
mode of contest. They must meet the facts and either deny or ad-
mit them."
7. Speech in the House of Representatives, February i, 1894,
by Thomas B. Reed:
"Mr. Pinchot compared our present consumption of wood to the
case of a man in an open boat at sea, cut adrift from some shipwreck
and with but a few days' supply of water on board. He drinks all
the water the first day, simply because he is thirsty, though he knows
that the water will not last long. The American people know that
their wood supply will last but a few decades. Yet they shut their
eyes to the facts."
CHAPTER XV
PROOF AND ITS TESTS
Introduction. — Students sometimes have the mis-
taken idea that debate consists of affirmations on one side
and denials on the other. This attitude was humorously
illustrated by a cartoon sketched by a student to adver-
tise a pubhc debate. Two disreputable looking charac-
ters were depicted, each shaking his fist in the face of the
other. One was saying, " 'Tis," and the other, " 'Tain't."
When the debaters themselves take this attitude, the
contest descends from the level of a debate to that of a
dispute.
We who have studied this text, however, have already
learned something of the importance of proof. We have
learned that the burden of proof rests at the beginning of
the debate upon the affirmative; that he must not only
state that his plan is a good one, but must also prove it.
We have found that, if the affirmative proves his plan
to be a good one, the burden of proof is thereby shifted
to the negative, and that he, in turn, must not only deny
his opponent's claim but also disprove it. It is quite
evident from these facts that the one who finally fails to
shift back the burden of proof loses the debate.
When we look further into the nature of proof, we fmd
that it is made up of two elements: (i) facts and (2) rea-
soning about facts. In attempting to refute the proof of
an opponent, we may either question the facts or admit
156 ORAL ENGLISH
the facts and question the reasoning about the facts.
The latter method was a favorite with Lincoln. If
a student would be a successful debater he must ques-
tion, or test, his own facts and reasonings as well as those
of his opponent.
In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to test facts
(to find whether or not they are true), (2) how to test
reasoning (to find whether or not it is sound), and (3) how
to test statements which are unsupported either by fact
or by reason.
I. How TO Test Facts
Knowledge. — We should first ask, "Is the authority
for the fact in a position to have an exact knowledge of the
subject?" Let us suppose, for example, that the discus-
sion concerns the ability of the Filipinos for self-govern-
ment. The testimony of a traveler who had passed but a
few days in the Philippine Islands would be less reliable
than that of a missionary who had resided there for a
dozen years.
Prejudice. — We should next ask, "Is the authority
for the fact unprejudiced?" To illustrate: If Mr. A., a
Congressman and the author of a bill providing for
Philippine independence, should to go the Islands and
return with further evidence of the ability of the Fili-
pinos for self-government, it might be suspected that he
had found ability because he was looking for it; that his
testimony was colored by his preconceived notions. If,
on the other hand, he should on his return withdraw his
support from the measure, saying that he had found
evidence of their inability, his testimony would be partic-
ularly valuable, since it would be in direct opposition to
PROOF AND 'ITS TESTS 157
his former ideas and would indicate absolute independence
of judgment.
Research. — The debater, in order to test authorities
in this way, must trace back his facts from the news-
paper to the reliable magazine and from the magazine to
the still more reliable government report. He must also
consult Who's Who for the purpose of determining the
standing of his authority. It may be said here that re-
searches of this nature are not necessary in the case of
statements which would generally be accepted as true,
but only for those proofs which are essential to the main
issue and which might be disputed by one's opponent. It
is better in the final debate to cite a few authorities and
establish their trustworthiness than it is to quote many
opinions, for an authority is of no value unless the audi-
ence recognizes him as such.
'&^
II. How TO Test Arguments
Method in General. — We may test arguments by try-
ing to see whether the proof and the statement proved can
be sensibly joined by the word because. When we do
this, we fmd that our minds are so constructed that they
will tell us whether or not the reasoning is sound. For
example, it is sensible to say, "Mary's father should allow
her to go to the party, because it will not interfere with
her lessons." On the contrary, it is not sensible to say,
"Mary's father should allow her to go to the party be-
cause they are going to decorate with the society colors."
General Conclusions. We shall first consider how to
test general conclusions, or generalizations, as they are
called. Let us suppose that a clubwoman says, "High-
school boys do nothing but smoke and play pool out of
158 ORAL ENGLISH
school hours." If her reasoning were stated in full, it
would read: "High-school boys do nothing but smoke
and play pool out of school hours, because I know two or
three high-school boys who do nothing else." When her
reasoning is analyzed in this way, it is easily seen that she
has based her general conclusion on an insufficient number
of special instances. Her generalization can be disproved
by the following facts: (i) many boys excel in athletics;
(2) others make high scholarship records; and (3) still
others earn their own way through school.
Special Conclusions : Simple Method. — We shall next
consider how to test special conclusions. Every special
conclusion is based either directly or indirectly upon some
general conclusion. Therefore, if we can find the general
conclusion and can disprove that, we shall have disproved
the special conclusion which is based upon it. There are
three forms of reasoning which are simple in their nature
and which lead to special conclusions.
(i) From a Known Fact to an Unknown Effect. — The
first form reasons from a known fact forward to an un-
known effect. A debater may say, for instance, "Stu-
dent government would cause the pupils to feel a sense of
responsibility." His reasoning stated in full would read:
"Student government would cause the students to feel
a sense of responsibility, because all who have responsibility
placed upon them rise to meet it.'' This general statement,
however, can be disproved, for some students will take
advantage of their student officers as they do of their
teachers, and some student officers in order to become
popular will favor their friends.
(2) From a Known Fact Back to its Unknown Cause. —
The second form reasons from a known fact backward
PROOF AND ITS TESTS 159
to its unknown cause. A Republican campaign orator, for
example, may say, "The prosperity of the year- was
caused by the high tariff." His reasoning stated in full
would read, "The prosperity was caused by the high tariff,
because what follows is caused by what precedes." This
general statement, however, could be disproved by the
Democratic orator who might show that high tariff had
not always been followed by prosperity, or that the pros-
perity of the year had been caused by particularly
good crops, or that prosperity had existed before the high
tariff' law was passed.
Resemblance. — The third form of reasoning argues
from resemblance. There are two ways in which the de-
bater may use this form. He may cite a parallel case or
he may draw an analogy. Tf a debater should say,
"Student government will fail in V High School because
it failed in X High School," he would claim to cite a case
which is parallel. If stated in full his reasoning would
read, "The failure of student government in X High
School proves that it will fail in Y High School, because
whatever occurs once will occur again under similar circum-
stances." Now it may not be possible to disprove this
general statement, but it may be possible to prove that
the cases are not similar, or parallel. It may be shown,
for example, that the system of government in X High
School differs in some essential particular from the system
proposed for Y High School.
Let us next study an example of analogy. A high-
school debater once said, "To adopt the English cabinet
system in America would i)e like trying lo transj^lant a
full-grown tree; the result would be disastrous." His
reasoning if stated in full would read: "The adoption
i6o ORAL ENGLISH
of the English cabinet system in America would be dis-
astrous, because if two tilings resemble each other in one
respect, they are likely to resemble each other in another
respect. The cabinet system, like a tree, was planted
and developed in one place. It could not, therefore, be
made to grow in another place." His opponent answered
with another analogy based upon the same generalization.
He said, "We do not propose to transplant the English
system to America; we propose merely to choose those
features of the English system which are most valuable
and to engraft them upon the American system. Every-
one knows that a graft produces better fruit than the
parent tree." This by-play serves to show us that, by
analogy, each debater could illustrate his point of view,
but that neither of them could prove his contention. In
other words, for the purpose of illustration analogy is
very valuable; for the purpose of proof it is worthless.
Special Conclusions : Complicated Methods. — There
are three methods of disproving special conclusions which
are more complicated than those just considered.
The first method is called reducing to an absurdity. By
this method, the speaker finds the general statement upon
which the reasoning is based, assumes it to be true, and
applies it to a case that reveals its absurdity. For ex-
ample, a legislator once said, "I oppose prohibition because
it would deprive saloon men and others of their property."
If stated in full, his reasoning would read: "Prohibition
is wrong because men should be allowed to own that which
injures the public." His opponent in debate applied this
general statement to a case that made it seem absurd. He
said, "If you are right, then we should not confiscate the
property of a man who sells milk from a tubercular cow."
PROOF AND ITS TESTS i6i
The second method is called turning the tables. By this
method, a debater turns an argument of his opponent to
his own advantage. Lincoln made use of this kind of
logic in his Cooper Union speech. (Reading Lesson VII,
5, page 153.) The Southerners had said, in substance,
"According to Washington's Farewell Address, the North
stands condemned." Stated in full, their reasoning would
read: "Washington condemns the North because he
condemns all sectionalism." Lincoln turned this general
statement with greater force against his opponents, saying,
"Then Washington condemns you even more than he con-
demns us, for you would bring about sectionalism in the
interests of slavery, and he was opposed to slavery."
The third method is called putting one^s opponent in
a dilemma. This can be done when the opposing speaker
is inconsistent. Again we find an example in the debates
of Abraham Lincoln. His opponent. Judge Stephen A.
Douglas, before the election of 1856, reasoned: "The
national government should not prohibit slavery in the
territories, because the people in the territories have a right
to vote slavery up or down.'''' After the election, he reasoned :
"A man has a right to hold his slave even in a territory,
because slaves are property.'' Lincoln took the two
general statements on which Judge Douglas had based
his conclusions and showed that they were inconsistent.
"Judge Douglas," he said, "is claiming that a thing can
be lawfully prohibited where it has a lawful right to stay."
This keen analysis of his arguments placed the "Judge"
in a dilemma; for, if he abandoned his first argument, he
would lose the votes of Northern Democrats; while if
he abandoned the second argument, he would lose the
votes of Southern Democrats. When, however, a debater
i62 ORAL ENGLISH
places before his opponent two courses of action, either of
which would be disastrous, he must be careful that there
is no third alternative by which his opponent may escape.
III. Unsupported Statements
In our attempt to test statements, we may meet with
those which are supported neither by fact nor by reason-
ing. Let us consider two such types of statements.
"Begging" the Question. — A debater is said to beg
the question when he assumes as true the very thing which
it is his duty to prove. The most common way to "beg"
the question is to call the policy of one's opponent by an
uncomplimentary name. For example, the opponent of
city ownership of street railways may say that it is "social-
istic." The debater in favor of city ownership, on the
contrary, may show: (i) that everything which people do
in common, as street-cleaning, etc., is socialistic in a good
sense; (2) that the whole debate is being held to determine
whether or not city ownership of street railways goes too
far in the direction of pure socialism; (3) that in calHng
the policy "socialistic" in a bad sense, the first debater is
merely assuming what it is his duty to prove.
Ignoring the Question. — A debater ignores the question
when he fails to meet the issue. His fault may be due to
the fact that he has not analyzed the subject and does not
understand the issue. Under these circumstances, he is
likely to raise objections to a plan of action but will fail to
show that these objections outweigh its merits. Again, he
may ignore the issue intentionally because he knows that
his case is weak. In such a circumstance, he is likely to
substitute for proof an appeal to prejudice or sympathy.
It is only necessary for the opponent to point out this
PROOF AXD ITS TESTS 163
situation to the audience. Macaulay exposes this fallacy
in his attack on the advocates of Charles I, when he says,
"We accuse him of having broken his coronation oath
and we are told that he kept his marriage vow."
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned (i) that
we can test a fact by considering the nature of the author-
ity for the fact. We have learned (2) that we can test
reasons by trying to see whether the proof and the state-
ment proved can sensibly be joined by the word because.
We first applied this method to general statements. When
we apphed it to special statements, we found that these
were always based upon some general statement and that
if the general statement could be disproved, the special
statement which was based upon it would thereby be
disproved. We have learned (3) that we can test un-
supported statements by showing that the speaker is
either "begging" or ignoring the question.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Proof and Its Tests
Introduction.
I. Difference between a dispute and a debate.
II. What we have already learned of the importance of proof.
III. Two elements in proof.
I\'. Advance summary.
Body.
I. How to lest facts.
A. Knowledge of authority. — Example.
B. Prejudice. — Two examples.
C. Necessity of research.
I. \'aluc of a few good authorities.
II. How to test arguments.
A. Melhofl in general.
I. Natural working of the mind.
1 64 ORAL ENGLISH
II. B. General conclusions.
1. Conclusion of clubwoman.
2. Reasoning in full.
3. Answer.
C. Special conclusions — based upon general statements.
1. Simple method.
{a) Known fact to unknown effect.
(i) Responsibility.
{h) Known fact to unknown cause.
(i) Prosperity and tarifT.
((■) Resemblance.
(i) Parallel case.
a. Student control in X High
School.
(2) Analogy.
a. Cabinet system.
2. Complicated methods.
(a) Reducing to an absurdity.
(i) Prohibition.
{b) Turning the tables.
(i) Sectionalism,
(c) Dilemma.
(i) "Squatter sovereignty" and the
"Dred Scot" case.
(2) Third alternative.
III. Unsupported statements.
A. "Begging" the question.
I. Street railways.
B. Ignoring the question.
1. Failure to analyze.
2. Intentional.
3. Macaulay.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — i. Read the chapter as far as the topic "Special
Conclusions — Simple Methods," and be able to recite from the
topical outHne.
2. A mistake in reasoning is called a fallacy. Point out the fallacy
in each of the following:
PROOF AND ITS TESTS 165
a. A small boy said to his uncle, "KeSp away from that
horse because white horses kick."
i. A hundred years ago it was held that women were not
mentally capable of mastering the higher branches
taught in the universities.
c. Scholarly men do not make good political leaders.
3. Continue reading on the class subject.
Exercise II. — i. Continue the reading of the chapter as far as
the topic "Special Conclusions — Complicated Methods," and be
able to recite from the topical outline.
2. Point out the fallacy in the follo\\-ing special statements.
Write out first the general statement upon which each is based and
then disprove it. What kind of reasoning is used in each case?
a. If you get your feet wet, you will "catch a cold."
h. Vou have a cold because you did not take your over-
coat last night.
c. A national referendum should be adopted in the United
States because it has been successful in Switzerland.
d. A republic cannot rule a colony successfully any more
than a debating society could bring up a child cor-
rectly.
3. Continue reading on the class subject.
Exercise III. — i. Complete the reading of the chapter and be
able to recite from the topical outline.
2. Classify each of the arguments in Reading Lesson VII (pages
152-154); also the following:
a. A lawyer said, "A corporation cannot make an oral
contract because it has no tongue." The judge
replied, ".According to your argument, a corporation
cannot make a written contract because it has no
hand."
h. The I'.ihie, Mark ii: 27-33.
c. Jn a debate on the question, "Resolved, Tliat Cleve-
land's policy with regard to Venezuela should be
approved," a debater said, "Cleveland's policy was
mere jingoism."
d. One of the stork arguments against woman suflrage
is that it will break up the home.
3. Contiiuie reading 011 liic (lass subjcrl.
CHAPTER XVI
THE BRIEF
Introduction. — The debater, after analyzing his ques-
tion and testing his proofs, must give to his subject matter
the best possible arrangement. The more anxious a
speaker is to accompHsh a definite purpose, the more nec-
essary it is that he have a good organization. This fact
is attested to by many writers and speakers. Austin
Phillips says, "A skeleton is not a thing of beauty; but it
is a thing which, more than any other, makes the body
erect and strong and swift." Again, John Quincy Adams
says, "You will find hundreds of persons able to produce
a crowd of good ideas upon any subject for one that can
marshal them to advantage. Disposition is to the orator
what tactics are to the miUtary art."
We learned in Chapter VII some of the principles which
govern the planning of a speech. All of these can and
should be applied to the arrangement of a brief, or outline
for a debate.
In this chapter we shall study (i) the general structure
of a brief, (2) certain rules for form, and (3) the best
method of partitioning the material between or among
the speakers.
1. General Structure of a Brief
Introduction. — The introduction to a brief should
consist of a short statement of the analysis of the question;
THE BRIEF 167
that is, a statement of the delinition, necessary historical
facts, points admitted by both sides, and the main issue.
The aim of the introduction is to make the situation clear
to the audience. For this reason, the first affirmative
speaker is the only one who handles the introduction to
the brief in the final debate. It is necessary, however,
that the negative speakers prepare an introduction to
their brief also, as this will enable them either to agree
or disagree intelligently with the analysis given by the
first affirmative speaker.
Body. — The body of the brief, or the argument proper,
contains the subject matter used by all of the speakers
on one side. The greater part of this chapter will treat of
the best method of handling this subject matter from the
two standpoints of form and arrangement.
Conclusion. — Although the conclusion which each
speaker prepares for his own speech should be the sub-
ject of much thought and care, the conclusion to the brief
is a very simple matter. It contains merely a summary
of the main divisions.
II. Rules for Form
There are certain rules for form in the making of a brief
which, if followed, will increase its value not only for the
debater himself but also for others.
Relative Importance. — The first rule is: The relative
impor lance of each idea in the brief should be indicated by
its position on the page and by the symbol which precedes it.
The most important general or inclusive statements are
begun at the margin and are preceded by Roman numer-
als. The next most imi)ortant are indented about half
an inch atid are preceded by cai)ital letters. Further
1 68 ORAL ENGLISH
subordination is indicated by further indention and the
use of other symbols. The following series of symbols
is in general use: I, A, i, (a), (i), a.
If the material following any one symbol is more than
sufficient to fill one line, care must be taken to begin
the remaining words, not at the margin, but immediately
below the word following that particular symbol. In
this way, the space at the left of the page is kept clear
for the larger headings only, and the reader is able to
determine, at a glance, the relative importance of the
points. For the same reason, all preceding symbols should
be repeated at the top of each page.
Complete Sentences. — The second rule is: Each idea
should be expressed in a complete sentence. This rule is
necessary for the reason that topics do not clearly indicate
the character of the argument. If a debater, for instance,
places in a brief on "Student Government" merely the
topic "Sense of responsibility," he does not indicate
whether he wishes to claim that student government is
likely to create a sense of responsibility or whether he
wishes to claim that it is not likely to do so. In this way
the reader is unprepared for what is to follow. If a brief
is correctly phrased it will indicate, although in con-
densed form, the exact position of the debater on each
point.
Thought Relation. — The third rule is : The thought
relation between any point and its subordinate points must
be expressed by for, or because; that is, all subordinate
points or facts bear the relation of proof to those state-
ments under which they are placed. This, as we learned
in Chapter VII, Division III, is the essential difference
between the plan for an argument and the plan for an
THE BRIEF 169
exposition. The rule does not, therefore, apply to the
introduction to a brief which is in the nature of an
explanation and should contain no argument.
Refutation, if inserted in the brief, should be governed
by the same rule. The argument to be refuted should be
clearly stated and then disproved. For example, one
might find the following in an affirmative brief on "Woman
Suffrage":
I. The claim that women are not well informed on public ques-
tions should have little weight, for
a. Experience has shown that, as soon as women have
been granted the franchise, they proceed, quite as gen-
erally as do men, to inform themselves.
If subordinate statements must prove those under
which they fall, it is evident that each statement in a brief
must contain not more than one idea; for it would be
impossible to arrange subordinate points so that they
would prove two propositions at the same time. For
instance, it would be incorrect to state in a brief, "The
new plan would be safer and cheaper than the old one,"
for the subordinate facts which would tend to prove the
one merit would not tend to prove the other.
IIL How TO Partition the Material
Young debaters frequently divide the material so that
each speaker is expected to handle three or four points.
This is confusing to the audience. The subject matter
should be j)artitioned between two speakers or among
three speakers in such a way that each speech will have
unity, or, in other words, so that each speaker will be
required to support only one main proposition.
Reasonable Practicable Partition. — Dr. Alden in his
lyo ORAL ENGLISH
text, The Art of Debate, has suggested a partition which
works well for three speakers in many questions:
Affirmative
1. X is a reasonable plan.
2. X is a practicable plan.
3. There is no better plan.
Negative
1. X is not a reasonable plan.
2. X is not a practicable plan.
3. Y is a better plan.
This better plan which the negative is permitted to
suggest is called its constructive case as distinguished from
its destructive attack upon the case of the affirmative.
Although the last negative speaker may deal at length
with this constructive case, the first negative speaker,
when he introduces the argument for his side, should
give some idea of its nature, since it would be unfair to
give the affirmative no opportunity to consider it until
the close of the debate.
The scheme noted above might be adapted to a two-
speaker team as follows:
Affirmative
1. There is no more reasonable plan than X.
2. There is no more practicable plan than X.
Negative
1. Y is a more reasonable plan.
2. Y is a more practicable plan.
Partition Based upon the Main Issue. — It is frequently
possible for a two-speaker team to deal with the main
THE BRIEF 171
issue from two standpoints. Let us suppose that the
question is: ''Resolved, That capital punishment should
be abolished." Analysis will show that the main issue
in this question is: "Will the benefit to individuals out-
weigh the possible injury to society?" The debate then
might be partitioned as follows:
Affirmative
1. The abolition of capital punishment would be of great value
to the individual.
2. The danger to society from the abolition of capital punishment
would be very slight.
Negative
1. Life imprisonment as compared with capital punishment would
be of slight value to the individual.
2. The injury to society from the abolition of capital punishment
would be very great.
Another example of a partition based upon the main
issue will be found in the brief on "Student Government."
(Appendix V, b.)
Time Element. — In making a partition, the debater
must also consider the amount of time which is necessary
to develop each portion of the material. It must be
remembered that the first affirmative will need about
one-third of his time to present an analysis of the question.
If the negative side is not permitted to have an additional
refutation speech, the last negative speaker must plan to
use a large portion of his time for this purpose. Under
these circumstances, it is necessary that the first affirma-
tive and last negative speakers be assigned points that
require less extensive handling than other points.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have studied (i) the
172 ORAL ENGLISH
general structure of a brief, (2) three rules for form
which it is necessary to follow in order to make the brief
readable, and (3) the best methods of partitioning the
material.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Brief
JiilroJitction.
I. The value of organization.
A. Phillips.
B. Adams.
II. Review of Chapter VH, Divisions I and III.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. General structure of a brief.
A. Introduction.
1. What it consists of.
2. Its aim.
3. Why prepared by negative speakers.
B. Body.
I. What it contains.
C. Conclusion.
I. What it contains.
II. Rules for form.
A. Relative importance.
1. How indicated.
2. Where to place the second line of a point and
why.
3. Repetition of preceding symbols.
B. Complete sentences.
1. Reason for the rule.
2. Example.
C. Thought relation — how expressed.
1. Exception and reason for it.
2. Refutation.
3. One idea only in each statement.
(a) Example.
THE BRIEF 173
III. How to partition the material. — Unity.
A. Reasonable-practicable partition.
1. Arranged for three speakers.
(a) Constructive case — when introduced.
2. Arranged for two speakers.
B. Partition based on the main issue.
1. Question of capital punishment.
2. Question of student government.
C. Time element.
1. First affirmative.
2. Last negative.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — i. Read the chapter as far as Division II and be
able to recite from the topical outline. Include in your recitation a
review of the indicated portions of Chapter VII.
2. Read the specimen brief on "Student Government" (Appendix
V, b). Find in it one example of coherence gained by arrangement
and one example of emphasis gained by arrangement.
Exercise II. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able
to recite from the topical outline. Notice that the specimen brief
follows the directions given in the text as to form.
Exercise III. — i. Write a complete introduction to a brief on
the class question, revising, if necessar>', the definition and main issue
which you framed in connection with Chapter XIV.
2. Write also a partition for a two-speaker team on both sides of
the question. This will consist practically of a theme sentence for
each speaker. Study the reasonable-practicable partition and the
partition based on the main issue, in order to determine which would
be best for this particular question.
3. Study your clash of opinion to see whether there are any
valuable points which, according to your partition, have not been
assigned to one or the other of the speakers.
Exercise IV. — Using the material which you have gathered on
the subject, make a brief for the side to which you have been assigned.
Arrange it for two speakers. In so doing, lake into consideration all
of the suggestions made in this chapter. Place in parentheses after
each proof the reference from which you obtained the fact.
174 ORAL ENGLISH
Exercise V. — Working with your colleague, prepare a brief which
will include the material gathered by each of you, and which will
be, as far as possible, satisfactory to both.
Exercise VI. — Be able to write in class on any of the following
topics:
1. How to Define a Question.
2. How to Find the Main Issue.
3. Value of Analysis.
4. How to Test Facts.
5. How to Test Arguments.
6. Cause and Effect.
7. Argument from Resemblance.
8. Reducing to an Absurdity.
9. Turning the Tables.
10. Dilemma.
11. Begging the Question.
12. Ignoring the Question.
13. The Three Rules for Form in a Brief.
14. The Partition of Material for a Brief.
READING LESSON VIII 175
READING LESSON Vm
The following speech was prepared by Franklin W. Robinson of
Long Beach, and formed part of a championship contest which oc-
cured between Long Beach High School and Santa Ana High School,
California, May 29, 1908. Although defective in some respects, it
is an excellent example of the way in which a speaker may develop
a speech from a brief so as to secure unity, coherence, and emphasis:
Resolved, That France should adopt the policy of M. Delcasse in
regard to Morocco at the expiration of the Algeciras Convention.
First Affirmative
1. Although we have crossed the Atlantic to find a debatable
question, we have not chosen one which is of foreign interest alone.
In discussing the problems of Morocco, we deal with world problems.
They are found wherever civilization comes into contact with bar-
barism. They are problems that to-day confront England in Egypt
and Germany in West Africa, problems which w'e ourselves must
solve in the Philippines.
2. This uncivilized empire of the Moors, l>dng there in the north-
west corner of Africa, but seven miles from Europe, has tried for many
years to withstand the strong arm of civilization, but its strategical
position, its vast resources and marvelous fertility are too important
to remain unutilized. In recent years all the great powers of Europe
have taken measures to gain control of this commercial "prize." IVL
Delcasse, for seven years the French Minister of Foreign Affairs,
came forward in 1904 as the champion of French interests, which he
believed to be predominant in this crumbling empire. To gain a
free hand in Morocco he first induced England, Spain, and Italy to
withdraw their claims in e.xchange for like concessions elsewhere.
His plan was then to bolster up the native government of the Moors
and gradually to penetrate the country by pacific methods.
3. But alas for France, such a policy excited the envy of Germany;
the "mailed fist " shook aloft the red banner of war. France cowered
and Delcasse, the most skillful statesman of the Third Republic, was
forced to resign. Germany's interference resulted in a conference of
the world powers, which met in 1906 at Algeciras, Spain. Here it
176 ORAL ENGLISH
was decided that this apple of discord should be placed under inter-
national control. This agreement, however, was to extend over five
years and will expire in igii. At that time it must be determined
whether Morocco shall be abandoned to barbarism, whether the
present international control shall be continued, or whether the ad-
ministration shall be entrusted to a single power.
4. We of the affirmative are here this evening to endeavor to
prove to you that Morocco should be governed by one power and
that the logical candidate for this position is the French Republic.
5. As to the practicability of adopting the first course, namely,
the independence of the Moors, there can be no difference of opinion.
The country to-day exists in a state of anarchy. We find two pre-
tenders disputing with a weak and indolent Sultan for the throne.
Industry is paralyzed and the lives and property of 8,000 Europeans
are in constant danger. Such conditions in the twentieth century
are intolerable. This mediaeval land must submit either to an
international force or to the protection of a single power.
6. Will a continuation of the present international control be
advisable? When we study the history of such government in Mace-
donia, we can have little confidence in such a policy. This country
is to-day in a worse plight than several years ago, simply because what
belongs to everyone belongs to no one. Eg>'ptian history is no less
a convincing proof of the ineffectiveness of such control. When the
continental powers ruled in Egypt, the country was not only a dis-
grace to civilization but a menace to the peace of Europe. On this
chaos of Eastern barbarism was superimposed a layer of European
officials shamelessly scrambling and intriguing for poHtical influence.
Not until the administration of this uncivilized country was entrusted
to England and England alone, could Lord Cromer bring Egypt to
its present state of prosperity. We find, then, that discipline is never
effective unless directed by a single hand. European experiments
along this fine are already sufficiently conclusive.
7. But we need not go beyond the hmits of Morocco to gain
experience which will warn us against a continuation df the present
policy. Her control by a concert of powers has been entirely futile.
The deplorable conditions of the country have continued unimproved.
France at every step has had to face the jealousy of her German
neighbor, who has encouraged the Moors to treat the French with
READING LESSON VIII 177
contempt. With her influence thus destroyed among the natives,
France, the only country which can secure reform, is powerless. The
English Earl of Meath declares that as a result of the senseless jeal-
ousies of European powers, INIorocco continues to be a country seeth-
ing ^^ith anarch)^ and brigandage. The poHcy of the ^Moroccan ports
testifies to the inadvisability of dividing responsibility when deeds
must be done. Spain, who was assigned a share in this task, has
not attempted to fulfill her obligations. During the recent attack
of the natives on Casa Blanca, France was obliged to undertake alone
the defense of foreign interests in that port. Even later attempts
at cooperation with Spanish forces have led to quarrels. Thus we
see that the Algeciras Convention is a mere makeshift. The powers
realize this, for France has had their support on every occasion that
circumstances have forced her to overstep the limits of the present
arrangement. No; if reforms are to be accomplished in Morocco,
a single power must be given control. Do our opponents question
this conclusion? Then they must pr6ve that either self-government
by the Moors or international control is practicable. This they will
find it difficult to do.
8. If, therefore, the responsibility for public safety should remain
undivided, we must now determine upon what nation this responsi-
bihty should be placed. Since England, Spain, and Italy have will-
ingly surrendered their claims, France would have but one competitor,
Germany. If you had an atlas before you and could see that Morocco
is like a wedge driven in between the two solid masses of the French
North .\frican Empire, you would then have small doubt as to the
rightful claimant. But it is not only the geographical position of
this country which gives France a title to its control. When we
learn that the commercial interests of France in Morocco are five
times as great as those of Germany; when we remember that her
loan to this native government is fourteen times as large as that of
all other countries combined, it is then that we can realize why the
common sense of the world is on the side of France. A\'e ain under-
stand why the Algeciras Conference recognized her rights, giving to
France the predominant share in policing the ports and three shares
in the Moroccan National Bank to one share each for all the other
powers. In comparison with such interests as these, the claim of
Germany is a mere pretense.
178 ORAL ENGLISH
9. Not only is French control the logical solution of this trouble-
some problem, but it is of vital importance to France. Upon the
possession of this corner depends the future of the French colonial
empire in North Africa. Morocco, the refuge for all the lawless and
unruly elements of the desert life, borders Algeria for five hundred
miles. This not only enables marauding Moorish bands continually to
raid and pillage Algeria at pleasure, but it affords a wide gateway
through which a spirit of unrest in Morocco may at any time enter
Algeria and from thence spread over her entire empire. When we
consider how contagious is the spirit of revolt among a Mohammedan
population, we can realize the danger to French interests in North
Africa. Alarming as are present conditions, imagine some European
rival, such as Germany, permanently encamped in the midst of
French colonies, with warlike tribes all around to play with. At any
time she could incite this entire Mohammedan Empire to insur-
rection. France would be obliged to garrison Algeria with 200,000
armed men or leave her colonies defenseless. Such a situation would
inevitably lead to a crisis between France and Germany. If, then,
France is to avoid complications with her German rival, if she is to
maintain her North African Empire, Morocco must be hers.
10. Our opponents may be forced to admit the value of the French
claims in Morocco, but they will plead her inability to accompHsh
the task. They will resurrect all the past mistakes of France in an
endeavor to prove that she is a poor colonizer. In refutation of this
argument, we have merely to point to the results of French influ-
ence in North Africa. She has chastized the Algerian pirates. With-
in her domains slavery and the slave traffic have been practically
aboKshed. With a whole army of artisans, agriculturists, manu-
facturers and engineers, she has invaded this dark continent. Bar-
barism has been supplanted by law and order. Desert wastes have
been converted into extensive and productive plantations; railroads
have been pushed out in every direction and commerce wonderfully
developed. The whole world recognizes the great transformation
brought about in Algeria and Tunis. By the French pohcy in these
countries we can forecast the future of the Moorish kingdom. Narrow
streets, mud walls, and sun-dried bricks will give way to broad boule-
vards and modern houses, the donkey driver will be superseded by the
electric train, the hand flail of the Arab farmer by the steam thresher.
READING LESSON VIII 179
There can be no doubt as to the administrative capacity of the French.
They have constituted themselves the civiUzing power of the whole
region from Senegal to the Barbar>^ coast, a territory larger than that
of the United States east of the Rockies. The best title of France
to ^Morocco is the history of her whole career in this vast region.
11. But perhaps our opponents will tell you that the very vast-
ness of the French colonial empire is its weakness. To this we agree
in part, but we reply — Let her give up her more remote colonies, if
necessary .1 Let her concentrate in North Africa where her posses-
sions can be defended without the use of an extensive fleet. New
Caledonia and Indo-China are mere baubles in importance, as com-
pared with Morocco. This policy is advocated by so eminent a
Frenchman as Germain. In fact, it was not absent from the mind
of Delcasse when he said in 1904: "It is in her North African Empire
that France is assured of remaining a world power. The time may
come when the best part of France will be south of the sea."
12. Let us try to grasp the situation as a whole. The African
continent is to be eventually parcelled out among the European
powers. In this game of colony grabbing, in this art of rescuing from
barbarism, France has by no means acquitted herself badly. Here
in the northwest corner of her empire lies a country whose potential
commerce is estimated at two hundred million a year; the soil of
whose plains, so favored by nature but neglected by man, rivals in
fertiHty that of our prairie states; a country, the development of
whose resources would be a splendid outlet for French capital. But
our opponents will tell you it is not worth the cost. Its Atlas Moun-
tains abound in gold, iron, copper, and coal, the very commodities
with which France is poorly provided and which would give her
manufacturing supremacy. The passes of these same mountains
are the keys which open various trade routes to the interior of the
Sahara and which are now closed by the natives. But the negative
will brush all these facts lightly aside and ull you that Morocco is a
hornet's nest. Again we ask, is it any less a hornet's nest under
international control? In view of the murder of Dr. Manchamp and
' It may be of interest to the reader to know that on Nov. 4, 191 1,
Germany gave France a free hand in Morocco in exchange for a portion
of the French Congo. {Independent, 71: 1007.)
i8o ORAL ENGLISH
the attack on Casa Blanca, we think not. Our friends on the nega-
tive will urge that France lock up the treasures of the Moroccan
mountains and the wealth of her arable lands, abandon this North
African Empire which has been in the process of formation since the
days of the great Napoleon, compromise her great civilizing task of
three-fourths of a centur>% and cringe before the German Kaiser's
threat of war. But when my colleague has shown you the present
inability of Germany to carry out this threat, I believe you will agree
with us that France, at the expiration cf this Algeciras Convention
in 191 1, should rise to her opportunities, recall Delcasse, whom she
so ignobly dismissed at the behest of Germany, and thus regain her
position of international dignity.
CHAPTER XVII
DEVELOPMENT OF A SPEECH FROM A BRIEF
Introduction. — Although we have already studied the
rules for phrasing (Chapter X), the successful application
of these rules to argumentative speeches of greater length
seems to call for further instruction and illustration.
In this chapter we shall learn how to develop a speech
from a brief so as to increase the impression of unity,
coherence, and emphasis which we have already attempted
to secure in the brief.
I. Unity
Unity of Each Part. — In the first place, the speaker
should see to it that each part of the speech is a unit in
itself. This can best be done by the frequent use of sum-
maries. In our study of the two-minute speech, we found
that it is necessary to make some reference to the main
thought both at the beginning and at the end of the
speech. In a longer speech, we should summarize, not
only at the beginning and at the end of the whole speech,
but we should summarize each main division and each
subdivision as we take it up and as we leave it.
The question may arise in the" mind of the student:
"How many parts shall I have in my speech, or how often
shall I summarize?" The number of summaries will
depend upon the importance which the speaker attaches
to each subhead. It would be safe to say that a summary
I minute
I
minute
2 "
I
u
2 "
I
u
2 "
4
ii
M
I
u
182 ORAL ENGLISH
•
sentence should occur at the beginning and at the end
of whatever material would be placed in a paragraph if
the speech were written.
If a speaker were developing an eight-minute speech
from a brief, he might divide his time in one of several
ways. Let us look at two suggestions for a division of
time.
First Second
Introduction
I St Division
2d
3d
Conclusion
In each of these cases the speaker, if he were writing the
speech, might form each division into one or more para-
graphs according to the nature of the material.
Each Unit as a Part of the Whole. — In the second place,
the speaker should make it evident that each smaller
unit is a definite and necessary part of the larger unit.
He should occasionally throw glances back over the whole
field and in this way reveal the bearing of each part upon
his main proposition. A young speaker often neglects to
point out that each bit of evidence proves a subordinate
argmnent which, in turn, supports the main proposition.
By so doing he places upon his auditors the duty of
unifying his material.
Necessity of Repetition. — All experienced speakers
and writers have realized the necessity of frequent repe-
titions. Even the most intelhgent people are rarely im-
pressed by an idea which is stated but once, and this is
naturally more true of oral than of written expression.
The need of constant reiteration is rather humorously
DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 183
illustrated by a story which Josiah Royce of Harvard
University tells about himself. He had written an exten-
sive work on philosophy and had submitted the manuscript
to a friend for criticism. After reading it the friend said,
"The only fault I find is this: in connection with every
step, you tell us that you intend to say a certain thing;
then you tell us what it is that you intend to say; then
you say it; then you tell us that you have said it; and
then you tell us what it is that you have said." "Well,"
said Professor Royce, good-humoredly, "if, in the end,
you know what I did intend to say, I am satisfied,"
II. Coherence
Transitions. — We have already learned how to make
sentences hang together by means of connective words
and phrases and by the use of parallel construction.
(Chapter X, Division II.) In the longer discourse, the
speaker must cause the paragraphs to hang together also.
This can be accomplished by the use of the transition
sentence, a sentence which occurs at the beginning of a
paragraph and which performs a double function. It
echoes the thought of the preceding paragraph and in-
troduces the central thought of the paragraph to which it
belongs. Occasionally a transition which joins paragraphs
is composed of more than one sentence. The hanging
together of main divisions is accomplished by the use of
transition paragraphs. A transition paragraph makes
reference to the idea which is most vital in the preceding
division and gives one a bird's-eye view of the line of
thought which is to be carried 011 1 in the following division.
Their Value. — The word transition means "a crossing
over." If the speaker would have his hearers follow him
1 84 ORAL ENGLISH
without effort, he should, by means of transitions, build
bridges, as it were, upon which they may cross easily
from one idea to the next. He should be careful, how-
ever, to see that the transitions are natural and not
forced. This will not be difficult if the ideas are so ar-
ranged and phrased that each leads naturally to the next,
for as Cicero says, "Stones well hewn unite of themselves
and without the aid of cement."
III. Emphasis
Proportion. — The emphatic or forceful speaker pays
due regard to the question of proportion; that is, he de-
votes a larger amount of time and care to those ideas which
are difficult to comprehend and touches more lightly those
which are easy to grasp. The young speaker, on the other
hand, is tempted to elaborate on those phases of his sub-
ject which are most familiar to him or which give liim an
opportunity for eloquence.
Variety. — Again, the emphatic or forceful speaker
seeks variety. No matter how numerous may be his
transitions and his summaries, he does not express the
same idea twice in the same words. It is only by the repe-
tition of the same idea in varied form that the speaker can
drive home his thought with telling effect. Charles
James Fox, the great English orator, laid it down as the
great principle for one who wished to leave an impression
that he turn the same idea around many times and that
he hold it up in many different lights.
The emphatic speaker uses every possible means of
securing variety. He employs the various kinds of
sentence structure (Chapter X, Division III, Variety in
Sentence Form). He studies to use the law of climax in
DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 185
phrasing his summaries. For example, the last sentence
of a paragraph is the strongest in that paragraph; the
most impressive statement of the thought of a main
division is left until the end of that main division. He
opens up his speech in a more or less formal way, develops
it with increasing strength, and, by the last expression of
his idea in the conclusion, leaves a sense of brightness
and color and power.
Pictures. — The emphatic speaker knows how to
create vivid mental pictures. He studies to do this even
in the use of statistics. He knows that "round" numbers
are more effective than the exact figures; so he says
$1,000,000 instead of $1,010,729.17. The first gives a
clearer mental picture than the second and is, for all prac-
tical purposes, quite as large. If he wishes to compare
two amounts, he states the relation between them rather
than naming the figures themselves. For instance, in
the debate on ^Morocco, Mr. Robinson said, ''The loan of
France is fourteen times as large as that of all other
countries combined." To have enunlerated the loans
of the various governments would not only have wasted
time, but would also have made a less vivid impression.
The emphatic speaker uses as much concrete material
as possible; it may be in the form of words, illustra-
tions, or stories. He may use purse instead of wealth,
gray hair instead of age, etc. (Review Chapter VI, Divi-
sion III, last paragraph, for other concrete words.) The
forceful speaker illustrates everything. Thomas Went-
worth Higginson says, "Plan for one good fact and
one good illustration under each head of your subject."
James Russell Lowell says, "A metaphor is no argu-
ment, though it is sometimes the gunpowder to drive one
1 86 ORAL ENGLISH
home and imbed it in the memory." One secret of the
power of Christ's discourses is suggested in the question,
"Whereunto shall the kingdom of heaven be likened?"
In the choice of illustrative material, the emphatic
speaker is governed by the principle that what is familiar
will be more readily pictured in the mind than that which
is unfamiliar. An illustration drawn from life at sea might
serve to enforce remarks before a Sailor's Union; it would
have much less illustrative value if the speaker were de-
livering an address before a company of bankers. Since
a speaker is frequently called upon to address a general
audience, he will do well to draw his illustrations as far as
possible from the common experiences of mankind.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned some of
the ways whereby, in the development of a speech, we
may increase the unity, coherence, and emphasis for which
we provided in the brief.
The work of composition as described in this chapter
may be likened to the formation of a mighty river. As
the stream leaves its source it has little power, but, as it
proceeds on its way, each canyon and valley contributes
its tiny streamlet, until at last, as the main current
nears the ocean, it becomes a splendid torrent, cutting
deep channels in the soil and furnishing almost unlimited
power for the industrial enterprises of man. So, in the
ideal speech, the main idea, joined by each contributing
idea and guided by a definite purpose, moves forward
with ever increasing power to the end.
DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 187
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Development of a Speech from a Brief
Introduction.
I. Application of rules.
II. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Unity.
A. Unity of each part.
1. Frequent summaries.
2. How to determine the number.
B. Each unit as a part of the whole.
1. Method.
2. Fault of the beginner.
C. Necessity of repetition.
1 . Especially in oral expression.
2. Anecdote of Professor Royce.
II. Coherence.
A. Transitions.
1. Connective words and parallel construction.
(Review.)
2. Transition sentence.
3. Transition paragraph.
B. Their value.
1. Meaning.
2. Natural. — Cicero.
III. Emphasis.
A. Proportion.
1. Meaning.
2. Fault of the beginner.
B. Variety.
1. Repetition of the same idea in different words. — ■
Fox.
2. Sentence structure. (Review.)
3. Climax.
(a) Paragraph.
(Jb) Division,
(c) Speech.
i88 ORAL ENGLISH
IIL C. Pictures.
1. Statistics.
(a) Round numbers.
(b) Comparisons. — Loans.
2. Concrete material.
(a) Words. (Review.)
(b) Illustrations.
(i) Higginson.
(2) Lowell.
(3) Christ.
(c) Choice of material.
(i) Famiharity.
a. Life at sea.
b. Common experiences.
Conclusion.
I. Summary.
II. Formation of a river compared with the composition of a
speech.
Exercise I. — i. Read the chapter as far as Division II and be
able to recite from the topical outline.
2. Compare the speech given in Reading Lesson VIII with the
brief which follows. Enclose in a brace those portions of the brief
which form the basis of each paragraph and label them with the
corresponding paragraph numbers. This exercise will indicate the
way in which a speech grows out of a brief.
3. Be able to answer the following questions with reference to
the speech on Morocco:
a. What is the purpose of the first paragraph?
b. Does the speaker refer to the main issue? Would you
prefer to have him do so?
c. Would he have gained anything by an advance sum-
mary of that which he and his colleague wished to
prove?
d. In what paragraphs is the central thought expressed
both at the opening and the close of the paragraph?
e. What instance is there of a summary of a main division?
develop:mext from a brief 189
Brief for Speech
Resolved, That France should adopt the policy of M. Delcasse in
regard to Morocco at the expiration of the Algeciras Convention.
Introduction.
I. The question is of interest to us as well as to foreigners.
II. Definition and history.
A. IMorocco is a country in North Africa which has been
claimed by several powers.
B. M. Delcasse desired to secure Morocco for France.
I. He persuaded England, Spain, and Italy to with-
draw their claims.
C. The jealousy of Germany brought about a convention
of all the European powers at Algeciras in iqo6.
D. The convention decided that Morocco should be placed
under international control until igii.
E. When this agreement expires, it must be decided
whether Morocco shall be given independence,
whether international control shall be continued,
or whether the control shall be given into the
hands of a single power.
III. Main issue • — Is the danger of war with Germany sufficient
to deter France from pressing her logical claims? (The
question of the possibility of a European war was handled
by the second affirmative speaker.)
Affirmative Argument.
I. Alorocco should be given to France, for
.1. Morocco should be governed by a single power, for
1. It is incapable of self-government.
2. A continuation of international control is not
advisable, for
(a) This is proved by the history of Mace-
donia and Egypt .
(/;) The policy has failed in Morocco itself.
II. That one power should be I'"rance and not Germany, for
A . France is the logical candidate for the position, for
1. It would round out her empire.
2. Her commercial interests are larger than those
of any other country.
I90 ORAL ENGLISH
B. French control is of vital importance to her, for
I. German control of Morocco would endanger the
interests of France in her surrounding empire.
C. The claim that France is unequal to the task is in-
valid, for
1. She has proved herself to be a civilizing power in
Africa.
2. If necessary, it would be better for her to give up
her more distant colonies in order to hold
Morocco.
Conclusion.
I. Morocco should be governed by a single power.
II. That power should be France.
Exercise II. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able
to recite from the topical outhne. Incorporate in your recitation
the subject matter of any review which is suggested.
Exercise III. — i. UnderHne the connective words used in para-
graph 6 of Reading Lesson VIII.
2. Check the transition sentences.
Write the answers to the following questions:
1. Show that the speaker has gained emphasis through proportion.
2. Does the wording of each transition sentence vary from other
expressions of the same idea?
3. In what paragraphs is the last sentence a stronger statement
of the paragraph-thought than the first sentence? Is there a variety
of sentence structure? To prove your answer, select one question
and one imperative sentence, one short and one long sentence, one
loose and one periodic sentence.
4. Do you find a balanced sentence?
5. Make a list of concrete or special terms which have been used.
Opposite each write an abstract or general term which might have
been used but with less effectiveness.
6. Find one example of a metaphor or simile.
7. Show that the conclusion summarizes the points of the speech
but deals with them in a more impressive way than in the body of
the speech.
DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 191
Exercise IV. — Re\dse, if necessarj', the brief which you prepared
in connection with Chapter XV'I. Using that portion of it which has
been assigned to you as a basis, make a word outline and prepare a
six-minute speech. IMake use as far as possible of the suggestions
given in this chapter.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE HANDLING OF REFUTATION
Introduction. — Much has been learned in Chapter XV,
entitled "Proof and Its Tests," wliich will enable the
debater to be skillful in refutation. He must know,
however, not only how to meet the facts and reasoning
processes of his opponents, but also how to prepare and
handle his refutation to the best advantage.
In this chapter we shall learn (i) how to choose that
which should be refuted, (2) how to place refutation both
in the principal speech and in the separate refutation
speech, and (3) how to phrase it.
I. How TO Choose Points
Success in refutation depends largely upon the debater's
power to choose wisely that which he wishes to refute.
It is a mistake to try to touch upon everything to which
it is possible to give the semblance of an answer. An old
couplet illustrates this point:
"When one's proofs are aptly chosen,
Four are as vaHd as a dozen."
A debater who would choose ''aptly" must analyze
constantly and attack or offset those arguments which he
thinks have made the most favorable impression upon the
audience. This plan may be compared to the efforts of
a football team to "down" the man with the ball.
THE HANDLING OF REFUTATION 193
II. How TO Place Refutation
The effectiveness of refutation depends to a consider-
able extent upon the position in which it is placed.
In the Principal Argument. — We shall first consider
that which should occur within the allotted time for the
principal argument of each debater. Each speaker should
plan to reserve at least one-fourth of his time for emer-
gencies. Certain kinds of refutation should be placed at
the first of the speech. For example, each speaker, except
the first on each side, should summarize the work of his
preceding colleague (or colleagues) and, if possible, com-
pare it with the work of his opponents; that is, he should
state, from his own point of view, the progress which the
debate has made on both sides.
Again, if there is any point which, if not answered, would
interfere with the progress of the debate, it should be
answered immediately. Should the point be one which a
colleague has planned to answer later in connection with
his constructive argument, the debater need not refute
the argument but should mention this fact, else the
audience may think that the team is unable to answer it.
In the majority of instances, however, the best time
to refute an objection is not at the first of the speech but
in connection with that phase of the question to which
the objection refers. This plan will detract less from the
unity of the speech and will ;il the same time add to
the force of the refutation. If the debater has prepared
his discussion orally with the help of a word outline, it
will not be difTicull for him to insert here and there
ideas which have been suggested by the arguments of his
oi)ponents.
194 ORAL ENGLISH
In the Separate Refutation Speech. — We shall next
consider the separate, or closing refutation speech. (The
privilege of a second speech is always granted to one
affirmative speaker and sometimes to all speakers.) Each
speaker should come upon the platform with a list of points
which may require refutation but which have not been
met either by his own or by his colleague's prepared
speeches. As these points appear in the speeches of his
opponents, he should check them on his list.
During the progress of the debate, he should select those
which have not been sufficiently answered by his colleagues
and arrange them in the form of a word outline. In so
doing, he should observe the rules for unity, coherence,
and emphasis. Considerations of this kind will not re-
quire much time and will prevent the scrappy effect
which is usually characteristic of the refutation speech of
an immature debater.
He should reserve at least one minute at the last of his
speech to summarize his own and his opponent's argu-
ments, and to drive home his own main contention as
briefly and pungently as possible.
III. How TO Phrase Refutation
The phrasing as well as the choice and placing of refu-
tation must be considered.
Before the Debate. — If a debater has made a clash
of opinion, thereby studying his opponent's case as well
as his own, he will be able to do much of his phrasing
before com.ing to the platform. Although he cannot
anticipate the exact wording in which the ideas will be
presented, he can know the subject matter and can frame
a concise answer for each point.
THE HANDLING OF REFUTATION 195
During the Debate. — As a debater listens to the argu-
ments of his opponents, he should note the language in
which they are couched, and should seek, as far as possi-
ble, to repeat these words in his refutation. Not only-
does the reply gain force by being coupled with the exact
statement which it aims to refute, but the whole speech
is given an atmosphere of spontaneity.
Although the debater can do much more in preparation
for refutation than is usually supposed, he must not under
any circumstances during the debate allow his brain to
relax its vigilance, but must constantly be choosing,
arranging, and phrasing.
He should study to vary the phrases with which he
opens each point in refutation. An inexperienced debater
will repeat many times, ''Our opponents say," whereas
there are numerous other suitable phrases, such as, "It
has been claimed," "The advocates of this plan con-
tend," "Our friends on the affirmative would have you
believe."
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that
success in refutation depends (i) on a wise choice of points
to be refuted, (2) on effective placing, and (3) on careful
phrasing.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Handling of Refutation
Introduction.
I. Relation to Chapter XV.
II. Advance summary.
Body.
I. How to choose points.
A. A few points. — Couplet.
B. Favorable impression. — Football.
196 ORAL ENGLISH
II. How to place refutation.
A. In the principal speech.
1. Time.
2. At the first.
(a) Comparison.
(b) Points which interfere.
3. Best place.
(a) Reasons.
(h) Oral preparation.
B. In the separate refutation speech. — Privilege.
1. Prepared list.
2. Arrangement. - — Value.
3. Summary.
III. How to phrase refutation.
A. Before the debate.
1. Clash of opinion.
2. Concise answer.
B. During the debate.
1. Repetition of exact words. — Reasons.
2. Vigilance.
3. Variety.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
CHAPTER XIX
TEAMWORK
Introduction. — To a judge, good teamwork means
merely that the arguments of all the speakers on one side
are welded together; in other words, that one speaker
does not encroach upon the territory of the other and
that each reinforces the other by pointing out the relation
between the part developed by himself and that developed
by his colleague.
To the debater, however, teamwork signifies more than
this. It means the cooperative efforts of the team mem-
bers during the whole period of preparation. ]\Iuch of
the pleasure of debating work is to be found in its social
character. Each can help his fellows to success and each
is more or less dependent upon his fellows for success.
The double team system for interscholastic debates is
an ideal arrangement and furnishes many opportunities
for teamwork. According to this system, each school is
represented by an affirmative team which debates at the
home school and a negative team which visits the rival
school.
This chapter will describe the manner in which the
affirmative and negative teams of each school may work
together and each member contribute to the success of all.
Where it is not possible to use the double team system, a
team of alternates may be chosen to act as a practice
198 ORAL ENGLISH
team. Many of the suggestions made in this division will
be helpful to those who engage only in class or interclass
debates, although the teamwork for debates of this kind
will of necessity be more limited.
I. Opportunities for Teamwork
Opportunities for teamwork occur in every division of
the work.
Gathering of Material. — At a meeting held immedi-
ately after the teams are chosen, plans should be made for
future meetings. The members should choose a presiding
officer from among their number and draw up a schedule
which shall be satisfactory to all, stating the time and
purpose of future meetings. If the members have some
general knowledge of the question, they should agree upon
a list of topics under which to classify their notes. Unless
they are already provided with an extended list of refer-
ences, they should divide up the work of making one.
Each should be assigned the task of copying references
from certain years of the Reader^s Guide. These refer-
ences, when copied, can be so re-distributed that each
member will have both recent and earlier references.
One member may collect and distribute the books on the
subject, while another may write for government or other
publications.
Conferences to discuss notes should be held at intervals
of several days throughout the period allotted to reading.
At each meeting, the leader should ask for all information
which has been gathered on a certain topic. After that
has been given and its bearings discussed, he should call
for the next topic, and so on. If the proposition is one
upon which very little has been written, each member may
TEAMWORK 199
be able to read everything relating to it, but if the material
is extensive, it is better to place some reliance upon the
other members and so cover the ground. Each member
may star valuable references and pass them on. Whether
or not each does all of the reading, an occasional conference
to discuss the points gathered will be found extremely help-
ful. If the discussions are well managed, the debater will
read to much more purpose after a meeting than before,
for he will realize more clearly which matters are essential
to the issue and which are not.
The Making of a Brief. — Before commencing the brief,
the afhrmative speakers should give to the negative speak-
ers any negative material which they may have gathered,
and vice versa. The teams should then work separately
until the brief is completed. Each member of the team
should make a brief for the whole side, seeking to include
within it every item of real worth with its accompanying
reference. The members of the team may then meet,
compare results, and incorporate the best in a brief which
will be as nearly as possible satisfactory to all.
This method brings better results than other methods.
If the members of the team try to work together in the
arrangement of material before their ideas have been clari-
fied, much time is wasted. Nor can the team determine
offhand upon a partition so that each can work up a por-
tion of the brief, for one cannot be sure that he has
made the best choice of main propositions until he has
studied and groui)cd his minor i)ropositions, consider-
ing carefully their relations to each other. Again, it is
only by this method that each speaker can come to
know thoroughly the work of his colleague.
Oral Practice. — When the brief has been completed,
200 ORAL ENGLISH
the members of the team should exchange notes, so that
each will have those which bear upon his division of the
question. Each member should then prepare for a prac-
tice debate by making a word outhne based upon his
brief and by extemporizing from it several times.
The practice debates should be conducted, in regard to
both time limits and refutation, as nearly as possible in
the same way as the final public debate. It is advisable
to have one practice debate in which the colleagues shall
change places. This scheme has several advantages:
it gives an opportunity for each debater to aid his col-
league by making suggestions as to the better handling
of his material; it affords a chance for valuable practice
in extemporizing; and it makes each speaker more thor-
oughly familiar with the material handled by his colleague.
During the debate, each member should make a note of
criticisms on all other speakers and, after the debate is
over, the leader should ask for criticisms on each speaker
in turn.
Preparation for Refutation. — At least two days before
the public debate the members of each team should meet
and make a combined list of points which are hkely to
arise for refutation. To these points each member should
write concise answers. At a second meeting these answers
should be compared and the best chosen and copied.
II. Importance of Teamwork
It will be seen from the above that teamwork is one of
the fine points of the game and that the success of an
interscholastic debate depends very largely upon the
spirit of mutual helpfulness. During the period of prep-
aration the periods assigned for team-meeting must be
TEAMWORK 201
considered of first importance by the debaters; other
calls upon their time must be temporarily set aside. The
best way to secure this cooperation is to draw up at the
outset a schedule which shall be satisfactory to all and to
which each shall promise his allegiance. The following
is an example of a schedule drawn up by a team which
had six weeks for preparation:
Mar. 17, Monday. Team chosen.
" 18, Tuesday. Topics chosen and references assigned.
" 25, Tuesday. Reading Conference.
Apr. I, Tuesday. Reading Conference.
" 5, Saturday. Visit to University Library.
" 8, Tuesday. Reading Conference.
" II, Friday. Brief completed.
" 15, Tuesday. First Practice Debate.
" 18, Friday. Second Practice Debate.
" 21, Monday. Third Practice Debate.
" 23, Wednesday. Speeches written and read.
" 24, Thursday. List of points in refutation.
" 25, Friday. List of answers.
" 26, Saturday. Final Public Contest.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
that opportunities for cooperation, or teamwork, occur in
every part of the work; and (2) that the success of a
debate depends very largely upon the spirit of mutual
helpfulness.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Teamwork
hitrodurtlon.
\. What teamwork means to a judge.
II. What teamwork means to a debater.
A. Double-team system.
202 ORAL ENGLISH
III. Purpose of the chapter.
A . Alternates.
B. Class and interclass debates.
Body.
I. Opportunities for teamwork.
A. Gathering of material.
1. First meeting.
(o) Presiding officer and schedule.
(b) List of topics.
(c) References.
(i) Readers' Guide. — Re-distributed.
(2) Books.
(3) Publications.
2. Later conferences.
(a) Discussion by topics.
(b) How to cover a large field.
(c) . Value of the conferences.
B. The making of a brief.
1. Exchange of notes.
2. Separate before combined work.
(a) Reasons.
(i) Time.
(2) Impossibility of offhand partition.
(3) Work of colleague.
C. Oral practice.
1. Exchange of notes.
2. Preparation for practice debate.
3. Conduct of debate.
(a) Time limits and refutation.
(6) Exchange of places with colleague,
(i) Advantages.
a. Suggestions.
b. Practice.
c. Familiarity.
(c) Criticisms.
D. Preparation for refutation.
1. Combined list of points.
2. Answers compared.
TEAMWORK 203
II. Importance of teamwork.
A. Secret of success.
B. Necessary sacrifices.
C. Schedule.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
CHAPTER XX
ATTITUDE
Introduction. — Since debating is a game, the debater
should maintain throughout an attitude of fair play and
good sportsmanship.
In this chapter we shall consider the debater's attitude
(i) toward his subject, (2) toward his opponents, and
(3) toward the result.
I. Attitude Toward the Subject
Two Sides. — The debater should remember that there
are two sides to every debatable question. Because of
this, it is unreasonable to try to deny or refute everything;
a speaker will be much more persuasive if he will admit
that there is truth on the other side; in fact he should go
with his opponents as far as possible. This habit is said
to have been, in large measure, the cause of Lincoln's
persuasiveness. The debater should remember that there
are those in the audience, and it may be the Judges, who
agree with his opponents. The game does not consist in
fighting one's opponents but in convincing one's hearers.
It is necessary, therefore, to find some common point of
view and to work from that toward conviction.
Misrepresentation. — A good debater will never mis-
represent the facts. If debaters differ on a definition of
the question, the judges should and probably will discount
the side which attempts to uphold a far-fetched technical
ATTITUDE 205
meaning. Dr. R. M. Alden says in his Art of Debate,
"Those lawyers appear to be most largely successful who
are not given to fighting on the technicahties, but who give
the impression that the fundamental merits of the case
are their chiei concern."
Wit. — Again, the debater should guard hipiself against
flippancy. Witty and smart replies, unless accompanied
by sound logic, are very likely to be rated by judges as
an attempt to cover superficial thinking.
II. Attitude Toward Opponents
A debater should be courteous toward his opponents
under all circumstances, not only because courtesy is a
virtue but because it is a matter of self-interest. To
lower one's opponent does not raise oneself in the estima-
tion of the public. Even if the language of one's opponent
is offensive, it will not pay to respond to personalities.
Dignity and self-control are always winning quaUties.
III. Attitude Toward the Result
If He Loses. ^ If a debater loses the decision he should
not blame the judges, for they have probably done their
best to judge impartially. In the first place, it is not
always possible to be wholly uninfluenced by one's own
knowledge and convictions on a subject. Again, all
human beings are almost unconsciously attracted or re-
pelled by certain personalities. These facts have become
apparent in the discussions of judges at the close of a
"tryout." Teachers with the kindest intentions and with
a sincere desire to choose the best team to rc])rcsenl the
school have found themselves with widely divergent no-
tions as to the merit of the work which has been presented.
2o6 ORAL ENGLISH
In addition to this, the presentations are often of such
equal merit that it is difficult to decide between them.
There are a great many things to be considered in a very
short space of time. Delivery and diction must be given
due attention, but it is the argument which is most diffi-
cult to pass upon with "righteous judgment." The judge
must not only decide upon the relative value of the evi-
dence and reasoning as it is brought forth, but he must
also, if possible, compare what has been brought forward
with what might have been brought forward.
Furthermore, judges frequently serve at great sacrifice
of time and convenience, and they should receive the
gratitude of losers as well as of winners.
If He Wins. — If the debater wins the decision, he should
not think that he has become a finished speaker, for his
next opponent may bring him to defeat. The following
extract from a poem entitled " Failure," by Edmund Vance
Cooke, is well worth memorizing:
"If you never have failed, it's an even guess
You never have won a high success.
If you never have sent your bullet wide,
You never have put a mark inside.
If you never have more than met your match,
I guess you never have toed the scratch."
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that the
debater should be (i) honest toward his subject, (2) cour-
teous toward his opponents, and (3) neither discouraged
nor too much elated over the result.
ATTITUDE 207
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Attitude
Introduction.
I. Sportsmanship.
II. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Attitude toward the subject.
A. Two sides.
I . Persuasiveness.
{a) Lincohi.
{b) Judges.
(c) What the game consists of. — Common
point
B. Misrepresentation.
I . Technicalities. — Dr. Alden.
C. Wit.
II. Attitude toward opponents.
A. A matter of self-interest.
III. Attitude toward the result.
A. If he loses.
1. Personal difficulties of judges.
{a) Their own knowledge.
(6) Personalities,
(c) "Tryouts."
2. Many things to be considered.
3. Sacrifices.
B. If he wins. — Cooke.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outUne.
Exercise II. — Revise the six-minute speech which you prepared
in connection with Chapter X\ I. WorkiiiK with your colleague, be
prepared to debate the same sul)jcct. Use as many as possible of
the suggestions made in Chapters X\'III, XIX, and XX.
As the si)ceches are given the members of the class should act as
judges, keeping a tally of the points. In the decision more weight
2o8 ORAL ENGLISH
should be given to argument than to diction and delivery. Each
speaker should be allowed six minutes for his main speech and two
minutes for a separate refutation speech.
Exercise III. — i. How to Get Unity in an Argument of Length.
2. How to Get Coherence in an Argument of Length,
3. How to Get Emphasis in an Argument of Length.
4. Choice of Refutation.
5. Placing of Refutation.
6. Phrasing of Refutation.
7. Teamwork in Gathering Material.
8. Teamwork in Making a Brief.
9. Teamwork in Oral Practice.
10. Attitude of a Debater.
READING LESSON IX 209
READING LESSON IX
Introductions and Conclusions
1 . From a eulogy delivered by John Hay at the official exercises
commemorative of President McKinley:
"For the third time the Congress of the United States are assem-
bled to commemorate the life and death of a President slain by the
hand of an assassin. The attention of the future historian will be
attracted to the features which reappear with startling sameness in
all three of these awful crimes: the uselessness, the utter lack of con-
sequence of the act; the obscurity, the insignificance of the criminal;
the blamelessness — so far as in our sphere of existence the best of
men may be held blameless — of the victim. Not one of our mur-
dered Presidents had an enemy in the world; they were all men of
democratic instincts who could never have offended the most jealous
advocates of equality; they were of kindly and generous nature, to
whom wrong or injustice was impossible; of moderate fortune, whose
slender means nobody could env>'. They were men of austere virtue,
of tender heart, of eminent abilities, which they had devoted with
single minds to the good of the Republic. If ever men walked before
God and men without blame, it was these three rulers of our people."
2. From The New South by Ilcnry W. Grady:
There was a South of slavery and secession — that South is dead.
There is a South of union and freedom — that South, thank God, is
living, breathing, growing every hour.' These words, delivered from
the immortal lips of Benjamin 11. J I ill, at Tammany Hall, in 1866,
true then, and truer now, I shall make my text to-night."
3. From The Man with the Muck-rake, by Theodore Roosevelt:
"In Bunyan's Pilf^rim's Progress you may recall the descriiilion of
the Man with the Muck-rake, the man who could look no way but
downward, with the muck-rake in his hand; who was offered a celes-
tial crown for his muck-rake; but who would neither look up nor
regard the crown he was offered, but continued to rake to himself
the filth of the floor.
"In Pilgrim^s Progress the Man with the Muck-rake is set loitli
2IO ORAL ENGLISH
as the example of him whose vision is fixed on carnal instead of on
spiritual things. Yet he also typifies the man who in this life con-
sistently refuses to see aught that is lofty, and fixes his eyes with
solemn intentness only on that which is vile and debasing. Now it
is very necessary that we should not flinch from seeing what is vile
and debasing. There is filth on the floor, and it must be scraped up
with the muck-rake; and there are times and places where this service
is the most needed of all the services that can be performed. But
the man who never does anything else, who never thinks or speaks or
writes save of his feats with the muck-rake, speedily becomes, not a
help to society, not an incitement to good, but one of the most potent
forces for evil."
4. Introduction to an oration on Abraham Lincoln, by Booker T.
Washington.
"You ask that which he found a piece of property and turned into
a free American citizen to speak to you to-night on Abraham Lincoln.
I am not fitted by ancestry or training to be your teacher to-night,
for, as I have stated, I was born a slave.
"My first knowledge of Abraham Lincoln came in this way. I
was awakened early one morning before the dawn of day as I lay
wrapt in a bundle of rags on the dirt floor of our slave cabin, by the
prayers of my mother, just before leaving for her day's work, as she
was kneeling over my body, earnestly praying that Abraham Lincoln
might succeed, and that one day she and her boy might be free. You
give me the opportunity here this evening to celebrate with you and
the nation the answer to that prayer."
■5. Introduction to Roosevelt's Address on "The Strenuous Life":
"In speaking to you, men of the greatest city of the West, men of
the State which gave to the country Lincoln and Grant, men who
preeminently and distinctly embody all that is most American in the
American character, I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble
ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life, the life of toil and effort,
of labor and strife, to preach that highest form of success which comes,
not to the man who desires mere easy peace, but to the man who does
not shrink from danger, from hardship, or from bitter toil, and who
out of these wins the splendid ultimate triumph."
READING LESSON IX 211
6. Introduction to an oration on Decoration Day by Chauncey
M. Depew:
"At the Centennial Exhibition was a picture remarkable for its
naturalness and the story it portrayed. It was the Battle of Mon-
mouth. An aged fifer, his gray locks streaming in the wind, with
eager step was leading his company on to the fray. A drummer boy
by his side was looking anxiously into the old man's eyes, and catch-
ing from him the tune and the step of the music of liberty. So upon
this day, from the lives arid the deeds of the men who fought in the
great Civil War, from the causes for which they died and the results
which they achieved, we take our step and learn our lesson of how to
preserve and perpetuate the union of these States."
7. Webster concludes his speech before the Agricultural Society
of England:
"With respect lo the occasion which has called us together, I beg
to repeat the gratification which I have felt in passing a day in such
a company, and to conclude with the most fervent expression of my
wish for the prosperity and usefulness of the Agricultural Society of
England."
8. Conclusion to an appeal by David Dudley Field in behalf of
the Children's Aid Society:
"This paper has already reached tlic limit intended. It has not
gone into particulars; on the contrary, it has been carefully confined
to certain general propositions. Their development and execution
are matters of detail. The aim of tlie article is attained if it has
helped to impress upon the reader this lesson, partly social and partly
political: take care of the children, and the men and women will
take care of themselves."
Q. From William Jennings Rryan's reply lo the Notification Com-
mittee, Campaign of iqoo:
"I conceive a national destiny surpassing the glories of the present
and the past — a destiny which meets the responsibilities of to-day
and measures up to the possibilities of the future. Behold a Republic
resting securely upon the foundation stone quarried by revolutionary
212 ORAL ENGLISH
patriots from the mountain of eternal truth. . . . Behold a Repub-
lic in which civil and religious liberty stimulates all to earnest en-
deavor, and in which the law restrains every hand uplifted for a
neighbor's injury — a Republic in which every citizen is a sovereign,
but in which no one cares to wear a crown. Behold a Republic stand-
ing erect while empires all around are bowed beneath the weight of
their own armaments — a Republic whose flag is loved while other
flags are only feared. Behold a Republic increasing in population,
in wealth, in strength, and in influence, solving the problems of
civilization and hastening the coming of a universal brotherhood — a
RepubUc which shakes thrones and dissolves aristocracies by its silent
example, and gives light and inspiration to those who sit in darkness.
Behold a Republic gradually but surely becoming the supreme factor
in the world's progress and the accepted arbiter of the world's dis-
putes—a Republic whose history, like the path of the just, 'is
as the shining light that shineth more and more unto the perfect
day.'"
lo. Conclusion to "Concord Oration" by George William Curtis.
In the body of his address, he described the way in which the Minute
Men of the Revolution had vanquished their enemies:
"No royal governor, indeed, sits in yon stately capitol, no hostile
fleet for many a year has vexed the w^aters of our coasts, nor is any
army but our own ever likely to tread our soil. Not such are our
enemies to-day. They do not come, proudly stepping to the drum-
beat, with bayonets flashing in the morning sun. But wherever party
spirit shall strain the ancient guaranties of freedom; or bigotry and
ignorance shall lay their fatal hands on education; or the arrogance
of caste shall strike at equal rights; or corruption shall poison the very
springs of national life, — there. Minute Men of Liberty, are your
Lexington Green and Concord Bridge. And as you love your country
and your kind, and would have your children rise up and call you
blessed, spare not the enemy. Over the hills, out of the earth, down
from the clouds, pour in resistless might. Fire from every rock and
tree, from door and window, from hearthstone and chamber. Hang
upon his flank from morn till sunset, and so, through a land blazing
with indignation, hurl the hordes of ignorance and corruption and
injustice back, — back in utter defeat and ruin."
READING LESSON IX 213
11. Conclusion of an address by George William Curtis at the
laying of the corner stone of Washington IMemorial x\rch:
"What he said to the convention he says to us. It is the voice
of the heroic spirit which in council and in the field has made, and
alone wiU preserve, our America. It is the voice that will speak from
the Memorial Arch to all coming generations of Americans. What-
ever may betide; whatever war, foreign or domestic, may threaten;
whatever specious sophistry may assail the political conscience of
the country, or bribery of place or money corrupt its political action;
above the roar of the mob and the insidious clamor of the demagogue,
the voice of Washington will still be the voice of American patriotism
and of manly honor. — 'Let us raise a standard to which the wise
and honest can repair; the event is in the hands of God.'"
12. Conclusion of a speech by Sargent S. Prentiss, delivered at
Jackson, Miss., in August, 1835:
"Here we cannot but pause to contemplate two wonderful men,
belonging to the same age and to the same nation: Napoleon and
Lafayette. Their names excite no kindred emotions; their fates no
kindred sympathies. Napoleon — the child of Destiny — the thun-
derbolt of war — the victor in a hundred battles — the dispenser of
thrones and dominions; he who scaled the Alps and reclined beneath
the pyramids, whose word was fate and whose wish was law. Lafay-
ette — the volunteer of Freedom — the advocate of human rights —
the defender of civil liberty — the patriot and the philanthro{)ist —
the beloved of the good and the free. Napoleon — the vanquished
warrior, ignobly tlying from the field of Waterloo, the wild beast,
ravaging all Europe in his wrath, hunted down by the banded nations
and caged far away upon an ocean-girded rock. Lafayette — a
watchword by which men excite each other to deeds of worth and
daring; whose home has become the Mecca of Freedom, toward
which the pilgrims of Libiiiy turn their eyes from every quarter of
the globe. Napoleon was the red and fiery comet, shooting wildly
through the realms of space and scattering pestilence and terror
among the nations. Lafayette was the pure and brilliant planet,
beneath whose grateful beams the mariner directs his bark and the
shepherd tends his flocks. Napoleon died and a few old warriors —
214 ORAL ENGLISH
the scattered relics of Marengo and Austerlitz — bewailed their
chief. Lafayette is dead and the tears of a civilized world attest how
deep is the mourning for his loss. Such is and always will be the
difference of feeling toward a benefactor and a conqueror of the
human race."
CHAPTER XXI
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Introduction. — The introductions and conclusions to
the short speeches composed in connection with earlier
chapters consisted of single sentences. The theme sen-
tence formed the introduction, while a varied statement
of the main idea made the conclusion. From this prac-
tice we learned that introductions and conclusions should
be brief. In longer speeches, they should bear about the
same relation to the whole speech that one sentence does
to a two-minute speech. An audience does not enjoy a
speaker who takes too long to come to the point, or one
who starts to end his speech and then does not do so.
Success in formal debating does not require an extended
study of introductions and conclusions. In connection
with brief-making we considered the nature of an intro-
duction to a debate. We learned that its purpose was
primarily to explain the question; that it was given only
by the first speaker; and that it should occupy not more
than one-third of his time. We saw, also, from a study
of Reading Lesson VITI that the conclusion of a speech
in a debate is practically a summary of the main argument.
When, however, we take up the study of various kinds
of longer speeches, other than the debate, we find that the
speaker may use various means to accomplish his purposes.
In this chapter we shall learn that a speaker may wish to
accomplish by his introduction and conclusion cither one
2i6 ORAL ENGLISH
or both of two objects: he may wish to establish right
relations with his audience, or he may wish to give unity
to his speech.
I. Personal Introductions and Conclusions
If the speaker's main purpose is to establish right re-
lations with his audience, he will use an introduction and
a conclusion of a personal nature. His introduction may
treat of his relation to his subject. The opening paragraph
of Booker T. Washington's oration on Abraham Lincoln
is a good example. Again, the introduction may treat
of the speaker's relation to liis audience, as does that of
Lincoln to the citizens of Ohio. (Reading Lesson X, i,
page 220.) In his conclusion, the speaker will attempt
to take graceful leave of his audience. (See the conclu-
sion to Webster's Address before the Agricultural Society
of England, Reading Lesson IX, 7.)
The personal note is usually appropriate in speeches
made on social occasions, and is frequently not out of
place in persuasive speeches. The speaker must be care-
ful, however, that by its use he does not give an impres-
sion of egotism. A person of experience and reputation
can open and close a speech in a personal way with better
grace than can a young speaker. It is, perhaps, needless
to say that this form of introduction and conclusion should
never be used in a formal debate.
II. Unity
If a speaker's main purpose is to increase the unity of
his speech through his introduction and conclusion, he
has various methods at his disposal.
Introduction. — In his introduction he should try in
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 217
some way to sound the keynote of his speech. He may
state the theme of his speech clearly and fully, as Roosevelt
did in his address on " The Strenuous Life." This form
is better adapted to argument, however, than to other
forms of address.
Again, the speaker may use what is called a general
introduction. In this, he makes reference to the larger
subject, one phase of which he expects to discuss more
fully. This method was used by John Hay in his eulogy
on President AIcKinley. (Reading Lesson IX, i.)
Perhaps the most artistic method of opening an address
is merely to suggest the theme of the discourse. This can
be done in several ways: Mr. Depew, in his oration on
Decoration Day, introduced his theme by a description of
the fifer and the drummer boy. (Reading Lesson IX,
6); Mr. Grady, in his oration on "The New South," used
an appropriate quotation (Reading Lesson IX, 2); and
Mr. Roosevelt, in his speech, "The Man with the Muck-
rake," uses a literary allusion. A speaker should be
very sure that his story, quotation, or illustration really
does sound the keynote of his speech. A story which is
"dragged" in in an attempt merely to create a laugh is
an unfortunate beginning.
Conclusion. — In his conclusion, the speaker should
try to gain unity by emphasizing the main thought. Such
a conclusion may be called an emphatic as distinguished
from a personal conclusion. It should be the climax of
the whole speech; that is, the speaker should have "saved
his best wine until tlic last."
There are three kinds of emphatic conclusions. The
simplest form is the summary. (See Reading Lesson IX,
8, for examj)le.) A summary should be more than a mere
2i8 ORAL ENGLISH
enumeration of the points that have been made. It should
throw some new hght on the central thought and should
sound in a most impressive way the keynote of the speech.
It may take the form of a contrast, as in the case of Pren-
tiss' eulogy of Lafayette. (Reading Lesson IX, 12.)
An emphatic conclusion may look forward into the
future, expressing hope in regard to growth or results.
Such is the conclusion of Bryan's reply to the Notification
Committee. (Reading Lesson IX, 9.) It may make an
application of certain truths to the life of the people, and
may urge the listeners to action. The conclusion of the
Concord Oration by George William Curtis is an excellent
example of this method.
The third kind of emphatic conclusion gives final ex-
pression to the thought in the form of a quotation. (See
Reading Lesson IX, 11.)
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned the vari-
ous ways in which a speaker may use an introduction
and conclusion either to establish right relations with his
audience or to increase the unity of his speech.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Introduction and Conclusion
Iniroduction.
I. Brevity necessary.
II. Nature of the introduction and conclusion in a debate.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Personal introductions and conclusions.
A . Purpose. — How gained.
1. Relation to subject.
2. Relation to audience.
3. Conclusion.
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 219
I. B. When appropriate.
C. Danger.
II. Unity.
A. Introduction.
1. Statement of theme.
2. General introduction.
3. Suggestion.
(a) Description.
(b) Quotation.
(c) Literary or historical allusion.
(i) Not dragged in.
B. Conclusion.
1. Emphatic.
(a) Climax.
2. Three kinds.
(a) Summary.
(i) Not an enumeration.
(2) Contrast.
(b) Looking forward.
(i) Hope.
(2) Urging to action.
(c) Quotation.
Conclusion.
Exercise L — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
220 ORAL ENGLISH
READING LESSON X
Examples of Persuasive Speech
1. Introduction to a speech by Abraham Lincoln:
"Fellow Citizens of the State of Ohio: I cannot fail to remember
that I appear for the first time before an audience in this now great
State, — an audience that is accustomed to hear such speakers as
Corwin, and Chase, and Wade, and many other renowned men; and
remembering this, I feel that it will be well for you, as for me, that
you should not raise your expectations to that standard to which you
would have been justified in raising them had one of these distin-
guished men appeared before you. You would perhaps be only pre-
paring disappointment for yourselves, and, as a consequence of your
disappointment, mortification for me. I hope, therefore, that you
will commence with very moderate expectations; and perhaps if you
will give me your attention, I shall be able to interest you in a
moderate degree."
2. Garfield, speaking as a Representative in the House in reference
to a certain action, began, "I wish I could be proved a false prophet
in reference to the result of this action. I wish that I could be over-
whelmed with the proof that I am utterly mistaken in my views."
3. In a debate on "The Recall of Judges," the first affirmative
speaker began as follows:
"The advocates of recall do not fail to recognize the absolute in-
tegrity and high scholarship of many who occupy judicial positions.
The movement for popular recall is not an attack upon the bench as
a whole; it is merely an attempt to correct certain conditions and to
remove such individuals as may, in time, serve to bring the judiciary
into disrepute."
4. From William Jennings Bryan's speech on the Chicago
Platform :
"I would be presumptuous indeed to present myself against the
distinguished gentleman to whom you have listened, if this were a
mere measuring of abilities; but this is not a contest between persons.
The humblest citizen in all the land, when clad in the armor of a
READING LESSON X 221
righteous cause, is stronger than all the hosts of error. I come to
speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of Uberty, the
cause of humanity."
5. This oration was delivered by Napoleon to the Army of Italy
on May 15, 1796, six days after the battle of Lodi. In response, the
French beat back the Austrians into Austria after nearly one year
of fierce fighting:
"Soldiers! You have precipitated yourselves like a torrent from
the Apennines. You have overwhelmed or swept before you all that
opposed your march. Piedmont, delivered from Austrian oppression,
has returned to her natural sentiments of peace and friendship toward
France. Milan is yours; and over all Lombardy floats the flag of
the Republic. To your generosity only do the Dukes of Parma and
Modena now owe their political existence. The army which proudly
threatened you finds no remaining barrier of defense against your
courage. The Po, the Ticino, the Adda, could not stop you a single
day. Those vaunted ramparts of Italy proved insufficient; you
traversed them as rapidly as you did the Apennines. Successes so
numerous and brilliant have carried joy to the heart of your country.
Your representatives have decreed a festival to be celebrated in all
the communes of the Republic, in honor of your victories. There will
your fathers, mothers, wives, sisters, all who hold you dear, rejoice
over your triumphs, and boast that you belong to them.
"Yes, soldiers, you have done much; but much still remains for
you to do. Shall it be said of us that we knew how to conquer, but
not how to profit by victory? Shall posterity reproach us with having
found a Capua in Lombardy? Nay, fellow soldiers! I see you
already eager to cry 'To arms!' Inaction fatigues you; and days
lost to glory arc to you days lost to happiness. Let us, then, begone!
V\'e have yet many forced marches to make; enemies to vanquish;
laurels to gather; and injuries to avenge! Let those who have sharp-
ened the poniards of civil war in I'rance, who have pusillanimously
assassinated our Ministers, who have burned our vessels at Toulon,
— let them now tremble! Tlie hour of vengeance has knolled!
" But let not the people be disquieted. VVe are the friends of every
people; and more especially of the descendants of the Brutuscs, the
Scipios, and other great men to whom we look as bright exemplars.
2 22 ORAL ENGLISH
To reestablish the Capitol; to place there with honor the statues of
the heroes who made it memorable; to rouse the Roman people,
unnerved by many centuries of oppression, — such will be some of
the fruits of our victories. They will constitute an epoch for pos-
terity. To you, soldiers, will belong the immortal honor of redeeming
the fairest portion of Europe. The French people, free and respected
by the whole world, shall give to Europe a glorious peace, which
shall indemnify it for all the sacrifices which it has borne the last six
years. Then, by your own firesides you shall repose, and your fel-
low citizens, when they point out any one of you, shall say, 'He be-
longed to the army of Italy!'"
6. Introduction to an address by Woodrow Wilson, entitled
"The Bible and Progress":
"I come here to-night to speak of the Bible as the book of the
people, not the book of the minister of the Gospel, not the special
book of the priest from which to set forth some occult, unknown
doctrine withheld from the common understanding of men, but a
great book of revelation — the people's, book of revelation."
7. From a speech at Liverpool by Henry Ward Beecher, October
16, 1863:
"It is a matter of very little consequence to me, personally, whether
I speak here to-night or not. But one thing is very certain, if you do
permit me to speak here to-night, you will hear very plain talking.
You will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about Great
Britain three thousand miles off and then is afraid to speak to
Great Britain when he stands on her shores, and if I do not mistake
the tone and temper of English men, they had rather have a man
who opposes them in a manly way than a sneak who argues with
them in an unmanly way. Now if I can carry you with me by
sound conviction, I shall be immensely glad; but if I cannot carry
you with me by facts and sound arguments, I do not wish you to
go with me at all, and all that I ask is simply fair play."
8. Rudyard Kipling made the following address in London, Feb-
ruary 20, 191 5, before a meeting called for the purpose of raising
subscriptions to furnish the armies with music:
"I am greatly honored by the lord mayor's request to speak be-
READING LESSON X 223
fore }-ou. The most useful thing that a civilian can do in these busy
days is to speak as Httle as possible, and, if he feels moved to write,
to confine his efforts to his check-book. But this is an exception to
that very good rule.
"We do not know the present strength of our new armies. Even
if we did it would not be necessary to make it public. We may assume
there are now several battalions in Great Britain which did not e.xist
at the end of last July, and some of these battalions are in London.
Nor is it any part of our national scheme of things to explain how far
they are prepared for the work ahead of them. They were quite
rightly born in silence for the rest of their lives. At present, un-
fortunately, most of them are obliged to walk in silence, or to no better
accompaniment than whistles, concertinas, and other meritorious but
inadequate instruments of music which they provide for themselves.
"In the beginning this did not matter so much. There were more
urgent needs to be met ; but now that the new armies are what they
are, we, who cannot assist them by joining their ranks, owe it to them
to provide them with more worthy music for their help and comfort
and honor. I am not a musician, so if I speak as a barbarian, forgive
me.
"From the lowest point of view, a few drums and fifes in a bat-
talion are worth five extra miles on a route march — quite apart from
the fact that they swing the battalion back to quarters composed and
happy in its mind; where there is no route-marching, the mere
come-and-go, the roll and flourish of the drums and fifes round
barracks is as warming and cheering as the sight of a fire in a room.
"A band — not necessarily a full band, but a band of a few brasses
and wood winds — is immensely valuable in districts where troops
are billeted. It revives memories; it quickens associations; it opens
and unites the hearts of men more surely than any other appeal. In
that respect it assists recruiting perhaps more than any other agency.
The tunes that it employs and the words that go with them may
seem very far removed from heroism or devotion; but the magic
and the compelling power are there to make men's souls realize
certain truths which their minds might doubt.
"More than that. No one — not even the adjutant — can say
for certain where the soul of a battalion lives; but the expression of
that soul is most often found in the band. It stands to leason that
224 ORAL ENGLISH
a body of 1200 men whose lives are pledged to each other's keeping
must have some common means of expressing their thoughts and
moods to themselves and to their world. The band can feel the
mood and interpret it to their world.
"A wise and sympathetic bandmaster — and most that I have
known have been that — can lift a battalion out of depression, cheer
it in sickness, and steady and recall it to itself in times of almost
unendurable strain. You will remember a beautiful poem by Sir
Henry Newbolt describing how a squadron of ' weary big dragoons'
were led on to renewed effort by the strains of a penny whistle and a
child's drum taken from a toyshop in a wrecked French town.
"And I remember in a cholera camp in India, where the men were
suffering very badly, the band of the loth Lincolns started a regi-
mental sing-song one night with that queer defiant tune, 'The Lin-
colnshire Poacher.' It was merely their regimental march which the
men had heard a thousand times. There was nothing in it except —
except all England — all the East Coast — all the fun and daring
and horseplay of young men bucketing about the big pastures by
moonhght. But, as it was given, very softly, at that bad time in
that terrible camp of death, it was the one thing in the world which
could have restored — as it did — shaken men to pride, honor, and
self-control. This is, perhaps, an extreme case, but by no means an
exceptional one. A man who has had any experience of the service
can testify that a battalion is better for music at every turn — happier,
easier to handle, and with greater zest for its daily routine if that
routine is sweetened by melody and rhythm — melody for the mind
and rhythm for the body.
"Our new armies have not been well served in this essential. Of
all the admirable qualities they have shown, none is more wonderful
than the spirit which has carried them through the laborious and dis-
tasteful groundwork of their calling without a note of music except
what that same indomitable spirit supplied — out of its own head.
We have all seen them marching through the country or through
London streets in absolute silence, and the crowd through which they
pass as silent as themselves for lack of the one medium that could
convey and glorify the thoughts which are in all men's minds to-day.
"We are a tongue-tied breed at the best. The band can declare
on our behalf, without shame or shyness, something of what we feel,
READING LESSON X 225
and so help us to reach a hand towards the men who have risen up
to save us.
"We have had many proofs in the last six months that people
only want to be told what the new armies require and it will be freely
and gladly given. The army needs music — its own music — for,
more than any other calling, soldiers do not live by bread alone.
From time immemorial the man who offers his life for his land has
been compassed at ever\' turn of his service by elaborate ceremonial
and observance of which music is no small part — carefully designed
to prepare and uphold him. It is not expedient nor seemly that any
portion of that ritual should be slurred or omitted now."
CHAPTER XXII
THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH
Introduction. — The persuasive speech, as we have
learned in an earlier chapter, aims to secure action on
the part of the hsteners. It does this by an appeal both
to the feelings and to the understanding. We found,
however, that if the speaker appeals to the feelings only,
and does not support his appeal by sound reasoning, the
impulse to act is hkely to be of short duration. We have,
therefore, spent much time in studying the process of argu-
ment. But again we find that conviction alone, which is
the aim of the debater, is not always sufficient to secure
action. The reasoning processes of men are apt to be mod-
ified by their education and personal interests and, as a
result, it becomes necessary for the persuasive speaker
to remove old prejudices and arouse new motives. The
really effective persuasive speech produces convictions
and creates a willingness to act upon those convictions.
According to Archbishop Magee, there are three kinds
of speakers: (i) the kind you can't listen to; (2) the kind
you can listen to; and (3) the kind you can't help hsten-
ing to. This last class has learned the art of persuasive
speech.
Persuasiveness is much more than the gift of making
emotional appeals. In this chapter we shall learn: (i)
that it involves the right attitude on the part of the
speaker toward himself, his subject, and his audience;
(2) that it includes the ability of the speaker to adapt his
THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 227
message to his audience; (3) that it hes in the power of
the speaker to create a sense of unity in his audience.
I. Right Attitude
Toward Himself. — The persuasive speaker should be
modest and, at the same time, self-respecting and self-
reliant. Lincoln's introduction to his speech in Ohio
furnishes an excellent example of sincere modesty. It
scarcely need be said that affectation of modesty would be
repellent. The extract from Beecher's speech at Liver-
pool reveals to us the persuasive power of an attitude
which is outspoken and self-reliant, yet not discourteous.
Toward his Subject. — A persuasive speaker must have
absolute faith in the dignity and righteousness of the cause
for which he stands. ^Ir. Holyoake says, "The true use
of the art of pubhc speaking is the protection of the un-
friended truth and the vindication of the imperiled right."
If, then, we are putting our art to its highest use, we need
not lack this one element of persuasiveness — confidence
in the worthiness of our cause. This attitude is well illus-
trated by Bryan's speech on the Chicago Platform.
The truly persuasive speaker is in earnest about his
subject. He talks, not to display his ability but to accom-
plish results. As some one has said, "He does not present
a beautiful picture and then stand in front of it." His
emotional appeals are successful because he first feels the
emotion himself. This absolute sincerity has been a
characteristic of all great persuasive speakers. Pericles,
the great orator of the Golden Age, who swayed Athens
as he would, is said to have always prayed to the gods be-
fore speaking that he might utter no words unsuited to
his auditcjrs and to the occasion.
2 28 ORAL ENGLISH
Toward his Audience. — The speaker who is persuasive
is always courteous and even complimentary. Lincoln
said, "I always assume that my audiences are in many
things wiser than I am, and I say the most sensible thing
I can to them. I never found that they did not under-
stand me." The persuasive speaker feels and expresses
confidence in the ability and willingness of his hearers
to do what he urges them to do. Napoleon's address to
his soldiers breathes confidence in every line.
Again, the persuasive speaker expresses his views with
moderation in order that he may not arouse unnecessary
antagonism on the part of those who differ from him.
Coleridge expresses the need of such moderation when he
says, "Truth is a good dog, but beware of barking too
closely at the heels of error, lest you get your brains kicked
out." Reading Lesson X^ 3 furnishes an example of a
mild statement of the speaker's position — one which is
calculated to allay prejudice.
II. Adaptation to Audience
The persuasive speaker seeks to adapt his message to
his audience. One who knows his message but not his
audience is not likely to reach them with his message.
When a speaker is planning for a given occasion, he should
ask himself these questions: What does my audience al-
ready know about my subject? What do they usually
think and talk about? What can I use of their knowledge
as an illustration of my own?
Henry Ward Beecher was a master of persuasive dis-
course. When he lectured in the British Isles to gain
support for the Northern cause, he showed that he under-
stood this principle perfectly. When speaking in Glas-
THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 229
gow, where laborers were interested in building blockade
runners, he pointed out the evil effects of slavery upon
labor; but, when speaking to a cultured audience in
Edinburgh, he dealt with the philosophy and history of
slavery.
III. Sense of Unity in the Audience
The persuasive speaker tries to create in his audience
a sense of unity. He changes them from persons of vary-
ing purposes to a group with a common purpose. He
may accompHsh this in various ways.^ A very common
method is to tell a story. Edgar R. Jones says in The
Art of the Orator, "Once individuals are got to laugh
together or cry together, they are in the speaker's hand;
he has them bound to him with a cord of sympathy; he
can sway them as one mind."
Again, he may refer to personages who are revered by
all or by a large proportion of his audience; such as
Washington, Lincoln, or Christ. He may appeal to ideals
which all human beings have in common, such as self-
interest, freedom, honesty, chivalry, duty, patriotism,
love of home and family. It is best to begin with as high
motives as possible and lead to higher ones. The average
man, although he may at times be secretly governed by
sordid motives, yields more readily to the speaker who
appeals to motives that are generally commended.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i)
that the persuasive speaker has the right attitude toward
himself, his subject, and his audience; (2) that he adapts
his message to his audience; and (3) that he creates in
his audience a sense of unity.
230 ORAL ENGLISH
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Persuasive Speech
Introduction.
I. Why the effective speech includes both argument and
persuasion.
II. Three kinds of speakers.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Right attitude.
A.
Toward himself.
I. Modesty.
2. Self-reliance.
B.
Toward his subject.
I. Faith — Holyoake.
2. Earnestness.
(o) Picture.
{b) Emotion.
(c) Pericles.
C.
Toward his audience.
I. Courteous — Lincoln.
2. Confidence — Napoleon.
3. Moderation.
(c) Coleridge.
{b) Example.
II. Adaptation to audience.
A.
Questions.
B.
Beecher.
III. Sense of unity in the audience.
A.
From individuals to group — Jones,
B.
Personages.
C.
Ideals.
I. High motives — reason.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
Exercise II. — Re-read Dickens' speech (Reading Lesson III, page
THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 231
54) and Kipling's speech (Reading Lesson X, page 220) and find as
many illustrations as possible of points mentioned in this chapter.
Exercise III. — Read the following speeches of St. Paul in the
New Testament and make a list of their persuasive points. To the
Athenians {Acts, xvii: 22-32); before Agrippa {Acts, xxvi).
Exercise IV. — Prepare a speech (of not more than four minutes)
which has a persuasive purpose. Consult the list of subjects for
persuasive speeches (Appendix VII) for suggestions as to a topic.
Use as many as possible of the suggestions given in this chapter.
Exercise V. — Repeat the speech prepared in Exercise IV, but
adapt it to an altogether different audience.
Exercise VI. — Written Review. Be able to write in class upon
any of the following topics:
1. Personal Introductions and Conclusions.
2. The Introduction as a Keynote.
3. The Emphatic Conclusion.
4. Attitude of the Persuasive Speaker.
5. Adaptation to the Audience.
6. Creation of a Sense of Unity in the Audience.
232 ORAL ENGLISH
READING LESSON XI
Orations
I. Speech by William CuUen Bryant as president of the day at a
banquet of the Burns Club of New York, in celebration of the cen-
tenary of the poet's birth: ^
"On rising to begin the announcement of the regular toasts for
this evening, my first duty is to thank my excellent friends of the
Burns Club, with whom I do not now meet for the first time, and
whose annual festivities are among the pleasantest I ever attended,
for the honor they have done me in calling me to the chair I occupy —
an honor the more to be prized on account of the rare occasion on which
it is bestowed. An honor which can be conferred but once in a cen-
tury is an honor indeed. This evening the memory of Burns will be
celebrated as it never was before. His fame, from the time when he
first appeared before the world as a poet, has been growing and bright-
ening, as the morning brightens into the perfect day. There never was
a time when his merits were so freely acknowledged as now; when
the common consent of the literary world placed him so high, or
spoke his praises wdth so little intermixture of disparagement; when
the anniversary of his birth could have awakened so general and
fervent an enthusiasm. If we could imagine a human being endowed
with the power of making himself, through the medium of his senses,
a witness of whatever is passing on the face of the globe, what a series
of festivities, what successive manifestations of the love and admira-
tion which all who speak our language bear to the Scottish poet,
would present themselves to his observation, accompanying the
shadow of this night in its circuit round the earth. . . . Well has
our great poet deserved this universal commemoration — for who
has written like him? What poem descriptive of rural manners and
virtues, rural life in its simplicity and dignity — yet without a single
false outline or touch of false coloring — clings to our memories and
lives in our bosoms like his 'Cotter's Saturday Night'? What
humorous narrative in verse can be compared with his 'Tam o'Shan-
1 From Chronicle of the Hundredth Birthday of Robert Burns, edited
by James Ballantine. Edinburgh and London, 1859.
READING LESSON XI 233
ter' ? From the fall of Adam to his time, I beHeve, there was nothing
written in the vein of his 'Mountain Daisy'; others have caught his
spirit from that poem, but who among them all has excelled him?
Of all the convivial songs I have ever seen in any language, there is
none so overflovnng with the spirit of conviviality, so joyous, so
contagious, as his song of 'Willie brewed a peck o' maut.' What
love songs are sweeter and tenderer than those of Burns? \\'hat
song addresses itself so movingly to our love of old friends and our
pleasant recollections of old days as his 'Auld Lang Syne,' or to the
domestic affections so powerfully as his 'John Anderson'?
"You heard yesterda3^ my friends, and you wUl hear againto-day,
better things said of the genius of Burns than I can say. That will
be your gain and mine. But there is one observation which, if I
have not already tried your patience too far, I would ask your leave
to make. If Burns was thus great among poets, it was not because
he stood higher than they by any preeminence of a creative and fertile
imagination. Original, affluent, and active his imagination certainly
was, and it was always kept under the guidance of a masculine and
vigorous understanding; but it is the feeling which lives in his poems
that gives them their supreme mastery over the minds of men. Burns
was thus great because God breathed into him, in larger measure
than into other men, the spirit of that love which constitutes his own
essence, and made him, more than other men, a living soul. Burns
was great by the greatness of his sympathies — sympathies acute
and delicate, yet large, comprehensive, boundless. They were warm-
est and strongest toward those of his own kind, yet they overflowed
upon all sentient beings: upon the animal in his stall, upon the 'wee,
sleekit, cowcrin', timorous bcastie,' dislodged from her autumnal
covert; upon the hare wounded by the sportsman; upon the very
field flower, overturned by his share and crushed among the stubble.
And in all this we feel that there is nothing strained or exaggerated,
nothing affected or put on, nothing childish or silly, but that ail is
true, genuine, manly, noble. We honor, we venerate the poet while
wc read; we take the expression of these sympathies to our hearts,
and fold it in our memory forever.
"And now, having .said all I purposed to say — to your weariness,
I fear — I proceed to give out the first regular toast in which, if you
do not heartily join, I shall wonder why you are here. I give you
234 ORAL ENGLISH
'The Day We Celebrate' — a day 'which makes the whole world
kin,' uniting by sympathetic emotion men of all degrees, in every
land, in honoring the memory and the genius of Robert Burns, one
of 'the few, the immortal names that were not born to die.'"
2. Portion of a eulogy of Lincoln, by John Philip Newman:
"Human glory is often fickle as the winds, and transient as a
summer day; but Abraham Lincoln's place in history is assured.
All the symbols of this world's admiration are his. He is embalmed
in song, recorded in history, eulogized in panegyric, cast in bronze,
sculptured in marble, painted on canvas, enshrined in the hearts of
his countrymen, and lives in the memories of mankind. Some men
are brilliant in their times, but their words and deeds are of little
worth to history; but his mission was as large as his country, vast
as humanity, enduring as time. Some men are not honored by their
contemporaries, and die neglected. Here is one more honor,ed than
any other man while living, more revered when dying, and destined
to be loved to the last syllable of recorded time. He has this three-
fold greatness — great in Hfe, great in death, great in the history of
the world. Lincoln will grow upon the attention and affections of
posterity, because he saved the life of the greatest nation, whose ever
widening influence is to bless humanity. Measured by this standard,
Lincoln shall live in history from age to age.
" Great men appear in groups, and in groups they disappear from
the vision of the world; but we do not love or hate men in groups.
We speak of Gutenberg and his coadjutors, of Washington and his
generals, of Lincoln and his cabinet ; but when the day of judgment
comes, we crown the inventor of printing, we place the laurel on the
brow of the father of his country, and the chaplet of renown upon
the head of the savior of the republic.
"Some men are great from the littleness of their surroundings;
but he only is great who is great amid greatness. Lincoln had great
associates — Seward, the sagacious diplomatist ; Chase, the eminent
financier; Stanton, the incomparable Secretary of War, — with
illustrious senators and soldiers. None could take his part or fill
his position.
"Lincoln stands forth on the page of history, unique in his char-
acter, and magnetic in his individuality. Like Milton's angel, he
READING LESSON XI 235
was an original conception. He was raised up for his times. He
was a leader of leaders. By instinct the common heart trusted him.
He was of the people and for the people. He had been poor and
laborious; but greatness did not change the tone of his spirit or
lessen the sympathies of his nature. His character was strangely
sjTnmetrical. He was temperate, without austerity; brave, without
rashness; constant, \\-ithout obstinacy. Not excepting Washington,
who inherited wealth and high social position, Lincoln is the fullest
representative American in our national annals. He had touched
every round in the human ladder. He illustrated the possibilities
of our citizenship. We are not ashamed of his humble origin. We
are proud of his greatness."
3. From an address by Booker T. Washington at the opening of
the Atlanta Exposition:
Mr. Washington in V p from Slavery describes his own feelings
and the circumstances surrounding the delivery of the speech as
follows: "I remembered that I had been a slave — it was easily
possible that some of my former owners might be present to hear me
speak. I knew, too, that this was the first time in the entire history
of the negro that a member of my race had been asked to speak from
the same platform with while Southern men and women on any
important national occasion. When I arose to speak, there was
considerable cheering, especially from the colored people. As I
remember it now the thing that was uppermost in my mind was the
desire to say something that would cement the friendship of the
races and bring about hearty cooperation between them. . . . The
first thing that I remember, after I finished speaking, was that Gov-
ernor Bullock rushed across the platform and took me by the hand,
and that others did the same."
Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Board of Directors and Citizens:
One-third of the population of the South is of the Negro race.
No enterprise seeking the material, civil, or moral welfare of this
section can disregard this element of our population and reach the
highest success. I but convey to you, Mr. President and Directors,
the sentiment of the masses of my race when I say that in no way
have the value and manhood of the American Negro been more
236 ORAL ENGLISH
fittingly and generously recognized than by the managers of this
magnificent Exposition at every stage of its progress. It is a recog-
nition that will do more to cement the friendship of the two races
than any occurrence since the dawn of our freedom.
Not only this, but the opportunity here afforded will awaken
among us a new era of industrial progress. Ignorant and inexperi-
enced, it is not strange that in the first years of our new life we began
at the top instead of at the bottom; that a seat in Congress or the
State legislature was more sought than real estate or industrial skill;
that the political convention or stump speaking had more attractions
than starting a dairy, farm, or truck garden.
A ship lost at sea for many days suddenly sighted a friendly vessel.
From the mast of the unfortunate vessel was seen a signal, "Water,
water; we die of thirst!" The answer from the friendly vessel at
once came back, " Cast down your bucket where you are." A second
time the signal, "Water, water; send us water!" ran up from the
distressed vessel, and was answered, "Cast down your bucket where
you are." And a third and fourth signal for water was answered,
"Cast down your bucket where you are." The captain of the dis-
tressed vessel, at last heeding the injunction, cast down his bucket,
and it came up full of fresh sparkling water from the mouth of the
Amazon River. To those of my race who depend on bettering their
condition in a foreign land" or who underestimate the importance of
cultivating friendly relations with the Southern white man, who is
their next-door neighbor, I would say: "Cast down your bucket
where you are" — cast it down in making friends in every manly
way of the people of aQ races by whom we are surrounded.
Cast it down in agriculture, mechanics, in commerce, in domestic
service, and in the professions. And in this connection it is well to
bear in mind that whatever other sins the South may be called to
bear, when it comes to business, pure and simple, it is in the South
that the Negro is given a man's chanqe in the commercial world, and
in nothing is this Exposition more eloquent than in emphasizing this
chance. Our greatest danger is that in the great leap from slavery
to freedom we may overlook the fact that the masses of us are to live
by the productions of our hands, and fail to keep in mind that we
shall prosper in proportion as we learn to dignify and glorify common
labor and put brains and skill into the common occupations of life;
READING LESSON XI 237
shall prosper in proportion as we learn to draw the line between the
superficial and the substantial, the ornamental gewgaws of life and
the useful. No race can prosper till it learns that there is as much
dignity in tilling a field as in writing a poem. It is at the bottom of
life we must begin, and not at the top. Nor should we permit our
grievances to overshadow our opportunities.
To those of the white race who look to the incoming of those of
foreign birth and strange tongue and habits for the prosperity of the
South, were I permitted I would repeat what I say to my own race,
"Cast down your bucket where you are." Cast it down among the
eight millions of Negroes whose habits you know, whose fidelity and
love you have tested in days when to have proved treacherous meant
the ruin of your firesides. Cast down your bucket among these
people who have, without strikes and labor wars, tilled your fields,
cleared your forests, builded your railroads and cities, and brought
forth treasures from the bowels of the earth, and helped make possible
this magnificent representation of the progress of the South. Casting
down your bucket among my people, helping and encouraging them
as you are doing on these grounds to education of head, hand, and
heart, you will find that they will buy your surplus land, make blossom
the waste places in your fields, and run your factories. While doing
this, you can be sure in the future, as in the past, that you and your
families will be surrounded by the most patient, faithful, law-abiding,
and unresentful people that the world has seen. As we have proved
our loyalty to you in the past, in nursing your children, watching by
the sick-bed of your mothers and fathers, and often following ihcm
with tear-dimmed eyes to their graves, so in the future, in our humble
way, we shall stand by you with a devotion that no foreigner can
approach, ready to lay down our lives, if need be, in defense of yours,
interlacing our industrial, commercial, civil, and religious life with
yours in a way that shall make the interests of both races one. In
all things that are purely social, we can be as separate as the fingers,
yet as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.
There is no defense or security for any of us except in the highest
intelligence and development of all. If anywhere there are efforts
tenrling to curtail the fullest growth of the Negro, let these efforts
be turned into stimulating, encouraging, and making him the most
useful and intelligent citizen. Effort or means so invested will pay
238 ORAL ENGLISH
a thousand per cent interest. These efforts will be twice blessed —
"blessing him that gives and him that takes."
There is no escape through law of man or God from the inevitable:
The laws of changeless justice bind
Oppressor with oppressed;
And close as sin and suffering joined
We march to fate abreast.
Nearly sixteen millions of hands will aid you in puUing the load
upward, or they will pull against you the load downward. We shall
constitute one-third and more of the ignorance and crime of the
South, or one-third its intelligence and progress; we shall contribute
one-third to the business and industrial prosperity of the South, or
we shall prove a veritable body of death, stagnating, depressing,
retarding every effort to advance the body politic.
Gentlemen of the Exposition, as we present to you our humble
effort at an exhibition of our progress, you must not expect over-
much. Starting thirty years ago with ownership here and there in a
few quilts and pumpkins and chickens (gathered from miscellaneous
sources), remember the path that has led from these to the inventions
and production of agricultural implements, buggies, steam-engines,
newspapers, books, statuary, carving, paintings, the management of
drug stores and banks, has not been trodden without contact with
thorns and thistles. While we take pride in what we exhibit as a
result of our independent efforts, we do not for a moment forget that
our part in this exhibition would fall far short of your expectations
but for the constant help that has come to our educational life, not
only from the Southern States, but especially from Northern philan-
thropists, who have made their gifts a constant stream of blessing and
encouragement.
The wisest among my race understand that the agitation of ques-
tions of social equality is the extremest folly, and that progress in
the enjoyment of all the privileges that will come to us must be the
result of severe and constant struggle rather than of artificial forcing.
No race that has anything to contribute to the markets of the world
is long in any degree ostracized. It is important and right that all
privileges of the law be ours, but it is vastly more important that we
be prepared for the exercise of these privileges. The opportunity
READING LESSON XI 239
I0 earn a dollar in a factoty just now is worth infinitely more than
the opportunity to spend a dollar in an opera-house.
In conclusion, may I repeat that nothing in thirty years has given
us more hope and encouragement, and drawn us so near to you of the
white race, as this opportunity olYered by the Exposition; and here
bending, as it were, over the altar that represents the struggles of
your race and mine, both starling practically empty-handed three
decades ago, I pledge that in your effort to work out the great and
intricate problem which God has laid at the doors of the South, you
shall have at aU times the patient, sympathetic help of my race; only
let this be constantly in mind, that, while from representations in
these buildings of the product of field, of forest, of mine, of factor}',
letters, and art, much good will come, yet far above and beyond
material benefits will be that higher good, that, let us pray God, will
come in a blotting out of sectional differences and racial animosities
and suspicions, in a determination to administer absolute justice, in
a willing obedience among all classes to the mandates of the law.
This, this, coupled with our material prosperity, will bring into our
beloved South a new heaven and a new earth.
4. Address of Judge Peter J. Shields at the Dedication of the New
College of Agriculture, November 20, 191 2; from the University of
California Chronicle, Vol. 15, p. 113:
It would be impossible, in the few moments which the circum-
stances permit, for me to fittingly express the significance of this hour.
It is the culmination of long years of waiting, of the slow growth of a
Western civilization; the fruit of fine hopes- and patient, unselfish
efforts. It is the beginning of a larger effort to teach men the sound
principles which have stood the test of experience and which in all
ages have given security and happiness to the peoples that have
practiced them. ... I should like to speak a few words in praise of
those who have helped in this work, but ihcy do not need it. It is
enough that their wish has been realized; thai the truth for which
they labored, to-day has received this high sanction. I should like to
speak of agriculture as one of the noblest of all occupations, hut it
is in submis.sion to that truth lh;it we arc here and it docs not need
expression.
We have contended warmly over what was education, as to what
240 ORAL ENGLISH
were its aids and its agencies. Some of us have doubted whether
men might be educated through things, through a knowledge of nature
and the practice of her laws. It would be interesting to-day to take
up that discussion, but it would be fruitless. That cause has been
tried, and to-day, in monumental form, we record the verdict.
It will be enough to point to the most tangible lesson of history
that agricultural industry has been the surest foundation of a state
and the extent to which it was fostered has been the measure of a
people's progress.
Mysterious Egypt, of which we know only that it was great, at
the height of its development made slaves of its farmers. Magnificent
India founded its future upon agriculturalists whom she condemned
to a degraded caste. Rome plundered and oppressed her farmers to
a condition of poverty and discredit. They are all gone, and volumes
have been written in an effort to trace the cause. It could be written
in a sentence. They built their societies from the top, and devoted
their efforts to the worship of false social quantities. That we should
honor agriculture is the lesson of their dread experience. But we
cannot do this as a duty; it must spring from an honest estimate.
This building stands for this appreciation and respect. It will help
us to honor agriculture, through making it honorable. It will unfold
its mysteries, it will exhibit its beauties, it will develop its strength
tiU an admiring and respectful nation will proclaim its primacy.
This country was founded upon the principle that labor is honor-
able, and we made agriculture our chief pursuit. We have grown
in devotion to the truth. We have got our vigor from the soil. Most
of our ablest men have been countr>'-bred. Our distinctive institu-
tions were nourished there. Its ideals have colored and formed our
policies. In recent years, this dominance has been threatened and
our problems have multiplied. This way lies their correction.
I will not attempt any elaboration of this structure's significance.
It stands as a monument to the new agriculture, the agriculture of
thought and knowledge which has come to redeem the industry and
to secure for it its proportionate place in our civilization. It means
the beauty and the strength of the out-of-doors. It means the peace
and solitude where men think profoundly and adhere tenaciously,
where strong characters are formed and high purposes are nourished.
It means food and raiment and shelter; the primal things that go to
READING LESSON XI 241
the roots of life, and supply the basis of all our institutions. It
stands for toil and proclaims the honest eminence of useful labor.
It stands for simphcity as the eternal measure of permanence. It
calls men out from the crowded places to where the horizon is wide,
where the majesty of nature prompts man to its imitation.
We are multiphing ver>' rapidly the complications of our civi-
lization and we ask ourselves to what limits we may safely go in the
direction we call progress. The answer is here, that we cannot get
far away from the standards this structure proclaims, from the
countr>^-bred man, the man who is constantly measuring his work
with the work of nature and thus keeping it true. Life may become
very fine and high, but it must remain natural to keep its strength.
We should look at this hall as a beacon lighting the way in which we
may go in safety. It will stand a perpetual reproach to frivolity,
artificiality, and idleness; it will supply an antidote for the depend-
ence of the submerged, and for the arrogance of the over-fortunate.
It proclaims the farmer the type man of America; it admonishes us
to train him — but keep him a farmer.
Agriculture is not only an industr>% it is a life. This building
stands for the preservation of that life, for its elevation and such a
distribution of its ideals as \\-ill flavor the whole life of our country.
This is indeed a great day for California. We are taking stock
of our condition. \\'hen we find a people engaged as we are to-day,
met in the spirit in which we are met, wc know that they are going
forward on the broad highway of life, that their estimate of social
values is true, and that they have avoided the temptations to which
other nations have succumbed.
Different states or societies at different times have built monu-
ments to the principles they worshipped; to express their faiths or to
point their hopes. A mystic race built the Pyramids. To-day these
stand, lonesome sentinels in the desert, typifj-ing nothing save that
races not soundly founded will perish. Tamerlane built a structure
of skulls in testimony of his faith in war and its all-conquering power.
It crumbled scarcely as fast as his leadership, his empire, his people,
and his race; as the false princii)les u[)on which he had based the
success of his efforts. The Pagan races creeled temples to earth-made
gods, but these pe()i)le vanished, their gofls are forgotten, their temples
have disappeared or their fragments remain in proof that what is
242 ORAL ENGLISH
not true cannot be perpetuated. The triumphal arches of the Romans
serve only to remind us that the judgment which called them such was
mistaken, and that a race devoted to conquest and oppression will
disappear. The monuments upon the torture fields of Smithfield
and Salem are the tombstones of dead institutions.
The monument we have built here was built in another spirit.
It was built in submission to an all-prevading law — built in harmony
with nature. It was built to serve human need and not the greed or
vanity of privilege. It was built in devotion to knowledge and in-
dustry, the everlasting things. It will survive, in the things it stands
for, while the world lasts. Tens of millions of people will come to
this fair land to live here a more involved and elaborated life than the
world has elsewhere known. If they keep their eyes upon this temple
and walk in its shadow, if they practice the truths for which it stands,
their society will live as long.
To-day we reafiirm that faith. Let us rededicate ourselves to the
efforts which have brought about this hour. Let us build this struc-
ture higher and broader until its spirit is in every heart and until
every hearthstone in our country becomes part of its foundation.
5. Portion of an address at the Dedication of the Doe Library
Building of the University of California, by the Librarian, Joseph C.
Rowell. Taken from the University of California Chronicle, Vol. 14,
p. 351. Mr. Rowell devoted more than half of his speech to an
interesting retrospect of the gradual growth of the library. The
following is an extract:
"The fortunes of the library inseparably followed those of the
University. Up under the eaves of Brayton Hall were arranged some
few hundreds of books on history, literature, and philosophy, together
with well thumbed classics, and dust lay deep on theological and
scientific treatises of honorably ancient dates.
"How the aspect of the place brightened when in 187 1 a large gift
of modern books arrived, brilliant in gilded calf, fresh from the pub-
lishers! Then students abandoned the chess table and climbed up-
ward to consult the eighth edition of Brittanica, to open dainty
volumes of poets, to lay the foundation of an essay on Emerson, or
to spend an indolent, happy hour over Bulwer or Thackeray."
READING LESSON XI 243
6. Columbian Oration delivered at Dedicatory Ceremonies of
the World's Fair, Chicago, Oct. 21, 1892, by Chauncey M. Depew.
Introduction:
"This day belongs not to America alone, but to the world. The
results of the event it commemorates are the heritage of the peoples
of every race and clime. We celebrate the emancipation of man.
The preparation was the work of almost countless centuries; the
realization was the revelation of one. The Cross on Calvary was
hope; the cross raised on San Salvador was opportunity. But for
the first, Columbus would never have sailed; but for the second,
there would have been no place for the planting, the nurture, and the
expansion of civil and religious liberty. . . . The exhibition of arts
and sciences, of industries and inventions, of education and civiliza-
tion which the Republic of the United States will here present, and to
which, through its Chief Magistrate, it invites all nations, condenses
and displays the flower and fruitage of this transcendent miracle."
The body might be summarized as follows:
Histor>^: Feudalism, monarchy, new learning all prepared the way,
but freedom could develop no farther on the old continent.
The event must he.
The Man: Columbus was especially prepared. Importance of Isa-
bella.
Result: Immigration has resulted in a loyal foreign population. This
has become a land of opportunity.
Conclusion:
"All hail, Columbus, discoverer, dreamer, hero, apostle! We
here, of every race and country, recognize the horizon which bounded
his vision and the infinite scope of his genius. The voice of gratitude
and prai.sc for all the blessings which have been showered upon man-
kind by his adventure is limited to 110 language, but is ultered in every
tongue. Neither marble nor brass can filly form his statue. Conti-
nents are his monuments, and unnumbered millions, present and to
come, who enjoy in their liberty and ha[Ji)iness the fruits of his faith,
will reverently guard and preserve, from century to century, his name
and fame."
244 ORAL ENGLISH
7. Parts of an address by Chauncey M. Depew in laying the
corner stone of the New York Athletic Club:
Introduction:
"The laying of the corner stone of what is to be the most complete,
commodious and perfect home of athletics in the world is in harmony
with the times. It is a significant note of progress and prosperity."
He then refers to, the large place which athletics held in Greek life
and the contempt with which it was regarded in our own country fifty
years ago. He commends it as an antidote for the mental and physi-
cal disorders which grew out of the strenuous life of the 19th century.
Conclusion:
"So the healthful conditions of manly athletics have become the
best helpers to the preacher, the best assistants to the doctor, the
best workers for the temperance societies, the best correctors of
private morals, and the best aids to good citizenship. . . . Upon this
corner stone let arise a home for honorable athletics, a home which
shall frown on the brutality of some of its forms; a home that shall
encourage every kind of healthful sport."
PART IV— SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL
OCCASIONS
CHAPTER XXIII
THE ORATION
Introduction. — Oratory is the highest form of public
speech. Henry Ward Beecher says that oratory "is the
consecration of the whole man to the noblest purpose
to which one can address himself — the education and
inspiration of his fellowmen." The persuasive speech
discussed in the preceding chapter may be called an
oration when it has the following characteristics: (i)
dignity of theme, (2) elegance of diction, and (3) impres-
siveness of delivery. If all of these elements are necessary,
it is evident that success in oratory requires previous
practice in other forms of public address. R. C. Ring-
wait says, "The art of the actor and reader is joined
with that of the man of letters, the philosopher, and
statesman in producing the great orator."
The oration differs from the debate in that it deals
mainly with ideas and facts which are undisputed. "The
audience," says Professor Sears, "expects to have its con-
victions strengthened rather than changed." For this
reason, argument takes a subordinate place in the oration.
Certain kinds of argument can be used effectively: for
example, historic parallel, analogy, dilemma, and reduc-
tion to absurdity; but the j)red(jminating forms of dis-
course are description, narration, and exposition. For
246 ORAL ENGLISH
this reason, the orator can appeal more powerfully to
the feelings than can the debater. His ideas are of such
a character that they meet with no opposition from the
intellects of his hearers and he is therefore free to address
himself to their hearts.
This chapter will deal with such orations as might be
delivered (i) in honor of a person, (2) in honor of an event,
and (3) at commencement exercises.
I. Oration in Honor of a Person
Eulogy or Memorial Tribute. — The oration in honor
of a person is called a eulogy when it is delivered at the
anniversary of either the birth or death of some great
character, or at the dedication of a monument in his honor.
If it is delivered immediately after the death of a promi-
nent or beloved fellow citizen, it is often called a memorial
tribute.
More than Biographical. — Although a eulogy deals
with biographical material, it should be more than a
mere biography. The speaker should try to discover the
essence of the man's work, what he stood for, and what is
likely to be his place in history. He should then use
historical facts to show how this work was developed and
accomphshed in his life. Let us notice a few examples.
Alfred Austin, at the 500th anniversary of the death of
Chaucer, treats of the old English poet as the embodiment
of English character. Honorable George F. Hoar, in his
eulogy on Webster, emphasizes his greatest achievement
as that of arousing in the American people a spirit of
nationality. Bryant, in his tribute to Burns, shows that
the chief source of his power over men was his compre-
hensive sympathy. Such treatment of the facts is much
THE ORATION 247
more interesting and impressive than a simple historical
narrative, and it embodies that fundamental principle of
unity which is essential to a work of art.
Should the Whole Truth be Told? — The character
portrait should be faithful, but faithful to the best phases
of character rather than to the worst. Strong points are
brought into relief by their nearness to the weak points,
but the right proportion must be maintained. It is the
duty of the speaker to lind and present that ruling purpose,
ambition, or principle which exists in every great charac-
ter; for the purpose of a eulogy is not only to pay tribute
to the dead, but also to hold up virtue in such a way as
to furnish inspiration to the living.
II. Oration in Honor of an Event
Orations delivered in honor of an event may be divided
into two classes: (i) those which celebrate past events
and (2) those which celebrate events of present or future
significance.
Commemorative Address. — An oration which cele-
brates a past event is called a commemorative address. It
is usually delivered in connection with an anniversary
celebration. It may occur at the opening of a World's
Fair. (See Columbian Oration, Reading Lesson XI.)
Again, it may accompany the unveiling of a monument or
statue. (Webster's Bunker Hill Address.) It is some-
times given at a dinner. This is likely to be the case if
the foundation of a society or of a newspaper is the object
of the celebration.
The commemorative speech is always historical in its
nature. College anniversary speeches, for example, tell
of the founder, the famous faculty members and graduates,
248 ORAL ENGLISH
and the services of the institution to the pubhc. Chaun-
cey M. Depew, at the celebration of the 50th anniversary
of the New York Tribune^ discusses the value of the parti-
san newspaper as compared with that of the independent
press, and then enters into the history of the Tribune,
its great men, its growth, and its accomplishments.
The highest form of commemorative oration is, how-
ever, something more than a narrative. The speaker
should dwell upon the significance of the event as well as
upon the event itself; that is, he should emphasize the
importance and meaning of the event in its effect upon
later history. For example, when the Statue of Liberty
was presented by the French people to the people of the
United States, on the looth anniversary of American
independence, Mr. Depew, who delivered the oration
at the unveiling of the monument, took as his theme
the importance of the French alliance as a factor in the
success of the American Revolution. If the event is one
of which the people are proud, the speaker should draw
from it some lesson. If it has brought pain to indi-
viduals but gain to the group or nation, the best treat-
ment is that which inspires the listeners to a similar noble
sacrifice.
Dedicatory Address. ^ The oration which celebrates
an event of present or future significance usually takes
the form of a dedicatory address. It may accompany
the laying of the corner stone of a public building,
or the opening of a park, of an athletic field, or of an
exposition.
The nature of the material will vary with the subject
and the circumstances. It is not inappropriate to speak
of the advantage or beauty of whatever is dedicated; the
THE ORATION 249
devotion of those who have been leaders in the enter-
prise; or the history of the dithculties that have been
overcome. The main theme of the address, however,
should direct the minds of the audience to some noble
ideal or purpose connected with the object dedicated.
To dedicate means to set apart, or consecrate to some good
purpose. In every great dedicatory address, therefore,
the speaker has made use of his opportunity to point out
the significance of the occasion and to express hope and
obligation. A few illustrations will perhaps make this
point more clear. Judge Shields dwells on the relation
between the study of scientific agriculture and the welfare
of a nation. Booker T. Washington takes the oppor-
tunity to point out to each race in the South its need of
the other race. Lincoln, in the greatest of dedicatory
addresses, emphasizes the obligation of the living to
carry on the work of those who fought and died on the
field of Gettysburg.
III. Commencement Oration
Nature. — The oration delivered at commencement ex-
ercises may be called a platform oration. It differs from
the eulogy and the dedicatory address in that the subject
matter does not grow out of the occasion. The orator,
chosen for high standing in his class, merely represents
his school and shows the best of what its methods arc
producing in the way of liberal culture.
Choice of a Subject. — The choice of a subject is of
consixierablc importance. The topic should be a live one.
It should be either one which is occupying the j)ubHc
mind or one upon which the speaker feels that something
needs to be said. At the same time it should not be a
2 50 ORAL ENGLISH
theme that is Hkely to arouse violent antagonism. Such
a theme would be out of harmony with the spirit of the
occasion, which is one of rejoicing and congratulation.
Furthermore, the subject should be suited to the speaker;
that is, it should arouse his interest and grip his feelings,
and, if possible, it should be about something with which
he has come in contact in real life as well as in books.
Treatment. — Very few suggestions can be made as
to treatment, since each subject furnishes its own difh-
culties and opportunities. A speaker may link an instruc-
tive theme to the life of a man who is not too generally
known. A theme of this character should be handled
in much the same way as a eulogy. Professor Pelsma
suggests a plan whereby the speaker presents a problem
and offers a solution. As he says, "It is a poor physician
who diagnoses a disease without prescribing the remedy."
It is certainly true that, if unfortunate conditions are
pictured, their presentation should be accompanied by
a suggestion of the remedy, else the depressing effect of
the speech will mar the joy of the occasion. Again, the
treatment should not be too general. There should be
an abundance of concrete material. As one authority has
expressed it, "Be full of your subject; then force it into a
narrow groove."
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have studied the
nature and best method of treatment of (i) an oration in
honor of a person, (2) an oration in honor of an event, and
(3) a commencement oration.
THE ORATION
TOPICAL OUTLINE
The Oration
Introduction.
I. Nature of oratory in general.
A. Beecher's definition.
B. Characteristics.
C. Previous training — Ringwalt.
II. Difference between the oration and the debate.
A. Sears.
B. Kinds of argument which may be used.
C. Appeal to feelings.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Oration in honor of a person.
A . Eulogy or memorial tribute.
I. When so-called.
B. More than biographical.
1. Central thought.
2. E.xamples.
(a) Chaucer.
ib) Webster,
(c) Burns.
3. Merits.
C. Should the whole truth be told?
1. Faithful to the best.
2. Purpose of a eulogy.
II. Oration in honor of an event.
A. Commemorative address.
1. Occasions for.
2. Historical.
{a) College anniversaries.
{b) New York Tribune.
3. More than a narrative.
{a) Significance — Statue of Liberty.
(6) Lesson.
251
252 ORAL ENGLISH
II. B. Dedicatory address.
1. Occasions for.
2. Nature of material.
{a) Thoughts which may be appropriate.
(6) Character of the main them^.
(i) Judge Shields.
(2) Booker Washington.
(3) Lincohi.
III. Commencement oration.
A. Nature.
1. How it differs from the eulogy and dedicatory
address.
2. Purpose.
B. Choice of a subject.
1. AHve.
2. In harmony with the occasion.
3. Suited to the speaker.
C. Treatment.
1. Biographical.
2. A problem and its solution.
3. Narrow.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
Exercise II. — Choose any eulogy which is accessible from the
list given in Appendix VIII. Read it and be able to give to the class
a summary of its contents.
Exercise III. — Imagine that your student body, your literary
society, or some other organization has planned to devote one meeting
to the recognition of some great character and that you have been
asked to deliver the oration. Look up material in the Encyclopedia,
Who's Who, Readers Guide, and the card catalogue. For sug-
gestions as to subjects consult the "List of Days for Anniversary
Celebrations" (Appendix IX). The student will often make a more
interesting speech if he chooses a character who is little known and
seeks to make him live before his hearers.
THE ORATION 253
Exercise IV. — Bring to class for discussion the theme sentence
and word outline from which the oration is to be developed.
Exercise V. — Prepare the oration so that it will occupy not less
than four and not more than six minutes.
Exercise VI. — Choose any commemorative address which is
accessible from the list given in Appendix X and be able to give to
the class a summary of its contents.
Exercise VII. — Review the Gettysburg Address and the dedi-
catory addresses given in Reading Lesson XI and mark in the margin,
with the corresponding figures, at least one illustration of each of the
following ideas:
1. Reference to the material beauty or value of that which is
dedicated.
2. Appreciation of those who have made the dedication possible.
3. Historical reference to difficulties encountered.
Write in one sentence the main theme of each address.
Which one is at the same time a eulogy, a commemorative oration,
and a dedicatory address?
Exercise VIII. — Bring to class for discussion a theme sentence
and an outline either for a commemorative oration or for a dedi-
catory address. Select a subject in which you are interested. Choose
a situation from the following list or any other which you may prefer.
Commemorative Oration:
1. On the anniversary of the foundation of a society, church,
college, or newspaper.
2. Memorial Day.
3. Admission Day.
4. Fourth of July.
5. Columbus Day.
Dedicatory Address:
1. Laying of the corner stone of a high school, g>'mnasium, Y.
M. C. A., \'. W. C. A., librar}', college buikling devolcd to science,
engineering, art, or music.
2. The opening of an exposition or of some state or national build-
ing therein.
,3. The opening of a [dildic bath, park, or athletic field.
2 54 ORAL ENGLISH
Exercise IX, — Prepare the speech planned in Ex. VIII so that it
will occupy not less than four and not more than six minutes.
Exercise X. — Select a subject from the list of "Oration Subjects"
(Appendix XI). Bring to class for discussion a theme sentence and
a word outline for a commencement oration.
Exercise XI. — Prepare the oration planned in Ex. X, so that it
will occupy not less than six minutes and not more than eight minutes.
READING LESSON XII 255
READING LESSON XH
Speeches of a Presiding Officer
I. Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln:
Fellow Countrymen: At this second appearing to take the oath
of the Presidential office there is less occasion for an extended address
than there was at the first. Then a statement somewhat in detail
of a course to be pursued seemed fitting and proper. Now, at the
expiration of four years, during which public declarations have been
constantly called forth on every point and phase of the great contest
which still absorbs the attention and engrosses the energies of the
nation, little that is new could be presented. The progress of our
arms, upon which all else chiefly depends, is as well known to the
public as to myself, and it is, I trust, reasonabl}^ satisfactory and
encouraging to all. With high hope for the future, no prediction in
regard to it is ventured.
On the occasion corresponding to this four years ago all thoughts
were anxiously directed to an impending civil war. All dreaded it,
all sought to avert it. While the inaugural address was being delivered
from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war,
insurgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without war —
seeking to dissolve the Union and divide eflfects by negotiation. Both
parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than
let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let
it perish, and the war came.
One-eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not dis-
tributed generally over the Union, but locaUzed in the southern part
of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest.
All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To
strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for
which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the
Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the terri-
torial enlargement of it. Neither party expected for the war the
magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. Neither
anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease with or even
before the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier
triumj)!), and a result less fundanuiital and astounding. Both read
256 ORAL ENGLISH
the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid
against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to
ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of
other men's faces, but let us judge not, that we be not judged. The
prayers of both could not be answered. That of neither has been
answered fully. The Almighty has His own purposes. " Woe unto
the world because of offenses; for it must needs be that offenses come,
but woe to that man by whom the offense cometh." If we shall
suppose that American slavery is one of those offenses which, in the
providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued
through His appointed time. He now wills to remove, and that He
gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to
those by whom the offense came, shall we discern therein any depart-
ure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living God
always ascribe to Him? Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray,
that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if
God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman's
two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until
every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another
drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still
it must be said " the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous
altogether. "
With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in
the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the
work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who
shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do
all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among
ourselves and with all nations. [March 4, 1865.]
2. Woodrow Wilson's Inaugural Address:
There has been a change of government. It began two years
ago, when the House of Representatives became Democratic by a de-
cisive majority. It has now been completed. The Senate about to
assemble will also be Democratic. The offices of President and Vice-
President have been put into the hands of Democrats. What does
the change mean? That is the question that is uppermost in our
minds to-day. That is the question I am going to try to answer in
order, if I may, to interpret the occasion.
READING LESSON XII 257
It means much more than the mere success of a party. The
success of a party means little except when the nation is using that
party for a large and definite purpose. No one can mistake the
purpose for which the nation now seeks to use the Democratic party.
It seeks to use it to interpret a change in its own plans and point of
view. Some old things \\-ith which we had grown familiar, and which
had begun to creep into the very habit of our thought and of our
lives, have altered their aspect as we have latterly looked critically
upon them, with fresh, awakened eyes; have dropped their disguises
and shown themselves alien and sinister. Some new things, as we
look frankly upon them, willing to comprehend their real character,
have come to assume the aspect of things long beUeved in and familiar,
stuff of our own convictions. We have been refreshed by a new in-
sight into our own life.
We see that in many things life is very great. It is incom-
parably great in its material aspects, in its body of wealth, in the diver-
sity and sweep of its energy, in the industries which have been
conceived and built up by the genius of individual men and the limit-
less enterprise of groups of men. It is great, also, ver>^ great, in its
moral force. Nowhere else in the world have noble men and women
exhibited in more striking forms the beauty and the energy of sym-
pathy and helpfulness and counsel in their efforts to rectify wrong,
alleviate suffering, and set the weak in the way of strength and hope.
We have built up, moreover, a great system of government, which
has stood through a long age in many respects a model for those who
seek to set liberty upon foundations that will endure against fortuitous
change, against storm and accident. Our life contains every great
thing and contains it in rich abundance.
But the evil has come with the good, and much fine gold has
been corroded. With riches has come inexcusable waste. We have
squandered a great part of what we might have used, and have not
slopped to conserve the exceeding bounty of- nature, without which
our genius for enterprise would have been worthless and impotent,
scorning to be careful, shamefully prodigal as well as admirably effi-
cient. We have been proud of our industrial achievements, but we
have not hitherto stopped thoughtfully enough to count the human
cost, the cost of lives snuffed out, of energies overtaxed and broken,
the fearful physical and spiritual cost to the men and women and
258 ORAL ENGLISH
children upon whom the dead weight and burden of it all has fallen
pitilessly the years through. The groans and agony of it all had not
yet reached our ears, the solemn, moving undertone of our Ufe, com-
ing up out of the mines and factories and out of every home where
the struggle had its intimate and familiar seat. With the great
government went many deep secret things which we too long delayed
to look into and scrutinize with candid, fearless eyes. The great
government we loved has too often been made use of for private and
selfish purposes, and those who used it had forgotten the people.
At last a vision has been vouchsafed us of our life as a whole.
We see the bad with the good, the debased and decadent with the
sound and vital. With this vision we approach new affairs. Our
duty is to cleanse, to reconsider, to restore, to correct the evil with-
out impairing the good, to purify and harmonize every process of our
common Hfe without weakening or sentimentalizing it. There has
been something crude and heartless and unfeeHng in our haste to
succeed and be great. Our thought has been "Let every man look
out for himself, let every generation look out for itself," while we
reared giant machinery which made it impossible that any but those
who stood at the levers of control should have a chance to look out for
themselves. We had not forgotten our morals. We remembered
well enough that we had set up a policy which was meant to serve
the humblest as well as the most powerful, with an eye single to the
standards of justice and fair play, and remembered it with pride.
But we were very heedless and in a hurry to be great.
We have come now to the sober second thought. The scales
of heedlessness have fallen from our eyes. We have made up our
minds to square every process of our national life again with the
standards we so proudly set up at the beginning and have always
carried at our hearts. Our work is a work of restoration.
We have itemized with some degree of particularity the things
that ought to be altered, and here are some of the chief items: A
tariff which cuts us off from our proper part in the commerce of the
world violates the just principles of taxation and makes the govern-
ment a facile instrument in the hands of private interests; a banking
and currency system based upon the necessity of the government
to sell its bonds 50 years ago and perfectly adapted to concentrat-
ing cash and restricting credits; an industrial system which, take
READING LESSON XII 259
it on all sides, financial as well as administrative, holds capital in
leading strings, restricts the liberties and limits the opportunities of
labor, and exploits without renewing or conserving the natural re-
sources of the country; a bod}^ of agricultural activities never yet
given the efficiency of great business undertakings or served as it
should be through the instrumentality of science taken directly to
the farm, or afforded the facilities of credit best suited to its practical
needs; watercourses undeveloped, waste places unreclaimed, forests
untended, fast disappearing, without plan or prospect of renewal,
unregarded waste heaps at every mine. We have studied as per-
haps no other nation has the most effective means of production, but
we have not studied cost or economy as we should, either as organizers
of industry, as statesmen, or as individuals.
Nor have we studied and perfected the means by which govern-
ment may be put at the service of humanity in safeguarding the
health of the nation, the health of its men and its women and its
children, as well as their rights in the struggle for existence. This is
no sentimental duty. The firm basis of government is justice, not
pity. These are matters of justice. There can be no equality of
opportunity, the first essential of justice in the body politic, if men
and women and children be not shielded in their lives, their very
vitality, from the consequences of great industrial and social processes
which they cannot alter, control, or singly cope with. Society must
see to it that it does not itself crush or weaken its own constituent
parts. The first duty of law is to keep sound the society it serves.
Sanitary laws, pure-food laws, and laws determining conditions
of labor which individuals are powerless to determine for them-
selves arc intimate parts of the very business of justice and legal
efTiciency.
These arc some of the things we ought to do, and not leave the
others undone, the old-fashioned, never-lo-be-neglectcd, fundamental
safeguarding of property and of in(li\i(lual right. This is the high
enterprise of the new day: to lift everything that concerns our life
as a nation to the light that shines from the hearthfire of every man's
conscience anrl vision of the right. It is inconceivable that we should
do it in ignorance of the facts as they are or in blintl haste. \Vc
shall restore, not destroy. We shall deal willi <nir economic system
as it is and as it may be modified, not as it might be if we had a clean
26o ORAL ENGLISH
sheet of paper to write upon; and step by step we shall make it what
it should be, in the spirit of those who question their own wisdom
and seek counsel and knowledge, not shallow self-satisfaction or the
excitement of excursions whither they cannot tell. Justice, and only
justice, shall be our motto.
And yet it will be no cool process of mere science. The nation
has been deeply stirred, stirred by a solemn passion, stirred by the
knowledge of wrong, of ideals lost, of government too often debauched
and made an instrument of evil. The feelings with which we face
this new age of right and opportunity sweep across our heart-strings
like some air out of God's own presence, where justice and mercy are
reconciled and the judge and the brother are one. We know our
task to be no mere task of politics, but a task which shall search us
through and through, whether we be able to understand our time and
the need of our people, whether we be indeed their spokesmen and
interpreters, whether we have the pure heart to comprehend and the
rectified will to choose our high course of action.
This is not a day of triumph; it is a day of dedication. Here
muster, not the forces of party, but the forces of humanity. Men's
hearts wait upon us; men's Hves hang in the balance; men's hopes
call upon us to say what we will do. Who shall live up to the great
trust? Who dares fail to try? I summon all honest men, all patriotic,
all forward-looking men, to my side. God helping me, I will not fail
them, if they will but counsel and sustain me.
3. Response of Thomas Forsyth Hunt, Dean of the College of
Agriculture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station of
the University of California, upon formal induction into office. Taken
from the University Chronicle, Vol. 15, p. 125:
In accepting the responsibility of Dean of the College of Agri-
culture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, it must
be recognized that I represent only one of the agencies by which the
University of Cahfornia seeks to develop the commonwealth. The
office into which I have just been formally inducted typifies the
University's relation to the public welfare. The organization thus
represented looks back over a generation of steady and successful
development under the guidance of but two directors, both of whom
have the unique distinction of remaining as honored members of the
READING LESSON XII 261
faculty. The institulion will honor itself during this day's exercises
by remembering them with loving kindness.
With ever>' generation of men, new problems arise. Through
the operation of this law, the College of Agriculture finds itself in
just that attitude. Some of these problems are the most important as
well as the most fundamental with which the Anglo-Sa.xon race has
grappled during the past forty centuries. The faculty of the College
of Agriculture suffers no illusions concerning its own limitations and
makes no promises beyond pledging its best endeavors.
Upon behalf of himself and his associates the Dean and Director
appeals to all agencies, public and private, for assistance and guidance.
He asks the sympathy and patience of the Governor of the State, and
the President of the University, the Board of Regents, faculty, and
the citizens of California, while, following the sane, safe, and sensible
policies of his predecessors, he unobtrusively and without undue
publicity endeavors to organize the best and most efficient faculty of
agriculture that has ever been known.
4. Portion of an address of w-elcome, by Arthur Twining Hadley,
on the occasion of the Bicentennial Celebration of Yale University,
igoi:
"Of all the pleasures and the duties which a birthday brings with
it, the most welcome duty and the most exalted pleasure is found in
the opportunity which it affords for seeing, united under one roof,
the fellow members of a family who are often far separated. On this
two-hundredth birthday of Yale University, it is our chief pride to
have with us the representatives of that brotherhood of learning
which knows no bounds of time or place, of profession or creed."
His elaboration of his theme may be summarized as follows:
a. This brotherhood of learning knows no bounds of age, for we
have with us the youngest student and the oldest alumnus — even the
dead are with us in spirit.
b. It knows no bounds of place, for we have visitors from St.
Petersburg, Japan, and Australasia.
c. It knows no bounds of profession, for universities n(j longer
confine themselves to an interest in theology, law, and science, but
bring all callings witiiin the scope- of iiiiiv(.rsily life.
262 OR.\L ENGLISH
d. It knows no bounds of creed, for we have a common religion
which teaches us broad lessons of reverence, tolerance, and earnest-
ness, and unites us in a common purpose.
5. Address of Welcome to the National Education Association,
delivered by John L. Bates, Governor of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts, in Boston, 1903:
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: If I had the voice of
Niagara, and of all its waters, I could not in the three minutes
assigned to me express the welcome of Massachusetts.
We are glad to see )'ou within our borders. We hope you will
receive pleasure from this coming together, and we hope as the
result of your deliberations there will be profit for all mankind.
I welcome you as a phalanx that carries lanterns to bring light
into dark places, as an army that carries swords to cut down super-
stition, and spears to defeat the enemies of the American repubhc.
I welcome you as men and women engaged in one great organiza-
tion for the uplifting of humanity. I welcome you as men and women
engaged in a calling that takes hold of the future, and thereby makes
for immortality. I welcome you to the commonwealth of Massa-
chusetts — to the land of the Pilgrims, who, forgetful of their poverty,
built colleges for the expansion of the mind. I welcome you to the
shores of the Puritans, who, forgetful of the palaces of earth, built
more stately mansions for the soul.
I welcome you to the state that has set in the place of honor at the
right of the entrance of its capitol the bronze statue of Horace Mann,
the educator.
Thrice welcome to the old Bay State.^
6. Portion of an Address of Welcome by Inspector James L. Hughes
before the National Education Association at Toronto, Canada, 1891:
"Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Members of the National
Education Association of the United Slates: On behalf of the
Local Executive Committee of Toronto, I have the honor to bid you
welcome to-day to our city. It gives us a great deal of pleasure to
welcome you here. We receive you as strangers, but we hope to make
^Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the 42d Annual Meeting,
1903, p. 41.
READING LESSON XII 263
you friends before you leave us. We welcome you to-day as citizens
of a great and friendly nation with which we always hope to live at
peace. We believe that ^-our coming here and our going to your land
as teachers, fellow workers in the same great cause, will tend to per-
petuate all that which is for the best interests of the two countries,
and to establish common education, on a broad, sound, and solid
basis which can never be disturbed. We welcome you as teachers
and fellow workers, coming here to take part in the discussion of some
of the most important questions relating to your work and ours,
and we trust that your coming and that your discussion of matters
which we may listen to may do much to give us a better, grander,
truer idea of our work and of yours."
7. Portion of the response to Addresses of Welcome by Josiah H.
Shinn, President of the Southern Education Association:
"Mr. President, Ladies and GentUmen, Members of the Welcoming
Committee of Canada: It was not my proud pleasure to listen to the
splendid addresses made by your representatives, but I need no
such addresses to know the spirit of welcome that lies in your heart.
One hundred and ninety teachers over here at this little port of yours
were stopped by customs officers, and three hundred and eighty grip-
sacks violently laid hold of, in the name of the law, and not even a
single one was opened. The majesty of the British law failed before
the matchless power of the school-teachers of the South when an
English customs man opened his heart, cast aside the mandate of
the laws, and led us to your doors. I know from all this that we are
welcome. I knew when we reached your lillle station called Strat-
ford, where we found about four hundred baskets, and a lot of bread
and butler and no waiters to hand out that which is pleasant and nice
to two hundred teachers and we were given the liberty of walking up
to the counter and helping ourselves, I knew we were welcome. When
we were away back in our beloved "Southland" we knew that Cana-
dians had taken the word of welcome, and had written it high above
all others, except virtue, love, and Iruth. We knew that you, in com-
mon with us, had inherited a hospitality from the mother country.
We thank you most heartily for this royal reception." '
' National Kducalion Association. Journal of Proceedings and
Addresses, 1891, pp. 57 and 79.
CHAPTER XXIV
SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER
Introduction. — In this day of numerous organizations,
almost anyone may be asked to serve as presiding officer.
A high-school student may be chosen to preside over his
student body or his alumni association, a literary, social,
or dramatic club, or a religious organization such as a
Y. M. C. A. or a Christian Endeavor society. An adult
may be elected to preside over a political club, a lodge, or
a woman's club.
The speeches which a president should make need not
be long, but they should be felicitous, that is, tactful,
happy, and appropriate. If the presiding officer knows
what to say upon every occasion, he is like the accom-
plished hostess who puts her guests at ease under all
circumstances.
In this chapter we shall discuss the subject matter which
would be appropriate (i) for speeches delivered upon taking
and leaving office, (2) for a speech introducing a speaker,
and (3) for an address of welcome to a convention.
I. Entering upon and Taking Leave of Office
Inaugural Address. — If the office to be filled is of
considerable importance, the opening address is called
an inaugural. Whether the position be prominent or
insignificant, however, the same principles apply to the
choice of suitable material for the opening address.
SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 265
The introduction may contain an expression of grati-
tude for the honor which has been conferred upon the
speaker, a modest estimate of his own ability, and a com-
plimentary reference to the work of previous officers or
to the greatness of the organization. Let us see how
this may be done. Gladstone, after having been chosen
Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow, or presiding
member of its court, made an address before an audience
more than half of whom were students. He first spoke
of the high estimate which he placed upon the office and
expressed his sense of inability to fill it acceptably, due
to the fact of his advancing years. He then spoke in
complimentary terms of the diligence and ability of the
faculty and the earnestness of the students, congratu-
lating Scotland as a nation upon the rapid growth of her
universities.
Chauncey M. Depew was for seven years presi-
dent of the Union League Club of New York. In his
first inaugural address, in addition to thanks, compliments,
and pleasantries, he spoke of the brilliant past of the
League. He referred to its foundation as an organization
to succor the wounded in the Civil War; he told how it
had equipped the first negro regiment; and finally, he
spoke of its later work in overcoming political rings and
combinations.
The body of the inaugural address will vary with the
nature of the organization. If the organization has
been formed mainly for self-improvement, the body of
the speech may deal with some topic of interest to the
members. T'or example, (jladstone's address before the
students of Glasgow was entitled, "Modern Training for
Life." He gave statistics which showed the purposes of
266 ORAL ENGLISH
the students as evidenced by the professions which they
expected to follow, and discussed the importance of each
occupation in the work of the world. In this way he
pointed out the service and influence of the university.
If the organization has been formed to carry out some
definite work, it is the privilege of the incoming president
to suggest the policy to be pursued during his term of
office. Mr. Depew, for instance, in his first inaugural,
urged that the club be made less a political and more
of a social organization. In his second inaugural, he
advocated the encouragement of an American school of
art and the purchase by the Club of a certain number
of American pictures each year.
The conclusion of an opening address may express con-
fidence in the support and cooperation of the members.
FarewelL — Under ordinary circumstances, a farewell
speech at the close of one's term of office is unnecessary.
It may be, however, that the officer is to leave the locality
or that he has seen long service. In either of these
cases his associates may wish to express their appreciation
in the form of a dinner or a gift. Such an occasion would
call for appropriate remarks by the outgoing officer. He
cannot go far astray if he expresses modesty in regard to
his own accomplishments, gratitude for the support and
appreciatio-n of his friends, and a deep interest in the future
welfare of the organization and its members.
II. Introducing a Speaker
An introductory speech has two purposes: (i) It should
aim to inspire the audience with confidence in the speaker.
The presiding officer is always well known to the audience,
while frequently the speaker is not. Reference to the
SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 267
speaker's past achievements or his particular qualifications
for discussing the subject chosen is therefore always in
place. (2) The introductory speech should seek to arouse
the interest of the audience in the subject of the discourse.
This should be its aim if the subject is an unpopular one.
The presiding officer should lend his influence to the
speaker in order to win for him at the start a serious
and respectful consideration. This purpose need not be
present if the speaker to be introduced is famous and can
carry his audience with him, whatever may be his subject.
More, than all, an introductory speech must be brief,
for the audience has come to hear the speaker and not
the presiding officer.
III. Address of Welcome to a Convention
When a convention meets in a city, the address of wel-
come may be made by the mayor of the city, the president
of the local organization, the president of the chamber of
commerce, or any other prominent citizen.
The address of welcome has two chief purposes: (i) It
aims to express the pleasure which the citizens feel because
of the presence of their visitors. While it is correct form
to i)lace the resources of the city at the disposal of the
guests, it is necessary to avoid any appearance of boast-
fulness. (2) The address of welcome should seek to create
a sense of unity and good-fellowship In' {)resenting the
common j)urposes and interests which have drawn the
members of the audience together. If the address is
mafic by one who is not a meml)er, this may ])v done by
complimentary reference to the importance and value of
the work which is being accomplished by the organization.
If the address is made by a member, it may be done by
268 ORAL ENGLISH
reference to the growth of the organization, some of the
important problems which are to engage the attention of
the delegates, and the mutual benefit which will be derived
from an exchange of ideas.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have received some
suggestions as to what it is appropriate to say (i) in an in-
augural and in a farewell speech, (2) in a speech of intro-
duction, and (3) in an address of welcome to a convention.
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Speeches of a Presiding Officer
Introduction.
I. Result of numerous organizations.
II. Value of knowing what to say.
III. Advance summary.
Body.
I. Entering upon and taking leave of ofifice.
A . Inaugural address. — Principles.
1. Content of the introduction.
{a) Items.
{b) Examples.
(i) Gladstone.
(2) Depew.
2. Content of the body.
{a) Varies with purpose.
ib) Topic of interest.
(i) Gladstone,
(f) Suggestion as to poHcy.
(i) Depew.
3. Content of conclusion.
B. Farewell.
1 . Circumstances.
2. Content.
II. Introducing a speaker.
SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 269
II. A. Purposes.
1 . Speaker.
2. Subject.
B. Brief.
III. Address of welcome to a convention.
A. By whom made.
B. Purposes.
1. Pleasure.
(<;) Boastfulness.
2. Create unity.
(a) If made by a non-member.
(6) If made by a member.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
Exercise II. — Review the three inaugural addresses in Reading
Lesson XII and answer the following questions:
1. Why does Mr. Lincoln not go into detail as to the course of
action to be pursued during the next four years?
2. In what sentence docs he place the blame for the war on both
North and South?
3. It is said that Lincoln's simple yet dignified and even elegant
style of expression may be attributed partly to the fact that his early
reading was confined to Shakespeare and the Bible. What in this
address shows his knowledge of the latter?
4. What seems to be the main purpose of his historical review of
the situation?
5. Select the sentences from each address in which the speaker
asks for the cooperation of his fellows.
6. Docs President Wilson compliment or condemn his predeces-
sors?
7. How does he seek to excuse the mistakes of the past?
8. Make a list of the things which he thinks need to be done.
9. lie suggests thai they Ije done in what sjMril?
10. Find in each address expressions which indicate that the
speaker places a modest estimate upon his own abilities.
1 1. I'liid in ihc third an ai)prcciative reference to his predecessors.
270 ORAL ENGLISH
Exercise III. — Assume that you have been elected to the presi-
dency of your student body, alumni association, religious organization,
language, literary, scientific, dramatic, political, or woman's club.
Prepare a three-minute speech which would be appropriate for the
first meeting after your election. At the conclusion of your own
inaugural, make a one-minute speech introducing a speaker to the
members of your society. Do not use a fictitious name. Your
speech will be much more interesting if you choose a real person.
Exercise IV. — Review Nos. 4 to 7 of Reading Lesson XII and
answer the following questions:
1. In what way is President Hadley's address particularly appro-
priate to the occasion?
2. In what ways does Governor Bates compliment his guests?
3. In what ways does he show pride in his state?
4. How does his reference to the history of Massachusetts help to
create a sense of unity?
5. Mr. Hughes of Toronto was speaking to members of his own
profession. What ideas did he express which would tend to promote
good-fellowship and cause those present to realize the dignity and
value of the convention?
Exercise V. — Choose one from among the following situations
and prepare an appropriate address of welcome. Let it occupy from
three to four minutes. Select an organization about whose history
and purposes you either have or can get information:
1. As president of a high school or normal school student body,
give an address of welcome before the alumni association, which is to
hold its meetings in your building.
2. As president of a local organization (lodge, woman's club,
fraternity, chamber of commerce, labor union, etc.) welcome a con-
vention of delegates of that organization from other cities.
3. Welcome one of the above-mentioned organizations, not as a
member, but as the mayor or some other prominent citizen of the
city.
READING LESSON XIII 271
READING LESSON XIU
Speeches for Social Occasions
I. From a speech by Chauncey M. Depew at a dinner given to
fifty vagrants on Christmas eve, i8g6:
My Friends: It is Christmas eve, and I hope we have all begun
the hours that lead to Christmas in the proper way — that is, by filling
ourselves as full as we can of the good things of this world.
I have presided at many dinners and attended many more —
perhaps more than any other man in New York — but certainly never
did I preside over or attend a dinner from which I have derived more
real pleasure than from this dinner here to-night. . . .
I have read of the great dinners they had in Rome, when a man
would expend his entire fortune, great as those fortunes were, to
entertain an emperor. Only one of the great historical dinners ever
interested me — the one told of in the New Testament, where the
host, his guests having failed to answer or to send excuses, found his
tables unoccupied. Then it was that he told the people of his house-
hold to go out into the highways and byways and gather in all they
might find. I would like to have been at that dinner. I have pictured
it often in my mind. Had the guests who had been invited attended,
some of them would have criticized the wines of the host, saying they
had better in their own cellars; others would have criticized the
food and declared that their own cooks could have prepared better
dishes. Then, as he departed, each would shake the hand of the host
hypocritically and bid him good-night with the false statement that
he had never had a better time or a belter dinner in his life. In my
mind's eye. I can see some of the guests who attended the feast. One
was, perhaps, the student who, in striving after distinction in a pro-
fession, had neglected to provide for his material wants and was in
distress. Another was, perhaps, the skilled mechanic out of a job,
wanting only the o[)f)()rluiiity to work hut failing to find it. I can
picture the lawyer without clients and the playwright discouraged
because he could not sell his play. I can see there, too, the poet or
the author whom [)ublishers had iiol recognized, but who was destined
to become a great man in the literature of the future. I can see there,
272 ORAL ENGLISH
too, the professional tramp who would do everything but work,
absolutely refusing to do that. The professional tramp, more com-
pletely than any other type of man on earth, meets the biblical de-
scription of the lily in the field. He toils not, neither does he spin,
yet Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.
We meet here this Christmas eve and the occasion is one that
suggests a few things to me — to all of us. No matter how fortunate
or unfortunate we may be, Christmas eve should be an hour of re-
joicing. Whether we are in luck or whether we are not in luck, we
cannot forget that this hour is the one that led to the coming of Christ
to this earth. He came as the great leveler. It was his mission to
inculcate doctrines that would wipe out despotism and injustice. . . .
If a man has the element of hope in his heart he can and will find a
place from which he can start afresh in the journey of his life, no
matter how dark his past has been. You may say that it is easy for
a man like me to make such a statement; but, my friends, it has
been my privilege during the last thirty years to come into contact
with men who have encountered the most discouraging conditions of
life. I have seen men who were in magnificent circumstances go to
the gutter through rum. I have seen them conquer the appetite,
and, having conquered it, gain new courage. I have seen them, start-
ing from that new landing place, work up and up again until they
reached their proper sphere.
I know what it is to be in hard luck myself. I belong to a family
that has the trait of always worrying about things that don't happen.
My father died of worrying and my grandfather died of worrying, and
I almost made up my mind that I would die of worry. For the first
thirty years of my life I worried enough to have shuffled off this
mortal coil and climbed the Golden Stairs. But I had good lungs,
good heart, good stomach, and good muscles, and somehow I couldn't
die. Then I had a hard blow. I lost every dollar I had in the world.
My father was one of those men who believed that a boy should be
thrown out into the world and made to hustle for himself if he was
ever going to amount to anything. I went to him with my troubles.
All he did was to cry. I did not want tears. I wanted greenbacks.
I wanted help, not syrhpathy. I thought that my jig was up for sure
and for a time was very much down in the heart, but one day, thank
God, I came to realize that this was a bright and beautiful world. . . .
READING LESSON XIII 273
I declared that I should go to work, stop worrying, cultivate cheer-
fulness and tr>' to be merry. The result of that philosophy is that
for twenty years I have been trying to get fun out of everything. If
it is work, I get fun out of that. If I am at sea during a hard blow
and all the other passengers are so sick that they wish they were dead,
I try to get fun out of that too. I am always trying to get a chance
to laugh. The result is that I have reversed the hereditary conditions
that nature put in me, but \dth which God never intended that a
man should be afflicted. I cultivated hope until I became an opti-
mist. . . .
I believe the trouble \nth most of us is that we get in a rut. We
get in the procession and we cannot get out of it. We want something
a little better than the chance that is given to us at the time. We
are not willing enough to take the chance presented to us. Up in
Peekskill, a town that originates pretty nearly all the things that are
worth thinking about in this world and in which I had my origin,
they had a habit of always following a hearse at a funeral. A Peek-
skiller who had come down to New York and died was to be " planted,"
as Peekskillers say. Some of his New York friends went up to the
funeral. They took carriages and got into the procession to follow
the hearse. After a while they noticed that they were riding over
very rough ground and that the carriage was swajdng from side to
side in such a manner as to threaten to spill them out. One of the
New York dudes stuck his head out of the carriage window and
shouted to the driver, "Hi, there! What the deuce arc you trying
to do? Do you want to break our necks? Where are you taking us
to, anyway?" The old Peekskill driver leaned over and answered
"Well, I'll tell you, gents, the horses with the hearse started to run
away ten minutes ago and they're running yet, and you know, up
here in Peekskill, it's the rule for the mourners to follow the hearse,
and I ain't going to break it." Now, it's not a good rule to follow the
hearse. If you've been doing it, stop. When a man finds himself
in the wrong procession, the best thing for him to do is to get out.
When the chance comes, it may not be in a very inviting landing
place, but if it gives him an opportunity and if he has the courage and
pluck and sobriety to take advantage of it and does so, he is on the
way to make all his Christmases merry Christmases. . . .
I wish you all a Merry Christmas tomorrow, and an opportunity
2 74 ORAL ENGLISH
to work and to prosper during the coming year. I hope from the
bottom of my heart that you will all start out to-night with new hope.
... I trust that a year from to-night you will all be able to say that
1897 was a year of success for you and that you will be sitting as hosts
at Christmas tables where you can give words of comfort and en-
couragement to those whom the vicissitudes of life may place in the
same positions in which you are now.^
2. Extract from a speech given by Mr. James Bryce, Ambassador
from England to the United States, at a dinner of the Harvard Alumni.
After thanking the presiding officer and the University for the cordial
reception which has been tendered to him, he continues:
I take it as an expression of your warm feeling towards that
country from which so many of the ancestors of men of Massachusetts
came, and which always is and always will be proud of having laid
the foundations of the two famous commonwealths of Massachusetts
and Virginia. I noted an interesting trace of the way in which the
Old World lives in the New in the fact that the air to which you have
just sung the song of "Fair Harvard" was an air composed by some
unknown Celtic minstrel centuries ago in Ireland, and in the fact
that the song with which you are going to close our gathering to-day
is the song which all over the English-speaking world is used at mo-
ments of parting, and which comes from the pen of my countryman,
Robert Burns. It is not only in great things but also in little things
like these that we see how deep the unity of our feelings goes.
You asked me just now, Mr. President, to say what those who
are going across to The Hague wdll find in England. I can tell you
very easily. It was brought to my mind by some words which fell
from the lips of the president of this University. You will find there
ancient universities weltering in an abyss of poverty. Think of my
feehngs, gentlemen, when the president of Harvard University said
that within the last six years Harvard University had received gifts
from private benefactors to the amount of eight millions. Think of
the fact that the class of 1882 is giving and other classes hereafter
are expected, with what I have no doubt is a prescience born of long
observation, to give one hundred thousand dollars, or as much more
1 Chauncey M. Depew. Orations, Addresses, and Speeches, II, p. 319.
READING LESSON XIII 275
as may befit the growing wealth of the country. Add these endow-
ments together, and then think of how much richer Harvard becomes
every year; and think of the fact that in England we can hardly
scrape together even the money that is necessary to enable us to set
up proper scientific apparatus for university teaching and research
and adequately support our world-famous libraries. The old moral-
ists and preachers — indeed, many of the poets also were fond of
dilating upon the blessings of poverty and the dangers of wealth.
The only fear I can have for the future of Harvard arises from the
refie.x action of those millions. How will you ever spend the wealth
that is descending in a golden torrent upon you? We, I suppose,
ought to have the virtues which poverty is supposed to foster. There
is an anecdote of a Scotch lady who was dragged in a carriage by run-
away horses; the bottom fell out of the carriage, and she suffered
severely for two miles before the horses could be pulled up; but one
of her friends who came to condole with her, being of a very pious
spirit, said, " After all, my dear, it must have been a blessed experience."
And we, I suppose, when we think of the blessings which moralists
sec in the hardship of the poor, and of the many temptations incident
to wealth, ought to feel glad that those temptations arc not thrown in
our way. You probably remember the anecdote of the man who was
seen lying on the pavement of a street in London by commiserating
spectators, one of whom, trying to raise his head, observed, "Poor
fellow, he must be very ill," upon which a cabman standing by said,
" I only wish, sir, I had half his complaint." We would be wiUing,
gentlemen, to have half the complaint with which Harvard is threat-
ened by its increasing opulence.
Since, however, poverty is our lot, we try to live upon our tra-
ditions. They are a tonic sort of food, but they are not nutritious.
However, they are all we have. They arc ancient and glorious
traditions; yet perhaps they arc not relatively more ancient than
yours, because your traditions began within a very few years of the
settlement of this continent, when a man of whom little is known
except that he was a man of university training and high ideals gave
a small fund for the foundation of a college here which has t)ecomc
the cradle of the whole university system of Ainerica. And you have
built u]> long and glorious traditions. When I look around at the
walls of this room ; when I think of the famous men who have adorned
2 76 ORAL ENGLISH
Harvard; when I think not only of those famous men, but of the
thousands of noble lives, of those who died in the Civil War, and of
those who have lived lives devoted to their country before and since
the war, men who were inspired by the traditions of Harvard, I think
how great a power a university has of forming the spirit of a people.
Both you and we have our traditions, and we prize them. You need
your traditions to save you from your wealth; we need our traditions
to support us in our poverty.
3. Speech of Chauncey M. Depew, introducing Sir Edwin Arnold,
New York, October 8, 1891:
Ladies and Gentlemen: It is a great pleasure for many of us to
embrace this opportunity to enter the peaceful domain of poetry and
philosophy so soon after yesterday's election. The event which calls
us together, so unique and of such international significance, could
happen between the people of no other nations than those of the
United States and Great Britain. With all others is the barrier of
race and the insuperable obstacle of language. We are happy to
greet so distinguished a representative of our kin across the sea and
so eminent a master of our common mother tongue. An English audi-
ence applauding James Russell Lowell and those in America cheer-
ing Sir Edwin Arnold present the unity in essentials of these great
empires and the possibilities before EngUsh-speaking peoples. Our
language is conquering the earth. It is destined to be for the East
more than Buddha the "Light of Asia" and to diffuse around the
globe the "Light of the World."
Commercial rivalries and diplomatic frictions promote the
health of nations. Contending for markets stirs the energies and
inspires the inventive genius of both America and England. Pohti-
cal necessities, or the bumptiousness of the hour on one side or the
other will always provide a Bering Sea, or a Fisheries, or a Canadian
problem for a tournament of the pen between Washington and West-
minster, but the brotherhood of letters will prevent these disputes
ever ending in the bloody arbitrament of arms.
When Lowell died this summer, the tributes of the English press
were so generous and discriminating, they paid such glowing eulogy
to his genius, and gave such full and graceful recognition to the merit
and originahty of American Hterature, that they strengthened the
READING LESSON XIII 277
ties between the Old country and the New, and emphasized the uni-
versal amity of the guild of letters.
The authors have at last succeeded in conv-incing the poUticians
that they know better than Congressmen their own mission and
interests, and a year unusually rich in conspicuous legislation will
count as one of its most beneficent measures, again enforcing the
maxim that peace has her victories as well as war, the International
Copyright Law.
We have hospitably received all the lecturers from the other side
who had or thought they had ideas to plant in our virgin soil, but our
welcome has been given to few. We have hailed always with delight
the advent of the glorious thinkers whose works are the features and
the factors of the literature of our time. Herbert Spencer and Canon
Kingsley and Archdeacon Farrar spoke to loyal subjects and enthu-
siastic admirers who knew intimately the letter and spirit of their
teachings and rejoiced to meet the teacher. But we have loved more
to greet the creative minds who came to interpret books which were
the favorites of our libraries, and to illustrate characters which had
been adopted as members of our families. To hear Thackeray dis-
sect the Georges, and to have Dickens personally introduce us to
the dear old friends Captain Cuttle, ]Micawber, the Marchioness, and
others whom we had idealized and loved, formed eras in our lives.
Only those who hstened to the blind bard as he sang his immortal
epic ever fully understood the Iliad. I heard the presiding ofiicer
introduce Matthew Arnold, when he was here, as the author of the
Light of Asia. The busy man of affairs who had not differentiated
the Arnolds, never knew why his compliment was not appreciated,
but he well understood that there was one priceless contribution to
the thought of the age which had made immortal the name of Arnold.
We welcome Sir Edwin because he is an American by birth on his
wife's side. His career is peculiariy Western. Most of our famous
men have won their way through college and into the professions by
teaching the district school or rural academy and our guest began as
a teacher. He brings a lesson we cannot learn too soon, the division
of labor. While editor-in-chief of the journal enjoying the largest
circulation in (ireat Britain, he found time for the composition of
those exquisite and profound works which are his fame and part of
the glory of our period. Sir Edwin Arnold comes to us as Laboulayc
278 ORAL ENGLISH
might have come, as John Bright might have come, to receive the
expressions of our gratitude for writing daily to his great constitu-
ency, on the side of our national life and unity when both were in
peril. We had then in England few friends in power or in the press,
but he was one of the truest and most useful. This journalist, poet,
philosopher, and friend is with us tonight, and I have the pleasure of
introducing to you Sir Edwin Arnold.^
4. Address by Chauncey M. Depew on presenting the loving cup
to Admiral Dewey, January g, 1900:
Admiral Dewey: Your countrymen are ever emulating each
other in the conception and execution of something which will show
their afifection for and their gratitude to you. You were presented
with a sword by an admiring and grateful country, with loving cups
by municipalities and with medals by states; but all of these acts
were essentially ceremonial in form.
What we do to-day is without ceremony or official character.
It is simply the expression of seventy thousands of men, women, and
children of our country in a simple way of their affection, respect for,
and their pride in Admiral Dewey.
One of the significant things of our time is the influence of the
newspaper, the power of the journal. The triumphs of Arctic ex-
ploration, scientific advancement, and beneficent reforms originate
very often in the brains of the people who conduct these great powers
of modern thought and who give expression to the general idea. It
seems as if the myriad fingers by which the press reaches out and
touches every form of opinion and feeling enables it also to concen-
trate in a happy way what all desire and give to it definite and ma-
terial form. This had been done by the New York Journal, which
suggested this cup for you. Admiral.
The artist who designed it has put in permanent and beautiful
form the love of seventy thousands who contributed their ten cent
pieces for the purpose of making this exquisite memorial.
If you were a politician, sir, and had aspiration for the Presi-
dency, I fear this cup would be a serious bar to your advancement,
because one of the critical, crucial dangers of the time, if we are to
believe many newspapers and orators, is the contraction of the cur-
^ Chauncey M. Depew. Orations, Addresses, and Speeches, III, p. 200.
READING LESSON XIII 279
rency, and here are, sir, actually seventy thousand dimes taken out
of the circulating medium of the countr>^
But there is another significance in this gift. . . . Ever since the
pocket came into use and fashion there has always been a pocket
piece. This is a charm, carried for the purpose of warding off rheu-
matism and the devil, . . . and of promoting good fortune.
In this cup are melted up the dimes of a great many elderly
people who had rounded out their successful lives and who thought
that they would give to you their pocket pieces in the hope that
they would do for you what they had done for themselves, that you
would be free from what they had escaped, and that, besides, they
would transfer to you good luck for the rest of your life. . . .
As you look at this cup during the years to come, you will know
that the donors from every state, city, town, and hamlet of your
country will have an interest in your home. From thousands of
homes, in everj^ prayer, morning and evening, there will be an aspira-
tion for long life, health, and happiness for Admiral Dewey.
5. Portion of a response by William Ewart Gladstone, accepting
a chair from the Liberals of the Borough of Greenwich:
Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen: I am sure you will think I shall
best discharge my duty if upon this occasion I confine myself to the
briefest expression of thanks for this last and newest favor which
the constituency of Greenwich has conferred upon me. The former
favors have not been, and cannot be, forgotten; and, although our
political connection as constituency and representative has been
dissolved, yet you may rely upon it that my interest in your wel-
fare, which was enhanced by that connection, can never disappear.
I thank you greatly for this new mark of your enduring kindness. I
accept it with jK-culiar joy and jjleasure on this auspicious day, in the
presence of Lord Granville, Lord Harlington, and all those colleagues
to whose powerful cooperation it is that I owe my being able to appear
before you with the conviction that I have not disgraced the functions
with whi(h, in common with them, I am charged.
6. Speech of Ihirry Johnson I'islier, i)resenting the Cheney-Ives
Gateway to Yale University on behalf of the Class of 1896:
President Hadley and Yale Men: I am here as a representative
28o ORAL ENGLISH
of the class of ninety-six, to present to you this gate. In its stone
and iron it typifies the rugged manliness of those to whose lasting
memory it has been erected. That is our wish. To you who are now
gathered beneath these elms, and to those Yale men who shall follow
after us, we wish this memorial to stand first of all for the manhood
and courage of Yale. In the evening shadows the softer lights may
steal forth and infold it, but through the daylight hours of toil and
accomplishment let the sun shine down upon it, and bring out each
line of strength, that every Yale man may be imbued with that daunt-
less spirit which inspired these two sons of Yale in their lives and in
their deaths.
We do not wish you merely to stand before this memorial and
gaze upon it as a monument. We want every one of you, whether
graduate at commencement time or undergraduate in term time, to
come to it and to sit upon its benches, just as we of ninety-six shall
come to sit during the advancing years, and, in the coming, keep
always alive in our hearts the spirit of these two who did their work
and held their peace, and had no fear to die. That is the lesson
these two careers are singularly fitted to teach us. To the one came
the keenest disappointment of staying behind, and after that the
toil, the drudgery, and the sickness, — all bravely borne. To the
other it was given to meet death with that steadfast courage which
alone avails to men who die in the long quiet after the battle. It
is no new service these two have given to Yale. Looking back to-day
through the heritage of two centuries, these names are but added to
the roll of those who have served Yale because they have served their
country.
The stone and iron of this gate will keep alive the names of these
two men. It is our hope that the men of Yale will, in their own lives,
perpetuate their manhood and courage.
7. Speech of acceptance of the Cheney-Ives Gateway, by Arthur
Twining Hadley:
Of all the memorials which are offered to a university by the
gratitude of her sons, there are none which serve so closely and fully
the purposes of her life as those monuments which commemorate her
dead heroes. The most important part of the teaching of a place like
Yale is found in the lessons of public spirit and devotion to high ideals
READING LESSON XIII 281
which it gives. These things can in some measure be learned in
books of poetry and of history. They can in some measure be learned
from the daily life of the college and the sentiments which it incul-
cates. But they are most solemnly and vividly brought home by
visible signs, such as this gateway furnishes, that the spirit of ancient
heroism is not dead, and its highest lessons are not lost.
It seems as if the bravest and best in your class, as well as in
others, had been sacrificed to the cruel exigencies of war. But they
are not sacrificed. It is through men like those whom we have loved,
and whom we here commemorate, that the life of the republic is kept
alive. As we have learned lessons of heroism from the men who went
forth to die in the Civil War, so will our children and our children's
children learn the same lesson from the heroes who have a little while
lived with us and then entered into an immortality of glory.
CHAPTER XXV
SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS
Introduction. — Business men and others sometimes
meet around a banquet table to discuss problems of a very-
serious nature. This is done for convenience and the dis-
cussion is of an informal and sometimes of an unsocial
character. Speeches which might be delivered on such
an occasion follow a law of their own and will not now be
considered. The after-dinner speeches that we shall
study are such as would be appropriate for a purely social
occasion, one in which good-fellowship takes the place
of antagonism, and appreciation of others is substituted
for egotism.
In this chapter we shall learn: (i) the general charac-
teristics of the after-dinner speech and (2) the special
characteristics of three different sorts of speeches which
might be given at a dinner.
I. General Characteristics of the After-Dinner
Speech
Unity. — In the first place, the after-dinner speech
should have a point or purpose, and should not consist
merely of a string of stories. The speaker should confine
himself to one idea well illustrated. It is said that the
secret of Senator Hoar's popularity at the Harvard Phi
Beta Kappa dinners was that his speeches contained one
original idea, clearly stated, and one fresh story, well told.
A story should be used merely to enforce a point which
SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 283
has been made and not as an end in itself. "The comic
story is a good servant but a bad master."
The habit of threading a series of jokes on a very slen-
der strand of thought has grown out of the notion that
an after-dinner speaker must play the role of humorist.
This idea is a mistake; it is only necessary to say the
fitting, agreeable thing. Brander Matthews says, "Use-
ful as humor may be, good humor is even more useful."
Weighty subjects, even, may be handled in an after-dinner
speech, if treated in a lighter vein. The speaker must be
careful, however, to distinguish between lightness and
levity. Lightness is an agreeable playfulness which is not
flippancy.
Brevity. — In the second place, the after-dinner speech
should be brief. Considerable responsibility rests with
the toastmaster in this matter. He should be brief and
lively himself and remind others to be so. In general,
the program should not last longer than an hour and a
half. If speeches are long and rambling, we are inclined
to agree with James Russell Lowell in his addition to the
beatitudes, "Blessed is he who has nothing to say — and
cannot be persuaded to say it."
Spontaneity. — In the third place, the after-dinner
speech should give the impression of not having been pre-
pared. There is no variety of speech in which the word-
outline method of preparation will be of greater service.
This method will enable the speaker to make reference to
what has been previously mentioned and, in this way,
greatly increase the semblance of spontaneity. The style
of address, also, should be conversational rather than
oratorical; that is, the majority of the sentences should
be loose rather than periodic.
284 ORAL ENGLISH
II. Three Sorts of After-Dinner Speeches
Speech of a Representative. — Let us first consider
such a speech as might be delivered by the representative
of one group of people before another group of people.
Since the speaker is a guest, his discourse should be cour-
teous and even complimentary to the society, institution,
or group of people which is acting as his host. He should
thank the presiding officer for any words of welcome which
may have been spoken, and express, in response, the cordial
greetings of his own society. I;i so doing, it is well to
share the honor which he has received with those whom he
represents. Mr. Bryce says, for instance, that he regards
the honor of speaking before the Harvard Alumni as an
expression of warm feeling toward his own country. If
the speaker makes any comparisons, it should be to the
detriment of his own organization. Notice the comparison
which Mr. Bryce makes between the wealth of British
and American universities. Notice also that he is very
careful not to imply that English traditions are finer than
ours, since we might be sensitive on that point.
The speaker should not only be courteous but he should
embrace every opportunity to create a feeling of mutual
understanding and sympathy. The unifying thought
may be merely a trivial matter, as was Mr. Bryce's refer-
ence to the origin of the songs which were sung at the meet-
ing. The speaker may discuss the progress or success
of the two organizations. He may allude to their common
ideals and purposes. This was done by Ehhu Root, as
Representative of the United States at the Third Confer-
ence of American Republics, when he said, "Unlike as
we are in many respects, we are alike in this, that we are
SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 285
all engaged under new conditions and free from the tra-
ditional forms and limitations of the Old World, in working
out the same problem of popular self-government."
Welcome Tribute. — Let us next consider a speech of
welcome, paying tribute to an honored guest. The guest
may be a distinguished foreigner or an eminent citizen
who is traveling through his own country. Such a speech
may also be given on the occasion of a man's return to his
home city.
The principal object of the speech is to express apprecia-
tion of the services which the noted guest has rendered
to society. The speaker should be careful, however, not
to exaggerate this feature of the address, since it might
cause embarrassment to the subject of his remarks.
Again, historical material having some connection with
the life interest of the visitor is always appropriate. A
few examples will help to make this point clear. Mr.
Depew, when he welcomed Lieutenant Shackleton to our
country, gave a brief historical review of arctic and ant-
arctic exploration. Lord Coleridge, in a tribute to Henry
Irving, told what actors in general had done for literature
and then what Irving in particular had done for Shake-
speare. Mr. Depew, in his welcome tribute to Sir Edwin
Arnold, dwelt upon current events that illustrated the
power of literary men to maintain amity between the
nations.
Presentation and Acceptance of a Gift. — A gift is
sometimes presented at a dinner and sometimes upon a
more formal occasion, such as graduation exercises. The
principles governing the selection of material are, however,
the same in both cases.
The speaker who presents the gift should magnify the
286 ORAL ENGLISH
services or worth of the recipient and minimize the value
of the gift. In response, the recipient of the gift should
express his appreciation of the kindness of his friends,
minimize the value of his own services, and, if possible,
share the honor with the others. Gladstone did this
in his response to the Liberals of Greenwich. These
principles apply equally to the presentation of a class
gift at graduation. The speaker should not say that the
gift is presented in order to perpetuate the memory of
his class; on the contrary, he should present it as an ex-
pression of appreciation for value received. The rule
holds good even when the gift takes the form of a monu-
ment to individual members of the class. This was the
situation in the case of the Cheney-Ives Gateway, but it
will be noticed that Mr. Fisher makes it clear that these
were but two among many who had followed the glorious
traditions of Yale.
Something may be said, also, about the considerations
which governed the choice of the gift, provided they are
complimentary to the recipient. The speaker will also
greatly enhance the beauty and dignity of his speech, if
he will go beyond the material qualities of the gift and
discover in it a significance, or deeper meaning. An illus-
tration may be found in Mr. Depew's reference to the
"pocket-piece." Again, this idea of symbolism is the
dominant note in both the presentation and acceptance of
the Cheney-Ives Gateway.
Conclusion. — In this chapter we have studied (i) the
general characteristics of an after-dinner speech and (2)
the special characteristics of three different kinds of after-
dinner speeches.
SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 287
TOPICAL OUTLINE
Speeches for Social Occasions
Introduction.
I. What is meant by a social occasion.
II. Advance summary.
Body.
I. General characteristics of the after-dinner speech.
A. Unity.
1. One idea.
(a) Senator Hoar.
{b) Right and wrong use of the story.
2. Origin of the story habit.
(a) Humor and good humor.
(h) Weighty subjects.
B. Brevity.
1. Toastmaster.
2. Length of program.
3. Lowell.
C. Spontaneity.
1. Method of preparation.
2. Style of address.
II. Three sorts of after-dinner speeches.
A. Speeches of a representative.
1. Courtesy to hosts.
((/) Thanks and greetings.
(b) Honor shared with others. — Br>xe.
(c) Comparisons.
(i) Universities.
(2) Traditions.
2. Mutual understanding.
((/) Trivial thought. — Songs.
(b) Progress.
(( ) Common purposes. — Root.
B. Welcome tribute.
1. Occasions.
2. Object. — Warning.
3. Historical material. — Examples.
288 ORAL ENGLISH
II. ' B. 3. {a) Lieutenant Shackleton.
{b) Henry Irving.
(c) Sir Edwin Arnold.
C. Presentation and acceptance of a gift.
1. Occasions.
2. Attitude of presenter and recipient.
{a) Honors shared. — Gladstone.
{b) Mistake in presentation of class gift,
(i) A. monument not an exception.
3. Nature of the gift.
(a) Motives of choice.
{b) Significance.
1. "Pocket piece."
2. Cheney-Ives Gateway.
Conclusion.
Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the
topical outline.
Exercise II. — Review the speech of Chauncey M. Depew to the
vagrants, and answer the questions which follow. This speech was
chosen for study because of its unique character. An after-dinner
speaker usually addresses people of his own class in society.
1. What is the chief difficulty which would confront a man of
wealth in his endeavor to speak in an agreeable way on a social occasion
to fifty men who are "down and out " ?
2. Make a list of all the ideas or phrases which would tend to
place the speaker and the listeners on a common level.
3. Write in one sentence what seems to be the point or purpose of
his speech.
4. How many "jokes" did he tell?
5. Make a list of the humorous or playful references.
6. Compare the style of language with that used by the same
speaker in the welcome tribute to Sir Edwin Arnold.
Exercise III. — Imagine that, as a member of some organization,
you are the guest at a dinner given by a similar organization in some
other city. It may be a high-school literary society, dramatic, music,
language, art, or agricultural club, a Christian Endeavor, Y. M. C. A.,
SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 289
Y. W. C. A., Chamber of Commerce, or lodge. Prepare a three-
minute speech which would be suitable for such an occasion.
Exercise IV. — Select some great character of the present day.
Find out all you can about his life and work by consulting the
Reader's Guide, Wlio's Who, and the card catalogue. Imagine that
some organization has planned a dinner in his honor and that you
have been asked to pay tribute to him in an address of welcome.
Let it occupy from three to four minutes.
Exercise V. — It is evident that some gifts are presented on social
occasions and others upon more formal occasions. Select a situation
from the following list and prepare a presentation speech of about
three minutes. Then imagine that you are the recipient of the gift
and prepare a one-minute response:
A. Social Occasions.
1. (a) As president of the student body, present a gift from
that organization to an athletic coach in recognition
of his former services. He is obliged to give up the
work.
(b) 'Make the response of a coach under such circumstances.
2. (a) In behalf of a Bible Study Class, present a gift to your
teacher.
(b) Accept the gift.
3. (a) As one of the directors of a company, present a gift
to a successful manager who is about to leave.
(b) Accept the gift.
B. Formal Occasions.
1. (a) Present to your school a gift from your graduating class.
(b) .^s president of the student body, accept a gift.
2. (c) As president of a Woman's Patriotic Society, present a
flag u> I he student body of a high school.
(b) As president of the student body, accept the flag.
3. (a) As representative of a society which has donated the
trophy, present a cup to the school which has won a
series of debates.
(b) As president of the student body of ihe winning school,
accept the cup.
290 ORAL ENGLISH
4. (a) As leader, manager, or captain of an athletic team,
present to the student body a trophy which your
team has won.
(b) As president of the student body or as trophy keeper,
accept the trophy in behalf of the school.
5. (c) As president of a student body, present to individual
athletes or debaters medals or other emblems of
merit.
(b) It is not customary to make a response on such an
occasion.
Exercise VI. — Let the class be divided into sections of six or
seven members each. One student in each section shall be chosen
to act as toastmaster. It shall be the duty of the toastmaster to select
subjects, assign them to the members in his section, and to preside at
the meeting of his section. He may imagine that the occasion is a
class reunion, or any other social function.
APPENDIX I
Specimen Outline for a Student's two-minute Speech
Salutation: ISIembcrs of the East Side Women's Club.
Theme Sentence: I have come to urge you to join with us in a move-
ment for early Christmas shopping.
Word Outline
Introduction
Body
Thank
Combining
Shopgirls
Conditions
Urge
Windows
— Mean
Stories
. Wait
Twelve
5 — one
Crowded
Woman
Measuring
Shifting
Home /
Make
\
Buy
Machines — human
Power —
duty
Right
Conclusion: Show — Sign.
Written Speech
Early Cliristmus Shopping
Members of the East Side Women's Club: I I hank you and your
worthy President for the opportunity you have given me to speak to
you this afternoon. The Women's Clubs of the West Side are com-
bining in a movement for early Christmas shopping and, as their
representative, I have come to urge you to join with us.
292 ORAL ENGLISH
By so doing you can express the true Christmas spirit toward the
shopgirls of this city. What do we mean by the true Christmas
spirit? Shop windows, magazine covers, and postcards all express
good will toward men; stories told to sleepy children on Christmas
eve are filled with thoughts of peace and love. Are we expressing
this spirit when we wait until the last week to do our shopping for
Christmas?
There are many pitiable conditions in our large department stores.
Let me tell you of one instance which came under my observation. It
was a quarter before twelve on Christmas eve. The large store was
crowded to its capacity with people who screamed at the shopgirls
.and commanded them to wait upon them. Behind the ribbon coun-
ter was a young woman, scarcely more than a girl, measuring yards
and yards of ribbon and shifting from one swollen foot to the other
as she endeavored to wait on a dozen customers at once. In this
woman's home was a sick husband and a little child who prayed to
Santa Claus every night to bring her a doll that would open and close
its eyes; but the poor little mother was too tired when she reached
home after her work to make anything for the child. She could
not buy anything, for every cent must be saved for necessities.
These shopgirls have a right to their holidays. They are not
machines, wound up and guaranteed not to stop, but are human
beings like ourselves, capable of getting worn out and capable of
enjoying their pleasures. It is within our power as members of the
Women's Clubs to force the proprietors of these stores to close their
doors at six o'clock. It is not a question of charity but of duty.
Women of the East Side, I appeal to you to show in this way your
true Christmas spirit. If you will join with us, sign your name to
this resolution which I shall leave with your President, and which
will be sent to the Club Headquarters.
APPENDIX II
Subjects for two-minute Argumentative or Expository Speeches '
I. School Life
The Advantages of going to High School.
The Course I intend to take in High School.
Should One Student Report Another for Cheating?
Should One Student Report Another for Stealing from the Coat
Room?
What One should Think about in Choosing a Vocation.
Should the School Paper Follow or Form Public Opinion?
One Session per Day is Better than Two in a High School.
Advantages of a School Cafeteria.
WTiat Reform is Most Needed in our Student Body?
Value of a School Bank.
Value of a School Weekly.
The Country Boy has Advantages Superior to the City Boy.
The School Initial should be Granted for Success in Oratory and
Debate.
Value of School (jardcns.
One Reason Why High-school Boys should not Visit Poolrooms.
Teachers should not Assign any Work for Vacation.
The School Furnishes a Training for Citizenship.
Should two Pupils ever Study Together?
The Study of Algebra should not I)e made Compulsory in High
School.
High-school Students should Read the Newspapers.
Letting the Other Fellow Lead.
Differences between High School and (Iramniar School.
Our Debating Society.
' These subjects as well as tho.sc in .\[)i)cndix IH have been con-
tributed mainly by leathers in the dilJerenl departments represented.
294 ORAL ENGLISH
Why I have selected University.
The Dangers of High-school Fraternities.
Place of Social Life in High School.
High-school Girls should Wear a Uniform Dress.
Should we hold Rallies before or after the Games?
Should a Student Work for Four Years in one Activity?
Rugby versus American Football.
Compulsory Physical Education in the High School.
Should Credit toward Graduation be Given for Athletic Activities?
Should the High School Limit the Number of Sports in which a
Student may Participate?
Should Athletic Competitions be Intra-school or Inter-school?
Is Gymnasium Work or Organized Athletics better for the Average
Individual?
Are we Making the Winning of High-school Monograms too Easy?
Does Participation in Athletics Increase or Diminish the Scholastic
Standing of High-school Students?
Are High Schools Copying too Closely the Universities in their
Management and Ideas of Athletics?
Value of Gymnasium Work for Girls.
Value of Cadet Drill.
The Benefits of Systematic Exercise.
The Advisability of Faculty Supervision in Athletics.
The Ideals of the new California Interscholastic Federation.
The Effect of Athletic Sports on Morals.
The Educational Value of Athletics.
The School's Need of a Modernly Equipped Gymnasium.
The Relative Value of our Various Sports.
The Value of Freshman Teams in High School.
Can our Alumni Help our Teams and the General Tone of Ath-
letics?
The Students who Work in the Background (Custodian Committee,
Student Body President, and Business Manager of Paper).
What should be the Work of an Honor Society?
What should be the Purpose of a Literary Society?
Possibilities of the Junior Chamber of Commerce.
Credits (not more than lo) should be Deducted from a History
(or other) Paper for Faulty Composition.
APPENDIX II 295
Examinations are Not a Fair Test of Ability.
Frequent Written Tests should be Given in all Subjects.
One should Never use Slang.
Slang is Sometimes Justifiable.
Basket-ball is an Excellent Exercise for Girls.
Literar>' Societies are a Benefit to High-school Pupils.
Our School should have a Larger Faculty.
An "Honor Society" should Require a Scholarship Standard as
well as a Record of Activity in Student Affairs.
Girls Give ]\Iore to the Student Body Fund than Boys and Receive
Less from it.
Students should be Allowed School Credit for Editing the School
Paper (or for Work on the Debating Team, or for Participa-
tion in Dramatic Performances).
Reasons Why it is Difficult to Prepare Monday's Lessons.
II. Life Outside of School
The is the Best Newspaper in the City.
Public Libraries should be Open on Sunday Afternoon.
Women should be Appointed as Members of the School Board.
Wild Game should (or should not) be Protected.
Why Forests should be Preserved.
Motion Pictures.
Advantages to a City of an Exposition.
Disadvantages to a City of an Exposition.
Machincr>' Used in the Construction of the Panama Canal.
Blasting Rock.
My Objections to Card Playing.
How Coal is Mined.
A Modern Kitchen Convenience.
Loss of Sight Makes other Senses more Acute.
The Rural Delivery of Mail is a Great Boon to Farmers.
Every Boy should have a Workshop.
Trolley Roads are a Great Benefit to the Country.
Presence of Mind often Averts Danger.
Qualities Necessary to Make a Gcxjd Dressmaker. (May substi-
tute any other vocation.)
296 ORAL ENGLISH
Opportunities for Stenographers. (May substitute any other
vocation.)
Advantages of being an Engineer. (May substitute any other
vocation.)
Why Girls should take Music Lessons.
How to Care for Flowers.
How to Make a Popgun.
How Ice Cream is Made.
Trout-fishing is an Art.
Labor-saving Machinery is of Permanent Advantage to Man-
kind, although Temporarily Detrimental to Laborers.
How to Develop a Film. (May substitute Print.)
Why I Like to Hike. (May substitute Fish, Swim, Hunt, or any
other favorite sport.)
A Man (or Woman) may Reveal his Character on a Street Car.
Appearance and Habits of the English Sparrow. (May substitute
any other well-known bird.)
How Golf is Played. (May substitute any other game.)
How to Prepare a Bed in the Woods.
How to Learn to Swim.
There is a Wrong and a Right Kind of Class Spirit.
How to Raise Chrysanthemums.
Something which Boy Scouts Learn.
Manufacture of Glass (Steel-rails, Pencils, or other object).
What to Wear for a Day's Hike.
What to Carry on a Day's Hike.
The Qualities of a Good Speaker.
How to Make a Garden.
How to Dry Prunes.
Benefit of Sleeping Out of Doors.
Use of the Aeroplane in the European War.
Society for the Sale of Red Cross Stamps.
Have the Modern Dances a Value?
How to Care for a Horse. (May substitute Incubator, Goldfish,
Poultry, etc.)
What is expected of a Minister's Daughter?
What is expected of a Minister's Son?
How to Set Up a Tent.
APPENDIX II 297
How to Build a Fire in the Woods.
How to Sail a Boat.
How to Plant a Tree.
How to Build and Launch a Raft.
How to Hive Bees.
How to Break a Colt.
How Butter is Made (Explain to City Girls).
The Cost and Style of Commencement Dresses should be Regu-
lated by School Authorities.
How to Make Beads.
Erection of an Amateur Wireless ^last.
The Average Young ]Man of To-day has Greater Opportunities
to make his Life a Success than had his Forefathers.
It is Better to Attend a Small College than a Large One.
It is Better to Work One's Way through College than to Borrow
the Money and Pay it Back after Graduation.
Schools should Observe Peace Day.
Frequent Tests should be Substituted for Term Examinations.
Habits of the Alligator. (May substitute some other animal.)
III. English
Ninth Year
How the Disinherited " Knight Secured his Horse and Armor for
the lourney."
The Treatment of Jews in King Richard's Time.
Scottish Life is Interesting.
Reasons Why I should Study Literature.
Reasons Why I should Study Written Composition.
Reasons Why I should Study Oral Composition.
The Study of Myths is Worth While.
Reasons Why Memory Work should be Required.
The Main Features of a Short Story.
How to Increase one's Vocabulary.
The Tournament.
Organization of Locksley's Men.
Feeling between the Saxons and the Normans.
The Archery Contest.
Customs of Homer's Time.
298 ORAL ENGLISH
Tenth Year
Manners in Shakespeare's Time.
Classes of People in Shakespeare's Time.
Means of Travel and Communication in Shakespeare's Time.
Dress of Men and Women in Shakespeare's Time.
Condition of the Theater in Shakespeare's Time.
Origin of the Drama.
The' Duty of an Educated Man according to George William Curtis.
The Desires of King Arthur.
Lincoln's Training in Oratory.
The Morality Play.
Special Fitness of Lincoln as a Leader of the Nation in 1861.
Shakespeare's Caesar compared with the Historical Caesar.
Was King Arthur's Life a Failure?
Why did Brutus rather than Cassius see the Ghost?
Lincoln's Attitude toward Slavery.
Brutus was (or was not) Sincere in the Reasons he Gave for Join-
ing the Conspiracy.
Which would have been the Better Leader of the Conspiracy,
Brutus or Cassius?
Was Gradual Emancipation of the Slaves a Good Solution of the
Slavery Problem?
Lincoln's Views on Woman Suffrage.
Eleventh Year
Absurdities of the Plot of The Vicar of Wakefield.
The Magazine in American Literature.
Humor in American Literature.
Influence of the Puritan Conscience on American Literature.
Historical Tendency in American Literature.
Early American Histories.
Cotton Mather's Work.
The Literary Aims of Benjamin Franklin.
PoHtical Writings during the Revolutionary Period.
Difference between the Transcendentalist Ideas and Anti-slavery
Ideas.
Orators among Anti-slavery Writers.
Why there was Little Writing in the South.
APPENDIX II 299
The Early Masque.
London Coffee-houses of the Eighteenth Century.
La Marseillaise.
Elegiac Poetry.
Characteristics of the Early Novel.
Human Life is the Subject Matter of Literature.
Effect of Eppie on Silas Marner.
Art of George Eliot in Portraying Personalities.
Art of George Eliot in Portraying Rustic Life.
Reality of the Characters in Silas Marner.
How Lycidas Came to be Written.
Value of a Course in Grammar.
Twelfth Year
Carlyle's Style in His Essay on Burns.
Burke's Objections to the Use of Force.
Burke's Discussion of the Importance of the Colonies.
Burke's Discussion of the Spirit of Liberty in the Colonies,
Development of the Masque.
Forms of Poetry — Epic, Lyric, and Dramatic.
Burke's Policy in Regard to Treatment of Colonies has been Justi-
fied by Subsequent E.xperience in America, Canada, and South
Africa.
I\'. History
Ancient History
Ancient Ways of Preserving the Dead.
Religion of the Babylonians.
Religion of the Egyptians.
Phctnician Trades.
Great National Games of the Greeks.
Greek Festivals.
Training of Spartan Boys.
Laws of Draco.
One of Solon's Reforms.
Greek Education.
Marriage among the Greeks.
How I Prepare my History Lesson.
Social Classes in Rome.
300 ORAL ENGLISH
Licinian Laws.
Education of Early Romans.
Medieval and Modern History
The Feudal System.
Rise of Towns.
Schools of the Middle Ages.
Efifects of the Crusades.
Medieval Commerce (Guilds).
The Siberian Exile System.
Peter's Reforms.
Rise of the Nations against Napoleon.
European Struggle for Constitutional Government.
Causes of the French Revolution.
Markets and Fairs.
How a Medieval Town Looked.
Chivalry.
Medieval Warfare.
The Cathedral Movement.
Character and Career of Saladin.
Dress, Arms, and Habits of the Crusader.
The Religious-Military Orders.
English History
Navigation Acts of 1651.
Importance of Anglo-Saxon Conquest.
Queen Elizabeth as a Patron of Art and Literature.
Methods by which William the Conqueror Established his Rule.
Importance of the Magna Carta.
Causes and Results of the Peasants' Revolt.
Means used by Henry VII to Establish a Centralized Government.
Effect of the Hundred Years' War upon English Commerce and
Trade.
Importance of the Bill of Rights.
Importance of the Reform Bill of 1832.
Work of the Wesleys in the Eighteenth Century.
The Stuart Kings were Arbitrary Rulers.
APPENDIX II
301
United States History
Why did the English Surpass in Colonization?
The American Indian has been Unjustly Treated.
The Justification of the American Revolution.
Our Debt to Foreigners in the Revolution.
The Development of the Union before 1789.
The Defective Government under the Articles of Confederation.
The Compromises of the Constitution, why Necessary?
States Rights versus National Sovereignty.
The Westward Movement — Its Effect on American Civilization.
V. Latin
The Study of Latin Helps us Better to Understand our own Lan-
guage and Other Languages.
A Knowledge of Latin is of Practical \'alue.
Cicero's Action in Putting to Death the Conspirators was Illegal.
Catiline was not a Traitor and Cicero's Arraignment of Him was
for Political Effect and not a Patriotic Action.
Roman Miiitar^^ Tactics.
Roman Provinces and Their Covcrnmcnt.
The Lack of Interest in the Classics is to be Deplored.
Chemistry
Acids
Bases:
Salts
\T. Science
What are they?
How detected?
Properties.
Relation to acids.
How found?
Relation to bases and acids.
Sub-topics
suggestive —
not limiting.
Flame tests.
Composition by volume.
Water Composition by weight.
Solution properties.
Discovery of the rare gases in the air.
302 ORAL ENGLISH
Physical Geography
Construction, Operation, and Use of a Barometer.
Forecasting of Weather.
Study of a Piece of Coal.
Soil Requirements — Tests.
Importance of the Ocean.
The Making of a Cave.
The Work of Carbon-dioxide Gas.
The Importance that Floodplains have Played in the World's
History.
Effect of Mountains on Races.
Growth of a Continent.
Highways of Commerce.
The Ocean's Depth and Temperature.
Causes of Tides.
A Tornado.
Biology
Value of Physiology as a Study.
Effect of Alcohol on the Human Body.
How a Habit is formed.
Why One Should Eat Slowly.
Natural Defense of the Human Body against Harmful Bacteria.
Bota7iy
Bacteria.
Evolution of Plant Life.
Economic Plants.
How New Species of Plants are Developed.
IMushrooms.
Our Wild Flowers.
How Plants Protect Themselves from Enemies.
An Experiment in Botany.
Grafting.
Buds on Stems.
\^eining of Leaves.
Leaf Arrangement.
Movements of Leaves.
Structure of Leaves.
APPENDIX II 303
How Plants Receive Air.
How Plant Seeds are Scattered.
Successions of Plants.
Autumn Coloration.
Branching of Stems.
Structure of Stems.
Distribution of Plants.
Uses of Plants to People.
The Fall of the Leaf.
How Plants Manufacture Their Food.
Drought-tolerating Plants.
Weeds.
Vegetation of Newly Made Land.
How Overcrowding Kills Plants.
The Grouping of Plants around a Pond.
Water Plants.
Starch.
Stored Food in the Seed.
How Seeds Grow.
Hairs on Leaves.
Plant Roots.
Value of Cells.
Physics
Physics has a Practical Value for Boys.
Physics has a Practical Value for Girls.
Explain a Simple Machine.
Heat Expansion and Transmission.
Heat Engines.
Law of Conservation of Energy.
Magnetism.
An Application of Electricity.
Some Physical Laws of Sound.
Electric Waves.
\11. Commercial
Typing and Business
What is a Bank Check?
How a Saleslady Can Show Good Taste and Good Manners.
304 ORAL ENGLISH
What a Saleslady Should Know about her Stock.
Typewriting as an Asset in the Business World.
Coordination of Typewriting, English, SpeUing, and all Technical
and Scientific Studies.
The "Touch" Typist versus the "Sight" Operator.
Value of a Commercial Education.
Advantages of Actual Practice in Bookkeeping.
Attitude in Business.
Principles of Double Entry Bookkeeping.
Qualifications of the Business IVIan (or Woman) of To-day.
Relation of Penmanship to Business.
Value of Commerical Arithmetic in Business.
Value of Rapid Calculation in Business.
Graduation, from a High School is of Value to the Boy or Girl who
Goes into Business.
A Student should Learn Tj'pewriting before Going to College.
Commercial Geography, History, and Law
America will Always be Supreme as a Manufacturing Nation.
Origin of our Commercial Laws.
Influence of Fishing Industr>'' in the Upbuilding of the Nation.
Influence of the Fur Industry in the Upbuilding of the Nation.
Influence of Lumber Industry in the Upbuilding of the Nation.
Economic Basis of the Civil War.
Commerce and IVIoney in Colonial Days.
Character of Immigration.
The Industrial Revolution.
The Human Element in Commerce.
Law of Decreasing Returns as AppHed to Nations.
How Commerce Depends upon Economic Forces.
Explain any Industry.
Growing Commercial Opportunities in Latin-America.
VIII. Manual Arts
Ari Crafts
How to Make a Simple Basket.
The Origin of Basketry.
APPENDIX II 305
Reed — Where Found, Preparations for IMarket, and Use in
Basketr>\
Raffia — Where Found, Preparations for IMarket, and Use in
Basketry.
The Economic \'alue of Copper.
The Use of IMetal in Early Ages.
The Value of the Study of Design.
How to Color a Piece of Copper.
Decoration should be Subordinate to Utility.
Enameling.
The Use of the Fetch Pan.
Wood Work
Lumbering in the North.
The Art of Pattern-making.
The Manufacture of Glue or Sandpaper.
The Art of Molding.
The Advantages of Machinery in the Wood Shop.
Wood-finishing as an Art.
Mechanical Drawing
Drawing Instruments and Their Uses.
Why Free-hand Drawing should Precede Mechanical Drawing.
The Correct Method for the Making of a Working Drawing of a
Chair.
Wood-turning
The Designing and Turning up of a Pair of Indian Clubs.
The Designing and Turning up of a Picture Frame.
Wood-turning Tools and Their Uses.
IX, HoAfE Economics
Cooking
Bread Making.
Pastry.
Cake.
Candy — Cream Candies.
Fruit Canning.
Jelly Making.
3o6 ORAL ENGLISH
Macaroni Manufacture.
Girls should Study Domestic Science.
Table Service
Digestible Menus.
Eating Habits worth Cultivating and Preserving.
Three Styles of Serving Meals.
Setting the Table.
Points to be Remembered in Serving all Meals.
General Rules for Waiting on a Table.
Housing
Advantages of Owning a Home.
Disadvantages of Owning a Home.
Cost of Rental and its Variations.
Things to Consider in Building in a City.
Functions of Rooms.
Kitchen Furnishings.
Labor-saving Devices.
Value of a Family Budget.
X. Fine Arts
History's Debt to Art.
How Environment Influences Art.
Value of a Course in Drawing.
Nature's Suggestions for Design Material.
Art Study as a Training for Appreciation.
Art Study as a Training for Observation.
Art History — Comparison (Egyptian, Turkish, and Roman Art)
and Difference.
Our Heritage from the Greek.
Our Heritage from the Roman.
Our Heritage from the Gothic.
The Gothic Period — Why Distinctive, etc.
Color Harmonies — How Obtained, Nature, Use, etc.
Italian Painting.
APPENDIX II 307
Dutch Painting.
Some Historic Decorative Motifs — Their Evolution.
Public Taste — How and WTiy it should be Educated.
XI. Music
Value of Studying Music and Pubhc Speaking Together.
IMusical Histor>' Helps us to Appreciate Music.
Should ISIusic in some Form be Required in High School?
Mexican Music.
Meaning of Classical Music.
Music as a Moral and Religious Force.
Place and Scope of so-called Popular Music.
Music of the Ancients.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Music.
Oratorio compared \\'ith the Opera.
Folk Songs.
The Influence of Ancient Greek Music on the Music of To-day.
Primitive Music.
The Origin and Development of the Opera.
Why Roman Music Died Out.
How Grecian Music was kept Alive.
How we Know Anything of the JNIusical History of Eg>'pt.
Greek Instruments.
Richard Wagner's Operas.
Opera at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century.
The Chant.
The Pianoforte.
Growth of the Orchestra.
Music in Scandinavia and Russia.
The Violin.
Recent Composers.
Italian Music.
American Music.
The EfTect of Christianity on Music.
Chinese Music.
Church Music.
Music of the Future.
3o8 ORAL ENGLISH
Handel's Orchestra.
Growth of Symphony.
XII. Agriculture
The Work of the Leaves.
The Work of the Roots.
Insect Enemies of the Farmer.
Propagation.
Different Methods of Irrigation.
Benefits of Clover Crops.
Birds are (or are not) Beneficial to the Farmer.
Uses of Lime in Correcting Poor Soils.
The Soil:
1 . How Formed.
2. Mineral Content.
3. Animal Content.
4. FertiHty.
Farmers should Study Scientific Agriculture.
APPENDIX III
Subjects for two-minute Narrative and Descriptive Speeches
I. English
Ninth Year
The Duel between Roderick Dhu and Allan Graeme.
The Black Knight's Journey to the Tourney.
The "Death" of Athelstane.
The Story of Mad Blanche.
Some Interesting Scotch Manners and Customs.
Description of Brian, the Hermit, Roderick Dhu, James Fitz
James, Ellen, the Loch Katrine Country.
The Myth I Like Best.
Description of Ellen's Isle.
Attack on the Castle of Front de Boeuf.
The Trial by Combat.
Cedric's House.
An Old English Castle.
The Tournament.
Locksley's Shooting before Prince John.
The Knight and the Friar.
Cedric and Athelstane.
At John's Banquet.
Trial of Rebecca at Templestowe.
Characters of Rebecca and Rowena Compared.
The Templar (or other character).
Rebecca's Trial.
Tenth Year
One of the Pictures in Goldsmith's Deserted Village.
Comparison of Shakespeare's Heroines (Rosalind and X'iola).
3IO
ORAL ENGLISH
Stratford (Shakespeare's Town and Times):
1. Trinity Church.
2. Shakespeare's House.
3. The Grammar School.
Character of Coleridge.
Goldsmith's Early Life.
Some Good Points in the Character of Cassius.
The Ancient Mariner's Story.
Story of Elaine.
The Casting Away of Excalibur.
Gareth's First Quest.
Life of Some Successful Man or Woman.
Adventure of Launcelot.
Eleventh Year
From The House of the Seven Gables :
The Old Pyncheon Family.
Description of Hepzibah's Shop.
The Daguerreo typist.
Description of Jaffrey Pyncheon.
Description of Phoebe Pyncheon.
Description of ClifTord Pyncheon.
The Pyncheon Garden.
The Death of Jaffrey Pyncheon.
Moses at the Fair. {Vicar of Wakefield.)
Character of the Vicar of Wakefield.
The Story of Orpheus.
The First English Novel.
Anecdotes of Goldsmith's Eccentricities.
Any one of Dickens' Sketches by Boz.
My Favorite Hero in Fiction.
Twelfth Year
Character Sketches of Burns, Thomas Carlyle, Edmund Burke,
Lord North, or George IH.
Dr. Johnson's Literary Club.
Wordsworth as a Nature Poet.
Irving's Life of
Goldsmith.
BosweU's Life of
Johnson.
APPENDIX III
311
II. History
The student may describe the personal appearance or traits of
character of some great historical personage, or he may relate the
story of some great event. The following are merely suggestive.
The student may choose any other which he can handle in a more
picturesque or dramatic way.
Ancient History
Characters
Pericles.
Socrates.
Alexander the Great.
Medieval and Modern History
Characters
Charlemagne.
Peter the Great.
Frederick the Great.
English History
Characters
Henry II.
Queen Elizabeth.
William Gladstone.
United States History
Characters
Benjamin Franklin, the Diplo-
mat.
Andrew Jackson, the Popular
Idol.
Horace Greeley, Prince of Ameri-
can Journalism.
Events
Battle of Thermopylae.
March of the Ten Thousand.
Hamiibal's March into Italy,
Events
The Children's Crusade.
An Event of the French Revo-
lution.
The Battle of Waterloo.
Events
The Killing of Becket.
Battle of Trafalgar.
A Crisis in Parliament.
Scott's Dash to the Pole.
Events
The Sinking of the Mcrrimac.
Assassination of Lincoln.
Reconstruction Days.
A Story of Guerilla Warfare in
the Phiiijjpines.
312 ORAL ENGLISH
III. Ancient or Modern Languages
1. Description of a character or a scene studied in a foreign
tongue.
2. Narration of a simple story translated from some other
language. (Use imagination to embellish and make more
elaborate.)
IV. School Life
A Teacher Whom I Shall Remember.
The School Cafeteria on a Rainy Day.
Description of the School Farm.
Getting Ready for the Party.
Cleaning up After the Party.
How the Faculty played Baseball. '
My First Punishment in School.
What Happened on the School Picnic.
Bonfire before the Big Game.
The Last Inning.
An Hour in the Study Hall.
School Building during Vacation (comparison).
The Assembly Hall at Lunch Time.
V. Outside of School
Missing the Train.
A Joke on Myself.
Teaching a Calf to Drink.
Our Embroidery Club.
A Trip to the City.
An Experience with a Tramp.
A Building (lighthouse, fort, or an old landmark).
A Spelling Match.
A Clam Bake.
A View from the Summit.
The Deacon.
In the Woods at Night.
Disturbing a Hornet's Nest.
APPENDIX III
3^3
An Intelligent Dog.
The Irate Conductor.
Lost in the Woods.
An Amusing Adventure.
A Glimpse of the President.
A LandsHde.
Yesterday's Walk.
A Lonesome Spot.
What "Central" sees of the World.
A Great Waterfall.
Tell to a child : Jack the Giant Killer, Puss in Boots, or any other
story.
A Lost Child.
With a Veteran of the Civil War.
Arrival of the Stagecoach.
My first Donkey Ride (horseback, bicycle, auto, stagecoach, etc.).
An Accident.
Making a Boat.
My First Experiment in the Kitchen.
April Fool.
My Play House.
How I Got the Worst of the Trade.
All Alone in the House.
Hiving the Bees.
A Hallowe'en Prank.
A Harvest Scene.
A Country Church.
Decorating for Easter.
A Mountaineer.
A Hermit.
Our Washerwoman.
A Morning in the Country.
When Brother Forgot his Speech.
How my Bravery was Tested.
Breaking a Colt.
Sleighing.
My Favorite Hero in Fiction.
Choir Practice Last Saturday.
314 ORAL ENGLISH
A Newsboy.
A True Ghost Story.
An Attempt to See the Sunrise.
My First Fight.
How I Study.
A Duck Hunt. (Substitute a Fishing Trip or other Hunt.)
Buying a Hat.
A Visit to Grandmother's.
How I Spent a Rainy Day.
An Interesting Conversation (Two Women in a Street Car,
Buying a Ticket, Meeting an Old Acquaintance).
How I Earned a Dollar.
The Facts About a Certain Strike.
A Visit to a Sugar Camp (Packing-house, or Factory of any kind).
An Act of Courtesy.
Speaking My First Piece.
My First Business Experience.
The Marshmallow Roast.
A Cruise in a Canoe.
Animals I Have Known.
The Japanese Store.
An Old Mission.
A Mountain Valley in the Sierras (or other mountains).
The Swimming Pool.
Our Attic.
The Letter that Upset Our Plans.
The Policeman.
The Circus Crowd.
Our Garden.
The Skating Rink.
A Second-hand Store.
A Kindergarten Room.
My Sunday-school Class.
The Village Grocery on a Winter Evening.
A Newspaper Cartoon.
My Friend.
A Deserted Farmhouse.
The Crowd on Election Night.
APPENDIX III 315
My Favorite Picture.
A Dandelion (or some other flower).
A Street IMusician I Have Seen.
An Interesting Advertisement.
When School is Over.
The Morning After the Storm.
My New Dress.
A Shop Window.
The \'iew from my Window,
Our Back Yard.
The Circus Parade.
The Park on a Holiday.
The City from a Height.
Up-town the Night After Christmas.
An Attractive Magazine Cover.
The Crowd on New Year's Eve.
In a Railway Station.
Field Day (Boat Race or other Contest).
The Bathing Beach, or A Trip to the Seashore.
When my Pet Died (dog, rabbit, lamb, etc.).
A Forest Fire.
The First Snowfall.
An Act of Kindness.
A Heroic Deed.
A Street Car Incident.
Among the Fakirs.
A Local Politician.
An Old Bookstore.
Wailing at the Ferryboat.
A Peculiar Sect.
Noon Hour on the Farm.
The Engine Room of an Ocean Steamship.
The Football Player Before and After the Game.
The Forest Before and After the Fire.
The Feelings of the Victors and the Vanquished.
June and November.
City Street at 6 a.m. and at 6 p.m.
A Legend of Our Neighljorhood.
Contrasts.
31 6 ORAL ENGLISH
The Abandoned Mill.
My Experience in Canvassing.
Why I Didn't Play Football.
A Visit to "The Zone" in 1915.
A Historic Spot.
An Auto Accident.
My First Chemical Experiment.
A Balky Horse.
A Notable Mansion.
A Strange Animal of the Past.
A Fellow Commuter.
On the Mountain Top.
The Organ Grinder.
A Parisian Gown.
A Suit of Armor in a Museum.
The Village Post Office at Mail Time.
After Church Service.
Ballroom during the Dance.
After the Fire.
Launching the Ship.
As the Ship Left Port.
A Bargain Sale.
The Play is Over.
The Assembly Hall at Lunch Time.
A Mountain Climb.
A Journey in the Air.
A Race against Time.
In the Path of the Flood.
The Contest for the Medal.
Adrift on the Bay.
APPENDIX IV
Specimen Introduction to a Debate
Introduction to Lincoln's Address at Cooper Institute, New York,
February 27, i860. F. B. Robinson refers to this address as one of
the most perfectly constructed arguments on record. It is an ex-
cellent example of an introduction to a debate. The student should
notice the following features:
I. It is mild in spirit.
It states that upon which both sides are agreed.
It gives a clear definition of all terms.
It asks questions and answers them, thus securing force.
It states the issue.
Mr. President and Fellow Citizens of New York : The facts with
which I shall deal this evening are mainly old and familiar; nor is
there anything new in the general use I shall make of them. If
there shall be any novelty, it will be in the mode of presenting the
facts,and the inferences and observations following that presentation.
In his speech last autumn at Columbus, Ohio, as reported in the New
York Times, Senator Douglas said:
"Our fathers, when they framed the government under which we
live, understood this question just as well, and even better, than wc
do now."
I fully indorse this, and I adopt it as a text for this discourse. I
so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting point
for a discussion between Republicans and that wing of the Democ-
racy headed by Senator Douglas. It simply leaves the inquiry:
What was the understanding those fathers had of the question men-
tioned?
What is the frame of government under which we live? The
answer mu.st be, "The Conslilulion of the United Stales." That
Constitution consists of the original, framed in 1787, and under wliii h
o
1 8 ORAL ENGLISH
the present government first went into operation, and twelve subse-
quent framed amendments, the first ten of which were framed in
1789.
Who were our fathers that framed the Constitution? I suppose
the "thirty-nine" who signed the original instrument may be fairly
called our fathers who framed that part of the present government.
It is almost exactly true to say they framed it, and it is altogether
true to say they fairly represented the opinion and sentiment of the
whole nation at that time. Their names, being familiar to nearly
all, and accessible to quite all, need not now be repeated.
I take these thirty-nine," for the present, as being ' our fathers
who framed the government under which we hve." What is the
question which, according to the text, those fathers understood "just
as well, and even better, than we do now" ?
It is this: Does the proper division of the local from Federal
authority, or anything in the Constitution, forbid our Federal Govern-
ment to control as to slavery in our Federal Territories?
Upon this. Senator Douglas holds the affirmative, and RepubHcans
the negative. This affirmation and denial form an issue; and this
issue — this question — is precisely what the text declares our fathers
understood ' better than we." Let us now inquire whether the
' thirty-nine," or any of them ever acted upon this question; and if
they did, how they acted upon it — how they expressed that better
understanding.
APPENDIX V (a)
Specimen Clash and Brief on " Student Government "
Resolved, That a system of student government should be established
in High School.
Dejinilioii:
I. The affirmative stands for a system of student government which
involves the following principles:
1. Student officers shall be elected either directly or indirectly
by the student body.
2. All action shall be subject to the approval of the principal.
(As the state holds cities responsible for certain duties, so
the principal may hold the students responsible for the
conduct of the school. Outlook So: 947; Elementary School
Teacher, 8: 452.)
3. It is advisable to introduce student government gradually.
{Education 25: 86.)
Clash of Opinion
Affirmative
Negative
Points
Proofs
Points
Proofs
I. Students arc-
I. .Shown in
I. Students
I. Did not no-
Ilk cly to feci u
Uvfic Park High
may not fake
tice when elec-
sense of respon-
School, Chicago.
an interest.
tion was omitted.
sibility for the
(School Review,
(Nat. EJii.Ass'n.
pood name of
6:37.)
1908: 291.)
the school.
2. Wonderful
2. Night School
2. Many fail-
2. Schools in
change for the
in Philadelphia.
ures arc report-
South Carolina
better has oc-
(El. Sch. T. 8:
ed.
and Indiana.
curred in schools
4S3-)
(Education, 22:
difiHuil to man-
.S4I-)
age.
320
ORAL ENGLISH
Clash of Opinion {continued)
Affirmative
Negative
Points
Proofs
Points
Proofs
3. The attitude
3. He is regard-
3. (a) Bad gov-
toward the teach-
ed as an in-
ernment will re-
er is changed.
structor rather
sult in disrespect
than as a police-
to teachers.
man.
{b) A good
teacher may
arouse respect
under the old
system.
4. Officers take
4. Girl's com-
4. Pupils some-
4. (a) Experience
duties seriously.
mittee in Los
times use their
in- Illinois Univ.
Angeles High
offices for favor-
{Nat. Edu. Ass'n.
School. {Atlantic
itism.
1899: 542.)
Monthly, 102:
{b) Teachers say
678.)
only 68 % are
good officers.
{Nat. Edu. Ass'n.
1908: 292.)
5. (a) Instruc-
5. ((7)We should
5. Students are
5. Quotation
tion in citizen-
" learn to do by
too immature to
from Earl Barnes.
ship should be
doing."
solve the prob-
{Nat. Edu. Ass'n.
practical as well
lems of govern-
1908: 293.)
as theoretical.
ment success-
fully.
{b) Pupils learn
{b) Student gov-
under guidance
ernment may be
of teachers what
regarded as a
they would be
laboratory.
obliged to learn
later at greater
cost.
APPENDIX V 321
No. 5 seems to be the strongest on the affirmative and Nos. 2, 3,
and 5 on the negative. The main issue is, therefore, " Will the benefit
of practical training in citizenship outweigh the danger of failure and
resultant poor government? "
Specimen Brief
The following brief was prepared by students in connection with a
classroom debate. A much more extensive brief would be advisable
if the debaters were preparing for an interscholastic contest.
Resolved, That a system of student government should be estab-
lished in our high school.
Introduction.
I. Definition.
A. A good system of student government should be based upon
the following principles:
1. Student officers shall be elected either directly or in-
directly by the students.
2. -Ml action shall be subject to approval by the principal.
(a) As the state holds the cities responsible for
certain duties, so the principal may hold the
students responsible for the conduct of the
school.
3. Student government should be introduced and estab-
Ushed gradually.
II. History.
.1. The system has been tried in many places, as Los Angeles,
Philadelphia, St. Louis.
111. Clash of Oi)ini()n.
.1. The affirmative claims that sluflcnt government gives to
pupils a practical training in citizenship.
B. The negative holds that since students of high-school age are
too immature to make a success of it, bad government and
con.sequenl disrespect for law will follow.
T\'. Main Issue: Will I he benefit derived from actual practice in
the duties of citizenship outweigh the danger of failure and
consequent disrespect for law?
322 ORAL ENGLISH
Argument (Affirmative).
I. There is slight danger of failure, for
A. The attitude of the students would be better, for
1. Each would feel that he was responsible for the good
name of the school, for
(o) The claim that students will decline to inform
on their fellows is not always true. {School
Review, 6: 39.)
2. Observance of rules would be a result of reasoning
rather than of fear and submission. {Elementary
School Teacher, 7: 452.)
3. The teacher would be regarded as an instructor rather
than as a policeman.
B. Punishment is more effective when administered by one's
equals.
C. In schools which have been difficult to govern, a wonderful
change for the better has taken place.
1. Gill's School. {Outlook, 80: 947.)
2. Night School in Philadelphia {Elementary School
Teacher, 7:453-)
II. Student Government makes the school of greater benefit to the
community, for
A . Our instruction in citizenship at present is merely theoretical.
B. We should " learn to do by doing," for
I. The rule of a monarchy will not prepare students for
a democracy. {Education, 25: 87.)
C. Student government may be regarded as laboratory practice,
for
1. Pupils would learn by experience under the guidance
of teachers what they would be obhged to learn later
at greater cost, for
(a) They might learn that civic apathy results in
bad government. {Elementary School Teacher,
7: 552-)
2. Officers would gain a knowledge of human nature and
an experience in leadership which would prove to
be very valuable. {Atlantic Monthly, io5: 678.)
APPENDIX V 323
Argument (Negative).
I. There is great danger of failure, for
A. The students may not feel a sense of responsibility for the
government.
1. In one case they failed to notice that an election had
been omitted. (Nat. Ediica. Ass'n. 1908: 291.)
2. They may hold it dishonorable to report a fellow student.
(a) This was true at Williams College {Education,
22: 542.)
3. They may elect mischievous students in the hope of
lax disciphne. {Atlantic Monthly, 102:676.)
B. Officers may fail to take the right attitude, for
1. They may consider it too much trouble to hold office.
{Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 292.)
2. They may use their offices
(a) For the benefit of their friends. {Nat. Educa.
Ass'n. 1889: 542.)
{b) To take revenge on their enemies. (Cronson's
Pupil Sclj -Government, p. 66.)
(c) As a cloak for their own misbehavior.
(i) Instance of hazing. {Education, 2g: ^;^6.)
C. Many failures have been reported.
1. Illinois University {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1S89: 542).
2. Philadelphia {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 291).
3. In .South Carolina and Indiana. {Education, 22: 541.)
II. There is a better way to prepare students for citizenship, for
A. High-school students are not old enough to solve the problem
of governing others, for
1. Many situations are too difficult even for teachers to
handle wisely.
2. Teachers report that only 68% of officers can be called
"good officers." {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 292.)
3. Quotation from Karl Barnes {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908:
293-)
/'. Had government will cause disrespect for law and so produce
bad citizens.
C. A goofl teacher can usually secure ihc right alliludc on the
part of students under the [irescnt system.
APPENDIX V (b)
Brief Arranged for Two or Three Speakers
The following brief shows how material may be partitioned for
either two or three speakers.
Resolved, That three-fourths of a jury should be competent to
render a verdict in all criminal cases.
Introduction.
I. Definition.
A. "Three-fourths of a jury" means nine of the twelve men
constituting a full panel of jurors.
B. "All criminal cases" includes those in which death is the
penalty.
II. History.
A. The "three-fourths jury" has been used successfully in civil
cases, and in some states for minor criminal offenses.
III. Main Issue: Does the danger to society through bribery, dis-
agreements, and disrespect for the law outweigh the danger
of a mistaken three-fourths decision in the case of an
innocent accused person?
(Arranged for two speakers.)
I. The unit rule causes disre-
spect for the law, for
A. It leads to disagreements.
B. It causes delay in impanel-
ing jurors.
II. The three-fourths verdict is
a reasonable safeguard.
A. It is unreasonable to ex-
pect 1 2 men to agree any
more than 72 men.
(Arranged for three speakers.)
I. The unit rule is unreasonable.
A. When there is conflicting
evidence it is unreason-
able to expect 1 2 men to
agree any more than 72
men.
B. It gives to an obstinate,
bribed, or prejudiced
juror the power to de-
feat justice. •
APPENDIX V
325
B. Numerous other safe-
guards have been es-
tablished since the unit
rule originated, such as
habeas corpus, appeal,
etc.
C. We should think of the in-
nocent victims of the
criminal as weU as the
innocent accused.
C. The verdict of 9 out of 12
is a reasonable protec-
tion to both.
II. The unit rule, through delay
and defeat of justice,
causes disrespect for the
law.
A. Disagreements are fre-
quent.
B. It causes delay in impanel-
ing jurors.
C. It leads to compromises.
III. The unit rule is unnecessary,
for
A. Numerous other safe-
guards have been es-
tablished since the unit
rule was originated.
B. Under the present social
conditions, there is more
danger of injustice to the
innocent victims than to
the innocent accused.
C. We should think of the in-
nocent victims of the
criminal as well as of the
innocent accused.
APPENDIX VI
List of Debatable Questions with General References ^
I. Government Activity versus Private Enterprise.
1. Cities should own and operate their street railways.
Debater's Handbook. Ringwalt, 184.
Carpenter, 8. Shurter and Taylor, 106, 67.
Robbins, 134. Brookings, 132.
Craig, 337.
2. The public telephone and telegraph lines should be acquired
by the Federal Government.
Brookings, 126 Shurter, 76 and 79.
Craig, 185. Debater's Handbook.
Ringwalt, 174.
3. The United States should own and operate the railroads.
Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, IV,
Brookings, 123. 255.
Shurter, 73. Robbins, 88.
Craig, 106. Ringwalt, 163.
4. The United States should establish a system of compulsory
insurance. (This question may be narrowed so as to apply
to accident, unemployment, or old age.)
Intercollegiate Debates, IV, 303 (Accident); 377 (Old Age).
Debater's Handbook (Deals with all forms).
Shurter, 173 (Accident); 102 (Municipal Aid to Unemployed);
200 (Old Age Pensions); 88 (Housing of Poor); 203 (Old
Age Insurance); 28 (Employment System of General
Booth,.
Brookings, 160 (Employment System of General Booth); 168
(Municipal Aid for Unemployed).
1 See Bibliography for complete titles of books. Each general
reference contains special references on the subject. Almost all of these
questions are treated also in Bliss's Encyclopedia of Social Reform.
APPENDIX VI 327
5. Socialism is the best solution of our labor problems.
Shurter, 170 and 176. Brookinj^s, 129.
6. The United States ought to own and control the coal mines
of the country.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 435.
7. The Federal Government should construct all irrigation works.
Shurter, 69. Brookings, 144.
8. In American municipalities of 25,000 or over, a tax on the
rental value of land exclusive of improvements should be
substituted for the general property tax.
Intercollegiate Debates, II, 127. Debater's Handbook (Single Tax).
Shurter, 117. Craig, 250.
Ringwalt, 202. Brookings, 120.
n. Democratic versus Representative Government.
1. The initiative and referendum should be adopted in aU states.
Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, II, 283.
Thomas, 166. Carpenter, 91.
Robbins, 121. Ringwalt, 50.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 67. Shurter, 242.
2. The direct primary' should be used in nominating all candi-
dates for elective offices in the state.
Intercollegiate Debates, III, 43. Carpenter, 87.
Shurter, 158 and 161. Robbins, 158.
Debater's Handbook.
3. Judges should be subject to recall.
Debater's Handbook. Shurter, 246.
Carpenter, 143.
4. Judicial decisions should be subject to recall by the people.
Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, IV, 61.
III. Labor versus Capital.
I. The movement of organized labor for llu- closed shop should
receive the support of |)ublic ojjinion.
Debater's Handbook. I nlrrcollrgiatr Drbatrs. I, 2^11.
Thomas, 194. Intircollrgiatr Debates, III,
Shurter, 211. 185.
328 ORAL ENGLISH
2. Trade Unions, as they now exist, are, on the whole, beneficial
to society in the United States.
Debater's Handbook. Carpenter, ii8.
Shurter, i. Brookings, 151.
Inlcrcollegiate Debates, I, 201.
3. Capital and Labor should be compelled to settle their disputes
in legally established courts of arbitration.
Debater's Handbook. Carpenter, 131 and 139.
Ringwalt, 210. Shurter, 142.
Brookings, 162 and 197.
4. The issuing of injunctions by federal courts in labor dis-
putes should be forbidden by Congress.
Ringwalt, 219. Intercollegiate Debates, I, 129.
Shurter, 85. Thomas, 188.
5. It would be advisable to apply minimum wage legislation
in the field of the sweated industries of the United States,
constitutionality waived.
Intercollegiate Debates, III, 83. Shurter, 182.
6. The State of X has a better child labor law than the State of Y.
Debater's Handbook. Shurter, 150.
7. Foreign immigration to the United States should be restricted
by the imposition of an educational test.
Thomas, 196 and 198. Craig, 206.
Ringwalt, 31. Robbins, 100.
Brookings, 68. Shurter, 16, 90, 220.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 165.
8. Our present policy of excluding the Chinese from this country
is unjustifiable.
Shurter, 9. Thomas, 176.
Ringwalt, 42. Brookings, 73.
Robbins, 204.
IV. Centralization versus the Division of Power.
I. The parliamentary form of government is better adapted to
the needs of a progressive and democratic nation than the
presidential form.
APPENDIX VI 329
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 367. Brookings, 37 and 40.
Intercollegiate Debates, III, Thomas, 164.
241. Shurler, 144.
Intercollegiate Debates, IV, i.
2. Judges of superior courts and judges of the courts of appellate
jurisdiction of the states should gain office by appointment
of the state executive.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 345.
3. The short ballot should be adopted in state, county, and mu-
nicipal elections.
Intercollegiate Debates, II, ^iq. Shurtcr, 132.
4. A commission form of government should be adopted by our
states.
The Unicameral Legislature. University of Oklahoma and
the University of Kansas.
5. Our cities should adopt the commission plan of municipal
government.
Debater's Handbook. Shurtcr, 58 and 258.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 461. Robbins, 57.
Intercollegiate Debates, II, 363.
6. The executive appointments of a city mayor should be in-
dependent of council confirmation.
S'lurter, 104. Brookings, 49
V. Federal versus State Authority.
1. The power of the Federal Government should be paramount
to that of the states in the conservation of natural resources,
limited to forests, water-power, and minerals.
Debater's Handbook. Shurtcr, 83.
Intercollegiate Debates, II, 235. Rol)bins, 65.
2. A national prohibition law should be enacted — constitu-
tionality granted.
Thomas, 184. Brookings, 172 and 176.
Robbins, 177. Shurtcr, 24 and 2O.
Craig, 94.
Note. — The state issue is proliijjition versus regulation.
330 ORAL ENGLISH
3. The Constitution of the United States should be amended to
provide for woman suffrage.
Debater's Handbook. Robbins, 196.
Shurter, 38. Craig, 127.
Ringwalt, 8. Brookings, 8.
Note. — Woman suffrage as a national versus a state issue is
new and therefore is not treated in the general references.
4. A progressive inheritance ta.x should be levied by the Federal
Government.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 141. Bliss, 621.
Shurter, 227.
5. The Fifteenth Amendment should be repealed.
Thomas, 168. Ringwalt, 17.
Robbins, 168. Shurter, 109.
Carpenter, 65. Brookings, 3 and 6.
6. The Federal Government should have control over national
elections.
Shurter, 81. Brookings, i.
7. There should be Federal control of quarantine.
Shurter, 71. Brookings, 146.
VI. Protection -versus Free Trade.
1. Our policy should be shaped toward a gradual abandonment
of the protective tariff.
Debater's Handbook. Ringwalt, 95.
Thomas, 172. Brookings, 96, 99, no, 115.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, in. Craig, 160.
Intercollegiate Debates, II, Carpenter, 23, 28, 2>2>y i7-
149, 185. Shurter, 124, 127, 129, 185.
2. The United States should adopt the policy of entering into
reciprocal trade treaties with foreign nations.
Debater's Handbook. Thomas, 178.
Shurter, 164 and 214. Brookings, 102.
Ringwalt, 105 and 113.
3. -The Federal Government should grant financial aid to ships
APPENDIX VI 331
engaged in our foreign trade and owned by citizens of the
United States.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 405. Carpenter, 14.
Shurter, 194. Thomas, 178.
Ringwalt, 121. Brookings, 107.
Robbins, 189.
4. Foreign built ships should be admitted to American registry,
free of duty.
Shurter, 191. Brookings, 104.
5. Corporations engaging in interstate commerce should be
required to take out a Federal charter.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 39. Shurter, 92, 140, 239.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 147. Ringwalt, 131.
Intercollegiate Debates, IV, Carpenter, i.
149 and 189. Craig, 327.
Brookings, 134. Thomas, 182.
\'II. The United States as a World Power.
1. The Monroe Doctrine should be abandoned by the United
States.
Shurter, 55. Thomas, 192 and 198.
Ringwalt, 84. Debater's Handbook.
Carpenter, 59. Intercollegiate Debates I, 223.
2. The United States should increase its navj'.
Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, I, 293.
Thomas, 176. Shurter, 18.
Brookings, 78.
3. The United States should grant the- I'liilippinc islands inde-
pendence jjefore the passing of another generation.
Robbins, 146. Shurter, 52.
Carpenter, 42 and 55. Ringwalt, 75.
VTII. Community versus Individual Welfare.
I. ('ai)ital punishment should be abolished.
Debater's Handbook. Shurter, 32.
Thomas, 184. Brookings, 57.
Robbins, 44.
332 ORAL ENGLISH
2. In all jury trials, the concurrence of nine, or three-fourths
of the total number of jurors, should be suiificient for the
rendering of a decision.
Intercollegiate Debates, III, 313. Brookings, 55.
Shurter, 30.
#
IX. Miscellaneous Issues.
1. The pension policy of the United States should be condemned.
Shurter, 100. Brookings, 75.
2. All states should require an educational qualification for
suffrage.
Intercollegiate Debates, I, 243. Ringwalt, 25.
Shurter, 114.
3. A reasonable property qualification should be made the basis
of municipal suffrage.
Shurter, 112. Brookings, 11.
Thomas, 204.
4. The naturalization laws of the United States should be made
more stringent.
Shurter, 14. Thomas, 188.
Ringwalt, i.
APPENDIX VII
List of Subjects for Persuasive Speeches
School Life
1. Discuss "Our Eleven" (or "Our Nine," "Our Basket-ball Team,"
"Our Tennis Champions," "Our Debaters," "Our Track
Men") in such a way as to secure a large attendance at the
next meet.
2. Seek the support of the students for your school paper.
3. Urge the students to try out for some school activity, such as
an athletic team, debate squad, or musical organization.
4. Present to the Board of Education your school's need for a better
athletic field (or gymnasium).
5. Present to the voters of your district or city the need of a bond
issue for a new school building.
6. Ask the members of the stu<lenl body to buy Red Cross stamps.
7. Make a nominating speech in which you try to persuade the
students to vote for your candidate for student body presi-
dent (or other ofiicer).
8. Urge your fellow students to write schcKjl songs and yells.
g. Advertise the Senior play.
10. Persuade your fellow students to contribute articles to a fair to
raise money for a scholarship fund.
11. Try to induce the student body of some neighboring high school
to join your <lebating league (or athletic association).
12. As an alumnus, ajjpeal to the alumni association lo place in the
school some memorial of a favorite instructor who has died.
13. Urge the members of some adult organization to atiiinl ;i |)iil)lic
speaking contest in your school.
14. Present before the student body the advantages lo be derived
from the study of sonir high-school subject.
334 ORAL ENGLISH
Outside of School
1. Solicit from a lady a subscription to a magazine.
2. Persuade a lady traveler that your town or vicinity is a good place
in which to build a home.
3. Persuade a stranger that your home town is a good place in
which to establish a business.
4. Talk to the Young People's Society of your church on "Our
Duty in Regard to the Building Fund."
5. SoKcit funds for sufferers in flood, fire, or war.
6. Solicit subscriptions before a merchants' organization for some
city improvement (park, lake, etc.).
7. Present to a teacher or a school board the merits of some text-
book.
8. Present before a woman's club the merits of some article of
domestic use.
9. Try to sell a lot to a Y. M. C. A. building committee.
10. Present before a grange the merits of an improved farming imple-
ment.
11. Try to secure an endowment for a small college.
12. As a member of a woman's club, urge the society to work for
the more careful supervision of moving picture performances.
13. As a member of a woman's club, urge early Christmas shop-
ping.
14. As a citizen, make an appeal for the preservation of a historic
landmark.
15. As the chairman of the committee on foreign missions, appeal to
the members of your church to increase their subscriptions.
16. Try to persuade a group of people to form an organization
(farmers' union, labor union. Mothers' Club, Boy Scouts,
Girls' ]\Iissionary Society, Merchants' Association).
17. Try to persuade women teachers to combine to secure salaries
equal to those of men.
18. Urge a body of citizens to vote for (or against) some measure
which is before the public (prohibition, abolition of capital
punishment, etc.).
19. Try to persuade an audience of workingmen that a strike is
unprofitable.
APPENDIX VIII
List of Eulogies for Study
Reed's Modern Eloquence.
Anoerson, M. B., Genius and Achievement of Morse, 7: 40.
Austin, Alfred, Chaucer, 7: 45.
Birrell, A., Dr. Johnson's Personality, 7: 87.
Blackburn, Joseph C. S., John C. Breckenridge, 7: 113.
Brooks, Phillips, Character of Abraham Lincoln, 7: 137.
Bryant, William Cullcn, Sir Walter Scott, 7: 155.
Choate, Rufus, On the Death of Webster, 7: 216.
Clark, Champ, Aaron Burr, 7: 230.
Curtis, George William, James Russell Lowell, 7: 255.
Dolliver, J. P., Robert Emmet, 7: 363.
Everett, Edward, Adams and Jefferson, 8: 439.
Farrar, F. W., General Grant, 8: 464.
Fiske, John, Columbus, the Navigator, 8: 490.
Graves, J. T., Henry W. Grady, 8: 590.
Hugo, Victor, Voltaire, 8: 710.
Ingalls, J. J., Eulogy on Benjamin Hill, 8: 721.
Lamar. L. Q. C, Charles Sumner, 8: 767.
Longfellow, H. W., Washington Irving, 8: 786.
McKinley, William, Characteristics of Washington, 9: 845.
McKinlcy, William, American Patriotism, 9; 847.
Morris, Gouvcrneur, Alexander Hamilton, 9: 887.
OIncy, Richard, John Marshall, 9: 932.
Prentiss, Sargent, Lafayette, 9: 97i-
Roscbery, Lord, Robert Burns, 9: 1007.
Stedman, E. C, Work of Robert Louis Stevenson, 9: 1098.
Stubbs, Charles William, Shakespeare as a Prophet, 9: 1 104.
Warner, C. D., George William Curtis, Litterateur, 9: 11 30.
Watterson, Henry, Francis Scott Key, 9: 1143.
336 ORAL ENGLISH
Depew's Library of Oratory.
Bellows, H. W., At the Funeral of William Cullen Bryant, 8: 454.
Blaine, James G., Oration on Garfield, 11: 282.
Brooks, Phillips, Abraham Lincoln, 13: 38.
Chapin, Edwin Hubbell, Eulogy on Horace Greeley, 8: 475.
Choate, Joseph Hodges, Ritfus Choatc, 12: 56.
Choate, Rufus, Eulogy on Daniel Webster, 6: 294.
Cleveland, Grover, Eulogy on William McKinley, 13: 155.
Curtis, George William, Eulogy on Wendell Phillips, 10: 346.
Dallas, George Mifflin, Eulogy on Andrew Jackson, 6: 25.
Depew, Chauncey Mitchell, Celebration of General Grant's Birth-
day, 12: 324.
Farrar, Frederick William, Eulogy on General Grant, 12: 12.
Gorgias, The Encomium on Helen, i: 12.
Guizot, Frangois Pierre Guillaume, At the Unveiling of the Statue
of William the Conqueror, 5 : 404.
Hay, John, Tribute to the late William McKinley, 13: 223.
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, Oration upon Grant, 10: 302.
Hoar, George Frisbie, Eulogy on William McKifiley, 1 1 : 49.
Holland, Josiah Gilbert, Eulogy on Lincoln, 9:439.
Hugo, Victor, On the Centennial of Voltaire's Death, 7:1.
Hugo, Victor, On Honore de Balzac, 7: 5.
Ingersoll, Robert Green, Oration at his Brother's Grave, 12: 188.
Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, Panegyric on Daniel O'Connell,
6:478.
Lamar, Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, Eulogy on Charles Sumner,
10: 441.
Lee, Henry, Eulogy on Washington, 3: 474.
Lodge, Henry Cabot, On Daniel Webster, 14: 179.
Long, John Davis, Eulogy on Wendell Phillips, 13: 247.
Otis, Harrison Gray, Eulogy on Alexander Hamilton, 4: 189.
Phillips, Wendell, Eulogy on William Lloyd Garrison, 8: 228.
Potter, Henry Codman, Eulogy on Phillips Brooks, 13: i.
Winthrop, Robert Charles, Eulogy on Edward Everett, 8:41.
Brewer's The World's Best Orations.
Adams, John Quincy, Lafayette, i : 79.
Blaine, James G., Oration on Garfield, 2: 481.
APPENDIX VIII 337
Brooks, Phillips, Lincoln as a Typical American, 2: 644.
Bryant, William Cullen, The Greatness of Burns, 2: 702.
Choate, Joseph Hodges, Farragut, 3: 1109.
Crittenden, John Jordan, Henry Clay and the Niiuleenth Century
Spirit, 4: 1472.
Curtis, George ^^'illiam, Wendell Phillips as a History-maker,
4: 1571-
Daniel, John W., Dedication of Washington Monument, 4: 1608.
Farrar, Frederick William, On General Grant, 6: 2128.
Hugo, \'ictor, Oration on Honore de Balzac, 7: 2545.
Hugo, Victor, On the Centennial of Voltaire's Death, 7: 2550.
Ingalls, John T., The Undiscovered Country, 7: 2574.
Ingersoll, Robert Green, Oration at His Brother's Grave, 7: 2580.
Laurier, Sir Wilfred, The Character and Work of Gladstone, 7: 2732.
Lee, Henrj% Funeral Oration for Washington, 7: 2744.
McKinlcy, William, Dedication of Grant Monument, 8: 2905.
Morris, Gouverneur, Oration at the Funeral of Alexander Hamilton,
8:3075-
Otis, Harrison Gray, Hamilton's Influence on American Lnstitu-
tions, 8:3111.
Palmerston, Henry, On the Death of Cobden, 8: 3131.
Potter, Henry Codman, Washington and American Aristocracy,
8:3225.
Webster, Daniel, Adams and Jejferson, 10: 3848.
Wirt, William, Death of Jeferson and Adams, 10: 3905.
APPENDIX IX
List of Birthdays
January
Edmund Burke 12
Benjamin Franklin 17
Daniel Webster 18
Lord Byron 22
Robert Burns 25
James G. Blaine 31
February
Horace Greeley 3
Charles Dickens 7
John Ruskin 8
Thomas Edison 11
Abraham Lincoln 12
George Washington 22
James RusseU Lowell 22
George W. Curtis 24
Henry W. Longfellow 26
Victor Hugo 26
March
William Dean Howells i
David Livingstone 19
April
Washington Irvang 3
John Burroughs 3
William Wordsworth 7
Henry Clay 12
Charles H. Parkhurst 17
John Muir 21
Friedrich Frobel 21
William Shakespeare 23
Edwin Markham 23
Ulysses S. Grant 27
May
John James Audubon 4
Robert Browning 7
William H. Seward 16
Henry Grady 17
William Lloyd Garrison 24
Ralph Waldo Emerson 25
Louis Agassiz 28
Patrick Henry 29
Jimc
Harriet Beecher Stowe 14
Henry Ward Beecher 24
July
Nathaniel Hawthorne 5
Henry D. Thoreau 12
William M. Thackeray 19
A ugust
Percy Bysshe Shelley 4
Alfred Tennyson 5
Sir Walter Scott 15
Bret Harte 25
Oliver Wendell Holmes 29
APPENDIX IX
339
September
Eugene Field 2
John iMarshall 24
Irving Bacheller 26
October
Thomas B. jMacaulay 25
John Keats 29
November
Andrew D. White 2
WilHam Cullcn Br>'ant 3
Thomas Bailey Aldrich 11
Robert Louis Stevenson 13
\\'endell Phillips 29
Mark Twain 30
December
Thomas Carlyle 4
John Greenlcaf Whittier 7
John Millon 9
Phillips Brooks 13
Matthew Arnold 24
William E. Gladstone 29
Rudyard Kipling 30
APPENDIX X
List of Addresses Commemorative of Historical Events
Reed's Modern Eloquence.
Field, C. W., Story of the Atlantic Cable, 8: 473.
Higginson, T. W., Battle of the Cowpens, 8: 618.
Higginson, T. W., Decoration Day, 8: 621.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Memorial Day, 8: 691.
Depew's Library of Oratory.
Adams, John Quincy, Oration at Plymouth, 4: 273.
Beecher, Henry Ward, At the Raising of the Old Flag at Fort Sumter,
8:395-
Curtis, George William, Oratio)i at Concord, 10: 2,2>2>-
Depew, Chauncey M., At the Columbian E.xposition, 12: 332.
Depew, Chauncey M., Oration at the Unveiling of the Bartholdi
Statue, 12: 307.
Ewarts, William I\I., What the Age Owes to America, 9: 238.
Everett, Edward, Patriotic Oration, 6: 92.
Fenelon, Archbishop, Festival of the Epiphany, 2: 113.
Fiske, John, Oration on Columbus, 13: 441.
Higginson, T. W., Decoration Day Address, 10: 298.
Lowell, James Russell, Oration at the 2joth Anniversary of the
Founding of Harvard College, 9: 354.
Prentiss, Sargent, The New England Address, 7:349.
Webster, Daniel, Bunker Hill Monument Oration, 5: 268.
Webster, Daniel, At Plymouth in 1820, 5: 293.
Brewer's The World's Best Orations.
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., Battle of Gettysburg, i: 31.
Adams, John Quincj^ Oration at Plymouth, i: 64.
Adams, John Quincy, The Jubilee of the Constitution, i : 85.
Beecher, Henry Ward, Raising the Flag over Fort Sumter, i : 346.
Boudinot, Elias, The Mission of America, 2: 580.
APPENDIX X 341
BrowTi, Henry Armitt, One Century's Achievement, 2: 683.
Brown, Henr>- Armitt, Dangers of the Present, 2: 685.
Carson, Hampton L., American Liberty, 2: 985.
Depew, Chauncey M., Columbian Oration, 5: 1769.
Hale, Edward Everett, Boston's Place in History, 6: 2355.
Hecker, F. K. F., Liberty in the New Atlantis, 7: 2457.
IMcKinley, William, American Patriotism, 8: 2899.
Prentiss, Sargent, On New England Day, 8: 3233.
Quincy, Josiah, Junior, .1/ the Second Centennial of Boston, 9: 3272.
Webster, Daniel, Laying the Cornerstone of Bunker Hill Monu-
ment, 10: 3828.
Webster, Daniel, At Plymouth in 1820, 10: 3846.
APPENDIX XI
Oration Subjects ^
1 . Educational Waste. — The student should be led early in life
to discover that for which he is fitted.
2. Shackles of the Dead. — We are retarded by certain traditions.
3. Our Debt to Agitators. — We owe progress in civilization to the
courage of the few.
4. Immigration and Democracy. — American ideals are endangered;
or America is the land of opportunity.
5. Invisible Government. — The boss, as an outgrowth of our
check and balance system, can be dethroned only by the
centralization of power.
6. The Waste of War. — Whom the gods wish to destroy, they
first make mad.
7. Education, the Foundation of Democracy. — The greater the
power in the hands of the people the more necessary be-
comes the discussion of pubHc questions.
8. Marshall and the Federal Constitution. — ■ His great service was
to adjust the delicate balance between national and state
rights.
9. Another "Irrepressible Conflict": Labor and Capital. — So long
as there is a privileged class, the question will not be settled.
10. Christian Unity. — The principle of modern business coopera-
tion should be applied in the field of religion.
11. The Civic Service of Great Poets. — By expressing the best
sentiments of the people, they have strengthened and
moved them to action.
12. The New Penology. — The aim is to reform the criminal while
protecting society.
^ Other subjects will be found in J. Berg Esenwein's How to Attract
and Hold an Audience and in Shurter's The Rhetoric oj Oratory.
APPENDIX XI 343
13. The Spoken Word. — The pen is not mightier than the tongue.
14. The ]\Ian of the Hour. — The man who is fitted to lead at a time
of crisis is the one who has the spirit of service.
15. The Conqueror. — The hero of to-day is he who conquers igno-
rance.
16. The Quest for the Unknown. — It has inspired explorers, scien-
tists, and inventors.
17. A Conspiracy against the People. — The liquor interests and
other privileged classes combine to rob the people.
18. "Fear Ye Not." — Fear, which has limited man throughout
the ages, can be overcome by the consciousness that we do
God's will.
19. Booker Washington, the Father of His People. — He solved the
race problem by teaching his people the dignity of service.
20. Sell All that Thou Hast. — Every great gain demands a loss.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
I. General References
Bautain, M., The Art of Extempore Speaking. Charles Scribners'
Sons, New York, 18^7.
One of the earUest books to lay stress upon the value of an out-
line and freedom from manuscript.
Bolenius, Emma Miller, The Teaching of Oral English. Lippincott,
Philadelphia, 19 14.
Buckley, James M., Extemporaneous Oratory. Eaton & Mains, New
York, 1898.
Covers the whole field in an interesting way.
Esenwein, J. Berg, How to Attract and Hold an Audience. Hinds,
Noble & Eldredge, New York, 1902.
Contains list of oration subjects with suggestions for treatment.
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, Hints on Writing and Speech-making.
Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, Boston, 1887.
An extremely bright and entertaining little book.
Holyoake, Geo. J., Public Speaking and Debate. T. Fisher Unwin,
London.
Suggestive and inspiring; full of anecdote.
Kleiser, Grenville, How to Speak in Public. Funk & Wagnalls Co.,
New York, 191 2.
About 200 pages of instruction with 300 pages of selections for
practice.
Lawrence, Edwin Gordon, How to Master the Spoken Word. A. C.
McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1913.
Lawrence, Edwin Gordon, Speech-making. A. S. Barnes Co., New
York, 1912.
About 50 pages of instruction, followed by selected speeches.
' Text books on Rhetoric have been purposely omitted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 345
Lee, Guy Carleton, Principles of Public Speaking. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 1905.
Pearson, P. ^l., and Hicks, P. ^I., Extemporaneous Speaking. Hinds,
Noble & Eidredge, New York, 191 2.
Phillips, A. E., Effective Speaking. The Newton Co., Chicago, 1913.
Scott, Walter Dill, Psychology of Public Speaking. Pearson Bros.,
Philadelphia, 1907.
Seymour, Charles, Speaking in Public. E. P. Button & Co., New
York, 1909.
A book of English authorship, but containing valuable hints to
speakers in any land. Suggests exercises for self-development.
Sheppard, Nathan, Before an .\udicncc. Funk & Wagnalls Co., New
York, 1886.
Inspiring. Written in a racy stjle.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Extempore Speaking. Ginn & Co., New
York, 1908.
IL Tone Production
Aiken, W. .\., The Voice — an Introduction to Practical Phonology.
Longmans, Green & Co., New York.
Appelt, Alfred, Real Cause of Stammering. Methuen & Co., London.
Advocates psycho-analysis as a cure.
Hatfield, M. L., Ilffw to Stop Stammering. Fox Press, 1910.
Written by one who was himself a stammerer. Gives good
suggestions and exercises.
Jones, Dora Duty, The Technique of Speech. Harper & Bros.,
New York, 1909.
Mills, Wesley, Voice Production in Singing and Speaking. J. B.
Lippincolt Co., 1913.
Extended and scientific discussion.
Scripture, E. W., Stuttering and Lisping. The Macmillan Co., New
York, 1912.
Thori)e, E. T. Ellery, Speech Hesitation. E. S. WcriKr & Co., New
V'ork, i()Oo.
Contains endorsement by O. .Stanley Ilall. Advucati-s (Ircp
breathing as a remedy.
346 ORAL ENGLISH
III. Interpretative Reading
Ayers, Alfred, The Essentials of Elocution. Funk & Wagnalls Co.,
New York, 1897.
Simple; right viewpoint.
Clark, S. H., Hoiv to Teach Reading in the Public Schools. Scott,
Foresman & Co., Chicago, 1903.
Corson, Hiram, The Voice and Spiritual Education. The MacmiUan
Co., New York, 1897.
A sane and helpful treatise on the use of the voice in the study
of literature.
Curry, S. S., Province of Expression (1861), Mind and Voice (1910),
Lessons in Vocal E.vpression (1895), Imagination and Dramatic
Instinct, Vocal and Literary Interpretation of the Bible, Browning
and the Dramatic Monologue, Foundations of Expression, Little
Classics for Oral English (191 2), Spoken English (19 13). Ex-
pression Co., Boston.
The foundation principle of all Dr. Curry's books is that vocal
expression should be studied " as a manifestation of the processes
of thinking," and not as a set of rules.
Everts, Katherine Jewell, The Speaking Voice. Harper & Bros.,
New York, 1908.
A successful attempt to simplify the principles which govern the
use of the speaking voice in the interpretation of literature.
Everts, Katherine Jewell, Vocal Expression. Harper & Bros.,
New York.
McMurry, Charles, Special Method in the Reading of the Complete
English Classics. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1905.
Phillips, Arthur Edward, Natural Drills in Expression. Newton Co.,
Chicago, 1913.
Very suggestive and helpful, with illustrative extracts.
Staley, Delbert Moyer, Psychology of the Spoken Word. Richard G.
Badger, Boston, 1914.
Contains many poetical selections for practice, with brief but
helpful suggestions for interpretation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 347
T.al, Rev. Thomas, Iloii' to Train the Speaking Voice. Hodder &
Stoughton, London; George H. Doran Co., New York.
A very simple, sensible presentation of the whole subject of the
use of the voice in reading.
Winter, Irving L., Public Speaking — Principles and Practice. The
Macmillan Co., New York.
Fifty-six pages given to a discussion of principles; 334 pages to
selections for practice.
IX. Pronunciation
Payne, Gertrude, Everyday Errors in Pronunciation, Spelling, and
Spoken English. Orozco, San Francisco, 191 1.
Phyfe, William Henr>'^ P., Eighteen Thousand Words Often Mispro-
nounced. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1914.
\'. Selections for Reading and Declaaiation
Blackstone, Harriet (Compiled by). The Best American Orations of
To-day. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, New York, 1903.
Selections chosen for purposes of declamation on anniversary
or other occasions.
Clark, S. H., Handbook of Best Readings. Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York, 1902.
Cumnock, Robt. McLean, Choice Readings. A. C. McClurg & Co.,
Chicago, 1 914.
Frink, Henry Allyn, The New Century Speaker. Ginn & Co., New
York, 1898.
Fulton and Trueblood, Choice Readings, Ginn & Co., New York, 1SS4.
Fulton and Trueblood, Standard Selections, Ginn & Co., New York,
1907.
Pearson, Paul M., The Humorous Speaker. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge,
New York, 1909.
Pcarsfjn, Paul AL, The Speaker. 8 Vols, and IikKx. Hinds, Noble
& Eldrcflge, New York.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, The Modern American Speaker. Gammel
Book Co., Austin, Texas, 1901.
Selections suitaljlc for declamation.
348 ORAL ENGLISH
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Public Speaking, AUyn & Bacon, Boston,
1903-
A high-school text with well-chosen selections for practice.
VI. Argument and Persuasion
Alden, R. M., The A rt of Debate. Henry Holt & Co. , New York, 1 906.
Baker, G. P., and Huntington, H. B., Principles of Argumentation.
Ginn & Co., New York, 1905.
Bulletin of University of Wisconsin, How to Judge a Debate. H. W.
Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y.
Denny, Duncan and McKinney, Argumentation and Debate. Ameri-
can Book Co., New York, 1910.
Foster, Wm. Trufant, Argumentation and Debating. Houghton
Mifflin Co., Boston, 1908.
A college textbook.
Foster, Wm. Trufant, Essentials of Exposition and Argument. Hough-
ton Mifflin Co., 191 1.
A text intended for use in upper years of high school and in
college.
Ketchum, Victor A., Theory and Practice of Argumentation and
Debate. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1914.
Laycock, C, and Scales, R. L., Argumentation and Debate. The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1910.
Laycock, C. and Scales, R. L., Manual of Argumentation. The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1909.
A high-school text.
Lyman, RoUo L., Bulletin of University of Wisconsin. Principles, of
Efective Debating. H. W. Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y.
Lyon, Everett S., Elements of Debating. The University of Chicago
Press, 1913.
MacEwan, Elias T., Essentials of Argumentation. D. C. Heath & Co.,
New York, 1898.
Pattee, Geo. K., Practical Argumentation. The Century Co., New
York, 1913.
Perry, F. M., An Introductory Course in Argumentation. American
Book Co., New York, 1906.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 349
Robinson, A. T., The Applications of Logic. Longmans, Green &
Co., New York, 1912.
A textbook for college students which contains helpful sug-
gestions for the teacher of argument.
Seward, Samuel Swayzc, Jr., Note-taking. AUyn & Bacon, Boston,
1910.
Suggestions to teachers and students as to the best methods of
taking notes, both from lectures and from printed material.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Science and Art of Debate. Neale Publishing
Co., New York, 1908.
Sidgvvick, Alfred, The Process of Argument. Adam and Charles
Black, London, 1893.
A good book for the teacher's desk. Contains many examples.
MI. General References on Debatable Subjects
Askew, John Bertram, Pros and Cons. 5th ed. E. P. Button &
Co., New York, 1911.
Although prepared by an English author, it contains many
questions which are discussed in all countries. Arranged in diction-
ary form.
Bliss, William D. P., Encyclopedia of Social Reform. Funk & W'ag-
nalls Co., New York, 1908.
Brooking, W. DuBois and Ringwalt, Ralph Curtis, Briefs for Debate.
Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1909.
Carpenter, Oliver Clinton, Debate Outlines on Public Questions.
Broadway Publishing Co., New York, 191 2.
Craig, A. H., Pros and Cons. Hinds, Noble & Eldrcdgc, New York,
1897.
Debater's Handbook Scries. 11. \\ . Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y.
There are about 25 small volumes already [jublished in this
series and more arc in preparation. Each volume gives a list of
references, a i)ricf outline, and selections from the best articles on
both the afiirmalive and negative of some one debatable subject.
Matson, Henry, References for Literary Workers. A. C. McClurg
& Co., Chicago, 1897.
Nichols, Egbert Ray, Intercollegiate Debates, \<il. II. Hinds, Noble
& Eldredge, New York, 1914.
350 ORAL ENGLISH
Pearson, Paul M. Intercollegiate Debates, Vol. I. Hinds, Noble &
Eldredge, New York, 1909.
See also index to The Speaker for briefs.
Ringwalt, Ralph Curtis, Briefs on Public Questions. Longmans,
Green & Co., New York, 1908.
Robbins, E. C, The High School Debate Book. A. C. McClurg &
Co., Chicago, igii.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, and Taylor, Carl Cleveland, Both Sides of
100 Public Questions. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, New York,
1913-
Thomas, Ralph W., A Manual of Debate. American Book Co., New
York, 1910.
VHI. Oratory or Occasional Speeches
Beecher, Henry Ward, Oratory. The Penn Publishing Co., Philadel-
phia, 1 90 1.
An eloquent plea for training in the art of speaking.
Brink, Clark Mills, The Making of an Oration. A. C. McClurg &
Co., Chicago, 1913.
Two hundred pages given to a discussion of method and about
the same amount to specimen orations. Contains a list of oration
subjects.
Brooks, Phillips, Lectures on Preaching. E. P. Button & Co., New
York, 1877.
Goss, John, Forensic Eloquence. S. Carson Co., San Francisco, i8gi.
Gives general instruction in the rhetoric of oratory, with illus-
trations of each point, taken from English and American authors.
Matthews, Brander, Notes on Speech-making. Longmans, Green
& Co., New York, 1901.
Two essays, the first of which gives advice of a general nature
and the second suggestions on the after-dinner speech. A tiny
book, delightfully written and inspiring.
Maury, The Abbe, The Principles of Eloquence. Harper & Bros.,
New York, 1842.
A quaint and interesting treatise which gives numerous short
examples.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
351
Pittenger, William, Toasls. The Pcnn Publishing Co., Philadelphia,
1914.
Gives suggestions as to the preparation of after-dinner speeches
and contains a collection of anecdotes.
Power, John O'Connor, Tlic Making of an Orator. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 1906.
Scars, Lorenzo, The Occasional Address, lis Composition and Litera-
ture. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1897.
.\ very readable discussion of the structure and quaUties of the
different forms of demonstrative oratory, such as eulogy, com-
memorative speech, commencement address, and after-dinner
speech. Gives history of development and lists of examples.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, The Rhetoric of Oratory. The Macmillan
Co., New York, 1909.
IX. Speech Collections
Adams, Charles Kendall, Representative British Orations. 3 \'ols.
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1884.
Selected for their literary as well as theii" historic value.
Baker, George P. (Edited by), The Forms of Public Address. Henry
Holt & Co., New York.
Contains an excellent introduction to teachers; also valuable
examples of letters, editorials, and speeches on various occasions.
Baker, George P., Specimens of Argumentation. Henrj^ Holt & Co.,
New York, 1897.
Boardman, Lester W., Modern American Speeches. Longmans,
Green & Co., New York.
Contains speeches of Schurz, Grady, Hay, and Root.
Brewer, David T., World's Best Orations. 10 \'o!s. and sui)i)lement.
I'" red r. Kaiser, St. Louis, 1809.
Bryan, William Jennings, World's Famous Orations. 10 \'uls. Funk
& Wagnalis Co., New York.
Depcw, C'hauncey .M.. Orations, .Addresses, and Speeches. 8 Vols.
Privately j)rintcd. New ^'o^k, 1910.
Depew, Chauncey M. (Edited by). The Lihrary of Oratory. 15 \'ols.
E. K. Du Mont, New York, 1902.
352 ORAL ENGLISH
Fulton, Robert Irving, and Trueblooci, Thomas Clarkson, British
and American Eloquence. Ginn & Co., New York, 1912.
Fulton, Robert Irving, and Trueblood, Thomas Clarkson, Patriotic
Eloquence. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1903.
Selections from, speeches which deal with the Spanish-American
War and its issues.
Knapp, Ella A., and French, John C, The Speech for Special Occa-
sions. The Macmillan Co., New York, 191 1.
Excellent collection with helpful introduction and appendix.
Lee, Guy Carleton, The World's Orators. 10 \'ols. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 1901.
Morris, Charles, The World's Great Orators and Their Best Orations.
John C. Winston Co., Philadelphia, 1902.
Contains a biography of the orator and a description of the cir-
cumstances under which each oration was delivered.
Prather, Charles Edgar (Edited by), Winning Orations of the Interstate
Oratorical League. 2 Vols. Crane & Co., Topeka, Kan., 1908.
Representative Phi Beta Kappa Orations. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Boston, 1915.
Contains twenty-six of the best orations selected by a committee
appointed by the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa.
Ringwalt, Ralph Curtis, Modern American Oratory. Henry Holt
& Co., New York, 1898.
Contains 90 pages of theory and about 220 pages of examples.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Masterpieces of Modern Oratory, Ginn &
Co., New York, 1906.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Representative College Orations. The Mac-
millan Co., New York, 1909.
Trueblood, Thomas C, Caskey, William G., and Gordon, Henry E.
(Edited by), Winning Speeches in the Contests of the Northern
Oratorical League. American Book Co., New York, 1909.
College orations which have won first and second prizes.
Wagner, Leopold, Modern Political Orations. Henry Holt & Co.,
New York, 1896.
A collection of some of the best speeches of English orators of
the nineteenth century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 353
Woodburn, James Albert (Edited by), American Eloquence. 4 \'oIs.
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1S96.
X. History of Oratory
Curzon, Earl of Kedleston, Modern Parliamentary Oratory. The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1914.
Contains interesting descriptions and anecdotes of famous
English orators.
Hardwick, Henry, History of Oratory and Orators. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, iSg6.
Contains biographies, descriptions of the oratory, and anecdotes
of the great orators of Greece and Rome, England, France, and
America; also e.xtracts illustrative of style. Very helpful in the
preparation of programs.
Mathews, William, Oratory and Orators. S. C. Griggs & Co.,
Chicago, 1879.
Written in an entertaining style. Contains delightful biographi-
cal sketches of English and American orators, together with some
discussion of the st>le of each.
Sears, Lorenzo, The History of Oratory. Scott, Foresman & Co.,
Chicago, 1897.
Furnishes excellent material for speeches on the lives and charac-
teristics of orators.
XI. Programs for Anniversaries
Olcott, Frances Jenkins, Good Stories for Great Holidays. Houghton
Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1914.
Stevenson, Burton E. and Elizabeth B., Days and Deeds. Double-
day, Page & Co., New York, 1906.
Contains poetical selections suitable for recitation on holidays
and the anniversaries of great Americans.
XH. Debating SoaETiES and Parliamentary Law
Lyman, Kollo L., Debating Societies, Organization and Procedure.
Bulletin of University of Wisconsin.
Civcs morlcl constitution and synopsis of parliamentary law.
Gregg, F. M., Handbook of Parliamentary Law. Ginn & Co., New
York, 1 910.
INDEX
Abstract terms, 73
Absurdity, reducing to an, 160
Adams, John Quincy, quotation from,
166
Adjectives that describe motions, 74
Affirmative, relation to question, 127;
relation to burden of proof, 128;
usually advocates a change, 128;
privilege of, 1 29
After-dinner speech, characteristics of,
282; three kinds of, 284
Agriculture, address at dedication of
College of, 239
Alden, R. M., quotation from, 139, 170,
205
Alternates, choice of, 197
Alternative, 162
Analogy, how to refute, 160
Analysis of a question for debate,
144-150; definition of, 144; divided
into two steps, 144; value of, 148
Argument, purpose and definition, 61;
distinctive feature of plan for, 84;
discussion of, 120; relation to per-
suasion, 120; how to test, 157;
nature of introduction to, 182;
kinds which may be used in an ora-
tion, 24s
Arnold, Sir Edwin, speech introducing,
276
Articulation, 12
Ass<jciation, law of, 43
Athletic Club, address at laying the
corner stone of, 244
Atlanta Exfxjsition, address at the
opening of, 235
Attitude of a debater, 204-206; toward
his subject, 204; toward his opp(<-
nents, 205; as a loser, 205; as a
winner, 206
Audience, consirleration of when plan-
ning speech, 68; 228
Authority, nature of, 156-157; citation
of, 157
Bacon, Sir Francis, quotation from, 93,
137
Baker, G. P., quotation from, 149
Balanced question for debate, 130
Balanced sentence, 116
Bates, John L., extract from, 262
Because, importance of in argument,
85, 157
Beecher, Henry Ward, methods of, 15;
extract from, 222; .adaptation of
message, 228; cjuotation from, 232
"Begging" the question, 162
Body of a speech, plan for unity in,
81
Book, position of, 10
Books, how to find references to, 135
Breath, control of, 10
Brief, a, the making of, 166-172; in-
dention of, 167; symbols in, 168;
complete sentence in, 168; relation
of subordinate points to main points,
168; partition in, lOy; coherence
in, 183; emphasis in, 184; of speech
on Morocco, 189; specimen. Ap-
pendix V, 521-523, arranged for
two or three speakers, Apj)endix V,
324-325
Briefs, right and wrong use of, 166;
list of, Appendix VI, 326-332
Brooks, Phillips, extract from, 108
Browning, Robert, extract from, 36
Bryan, \V. J., extract from, 211, 220
Bryant, William ("ulten, si)eech by, 232
Bryic, James, (juotalion from, 58; ex-
tract from, 274
Burke, Edmund, extract from, 05;
use scientific facts, 70; quotation
from, 124
Burns, Robert, eulogy on, 232
3S6'
INDEX
Card catalogue, use of, 1,55
Cards, use of in copying references, 136
Cause to effect, reasoning from, 157;
how to refute, 159
Channing, VV. E., extract from, 152
Charles I, extract on, from Macaulay,
108
Chest, position of, 10
Chin, position of, 10
Choate, Rufus, habit of reading aloud,
22
Cicero, quotation from, 1S4
Citizenship, influenced by studying the
art of speaking, 4, 122
Clark, S. H., rule of, 23
Clash of opinion, how to make, 146;
specimen, Appendix V, 319-320
Clay, Henry, use of impromptu method,
88
Climax, how expressed in reading. 28;
in a sentence, no; means of em-
phasis, 113
Close of a speech, what to do at the, 48
Coherence, meaning of in a speech, 82;
how to secure — by a plan, 82; in a
narration, 103; in a description,
104; gained by use of connective
words, 112; gained by similar con-
struction, 112; in a brief, 168; in
the development of a speech, 183;
in a closing refutation speech, 218
Coleridge, S. T., quotation from, 228
Collection, necessity of, 74; form of,
74; how to enlarge, 75; how to
classify specimens in, 75
Columbian Oration, extract from, 243
Commemorative address, occasions for,
247; historical nature of, 247;
more than a narrative, 248; list of,
Appendix X, 340-341
Commencement oration, choice of sub-
ject for, 249; suggestions for treat-
ment of, 250
Comparison as a method of developing
ideas, 70
Composition, discussion of, Part II,
58-119; compared to a stream, 186
Compound sentence, correct formation
of, no; incorrect, in
Conciliation with the Colonies, extract
from, 6s
Conciseness, 113
Conclusion, how to develop for unity,
81; how to test, 157-159; examples
of, 2og; brevity of, 215; purposes
of, 216; personal, 216; three kinds
of emphatic, 217
Concord Oration, extract from, 212
Concrete terms, 74; material, 185
Conferences, method of conducting, 198;
value of, ioo
Congressional Record, use of, 135
Connectives, means of coherence, 112;
list of, 118
Conservatism, extract from, 97
Constructive case of negative, 129
Contrast, expression of, in reading, 23;
in a compound sentence, no
Conversation, basis of reading, 23
Cooper Union Speech, extract from,
I S3
Corn Law League, address before, 109
Corson, Hiram, quotation from, 49
Criticism, suggestions in regard to, 14;
in practice debates, 200
Cummins, Senator Albert Baird, extract
from, 100
Curry, S. S., quotations from, 23, 28
Curtis, George William, extracts from,
66, 97, 212, 213; use of historical
facts, 69; use of concrete terms, 74
Daniel, John W., extract from, 100
Debate, game of, 120-125; purpose of,
120; defined, 121; winner of, 121;
value of understanding, 122; rela-
tion to life, 122; effect on citizen-
ship, 122; on sincerity, 123; as an
exercise, 124; practice, how con-
ducted, 127
Declamation, resemblance to public
speaking, 42; memorized reading,
42; poise, 46; gesture, 48
Declarative sentence, 114
Decoration Day, Oration on, extract
from, 211
Dedicatory address, discussion of, 248;
examples of, 229-243
Defects of voice, possibility of over-
coming, 14
Definition of a question for debate, 14s;
how to find, 14s; prepared by both
aflTirmative and negative, 146; quib-
bling to be avoided, 146
INDEX
357
DeUver>-, meaning of, 8; conversational,
46
Demosthenes, methods of, 15
Depew, Chauncey M., extract from,
211, 243, 244; speech-of, 271, 276,
278
Description, definition and purpose, 60;
how used by speakers, 61; unity in,
104; coherence in, 104; emphasis
in, 105; examples of, gg-ioi
Development of a speech from a brief,
181-186
Dewey, Admiral, presentation of cup
to, 278
Dickens, Charles, speech of, 54; refer-
ence to Charles Lamb, 69; habit of
observation, 70
Dictionary', use of when studying a
reading lesson, 25; in writing, 72;
in defining a question for debate, 145
Dilemma, 161
Directness, means of emphasis, 113
Discourse, the speaker's use of the four
forms of, 62
Doul>le-team system, value of, iq7
Dramatic representation, faults in, 49
Ear, the, how to train, 14
Earnestness, quality of the persuasive
speaker, 226
Effect to cause, reasoning from, 158;
how to refute, 159
Emerson, R. W., extract from, 34
Emphasis, definition of, in reading, 20;
distribution of, 27; meaning of, in
composition, 82; how to secure
through a plan, 82; in narration,
103; in description, 105; in a sen-
tence, 113; in a brief, 167; in the
flevelor)ment of a speech, 184; in a
closing refutation speech, 194
Equipment, the speaker's, meaning of,
68
Escnwein, J. Berg, quotation from, 88,
139
P^ulogy, the, occasions for, 24O; mure
than a biography, 246; handling of,
247
Example, argument from, how to refute,
105
Exclamatory sentence, use in oratory,
114
Exposition, purpose and definition, 61;
plan for, 85
Extempore method, description of,
89-93; how to avoid dangers of,
90; three merits of, 92
Fact, known, to unknown effect, 158;
to unknown cause, 158
Facts, an element of proof, 155; how
to test, 156
Fallacy, definition of, 164; examples
of, 165
Farewell address, 266
Feeling, necessity of, in reading, 28
Feet, position of, 10
Field, David Dudley, extract from, 211
Fisher, Harry Johnson, speech of, 279
Foster, W. T., quotation from, 124
Fox, Charles James, frequent practice
in Parliament, 93; quotation from,
184
Fox, W. F., extract from, 109
Frickhic, Barbara, 39
Garfield, James A., extract from, 220
Generalizations, how to test, 157
General terms, 127
Gesture, defined, 48; two classes of, 49;
result of impulse, 49; faults in, 49;
quotations from Phillips and Corson,
49
Gettysburg Address, The, 38
Gift, presentation of, example of, 278,
279; acceptance of, examples of,
279, 281; discussion of, 285
Gladstone, William Ewart, acceptance
of a gift by, 279
Grady, Henry W., extracts from, 34,
35. QQ. 209
Grant, L'lysses S., extract from eulogy
on, 67
Graves, J. T., extract from, 36
Iludley, Arthur Twining, extract from,
261 ; si)ecch of, 281
Hamilton, Alexander, quotation from,
132
Hands, problem of, 47
Haste, fault of, in beginning a decla-
mation, 46
Hav.-ina, description of, 100
Hay, John, extract from, 209
358
INDEX
Henry, O., his study of the dictionary,
72
Henry, Patrick, extract from, 153
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, quota-
tion from, 89, 185
History, value of study of, for a speaker,
69
Hoarseness, not a preventive of prac-
tice, 21
Holyoake, Geo. J., quotation from, 123,
227
Home and the RepubHc, The, extract
from, 99
Hughes, James L., extract from, 262
Hunt, Thomas Forsyth, inaugural
address of, 260
Ideals, appealed to by persuasive
speaker, 229
Ignoring the question, 162
Illustrations to develop an idea, 185;
from common experience, 186
Imperative sentence, use in exhortation,
IIS
Impromptu method, use in literary
societies, 88; value of, 91; defects
of, 93
Inaugural address, examples of, 255;
contents of, 265
Inconsistency, 161
Indention in a brief, 167
IngersoU, Robert G., extract from, 100
Intensity, law of, 43; use of, in memo-
rizing, 45
Interrogative sentence, used to intro-
duce a thought, 114; to conclude a
thought, 114
Introducing a speaker, 266
Introduction, to a short speech, 59; to
a brief, 166; examples of, 209; brev-
ity of, 215; purposes of, 216; per-
sonal, 216; for the purpose of unity,
216; general, 217; suggestive, 217;
to Lincoln's address at Cooper
Institute, Appendix IV, 317-318
Irving, Washington, quotation from,
70
Issue, the main, how to find, 147;
illustration of. Appendix V, 320
Jones, Edgar R., quotation from, 229
Judges of a debate, attitude toward, 205
Jury Address, Webster's, extracts from,
34. 35- 98, 153
KipHng, Rudyard, address by, 222
Lafayette, extract from eulogy on, 213
Languages, value of study of, for a
speaker, 69
Lee, Robert E., description of, 100
Library, how to use, 132; portion of an
address at dedication of Doe, 242
Lincoln, Abraham, The Gettysburg
Address, 38; extracts from, 65, 153,
220; his power of observation, 70;
early practice in debate, 120; ex-
tract from oration on, 210, 234;
Second Inaugural of, 255
Lips, inactivity of, 1 2
Literature, value of study of, for a
speaker, 69
Long sentence, effect of, 115
Loose sentence, 115
Lowell, James Russell, quotation from,
81, 18s, 283
Macaulay, T. B., extract from, 108, 152
Magazine articles, how to find, 134
Material, how to find, 133-138
Matthews, Brander, quotation from,
283
McKinley, President William, extract
from eulogy on, 209
Memorizing, faulty method of, 42; best
method of, 43; its value, 45; group-
ing material for, in a story, 52; best
method of, for poetry, 52
Memory, laws of, 43
Mental pictures, aid to emphasis, 29,
i8s
Minister's throat, 12
Misrepresentation condemned, 204
Morocco, policy of M. Delcasse in, 175
Mouth, openness of, 11
Muck-Rake, The Man with the, extract
from, 209
Mumbling, 12
Napoleon, Address to Army of Italy, 221
Narration, definition, 60; purpose of,
61; unity in, 102; coherence in, 103;
emphasis in, 104
Narratives, examples of, 97-99
INDEX
359
Nasal resonance, how to secure, 12
Nasal "twang," how to avoid, iS
Natural order of ideas, 103
Negative, relation to question, 127;
relation to burden of proof, 128;
statement of question, i2g
Newman, John Philip, extract from, 2,54
New South, The, extract from, 34, 35,
209
Note-taking, 13S-140; net in exact
words, 138; condensed, 130; an
exact quotation, 13Q; intelligible,
140; on slips or cards, 140; example
of, 143
Observation, value of, 70; how to cul-
tivate the habit of, 71
Occasions, speeches for special, 245-200
O'Connell, Daniel, extract from eulogy
on, 97; quotation from, 149
Open air, use of voice in, 13, 15
Oration, the, examples of, 232-244;
discussion of, 245-250; how it dif-
fers from debate, 245; kinds of
arguments which may be used in,
24s, in honor of a person, 245; in
honor of an event, 24O; commence-
ment, 247
Oratory, definition of, 245; character-
istics of, 245; requisites for success
in, 24s
Originality, meaning of, 71; how to
develop, 71
Outline, word-brace, the preparation of,
for memorizing, 43; use of, for mem-
orizing, 44; the preparation of, in
composition, 83; the memorizing of,
00; specimen, for student's two-
minute speech, Appendix 1, 291
Pamphlets, issued by government, 136;
by organizations, 136
Paragraph, transition, 183
Parallel case, how to refute, 159
I'arallel construction, 112
Partition, methods of, in a debate, 127,
169
Pauses, relation of, to thought-groups,
25; varied length of, 26; relation of,
to punctuation, 2O
Pericles, earnestness of, 221
Periodic sentence, 116
Persuasion, meaning of, 58, 120; many
speeches in which it is the object,
120; relation to argument, 120;
examples of, 220
Persuasive speaker, the, attitude of,
toward himself, 227; toward his
subject, 227; toward his audience,
228; adaptation of message, 228;
creation of a sense of unity by, 229
Persuasive speech, the, 226-229; ref-
erence to St. Paul's, 231
Phillips, A. E., rule in regard to imita-
tion, 49
Phillips, Austin, quotation from, 166
Phillips, Wendell, extract from, 97
Phrasing, in music and in reading, 25;
art of, in composition, 110-116
Pilch, exercise for, 19; relation to em-
phasis, 27
Plan, used by Dickens, 63; for a speech,
79-85
Plato, quotation from, 60
Poetry, reading of, 39; outline for
memorizing, 52
Poise, 46
Poole's Index, 134
Porter, Horace, extract from, 67
Practice, necessity of, in curing voice
defects, 14; in reading, 23; best
method of, in reading, 24
Prejudice, relation to testimony, 156
Prentiss, Sargent S., extract from, 213
Presiding officer, of a team, 198; exam-
ples of speeches of, 255; discussion
of speeches of, 264; general nature
of, 2O4; inaugural of, 2O4; farewell
si)eech of, 26O; introductory speech
of, 266
Proof, burden of, 128; shifting of
burden, 128; in clash of opinion, 146;
tests of, 155-163; elements of, 155
Property in Slaves, extract from William
lillery t'hanning, 152
I'roiHirtion, rclatiiin to emphasis, 184
"Public Duly of Kducatitl Men," ex-
tract from, 00
Question for debate, 127-130; avoid-
ance of negative statement, 129;
balanced, 130
Questions, list of debatable, Ap|K-ndix
VI. ^26^^32
360
INDEX
Quotation, direct, 113; how to make
note of an exact, 140; as the intro-
duction to a speech, 217
Reader's Guide, how to use, 134
Reading, 22-31; as a method of voice
training, 22; value of, 22; conver-
sational, 23; rule of Professor S. H.
Clark, 23; necessity of study to get
the thought, 24; phrasing, 25; em-
phasize, 26; holding the thought, 29;
rapid, evil of, 29; giving the thought,
30; directions for the study of, 30;
relation to literature, 31; exercises
in, ss; Lesson I, 38; of poetry,
39; Lesson IL 3Q; HI, 54; IV, 65;
V, 97; VI, 108; vn, 152; vin,
17s; IX, 209; X, 226; XI, 242
Reasoning, an element of proof, 155;
how to test, 158-160
Reed, Thomas B., extract from, 154
References, how to copy, 136; at the
foot of notes, 140; division of,
among team members, 198
Refutation, order of speeches in, 129;
how expressed in a brief, 169; han-
dling of, 192; choice of, 192; placing
of, 193; closing speech in, 194;
phrasing of , 194; teamwork in, 194
Repetition, law of, 43; of ideas in varied
language, 182
Representative, speech of a, 284
Research, time given to, 132; necessity
of, in debate, 157
Resemblance, argument from, 159;
how to refute, 159
Resonance, nasal, 12
Rhythm, relation of, to thought in
poetry, 52
Ringwalt, R. C, quotation from, 245
Robinson, Franklin W., speech of, 175
Roosevelt, Theodore, extract from, 209,
210
Rowell, Joseph C, portion of an address
by, 242
Royce, Josiah, quotation from, 183
Rules of form in brief-making, 167
Salutation, value of choosing early, 217
Schedule for a debating team, 201;
example of, 324
Science, value of study for a speaker, 70
Selection of material, 137-138
Self-consciousness, the cause of stiff-
ness, 48; 124
Self-control, value of in debate, 124
Self-mastery; the result of practice, 3
Sentence, expressing paragraph in, 25;
simple, no; complex, no; com-
pound, no; unity in, no; coher-
ence in, 113; emphasis in, 113;
variety in structure, 114-116; use
of, in a brief, 168; transition, 183
Seymour, Charles, quotation from, 91
Sheppard, Nathan, quotation from, 68,
93
Shields, Judge Peter J., address by,
239
Shinn, Josiah H., extract from, 263
Short sentence, effect of, 115
Skim, how to, 137
Social occasions, speeches for, examples
of, 271-281; discussion of, 281
Special statements, 157; relation to
general statements, 158
Speech, written, disadvantages of, 91;
when advantageous, 93
Stage fright, cause of, 45; how pre-
vented, 45
Statistics, how to find, 135; use of, 157
Stevenson, Robert Louis, quotation
from, 71, 89
Story, how used by speakers, 103; how
to plan, 103-105; use of and in, in;
as the introduction to a speech, 217;
means of unifying audience, 229;
use of, in an after-dinner speech, 284
Strenuous Life, The, extract from, 210
Studies, daily, as a source of equip-
ment, 69
Study, necessity of, for reading, 24
Subject, choice of, for a speech, 79;
necessity of narrowing, 80; relation
to purpose, 81; statement of, for
debate, 127-130
Subordinate points in a brief, 168;
must contain but one idea, 169
Subordinate thought-groups, how ex-
pressed in reading, 28
Summaries, necessity for frequent, 182
Symbols, used in a brief, 169; repeti-
tion of, 170
Symmetry of Life, extract from, 108
Synonyms, exercise on, 77
INDEX
361
Teamwork, 197-201; meaning of to a
judge, 197; to a debater, 197; in
gathering material, 198; in making
a brief, 199; in oral practice, 199;
in preparation for refutation, 200;
impwrtance of, 200
Technical terms, need of explaining,
184
Teeth, separation of, 11
Theft, literary, defined, 138
Theme sentence as a test for unity, 83
Thought-groups, 28
Throat, closed, 12; how to correct, 17
Toast, purpose of the, 2S3
Tone passage, relaxation of, 12
Tone, support of, 11; volume, 1 2 ; rich-
ness, 13; singing, 13
Topics, not suitable for debate, 127;
use of in Reader's Guide, 134; not
usable in a brief, 167; list of, for use
of team, 198
Transition paragraph, 183
Transition sentence, 183
Tribute, welcome, 285
Turning the tables, i6r
Twang, nasal, 12
Two-mmute speech, specimen of. Ap-
pendix I, 291-292
Unity, meaning of in a speech, 79; how
to lay the basis for, in a plan, 80-81 ;
how to secure, in a narration, 102;
how to secure, in a description, 104;
in a sentence, 110; secured by par-
tition of a iirief, 169; how secured in
development of a brief, 181; in a
closing refutation speech, 194; by
means of the introduction and con-
clusion, 194
Value of studying the art of speaking,
1-6; to the engineer, 2 ; the business
man, 2; the worker, i
Van Dyke, Henry, quotation from, 103
Variety, in sentence form, 114; in ex-
pressions of the same idea, 184; in
opening a point in refutation, 195
\'erb, suggestiveness of, in an outline,
44; value of active, 113
Vigilance, nccessarj' in a debate, 195
Vision of War, A, extract from, 100
Voice, training of, 9-20; index to char-
acter, 8; cause of breathy, 1 1 ; cause
of throaty, 12; carrying power, 13;
necessity of practice, 14; possibility
of overcoming defects in, 14; exer-
cises for, 17-20
Vowels, necessity of prolonging, 12
Washington, Booker T., extract from,
210; address by, 235
Webster, habit of reading aloud, 22; ex-
tracts from, 34, 35, 98, 153, 211;
preparation of, 68; feeling for
words, 72; quotation from, 133
Welcome, address of, object to delight,
267; examples of, 262; to a con-
vention, 267; to an honored guest, 285
Whittier, John Greenleaf, Barbara
Friehhie, 39
Wilson, Woodrow, extract from 222;
inaugural address of, 256
Wit, 20s
Word-outline, the, preparation of, for
memorizing, 43; use of, for memoriz-
ing, 44
Wonls, how to gather an equipment of,
72; Webster's feeling for, 72; ap-
propriateness of, 73; variety in,
73; picture-making, 74
Worlil life, the source of a speaker's
equipment, 70
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