CHSBLES— « 
 
 tfALMERn 
 
 GIFT Of 
 
 Charles •". Marsh 
 to I'u Lartifeda
 
 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 OR 
 
 THE ART OF SPEAKING 
 
 BY 
 
 ANTOINETTE KNOWLES 
 
 INSTRUCTOR IN PUBLIC SPEAKING, HIGH SCHOOL 
 SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA 
 
 " There can be no greater imputation on the in- 
 telligence of any man, than that he should talk 
 from the cradle to the tomb and never talk well." 
 
 — G. J. HOLYOAKE. 
 
 * ■» * • • 
 
 ' . ' • • • • 
 
 ••>', tilt'' 
 • •"' • •• • » 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
 
 Copyright, 1916, 
 By D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 116 
 
 I 1 ^ • 
 
 • . • . . ■•
 
 
 Si 
 
 ^ PREFACE 
 
 ^ This book has been written to supply a need. The 
 cj vocational and civic importance of the ability to speak 
 <: has been recognized by teachers of English throughout 
 
 the country, but as yet the meaning of "Oral EngHsh" is 
 1 rather vaguely and variously understood. We are con- 
 's scious of our goal, but we lack method in our efforts to 
 i attain it. It is true that we no longer imagine that the 
 J art of speaking can be taught in a half-dozen lessons to 
 
 the commencement speaker or the interscholastic debater, 
 ^ but we still lack that systematic basis of instruction which 
 "^ has already been furnished for the older subjects and which 
 ■^ is necessary to a well-directed activity. 
 ^ This text is the outgrowth of ten years of experiment 
 ^ and research and in its present form is the result of many 
 ^ careful revisions. It is hoped that it may prove to be 
 
 a useful guide in the oral work of the regular four years' 
 ^ English course as well as in the work of the special course 
 
 in Public Speaking. Suggestions as to ways in which its 
 ^ usefulness may be increased will be cordially accepted. 
 (j Certain features of the work are original; the chief of 
 {j these are the general {)!un of presentation, the handling 
 
 of the four forms of discourse, and the word-outline method 
 u. of oral i)reparati(jn described in Chapters VII and VIII. 
 ^_ As to the remainder, the writer pleads guilty as docs 
 n Kipling in the following verse: 
 
 ni 
 
 258515
 
 iv PREFACE 
 
 "When 'Omcr smote 'is bloomin' lyre 
 'E'd 'card men sing by land and sea; 
 
 And wol 'e thot 'e might require 
 
 'E went and took, the same as me." 
 
 For all that which has been contributed, either con- 
 sciously or unconsciously, the author is duly grateful, and 
 especially to those who have courteously permitted the use 
 of extracts from copyrighted material. 
 
 San Jose, California, June 26, igi6.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Our Purpose in Studying the Art of Speaking i 
 
 PART I — DELIVERY 
 
 II. Voice Training 8 
 
 III. Re.U)ING 22 
 
 IV. Declamation 42 
 
 PART II — COMPOSITION 
 
 V. A Speaker's Use of the Four Forms of Dis- 
 course 58 
 
 VT. The Speaker's Equipment 68 
 
 ^ VII. How to Plan a Speech 79 
 
 VIII. Oral Preparation 88 
 
 IX. How to Plan a Story or Description .... 102 
 
 X. The Art of Phrasing no 
 
 PART III — ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION 
 
 XI. The Game of Debate 120 
 
 Xn. The Question 127 
 
 XIII. H(jw to Use a Liukaky 132 
 
 XIV. Analysis of the Question 144 
 
 XV. Proof and its Tests i.=;5 
 
 XVI. The Hkikf 166 
 
 XVII. Development of a Speech from a Brief . . . iSi 
 
 X\III. Tm. Handling of Refutation ig2 
 
 V
 
 vi CONTENTS 
 
 XIX. Teamwork 197 
 
 XX. Attitude 204 
 
 XXI. Introductions and Conclusions 215 
 
 XXII. The Persuasive Speech 226 
 
 PART IV — SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 XXIII. The Oration 245 
 
 XXIV. Speeches of a Presiding Officer 264 
 
 XXV. Speeches for Social Occasions 282 
 
 APPENDIXES 
 
 I. Specimen Outline for a Two-Minute Speech .... 291 
 
 II. Subjects for Argumentative and Expository Speeches 293 
 
 III. Subjects for Narrative and Descriptive Speeches . . 309 
 
 IV. Specimen Introduction to a Debate 317 
 
 V. (a) Clash of Opinion and Brief on " Student Gov- 
 ernment " 319 
 
 (b) Brief Arranged for Two or Three Speakers . . 324 
 
 VI. List of Debatable Questions with References . . . 326 
 
 VII. Subjects for Persuasive Speeches S33 
 
 VIII. List of Eulogies for Study 33.5 
 
 IX. List of Birthdays for Anniversary Celebrations . . 338 
 X. List of Addresses Commemorative of Historical 
 
 Events 340 
 
 XI. Oration Subjects 342 
 
 Bibliography 344 
 
 Index 355
 
 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 OUR PURPOSE IN STUDYING THE ART OF SPEAKING 
 
 Introduction. — A life without a purpose does not count 
 for much. The sooner we decide on our aim in Hfe the 
 more hkely are we to win success. What is true of one's 
 Hfe is true also of any particular work that one may 
 undertake. If our goal is in sight, if we know just what 
 it is we are working for, our energies are aroused and, 
 almost without knowing it, we do harder work and so get 
 better results. Let us, at the start, then, ask and answer 
 this question: " Why should we study the art of speak- 
 ing? " Perhaps some one will say, "I do not need to 
 learn to speak well for I do not expect to become a lawyer, 
 a preacher, or a statesman." I hope, however, that 
 when you have fmished reading this chapter you will 
 agree that everyone, rich or poor, brilHant or stupid, 
 boy or girl, should study the art of speaking. 
 
 Earning a Living. — In the first place, it will help you 
 to earn a living, and most of those for whom this book 
 is written will have to do that very thing. It may be 
 that you have decided to take an engineering course. 
 You have thought that an engineer does not need to know 
 how to talk; that he needs merely to know how to i)lan 
 and how to work. But the head of the University of
 
 2 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Pittsburgh, when he asked a body of engineers what they 
 considered the most important part of a college course, 
 received a reply about as follows: " You cannot empha- 
 size too strongly the advantages that come to men from 
 the ability to think on their feet, to express a well-thought- 
 out proposition extempore, to adapt themselves and their 
 conversation instantaneously to changing conditions as 
 they arise." ^ The young man who wishes to be a suc- 
 cessful engineer should study mathematics, it is true, but 
 he should study also that art which will enable him to 
 enlist the cooperation of capitalists, whose funds will 
 be necessary to the promotion of his enterprises. Of 
 two engineers, one may have the better plan for the 
 building of a bridge; but, if he is unable to present its 
 merits clearly before the city council, the other may 
 secure the contract. 
 
 The boy or girl who intends to enter the business 
 world has even greater need for skill in the expression of 
 thought. The Director of High Schools in Pittsburgh 
 addressed a circular letter to the business firms of 
 the city, asking them to state what is most necessary in 
 order to fit boys for success in business. Ninety-nine 
 per cent laid stress on the advantage of being able to 
 write and speak the English tongue accurately and for- 
 cibly. The general manager of an international business 
 house which employs thousands of salesmen said, " I 
 never can get enough men for the more important positions 
 of the firm because there are so very few men who can 
 present their own arguments clearly and overcome the 
 
 1 This testimony, as well as that which follows from business men, 
 has been adapted from an article written by Allan Davis and published 
 in Tkc Speaker, No. 21.
 
 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 3 
 
 arguments of the other side without giving offence. I 
 have three positions paying $5000 per year and I am 
 unable to get men of the personality to fill them." No 
 matter what you have for sale, be it ribbons or real estate, 
 your success will depend somewhat upon the way in which 
 you present its worth. 
 
 Do not make the mistake of thinking that you will 
 learn to talk after you have made your start in business. 
 The fact that you are unable to speak for yourself may 
 destroy your chance to make the start. The employer 
 of to-day, whether he be a banker or a member of a school 
 board, is not satisfied with a written application. He 
 desires a personal interview, and that candidate is most 
 successful who, other things being equal, is best able to 
 present his case. If, then, we wish to belong to that class 
 which is wanted, if we wish to keep out of the ranks of 
 the unemployed, we must not only be capable but we must 
 also know how to make our capabilities recognized. 
 
 Self-mastery. — While the ability to earn a livelihood 
 is of primary importance and should be given first con- 
 sideration in planning our education, there is scarcely a 
 human being who does not wish to be something more 
 than a mere healthy animal. We desire the full develop- 
 ment of our powers. We covet that self-mastery which 
 will place us at case in all the circumstances of our social 
 life. Self-command and the use of well-chosen words 
 are marks of culture which may be exhibited in conversa- 
 tion as well as before an audience. This is well illustrated 
 by the story of a poor French youth who once went in 
 mean attire to call upon one of Napoleon's statesmen. 
 He was received with coldness, but he showed so much 
 intelligence in conversation that the statesman accom-
 
 4 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 panied him to the door, saying, " My young friend, we 
 receive an unknown person according to his dress; we 
 take leave of him according to his merits." 
 
 When we first attempt to speak before our classmates, 
 we usually discover that we are not masters of ourselves. 
 Our bodies are not our faithful servants. Our knees 
 tremble, our eyes fear to meet those of our listeners, and 
 our hands seem too large for the pockets in which we seek 
 to hide them. Even our minds are rebelhous and refuse 
 to act freely. 
 
 But, if we continue to practice, we shall see, both in 
 ourselves and in others, fear giving place to confidence 
 and awkwardness to ease. It may even be that a few 
 who read this chapter to-day will become the Wendell 
 Phillipses and the Henry Ward Beechers of tomorrow. 
 Through a mastery of self they may gain the power to 
 arouse multitudes to right action and to convert howls 
 and hisses into applause and support. Such power can 
 come only as a result of special gifts and dihgent study. 
 The debater who wins a few victories over a rival school 
 has made only a beginning. The study of the art of 
 public speech, like that of painting and music, may well 
 be made the work of a hfetime. 
 
 Citizenship. — Although many of us have neither the 
 abihty nor the desire to become orators, we can all develop 
 our powers so as to make of ourselves valuable citizens; 
 and it is in this aim rather than in the winning of personal 
 success that we shall find our highest motive for effort. 
 Each one should wish to take an active and useful part in 
 the life of his community and state. In our democratic 
 nation, the one who can speak for himself and his fellows 
 in clear, concise Enghsh will have innumerable oppor-
 
 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 5 
 
 tunities for service. Much of the work of the world is 
 now done through organizations. If we desire to promote 
 the interests of a certain class or group of people, we 
 form a labor union, a grange, a lodge, a woman's club, or 
 a medical association. If we wish to help humanity in 
 general, we organize a church, a Y. M. C. A., a Salvation 
 Army, an Associated Charities, or we call a mass meeting 
 to raise money for those who suffer from flood, famine, or 
 war. In order that our government may be of, hy, and 
 for the people, we form civic and political clubs and call 
 meetings to discuss the need of a better road, a larger 
 schoolhouse, or a new charter. Large bodies of men and 
 women must be moved to action. If those who are wise 
 and good do not help to form public opinion, the unwise 
 and the evil will do so in order to advance their own 
 selfish interests. The mere talker, it is true, will always be 
 held in contempt, but the man who can both act and 
 influence others to action will be justly counted a most 
 worthy citizen. Could an Abraham Lincoln or a Woodrow 
 Wilson have given so large a measure of service to his 
 country if he had failed to study the art of pubHc speech? 
 
 Every group of people, large or small, young or old, 
 must have its leaders. Each one who desires the largest 
 usefulness should so prepare himself that when the oppor- 
 tunity comes to cast his influence on the side of what is 
 wise and right he can do so with effectiveness. Oppor- 
 tunities will not be wanting even in the hfe of the school. 
 
 It is evident from the nature of the case that this influ- 
 ence can be exerted most advantageously in the public 
 assembly. The man who can think only when he writes 
 will be of little use in a crisis when important measures are 
 to be decided. It has been said that the pen is mightier
 
 6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 than the sword, but it is not mightier than the tongue. 
 As Professor Charles Sears Baldwin of Yale University 
 says, " The greatest practical achievement of expression 
 is still, and always will be, a great message by a great 
 speaker." 
 
 Conclusion. — Why, then, should you study the art 
 of speaking? Why should you study it with earnestness 
 and perseverance, although you labor under great handi- 
 caps and are often discouraged? If you are poor, it will 
 help you to self-support; if you are well-to-do, it will 
 enable you to use your influence as well as your money 
 to some good purpose. If you are brilliant, it may gain 
 for you the privilege of molding public opinion at some 
 great crisis in your nation's history; if you are stupid in 
 the use of language, even the slight power which you will 
 acquire may be the means of giving you a chance to show 
 what you can do in other lines. If you are a boy, it will 
 help you to live a man's largest and richest life; if you 
 are a girl, you may be thankful that you live in an age 
 when it is no less womanly to speak in public than it 
 is to embroider or to cook, and that, with these larger 
 opportunities, come greater responsibilities and greater 
 usefulness. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 Our Purpose 
 
 Introdh 
 
 idion. 
 
 I. 
 
 Value of a purpose. 
 
 II. 
 
 The question which we should ask. 
 
 Body. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Help in earning a living. 
 
 
 A. The engineer. 
 
 
 B. The business man. 
 
 
 C. The one who seeks a position.
 
 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 7 
 
 II. Help in acquiring self-mastery. 
 
 A. Our desire for self-mastery as a social grace. 
 
 B. Our present condition. 
 
 C. Our future. 
 III. Good citizenship. 
 
 A. Opportunities open to a good speaker in a demo- 
 
 cratic nation. 
 
 B. The influence of a speaker as compared with that of 
 
 a writer. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I. Value of a knowledge of the art of speaking to 
 
 A. The poor or the well-to-do. 
 
 B. The brilliant or the stupid. 
 
 C. The boy or the girl. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able in class to recite from 
 the topical outline.
 
 PART I — DELIVERY 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 VOICE TRAINING 
 
 Introduction. — Part I of this text aims to teach the 
 student how to acquire a good dehvery. A speaker is 
 said to have a good dehvery when he is well poised be- 
 fore his audience and when he can use his vocal organs so 
 as to produce an audible and pleasing tone. Since ease 
 and power in the use of the voice and body cannot be 
 gained except by patient and diligent practice, it is well 
 for the student to learn at the outset the principles which 
 govern good delivery and to strive to apply them through- 
 out his course in the art of speaking. 
 
 It is a mistake to think that one's voice, like the color 
 of one's eyes, cannot be changed. A bad voice is, in the 
 great majority of cases, merely a bad habit. Everyone 
 has in his voice a musical instrument of great value. He 
 needs only to learn how to play upon it. He may over- 
 come the wrong habit of using his vocal instrument, as 
 other wrong habits are overcome, by learning how to 
 establish a correct habit. 
 
 A voice of power and charm is much to be desired. 
 There is a general impression that the voice is an index 
 to character. It is suspected that the boy with the 
 breathy or high-pitched voice is lacking in manly qualities. 
 It is thought that the girl with the harsh or nasal tone is
 
 VOICE TRAINING 9 
 
 less feminine than her soft-voiced sister. Whether or not 
 this is always true, we must admit that it is particularly 
 disappointing to hear discordant tones issue from the lips 
 of a beautiful girl or woman. If we notice the tones 
 which we hear on the street-car, in the shops, and in the 
 homes, we find that, unfortunately, very few people have 
 formed the habit of using their voices correctly. 
 
 I. The Voice-Machine and the Organ 
 
 The human voice-machine has been compared to a 
 single reed-pipe of a church organ.^ This instrument 
 consists of three parts, a wind-chest, a reed, and a pipe, 
 or resonance chamber. The reed is an elastic plate in 
 which there is a narrow sHt. The air, which is pumped 
 into the wind-chest by bellows, tries to escape through 
 the narrow sHt, thus causing the edges of the elastic plate 
 to vibrate and produce sound. The tone so created is 
 set free in the pipe, where it resounds and grows louder 
 before it is permitted to reach the outer air. 
 
 The lungs may be compared to the wind-chest, the 
 vocal cords to the reed, or the edges of the elastic plate, 
 and the tone passage, composed of the cavities of the 
 throat, mouth, and nose, to the resounding chamber, or 
 pipe, of the organ. 
 
 Although these two instruments, the human voice and 
 the organ, are very much alike, there is one great differ- 
 ence. Our human reed-pipe has a marvelous power of 
 adjustment which is impossible in the organ. We can, 
 by a slight change in the shape of the resonance chambers, 
 change the quality of the tone so that it may express fear 
 or courage, sorrow or joy. It is because of this wonderful 
 • W. A. Aiken, The Voice, p. 6.
 
 lo ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 power to respond to the thought and feeling of its owner, 
 that we may consider the human voice the greatest of 
 musical instruments. 
 
 II. Conditions Necessary to Good Tones 
 
 If we wish to secure tones which are musical and pleas- 
 ing, and at the same time strong and audible, we must 
 establish certain tone conditions. 
 
 Control of the Breath. — In the first place, we must 
 learn to control the breath, or, in other words, to manage 
 the wind-chest. The primary requisite for a good tone 
 is a sufficient supply of air. The power to use the lungs 
 to their full capacity depends very largely upon the main- 
 tenance of a correct bodily position. One simple direc- 
 tion, " Draw the chin in and up," will, if kept in mind, 
 enable the student to maintain a correct poise. If he 
 will follow this direction, he will notice that the head is 
 brought to an erect position, the chest is raised, the 
 shoulder blades are flattened, the hips are drawn back, 
 and the weight is thrown upon the balls of the feet. This 
 position should be maintained as the student walks to 
 and from his seat, and, in fact, on all occasions, if it is to 
 become natural to him as a speaker. In 
 order to retain it while reading, it is neces- 
 sary to hold the book or notes on a level 
 with the shoulders. If the speaker, when 
 standing, will place his feet as in the ac- 
 companying illustration, he will have not only a genteel 
 appearance but also a good balance. The line a-b should 
 not be longer than three inches. 
 
 Having taken the correct position, the speaker should 
 use his entire lung capacity at each inhalation. If one
 
 VOICE TR.\INIXG ii 
 
 uses only the upper portion of the lungs, the chest and 
 even the shoulders will rise and fall with each breath; on 
 the other hand, when one breathes correctly, the chest 
 remains firm and high and the body expands and contracts 
 at and just above the waist line. 
 
 The student must next learn how to hold and use this 
 supply of air so that it will not escape too rapidly. After 
 the breath has been taken in, there should be a feeling of 
 tension about the whole torso, or central body. It may 
 be helpful to think of the body as an elastic balloon which 
 collapses very gradually. This sense of firmness, or elas- 
 ticity about the torso, is called by singers " support of 
 tone," " column of air," or " breath control." When 
 speaking or reading, the student should never allow the 
 chest to fall, but should exhaust the air from the lower 
 part of the lungs first, renewing the supply frequently. 
 The habit of speaking with a full chest results in a " chest 
 tone," as distinguished from a " breathy " voice. 
 
 The Open Tone Passage. — In the second place, we 
 must learn to open and relax the tone passage in such a 
 way that the tones produced by the passage of the air 
 over the vocal cords may have a chance to resound and 
 increase before they reach the outer air, as do the tones 
 in the pipe of an organ. 
 
 The resonance chamber of the mouth should be made 
 as large as possible. The teeth should be separated in 
 front about an inch, or the width of two fingers. The 
 back part of the mouth should be enlarged also; that is, 
 the muscles and membranes in the region next to the 
 throat should be drawn back. If the student will follow 
 these directions, he cannot fail to notice an increased 
 volume and richness of tone.
 
 12 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Moreover, by keeping the mouth well open, he will be 
 able to avoid poor articulation, or " mumbling." This 
 common fault is due to inactivity of the lips. If, how- 
 ever, the jaws are held far apart in the production of the 
 vowel sounds, the lips are forced to discharge their duty 
 in the formation of the consonant sounds and good artic- 
 ulation is a result. 
 
 The throat must be kept open. A tense, closed throat 
 will cause a rasping or " throaty " voice. This not only 
 produces unpleasant sounds but also wearies the speaker 
 himself. It is the cause of what is usually called " minis- 
 ter's throat." A tight throat can easily be recognized by 
 a " click " which is most noticeable in words beginning 
 with a vowel. In order to open the throat and prevent 
 this " click," which is caused by the tension of the swal- 
 lowing muscles, vocal teachers give various instructions, 
 such as, " Make a tunnel of your body; feel as if about 
 to yawn; stretch the circular muscles of your throat." 
 
 The nasal passages, also, must act as resonators. We 
 must learn to secure nasal resonance and, at the same 
 time, to avoid nasal " twang." The former can be secured 
 by an attempt to " feel the tone through the whole face." 
 The latter, nasal " twang," is caused by drawing down 
 the soft palate and raising the back part of the tongue. 
 This position prevents mouth resonance. It can be cor- 
 rected by an attempt to keep down the back part of the 
 tongue. 
 
 Prolonging the Vowel Sounds. — In the third place, 
 we must not only learn to retain the breath and enlarge 
 the tone passages, but we must apply these tone conditions 
 to the vowels; that is, we must learn to prolong the 
 vowel sounds.
 
 VOICE TRAINING 13 
 
 As the consonants have very little sound value, the 
 " carrying power " of the voice depends largely upon the 
 quaUty of the vowel sounds. The habit of cutting off 
 the vowel sounds is a common defect among untrained 
 speakers. Their voices lack " carrying power " because 
 they lack resonance. Even singers, who, in song, nat- 
 urally prolong the vowels, sometimes have poor speaking 
 voices for this very reason. They fail to maintain an 
 openness of the tone passage long enough to enable the 
 vowel sounds to be reinforced. Thus, in an attempt to 
 secure loudness, they strain the throat muscles and pro- 
 duce a harsh rather than a " singing " tone. 
 
 The habit of holding the vowel sounds will, on the 
 other hand, make the voice audible even when it is lacking 
 in strength. Whenever we halloo to some one at a dis- 
 tance, we unconsciously apply this principle. The farther 
 we wish to send our voices, the longer we hold the vowel. 
 Those who are accustomed to addressing large audiences 
 in the open air, speak with great slowness for this reason. 
 The best actors, who use this method, can make even their 
 whispered words heard in every part of the theater. 
 
 III. Skill as the Result of Continued Practice 
 
 Skill in the use of the vocal organs, like skill in boxing, 
 tumbHng, or piano playing, is a matter of slow growth 
 anrl cannot be acquired in a day. 
 
 Method of Practice. — Although it is necessary for the 
 student U> understand the vocal mechanism as described 
 in this chapter, it will not be wise for him, in trying to pro- 
 duce good tones, t<j center his thought primarily upon 
 the voice-machine and its workings. The effort to remem- 
 ber so many movements to which he is unaccustomed
 
 14 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 will in itself create a tension of the nerves that will 
 defeat his purpose. He should, rather, let his ear assist 
 him. He should train his ear to recognize the difference 
 between good tones and poor tones. When about to 
 produce a tone, he should fix his mind on the ideal tone, 
 and his vocal mechanism will, to some extent, adjust 
 itself to meet the mental demand. He should then listen 
 to his own tone and compare it with his ideal. When he 
 has discovered his fault, he should exaggerate it, noticing 
 the sensation in his vocal instrument. In this way, he 
 will recognize in his own body the cause of the incorrect 
 tone. He should then try again to imitate the good tone 
 and again notice his bodily sensations. By this method, 
 his ear will become more and more sensitive to tonal 
 quahties and his muscles will gradually become more and 
 more responsive to his will. 
 
 Need of Time and Perseverance. — It always requires 
 time and perseverance to substitute a good habit for a bad 
 one. It is not sufficient that we use our voices rightly dur- 
 ing the period set aside for practice in the art of speaking. 
 The pianist who practiced with the correct movement 
 for one hour of the day and then allowed himself to 
 use the wrong movement for three hours would be consid- 
 ered extremely foohsh. Every recitation, every bit of con- 
 versation, should be made an opportunity to cultivate good 
 vocal habits. The student who uses his vocal instrument 
 rightly on all occasions will be able, without special atten- 
 tion to the matter, to use it rightly on an important occa- 
 sion. The more frequently he makes the effort, the more 
 quickly will he be able to win success without effort. 
 
 All Defects can be Overcome. — Although some have 
 larger natural endowments than others in the matter of
 
 VOICE TR.\IXIXG 15 
 
 voice, experience has proved that there is no defect which 
 cannot be overcome. Demosthenes, the greatest of 
 ancient orators, had a weak chest and an impediment in 
 his speech. According to the old story, he cured the for- 
 mer by reciting to the waves and running up hill, and 
 the latter, by speaking with pebbles in his mouth. 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher, who excelled all his contempo- 
 raries both in the pulpit and on the platform, suffered, 
 when a child, from enlarged tonsils and a small throat. 
 His aunt says that when he came to her house on an 
 errand, she was obhged to ask him to repeat his message 
 several times before she could understand him. For nine 
 years he gave constant attention to his voice. Of this 
 period, Mr. Beecher himself says, " There was a large 
 grove lying between the seminary and my father's house 
 and it was the habit of brother Charles and myself to 
 make the night and even the day hideous with our voices, 
 as we passed backward and forward through the wood, 
 exploding all the vowels from the bottom to the top of our 
 voices." Later, he was able " to bewitch his audierices 
 out of their weariness by a voice, not artificial, but made, 
 by assiduous training, to be his second nature." 
 
 These two famous examples show us that the human 
 voice is a musical instrument which will not only respond 
 to the skillful player, but which will grow stronger and 
 more flexible as a result of proper use and treatment. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (1) 
 that the human voice may be compared to the reed-pipe 
 of a church organ; (2) that if we wish to secure good tones, 
 we must learn to control the breath, keep the tone pas- 
 sage open, and prolon.i; ihe vowels; and (3) that skill in 
 the use of the vocal organs is a matter of slow growth.
 
 1 6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Voice Training 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Reason for beginning with the study of delivery. 
 
 II. A bad habit. 
 III. Desirability of a good voice. 
 Body. 
 
 I. The voice-machine and the organ. 
 
 A . The parts of a reed-pipe. 
 
 B. Their likeness to the parts of the voice-machine. 
 
 C. The main difference. 
 
 II. Conditions necessary to good tones. 
 
 A. Control of the breath. 
 
 1. Necessity of a large supply of air. 
 
 (a) Bodily position as related to air supply. 
 (h) Wrong and right way to breathe. 
 
 2. Right use of the air supply. 
 
 B. The open tone passage. 
 
 1. The open mouth. 
 
 (a) Its relation to articulation. 
 
 2. The open throat. 
 
 (a) Bad results of a closed throat. 
 
 (b) Symptoms. 
 
 (c) Cure. 
 
 3. Nasal resonance versus nasal "twang." 
 
 C. Prolonging the vowels. 
 
 1. Ill effects of cutting off the vowels. 
 
 2. Power to be gained by holding them. 
 
 III. Skill as the result of continued practice. 
 
 A. Method of practice. 
 
 1. Danger of centering the mind on the vocal 
 
 mechanism. 
 
 2. Method of training the ear. 
 
 B. Need of time and perseverance. 
 
 C. Possibility of overcoming all defects.
 
 VOICE TIL^INING 17 
 
 III. C, I. Demosthenes. 
 
 2. Henr>' Ward Beecher. 
 
 3. Difference between the human voice and other 
 
 musical instruments. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read in the text as far as the topic, "The Open 
 Tone Passage" and be able to recite from the topical outHne. 
 N. B. — All vocal exercises may be taken either 
 in a sitting or standing position (head erect, chest 
 high, feet flat on the floor, and hands at waist). 
 Exercise II. — For Deep Breathing, (a) Inhale quickly through 
 the nose, expanding the middle of the body. Do not raise the shoul- 
 ders. At the same time, relax all parts of the tone passage (throat, 
 tongue, jaw, separating the teeth but not the lips). 
 
 (b) Exhale through the mouth, the middle of the body gradually 
 collapsing like a balloon. The chest should remain high. 
 
 Note. — If you find it difficuU to learn this method of breathing, 
 practice it frequently after going to bed or before rising, as you can do 
 it more easily when Ij^ng down. 
 
 Exercise III. — Read in the text as far as Division III, and be 
 able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise IV. — For Open Mouth, (a) Repeat syllable fa four 
 times in one breath. Open the mouth as wide as possible. 
 
 (b) Inhale ^ fa — a — a — a 
 (f ) Inhale fa — 1 — e — i — e 
 
 (d) Inhale fii — o — u — 6b 
 
 In exercises b, c, and d, do not change the position of the jaw after 
 giving fii. If necessary, insert two fingers between the teeth to pre- 
 vent it. The variations in the vowel sounds are caused by changes 
 in the shape cf the tongue. Greater resonance is secured if the jaws 
 are held open. 
 
 (e) We, wick, wack, walk. Repeat three times in one breath, 
 opening the mouth as wide as possible. 
 
 Exercise V. - For Open Throat and Breath Retention. (</) 00 — 
 
 * far, fall, ind, ate, ice, 6nd, In, even, open, put, cool.
 
 1 8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 oh — ah. Repeat as many times as breath will permit. The sound 
 "oo" has a tendency to open the throat. 
 
 (b) ah — ah — ah — ah — ah — ah. Before giving this exercise, 
 let the throat feol as if about to yawn. The first five syllables should 
 be short and rapidly given. The sixth should be sustained as long 
 as possible but should not be prolonged beyond the point of comfort. 
 Listen to the tone, trying each time to make it more resonant. If 
 there is a "click" at the beginning of each syllable, precede the 
 exercise with the "humming" sound m; then gradually make the ni 
 less prominent. The m sound has a tendency to draw the tone 
 forward and open the throat. If this device is not successful, place 
 the tongue forward as if to pronounce th at the beginning of the 
 exercise. Listen to your tones. When you secure a particularly 
 good one, notice the bodily sensation and try to reproduce it. 
 
 (c) Repeat Ex. (b) using the vowel sounds given in Ex. IV, b, c, 
 and d. 
 
 (d) Thou — and — thou — and. If the throat is closed, the 
 sound a is apt to be particularly flat and lacking in resonance. In 
 this exercise try to keep all parts of the mouth and throat in the 
 same position for a as for on. Prolong each as much as possible. 
 
 (e) Give each of the following words four times in one breath: 
 man, land, and, after, apple. 
 
 (/) Compose a sentence for each word in e. Try to get a resonant 
 quality for all words but particularly for those which contain the 
 sound a. 
 
 Exercise VI. — ■ For Nasal Twang, (a) Inhale through the nose 
 with the mouth open (soft palate is puUed down) ; exhale through the 
 mouth (soft palate is raised). 
 
 (b) ng — ah — ng — ah — ng — ah — ng — ah. There are but 
 two nasal sounds in the English language; viz., n and ng. In this 
 exercise, the soft palate and the back of the tongue should come 
 together as closely as possible in the pronunciation of ng and should 
 separate as far as possible for ah. If the latter direction is not ob- 
 served, ah will have a nasal quality. The purpose of these exercises 
 is to increase the agihty of the soft palate and reveal the cause of the 
 nasal twang. 
 
 Exercise VII. — Using the knowledge which you have gained in 
 this chapter, explain the following quotation: "The orator is Hke a
 
 VOICE TRAINING 19 
 
 gun-barrel, which must be straight, must have a bore as large as the 
 bullet, and must have powder below the ball." 
 
 Exercise VIII. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able 
 to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise IX. — For Pitch, (a) Sing up the scale using any vowel 
 sound in Ex. I\'. Inhale again and sing down the scale. This 
 exercise will help to make the voice more flexible. Many voices 
 have an average pitch which is too high ; a very few have an average 
 pitch which is too low. The voice which is pitched too high is found 
 most frequently among women. Nerve strain or the effort to speak 
 loudly has a tendency to raise the pitch. B below middle C is an 
 average pitch which is pleasing for a female voice. The average 
 pitch for a male voice should be an octave lower. 
 
 (b) Try to find the average pitch which you habitually use; 
 strike middle C on the piano (male voices one octave lower) and with 
 that tone as your average pitch, repeat a short sentence. Experi- 
 ment with several tones above and below middle C in the same way. 
 If you find that your average pitch is either too high or too low, try 
 to correct it. 
 
 Exercise X. — Applicalinn of All Tone Conditions. The following 
 phrases and sentences contain thoughts which cannot be adequately 
 expressed except by a full, rich, resonant tone. Many of the vowels 
 are broad and for this reason easily lend themselves to conditions of 
 resonance. The student should practice before a mirror to be sure 
 that the teeth are an inch apart in front. If there is a tendency to 
 cut off the vowel sound, each phrase should be chanted on one tone 
 first; then the phrase may be repealed with the same length of tone 
 but with speaking inflections. Practice on each until you can apply 
 all tone conditions; viz., deep breathing with economy in exhalation 
 and sustained resonance in throat, mouth, and nasal passages. 
 
 Roll on, thou deep and dark 1)1 uc ocean, roll! 
 Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky! 
 Thou too, sail on, O ship of State! 
 Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 
 God of our fathers, known of old — 
 Lorfl of our far-flung battle line — 
 right on, thou brave true heart. 
 Milestones mark the march of lime.
 
 20 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Exercise XI. — For Articulation. One should articulate with 
 nicety, but without affectation. In public speech, however, articu- 
 lation must be slightly exaggerated. If you speak distinctly, 
 you will be able to make yourself heard even if your voice is not 
 strong. In order to improve articulation, the phrases in Ex. X may 
 be repeated in a whisper. 
 
 Exercise XII. — Vowel A . The following phrases contain a fre- 
 quent repetition of the vowel a, which is given with a very flat, 
 unpleasant quality by those who have a tendency to a tight throat 
 or a nasal twang. Repeat, giving special attention to the vowel 
 sound a: 
 
 The happy man is the free man. 
 
 Dr. Talmage has drawn for you with a master hand. 
 
 I am glad that he held the balance of battle in his almighty hand. 
 
 Standing hand to hand and clasping hand. 
 
 Exercise XIII. — For Stammering. Place the tip of the tongue 
 back of the upper teeth. Take a deep inhalation, relaxing the whole 
 body. Know w^hat you want to say. Speak slowly, holding the 
 vowels. 
 
 Exercise XIV. — For Enlarging Conversational Tone. Professor 
 E. D. Shurter says that public speaking is simply sustained and 
 heightened conversation. There is a tendency, however, on the 
 part of young speakers, to drop all natural inflections when they 
 attempt to make their voices carry in a large room. 
 
 Repeat each of the following sentences: ^ first, as if to one person 
 near by, entering as much as possible into the spirit of the thought; 
 second, as if to one thousand people, trying to reach the man on the 
 back seat, and retaining the same intonations used in the first repeti- 
 tion. 
 
 I never listened to such beautiful music in all my life! 
 
 I stood by you through thick and thin, and now you turn around 
 and abuse me. 
 
 My advice is, gentlemen, to throw this whole thing up. 
 
 Let us make this the greatest organization in America. We can, 
 we will. 
 
 ' Taken from Natural Drills in Expression, by Arthur Edward 
 Phillips.
 
 VOICE TRAINING 21 
 
 I appeal to j-ou, sir, was it fair? 
 
 I can assure j-ou I appreciate your kindness. 
 
 Don't give up. You have any number of chances yet. 
 
 I entreat you, I beg of you to give me a fair hearing. 
 
 Note. — As has been previously stated, every conversation and 
 every recitation should be regarded as an opportunity to cultivate right 
 vocal habits. But, in addition, each student should set aside from five 
 to ten minutes a day for special exercises until the voice is well under 
 control and defects have been overcome. One should not hesitate to 
 practice because of cold or hoarseness. The athlete does not fail to 
 e.xercise his muscles because they are stiff or lame. In fact, the correct 
 use of the voice, including deep breathing and absence of strain, will 
 act as a curative agent. 
 
 Exercise XV. — Writien Review. Be able to write in class upon 
 any of the following subjects: 
 
 1. \'alue of Studjing the Art of Speaking. 
 
 2. Comparison of the Voice with the Organ. 
 
 3. Breath Control. 
 
 4. Vocal Resonance. 
 
 5. Training the Ear. 
 
 6. Necessity of Practice. 
 
 7. Possibility of Curing All Defects.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 READING 
 
 Value of Learning to Read. — Let us look at the matter 
 first from the standpoint of one who would learn to speak. 
 There is no quicker or easier way to train the voice than 
 by practicing reading aloud. When we read, our minds are 
 more at liberty to give attention to correct tone produc- 
 tion than when we make an original speech, for both the 
 thought and the words are furnished to us by the author. 
 Many great orators have developed their voices in just 
 this way. Webster began very early to read aloud and 
 often delighted the neighbors with his ability. Rufus 
 Choate, during a large part of his life, read aloud daily 
 from some English author. 
 
 But aside from this consideration, the abihty to read 
 well is, in itself, of value to everyone. Those who enter 
 public Hfe make almost daily use of this power. The 
 clergyman must read the Bible; the lawyer must often 
 read long passages from previous court decisions; the 
 legislator must read certain clauses in the bill which he 
 wishes to discuss. Even the ordinary man or woman 
 finds frequent use for this accompHshment. He may be 
 called upon to act as secretary for an organization, and 
 we all know that the secretary who does not read the 
 minutes of a meeting so that he can be understood is a 
 nuisance. Again, one who is a good reader may furnish 
 an unlimited amount of pleasure to others in the home and
 
 READING 23 
 
 in social circles. But perhaps of more immediate impor- 
 tance is the fact that the student who reads well derives 
 vastly more enjoyment from the study of literature than 
 one who has not this ability. 
 
 A Set of Rules Unnecessary. — We do not need to 
 study a set of rules in order to learn to read well; all that 
 we need is to learn to read as we talk. If we raise our 
 voices in reading because some one tells us to do so, we 
 are mere machines instead of human beings. The ma- 
 chine moves when some force is applied from without; 
 the human being moves because of Hfe within. 
 
 Dr. S. S. Curry defines the art of reading aloud as " the 
 art of turning cold, monotonous print into the living move- 
 ment of conversation." It is quite evident that we do 
 not need a rule to tell us when to raise or lower the voice 
 in conversation. We modulate our voices unconsciously 
 in accordance with our thoughts and feelings. We are 
 using daily in our conversation all the inflections and 
 qualities of tone which are necessary in our reading. If 
 we ask a question which demands " yes " or " no " for 
 an answer, we lise the rising inflection: for example, 
 *' Did you go to town? " If we ask a question which 
 demands some other kind of an answer, we use the falHng 
 inflection: for example, "Why did you go to town?" 
 The quality of tone which we use is affected by our feel- 
 ings. If we should hear voices in an adjoining room, 
 even though we could not see the faces or distinguish the 
 words, we should know, by the quality of the tone, whether 
 the speakers were gay or sad, friendly or angry. 
 
 One Rule Only. — Professor S. H. Clark of the Univer- 
 sity of Chicago gives but one rule to his students of read- 
 ing: "Get the thought; hold the thought; give the
 
 24 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 thought." When we examine this rule closely, we find 
 that it expresses exactly what one does in conversation. 
 Let us take an example of a conversation which would re- 
 quire deep thought. If a boy should try to explain a 
 problem in algebra to a friend, he would gci an under- 
 standing of the problem himself before he began to explain 
 it; he would hold that understanding in his mind while he 
 was explaining it; and he would desire to give that under- 
 standing to his friend. Let us take an example of a con- 
 versation which would require the use of the imagination. 
 If a boy wished to describe to his brother how Tom made 
 a home run, he would be obhged first to get a mind picture 
 of Tom making a home run by going to the game; he 
 would then hold the picture in his mind while describing 
 it; and he would desire to give the same mental picture 
 to his brother. Again, let us take an example of a bit 
 of conversation which would express feeling. If a girl 
 should say to her mother, " I think that Mary is the 
 nicest girl in our class," she must have had a feeling of 
 admiration before she spoke; she would hold the feeling 
 while she spoke; and she would desire to give that feeling 
 of admiration to her mother. 
 
 We see, then, that a good reader is merely an inter- 
 preter', or a " go-between," revealing to his hearers the 
 thought or emotion of the author. The reason that we 
 are not all good readers is that we see only words on the 
 page and do not follow Professor Clark's rule. 
 
 I. How TO Get the Thought 
 
 Necessity of Study. — In order to get the thought, we 
 must study the selection which we expect to read aloud. 
 Even an experienced reader cannot render a selection
 
 READING 2 
 
 ■":) 
 
 perfectly at sight. The best actors spend many hours in 
 studying the meaning and in trying to get the spirit of 
 the lines which they recite. 
 
 General Study. — Our study should be, at first, of a 
 general nature. We should seek to get the main thought 
 of the whole selection. Before we can do this, it will be 
 necessary to look up all doubtful words in the dictionary 
 and to search for the meaning of historical allusions. We 
 should next try to get the atmosphere or pervading spirit 
 of the whole. Some knowledge of the life of the author 
 will often assist us in this matter, as will also the circum- 
 stances under which the thought was first written or 
 delivered. After having made these researches, we 
 should test the strength of our grasp upon the author's 
 thought by condensing the idea of each paragraph into 
 a sentence expressed in our own words. This test should 
 be used in the study of poetry as well as of prose. We 
 shall not always be able, however, to express each stanza 
 in a separate sentence, for it sometimes requires two or 
 more stanzas or parts of stanzas to express a single thought. 
 
 Phrasing. — We should follow this general study by a 
 special study of each sentence. In the first place, we 
 should give particular attention to phrasing. This is 
 a term applied to the division of a sentence into thought- 
 groups. Notice that- there are five thought-groups in 
 the following sentence, and that each group adds one 
 more detail to our picture of the situation: " When war 
 broke out/betwcen Spain and the United States, /it 
 was very necessary/to communicate quickly/ with the 
 leader of the insurgents." 
 
 If we were telling this story in conversation, we should 
 naturally pause between these thought-groups. Some
 
 26 OR.\L ENGLISH 
 
 pauses, it is true, would be longer than others. The pause 
 after " United States " would probably be the longest, 
 while that after " quickly " would be the shortest. In 
 general, the greater the break in the thought, the longer 
 the pause. 
 
 Although pauses often occur at punctuation marks, 
 these signs cannot be depended upon as reliable guides 
 in the division of sentences into thought-groups, for 
 punctuation is used primarily to indicate grammatical 
 structure. For instance, in the sentence given above the 
 pauses occur at three points where there are no punc- 
 tuation marks. On the other hand, in the sentence, 
 " He is a bright, pretty, little child," a pause after pretty 
 would be quite unnatural, although it is followed by a 
 comma. The character of the thought, and that only, 
 should determine for us the position and length of the 
 pauses. 
 
 A reader who " minds his pauses " is said to have good 
 phrasing. The term is used also in music, where it means 
 the grouping of tones into musical phrases, or thoughts. 
 If one is to have good expression either in reading or in 
 music, he must first of all have good phrasing. 
 
 Emphasis. — In the second place, we must decide 
 what is more important and what is less important in 
 each sentence. If the mind really grasps the relative 
 importance of words or thought-groups, the voice will 
 express that importance by what is called emphasis. 
 
 Let us first consider the relative importance of words. 
 Read, for example, the following simple conversations. 
 Notice that the same five words, " I saw your father to- 
 day," are found in the last line of each conversation, but 
 that in each case a diflerent word is emphasized.
 
 READING 27 
 
 Conversation I 
 
 John: "Did you see my father to-day, Mary?" 
 
 Mary: "No, I did not, John." 
 
 Teacher: "I saw your father to-day, John." 
 
 Conversation II 
 
 John: "Did you talk with my father to-day, Mary?" 
 Mary: "No, but I saw your father to-day, John." 
 
 Conversation III 
 
 John: "Did you see my father to-day, Miss Blank?" 
 Teacher: "No, John, but I saw your father to-day, Mary." 
 
 Conversation IV 
 
 John: "Did you see my mother to-day, Miss Blank?" 
 Teacher: "No, but I saw your father to-day, John." 
 
 Conversation V 
 
 John: "Did you see my father yesterday, Mary?" 
 Mary: "No, but I saw your father to-day, John." 
 
 In reading these conversations, you have probably 
 found that, when you wished to emphasize a word, or 
 make it important, you raised the pitch of your voice on 
 that word. If the word had more than one syllable, the 
 rise in pitch occurred on the accented syllable. Should 
 you translate one of these conversations into German, 
 French, Spanish, or any other language which you are 
 studying, you would fmd the same to be true in a foreign 
 tongue; that is, although the word order might be 
 changed, the voice would stress the accented syllable of 
 the important word. Sometimes the emphasis is distrib- 
 uted over several words; as, for example, in llic sentence,
 
 28 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 " I have brought you a nice roasted chicken to-day." Since 
 the three italicized words are necessary to bring out the 
 important picture, the pitch is high on all of them. Again, 
 some words are important because they express a con- 
 trast: as, " It rained yesterday, but to-day it is bright.''^ 
 
 Thought-groups. — We shall next consider the relative 
 importance of thought-groups. A less important or 
 subordinate thought-group is naturally pitched in a lower 
 key: for example, " During the vacation, which lasted 
 three weeks, I went to Chicago." If the thought-groups 
 are arranged in the form of a climax, each more impor- 
 tant than the preceding, the voice becomes higher on 
 each group: for example, "I would not sell it for ten 
 dollars, nor for fifty dollars, nor even for one hundred 
 dollars." The Greek word KXlfia^, from which our word 
 climax is derived, means " a ladder." This very aptly 
 suggests the climbing movement of the voice when we 
 read a climactic series of thought-groups. 
 
 Color. — In the third place, we should study each sen- 
 tence to discover the feeling that it is meant to express. 
 If we really experience a certain feeling, it will give life, 
 or color, to our tones. In real life, we do not describe 
 a sunrise in the same tone in which we describe a thunder- 
 storm; neither should we do so in reading. One author 
 has well said, " Words represent what the speaker puts 
 into them. If he utters bright dully, he contradicts truth; 
 if he pronounces loved coldly, he robs it of the human 
 warmth of itself; if he mumbles lovely, he dwarfs beauty." ^ 
 Many readers who express the thought well fail to express 
 the feeling. Dr. S. S. Curry in reference to this fault has 
 humorously asked, " Why do men read the twenty- third 
 
 ^ Mary Angela Keyes, Stories and Story-Telling, p. 60.
 
 READING 29 
 
 Psalm as if it were a matter of grief that the Lord is their 
 Shepherd? " 
 
 The foregoing illustrations must have made it clear to 
 the student that a great deal is involved in the first part 
 of Professor Clark's rule, " Get the thought." It means 
 that we must not only grasp the thought in its entirety, 
 but that we must grasp it in its parts and must under- 
 stand the relation of each part to the other parts. Further- 
 more, the word thought, as applied in this rule, has a very 
 inclusive meaning; so that the rule might well read, " Get 
 the picture," or " Get the feeling." 
 
 II. How TO Hold the Thought 
 
 In order to hold the thought, we must take plenty of 
 time while we are reading. A student is apt to think that 
 the more rapidly he pronounces the words, the better he 
 shows his ability to read. But this is a mistaken attitude. 
 It makes no difference how well a student understands the 
 thought; if he fails to give the thought sufficient time to 
 express itself in his voice, his efforts, for the purposes of 
 oral rendition, are practically wasted. He should linger 
 over each group of words as he reads aloud, trying to 
 realize each impression intensely and living in the enjoy- 
 ment of one idea at a time. It has been said quaintly 
 but very truly, " When thou readest, look steadfastly 
 with the mind at the things which the words symbolize. 
 If there be question of mountains, let them loom before 
 thee; if of the ocean, let its billows roll before thy eyes. 
 This habit will give to thy voice pliancy and meaning." 
 It is, pcrhai)s. needless to say that the reader cannot 
 form this habit unless he forms first the haljit of reading 
 slowly. The reader should not only take plenty of time
 
 30 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 in the actual utterance of the words themselves, but he 
 should also allow sufficiently long pauses between thought- 
 groups. If he is intensely realizing each idea as he utters 
 it, it is only at the pausing places that he is able to look 
 ahead and grasp the next idea. 
 
 III. How TO Give the Thought 
 
 The student may feel that if he has studied and under- 
 stands the thought, he has made sufficient preparation 
 for reading. In order to give the thought to others, how- 
 ever, he must practice the selection aloud over and over 
 again. It frequently requires many repetitions of a 
 difficult sentence before one can express the idea as if it 
 were his own. One cannot grip the thought and feel the 
 emotion, and, at the same time, be struggling with diffi- 
 culties of tone, articulation, and pronunciation. He 
 must remember that the words are the words of others, 
 and that if he would make them the medium of expression, 
 he must first make them his own. 
 
 The best results will be obtained if the student will 
 continue to work on one sentence until he has overcome 
 all of these mechanical hindrances and is able to hold the 
 mind actively on the thought while he reads it. Anyone 
 who has learned to play a musical instrument will reaUze 
 the value of this advice. If one wishes to learn a musical 
 selection in the shortest possible time, he should master 
 it in sections, giving an especial amount of time to the 
 more difficult portions. To play the whole selection 
 through several times in a bungling and inaccurate way 
 is a waste of time. 
 
 Finally, the student who would give the thought must 
 cultivate the attitude of giving. He must learn to forget
 
 READING 31 
 
 himself and to desire only that his hearers may receive 
 and enjoy the thought of the author. If he notices that 
 he has failed to express the thought clearly, he should stop 
 and try again. Only in this way can he become a real 
 interpreter. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 that in order to get the thought, we must study; (2) that 
 in order to hold the thought, we must take time while we 
 are reading; and (3) that in order to give the thought, we 
 must practice until we have overcome all of the mechanical 
 difficulties. 
 
 The following quotations show that one who has mas- 
 tered the art of reading is not without honor. The 
 selections may well be memorized. 
 
 "Like music, literature needs to be re-created. Without the 
 interpreting voice the printed page is as incomplete as the score with- 
 out the orchestra." — Isabel Goeghill Beecher. 
 
 "We are all poets when we read a poem well." — Carlyle. 
 
 "A poem is only half a poem until it is well read." — Tennyson. 
 
 "Of equal honor with him who writes a grand poem is he who 
 reads it grandly." — Longfellow. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Reading 
 Inlroduclion. 
 
 I. Value of learning to read. 
 
 A. A better method of training the voice than actual 
 
 speaking. 
 
 B. Value to the man in public life, to the ordinary man or 
 
 woman, and to the student. 
 J I. A set of rules unnecessary. 
 
 A. The machine and the human being. 
 
 B. Definition of the art of reading. 
 
 I. Supported by examples.
 
 32 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 C. One rule only. 
 
 1. Examples of thought, imagination, and feeling. 
 
 2. Difference between good and poor readers. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Method of getting the thought. 
 
 A. General study. 
 
 B. Special study. 
 
 1. Phrasing. 
 
 (a) Meaning of phrasing. 
 
 (b) Pauses. 
 
 (i) Variation in length. 
 
 (2) Relation to punctuation. 
 
 (c) Phrasing in music. 
 
 2. Emphasis — what it expresses. 
 
 (a) Relative importance of words illustrated. 
 
 (i) The way to emphasize a word. 
 
 (2) Distribution of emphasis. 
 
 (3) Contrast. 
 
 (b) Relative importance of thought-groups. 
 
 (i) Subordinate groups. 
 (2) Climax. 
 
 3. Color. 
 
 (a) Definition. 
 
 (b) Examples of failure to express feeling. 
 II. Method of holding the thought. 
 
 A. A mistaken attitude 
 
 B. Necessity of taking time on the words. 
 
 C. Necessity of taking time between thought-groups. 
 III. Method of giving the thought. 
 
 A. Need of practice. 
 
 B. The best way. 
 
 C. Attitude. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I. Summary. 
 II. Quotations. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the text as far as the topic " Emphasis," 
 and be able to recite from the topical outHne.
 
 READING 33 
 
 Exercise II. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able to 
 recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise III. — Prepare this exercise and all other exercises in 
 reading as follows: 
 
 1. Read the whole paragraph through silently. 
 
 2. Look up and copy in your notebooks the pronunciation and 
 meaning of any new words. 
 
 3. Look up the historical allusions. 
 
 4. Look up the life of the author. 
 
 5. Write one sentence, using your own words, which will give the 
 substance of each paragraph. Do not say, "Emerson says," but 
 write it as if you were expressing the idea yourself. 
 
 6. Divide the sentences into thought-groups, indicating the 
 pausing places by vertical lines. 
 
 7. Underline the words which you think require emphasis. 
 
 8. Distinguish between instances in which the emphasis should 
 be given to one word and those in which it is distributed over two or 
 more words. 
 
 9 Notice and check any examples of words which are empha- 
 sized because they express a contrast. 
 
 10. Decide what feelings should be expressed. 
 
 11. Take the correct standing position and read each sentence 
 aloud until you can read it as t"he author would have said it. Imagine 
 that you are reading these selections to a very large audience and try 
 to put into practice all of the instructions given you in Chapter II 
 on how to use the voice. You must practice your reading lessons aloud. 
 A student cannot learn to read aloud by reading silently, any more 
 than he can learn to play the piano by. sitting and looking at one. 
 
 12. Become so familiar with the text that you can look at your 
 audience while you read the last half dozen words of each sentence. 
 If the sentence is long, be able to look ofT for several words preceding 
 the longer pausing places. Do not merely glance from the book, but 
 really look into the eyes of your listeners. 
 
 13. As you read, try to hold the thought, the picture, or the 
 feeling. 
 
 14. Forget yourself and try to give to others the thought, the 
 picture, or the feeling.
 
 34 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 1. From Henry Grady's The New South: 
 
 " Some one has said, in derision, that the old men of the South, sit- 
 ting down amid their ruins, reminded him of "The Spanish hidalgos 
 sitting in the porches of the Alhambra and looking out to sea for the 
 return of the lost Armada." There is pathos, but no derision in this 
 picture to me. These men were our fathers. Their lives were stain- 
 less. Their hands were daintily cast, and the civilization they builded 
 in tender and engaging grace hath not been equalled." 
 
 2. From Ralph Waldo Emerson: 
 
 "There is a time in every man's experience when he arrives at the 
 conclusion that envy is ignorance; that imitation is suicide; that he 
 must take himself, for better or for worse, as his portion; that, though 
 the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come 
 to him but through his toil bestowed upon that plot of ground that is 
 given him to till. The power that resides in him is new in nature, 
 and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know 
 until he has tried. Therefore, my text is. Trust thyself. Is it not 
 an iron string to which vibrates every heart?" 
 
 Exercise IV. — i. From Henry Grady's The New South: 
 
 " Surely, God, who had stripped him of his prosperity, inspired him 
 in his adversity. As ruin was never before so overwhelming, never 
 was restoration swifter. The soldier stepped from the trenches into 
 the furrow; horses that had charged Federal guns marched before 
 the plough; and fields that ran red with human blood in April were 
 green with harvest in June." 
 
 2. From Webster's Address to the Jury at the White Murder Trial: 
 
 " Gentlemen, your whole concern in this case should be to do your 
 duty, and let consequences take care of themselves. Your verdict, 
 it is true, may endanger the prisoner's life, but then it is to save other 
 lives. If the prisoner's guilt has been shown and proved beyond all 
 reasonable doubt, you wiU convict him. If such reasonable doubt 
 of guilt still remains, you will acquit him. You are the judges of the 
 whole case. You owe a duty to the public as well as to the prisoner 
 at the bar. Doubtless we would all judge him in mercy. Toward 
 him as an individual the law inculcates no hostility; but toward him,
 
 READING 35 
 
 if proven to be a murderer, the law, and the oaths you have taken, 
 and pubHc justice demand that you do your duty." 
 
 Exercise V. — The following selections contain examples of 
 thought-groups which are subordinate and of thought-groups which 
 are arranged in the order of climax. Prepare to read them accord- 
 ing to directions already given. In addition, place parentheses about 
 each subordinate thought-group. Read the sentence, at first omit- 
 ting the part in parentheses. If you have made no mistake the sen- 
 tence will "make sense" without the subordinate group. Be able 
 to point out in Selection 2 the examples of climax. 
 
 1. From Henry Grady's The New South: 
 
 '' Let me picture to you the footsore Confederate soldier, as, button- 
 ing up in his faded gray jacket the parole which was to bear testimony 
 to his children of his fidelity and faith, he turned his face southward 
 from Appomattox in April, 1865! Think of him as ragged, half- 
 starved, heavy-hearted, enfeebled by want and wounds; having 
 fought to exhaustion, he surrenders his gun, wrings the hand of his 
 comrade in silence, and lifting his tear-stained and pallid face for the 
 last time to the graves that dot the old Virginia hills, pulls his gray 
 cap over his brow, and begins the slow and painful journey. What 
 does he find? — let me ask you who went to your homes eager to find, 
 in the welcome you had justly earned, full payment for four years' 
 sacrifice — what does he find when, having followed the battle-stained 
 cross against overwhelming odds, dreading death not half so much as 
 surrender, he reached the home he left so prosperous and beautiful?" 
 
 2. From Webster's Address lo the Jury at the White Murder Trial: 
 
 "The secret which the murderer possesses soon comes to possess 
 him, and, like the evil spirits of which we read, it overcomes him and 
 leads him whithersoever it will. He feels it beating at his heart, 
 rising to his throat, and demanding disclosure. He thinks the whole 
 world sees it in his face, reads it in his eyes, and almost hears its 
 workings in the very silence of his thoughts. It has become his 
 master. It betrays his discretion, it breaks down his courage, it 
 conquers his prudence. When suspicions from without begin to 
 embarrass him, and the net of circumstance to entangle him, the 
 fatal secret struggles with still greater violence lo burst forth. It
 
 36 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 must be confessed; it will be confessed; there is no refuge from con- 
 fession but suicide and suicide is confession." 
 
 Exercise VI. — The following selections are full of pictures. As 
 you practice reading them, try to hold the pictures in mind. The 
 selection from Robert Browning contains, according to the judgment 
 of Edwin Markham, one of the finest lines in the English language. 
 The thought includes about three lines. Which of the lines do you 
 like best? 
 
 1. From Graves: 
 
 "I have seen the gleam from the headlight of some giant engine 
 rushing onward through the darkness, heedless of opposition, fear- 
 less of danger; and I thought it was grand. I have seen the light 
 come over the eastern hills in glory, driving the lazy darkness 
 before it, till leaf and tree and blade of grass glittered in the myriad 
 diamonds of the morning ray; and I thought that was grand. I have 
 seen the light that leaped at midnight athwart the storm-swept sky, 
 shivering over chaotic clouds, 'mid howling winds, till cloud and dark- 
 ness and shadow-haunted earth flashed into midday splendor; and I 
 knew that was grand. But the grandest thing, next to the radiance 
 that flows from the Almighty Throne, is the light of a noble and 
 beautiful life, wrapping itself in benediction round the destinies of 
 men, and finding its home in the bosom of the everlasting God." 
 
 2. From Robert Browning's Home Thoughts from Abroad: 
 
 " Oh, to be in England now that April's there. 
 And whoever wakes in England sees, some morning unaware 
 That the lowest boughs and the brushwood sheaf 
 Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf. 
 While the chaffinch sings on the orchard bough 
 In England — now! 
 And after April, when May follows 
 And the white-throat builds, and all the swallows! 
 Hark, where my blossomed pear-tree in the hedge 
 Leans to the field and scatters on the clover 
 Blossoms and dewdrops — at the bent spray's edge — 
 That's the wise thrush: he sings each song twice over 
 Lest you should think he never could recapture
 
 READING 37 
 
 The first fine careless rapture! 
 
 And, tho' the fields look rough wdth hoary dew, 
 
 All will be gay when noontide wakes anew 
 
 The buttercups, the Httle children's dower 
 
 — Far brighter than this gaudy melon-flower!" 
 
 Exercise VII. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on any 
 of the following topics: 
 
 1. Value of Learning to Read. 
 
 2. Relation between Reading and Conversation. 
 
 3. General Study of a Reading Lesson. 
 
 4. Phrasing. 
 
 5. Emphasis. 
 
 6. Color. 
 
 7. How to Hold the Thought. 
 
 8. How to Give the Thought. 

 
 38 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 READING LESSON I 
 
 The following address was delivered on the field of Gettysburg. 
 To speak to a throng of people out in the open air is the most 
 severe test to which the voice of an orator can be subjected. In the 
 reading of this speech, the student should try to picture the situa- 
 tion clearly and should attempt to make his voice reach the out- 
 skirts of the crowd. Remember that this will be accomplished not 
 by straining the throat but by a prolonged and resonant tone. 
 
 Lincoln's Gettysburg Address 
 
 Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this 
 continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the 
 proposition that all men are created equal. 
 
 Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that 
 nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. 
 We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to 
 dedicate a portion of it as the final resting-place of those who here 
 gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting 
 and proper that we should do this. 
 
 But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate — we cannot consecrate 
 — we cannot hallow — this ground. The brave men, living and dead, 
 who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to 
 add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what 
 we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, 
 the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which 
 they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is father 
 for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — 
 that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that 
 cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; 
 that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in 
 vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; 
 and that the government of the people, by the people, for the people, 
 shall not perish from the earth.
 
 READING 39 
 
 READING LESSON II 
 
 Poetry differs from prose in that il is the expression of thought 
 in rhythmical form. As the true poet does not sacrifice thought to 
 form, so the true reader of poetry should not sacrifice the expression 
 of thought to the beat of the measure. Most young readers, and some 
 old ones, think that they must pause at the end of each line of poetry 
 and that they must emphasize words at regular intervals. This 
 results in a "sing-song," monotonous rendition. It is possible to 
 feel oneself and to convey to others the rhythmic beauty of poetry 
 and yet retain a natural expression of the thought. To accomplish 
 this, however, one must give even more care than in prose to the 
 division of the words into thought groups, and must make an even 
 more earnest attempt to see the pictures and to realize the emotions. 
 The emotions as well as the thought in the following selection should 
 be carefully analyzed. Place in a separate sentence the thought of 
 each of the following groups of couplets: 1-2, 3-6, 7-8, 9-11, 12-15, 
 16-18, 19-21, 22-25, 26-27, 28-30. 
 
 Barbara Frietchie 
 By John Greenleaf Whittier 
 
 1. Up from the meadows rich with corn. 
 Clear in the cool September morn, 
 
 2. The clustered spires of Frederick stand 
 Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 
 
 3. Round about them orchards sweep, 
 Apple and peach tree fruited deep, 
 
 4. Fair as the garden of tlic Lord 
 
 To the eyes of the famished rebel horde, 
 
 5. On that pleasant morn of the early fall 
 When Lee marched over the mountain wall,
 
 40 . ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 6. Over the mountains winding down, 
 Horse and foot, into Frederick town. 
 
 7. Forty ilags with their silver stars, 
 Forty flags with their crimson bars, 
 
 8. Flapped in the morning winds; the sun 
 Of noon looked down, and saw not one. 
 
 g. Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, 
 Bowed with her fourscore years and ten; 
 
 10. Bravest of all in Frederick town, 
 
 She took up the flag the men hauled down; 
 
 11. In her attic window the staff she set. 
 To show that one heart was loyal yet. 
 
 12. Up the street came the rebel tread, 
 Stonewall Jackson riding ahead. 
 
 13. Under his slouched hat left and right 
 He glanced; the old flag met his sight. 
 
 14. "Halt!" — the dust-brown ranks stood fast. 
 "Fire!" — out blazed the rifle-blast. 
 
 15. It shivered the window, pane and sash; 
 It rent the banner with seam and gash. 
 
 16. Quick, as it fell, from the broken staff 
 Dame Barbara snatched the sflken scarf. 
 
 17. She leaned far out on the window-sill. 
 And shook it forth with a royal will. 
 
 18. "Shoot, if you must, this old gray head. 
 But spare your country's flag," she said.
 
 READING 41 
 
 ig. A shade of sadness, a blush of shame, 
 Over the face of the leader came; 
 
 20. The nobler nature within him stirred 
 To Ufe at that woman's deed and word: 
 
 21. "Who touches a hair of yon gray head 
 Dies like a dog! March on!" he said. 
 
 22. All day long through Frederick street 
 Sounded the tread of marching feet. 
 
 23. All day long that free flag tost 
 Over the heads of the rebel host. 
 
 24. Ever its torn folds rose and fell 
 
 On the loyal winds that loved it well; 
 
 25. And through the hill-gaps sunset light 
 Shone over it with a warm good-night. 
 
 26. Barbara Frictchie's work is o'er 
 
 And the Rebel rides on his raids no more. 
 
 27. Honor to her! and let a tear 
 
 Fall, for her sake, on Stonewall's bier. 
 
 28. Over Barbara Frietchie's grave. 
 Flag of Freedom and Union wave! 
 
 29. Peace and order and beauty draw 
 Round thy symbol of light and law; 
 
 30. And ever the stars above look down 
 On thy stars below in Frederick town!
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 DECLAMATION 
 
 Introduction. — Declamation is memorized reading. 
 The practice of declamation is another step in the direc- 
 tion of actual public speaking. The student continues 
 his practice in the use of the voice and in the expression 
 of the thoughts of others; he also meets new difficulties 
 which are similar to those that confront a speaker. He 
 cannot look at a book or manuscript; he must, therefore, 
 learn to face his audience bravely. His hands are no 
 longer occupied with the holding of a book; so he must 
 learn to make them useful in other ways. 
 
 Since declamation is memorized reading, it is very nec- 
 essary that the student learn to read a selection perfectly 
 before he attempts to memorize it. If he does not do so, 
 he will memorize with wrong methods of expression 
 which it will be almost impossible to overcome. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to memorize 
 a selection in the best way; (2) how to be well-poised 
 before an audience; and (3) how to use the body as a 
 means of expression. 
 
 I. How TO Memorize 
 
 Wrong Method. — The method of repeating each sen- 
 tence until it goes by itself, which is the method used by 
 most students, is faulty in several respects. The student 
 who memorizes in this way needs frequent prompting;
 
 decla:\iation 43 
 
 for, although he has learned each sentence separately, he 
 has failed to estabhsh connections between them. He 
 wastes time, also, in preparation, for his mind is apt to 
 wander while his tongue is repeating the words. Again, 
 he is very likely to acquire a ''sing-song" or mechanical 
 form of expression. This is due to the fact that he repeats 
 the words in a thoughtless way; whereas the secret of 
 good expression, as set forth in Chapter III, is to hold 
 the thought. 
 
 Any method of memorizing is defective which is not 
 based upon the laws that govern the action of the mind. 
 The three most important laws of memory are as follows: 
 
 1. The law of association. — We can memorize ideas 
 more easily if we associate them, or link them together. 
 
 2. The law of intensity. — We can memorize ideas more 
 quickly if our minds are intense, or concentrated. 
 
 3. The law of repetition. — We can memorize ideas 
 more perfectly if we repeat them often. 
 
 It is evident that the faulty method described in the 
 preceding paragraph used only one of these laws, that of 
 repetition. 
 
 The Best Method Described. — The student should 
 divide the thought to be memorized into a few large 
 groups, not more than three, if possible. He should then 
 choose a word which will suggest the idea of each group, 
 placing these words below each other at the left side of a 
 sheet of paper, and drawing a brace after each. He 
 should next subdivide these large groups of ideas into 
 smaller groups, not more than three in each, and place 
 after each brace a word that will represent the thought 
 of the group. It may be that this second series of words 
 will represent the paragraph thoughts. If so, he should
 
 44 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 continue this method of subdividing and choosing key 
 words until he has chosen a word for each sentence; or, 
 if the sentence is long, a word for each clause. If possible, 
 the student should choose a word that is actually found 
 in the selection to be learned. Again, it has been found 
 that verbs and adjectives are usually more suggestive than 
 nouns. Not more than three words should follow a 
 brace, because of the difficulty of remembering more 
 than three words in a list. Moreover, the outhne must be 
 so arranged that the ideas suggested by the words which 
 follow a brace really elaborate on the idea suggested by 
 the word which precedes the brace. This last point is 
 of the greatest importance. The scattering of words and 
 braces at random on a piece of paper will be of no assist- 
 ance whatever in the process of memorizing. The posi- 
 tion of the words on the paper must represent the relation 
 that exists between the ideas in the selection, and this 
 relation must exist also in the mind of the student. A 
 word outhne representing the thought of the Gettysburg 
 Address may be found in Exercise II, at the close of this 
 chapter. The student should compare it at this point 
 with the text of the speech itself. 
 
 After the outline has been completed, the student should 
 repeat the entire selection with the help of the suggestive 
 words. If he cannot express the thought in the words of 
 the text, he should express it in his own words; that is, he 
 should force himself to get the thought before he gets the 
 exact words. He should then turn to the words of the 
 author and look up those sentences or phrases which he 
 has failed to remember. This process should be repeated 
 until he is able to recite the selection correctly with the 
 help of the suggestive words. It should be continued
 
 DECLAMATION 45 
 
 further until he is able to give the text perfectly without 
 the use of the outline. Finally, he should write the word 
 outline from memory. 
 
 Threefold Value of the Method. — That the method 
 is of value has been attested by the experience of hundreds 
 of high-school students who have used it in the past ten 
 years. Of all these, not one has needed the services 
 of a prompter. This fact is evidence that the method, if 
 followed conscientiously, will make one proof against stage 
 fright. This terror of young speakers is a calamity that 
 results from the attempt to memorize words without 
 having memorized the arrangement of the thought. The 
 tongue goes on while the mind is elsewhere. Suddenly, 
 the tongue makes a slip and the mind realizes that it is 
 " lost." The method described prevents this condition 
 for two reasons: (i) the student, in making an outline, 
 has used the law of association, or has Hnked the ideas 
 together in groups; (2) during the preparation, he has 
 expressed the thought in his own words whenever the 
 words of the author failed to come to his mind. Conse- 
 quently, if the exact words escape him on the platform, 
 he is able to supply his own words and to continue the 
 expression of the thought. 
 
 Again, the method has proved to be a saver of time. 
 This follows from the fact that it requires concentration 
 of mind. When we learn a selection sentence by sentence, 
 our minds frequently wander; but, when we talk from an 
 outline, we fix our minds more firmly on the thought 
 and are more likely to exercise our imaginations in vividly 
 realizing the pictures. In so doing, we use the law of 
 intensity. 
 
 This habit of keeping the mind upon the thought at
 
 46 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the same time that the words are being learned leads to 
 the third and most important merit of the method. It 
 enables the student to retain the conversational style of 
 delivery which he used when he learned to read the selec- 
 tion. Students frequently lose this by the old method, 
 and acquire a monotonous, " sing-song " tone. 
 
 II. Poise 
 
 Poise may be defined as dignity, ease, and grace of 
 bearing. It is a matter of considerable importance to 
 both declaimer and speaker. We shall discuss it under 
 three heads: (i) at the beginning of the speech, (2) during 
 the speech, and (3) at the close of the speech. 
 
 At the Beginning. — As the speaker leaves his chair 
 and takes his place on the platform, he should maintain 
 an attitude which is at once dignified and courteous. An 
 erect and sprightly carriage will create a favorable first 
 impression on the audience and will also help to give the 
 speaker confidence in himself. At the same time, his 
 bearing should indicate a courteous acknowledgment of 
 the fact that his auditors are conferring a favor upon him 
 by their presence and attention. 
 
 The speaker should not be in haste to open his speech, 
 but should first be sure that he has the attention of every 
 one in his audience. A young speaker, because of lack of 
 composure, is very apt to begin his speech as soon as he 
 reaches his place on the platform. The audience has 
 yielded its attention to a previous number on the program 
 and each member wishes to applaud, to change his posi- 
 tion, or to make a remark to his neighbor. As a result, 
 the audience fails to hear the first words or sentences of 
 the speaker and the effect of the whole is marred.
 
 decla:\iation 47 
 
 During the Speech. — Although the speaker, through- 
 out the speech, should keep his whole body under perfect 
 control, this does not mean that he should remain rigidly 
 in the same position. He should turn his body from side 
 to side, so that he may address his remarks first to one 
 part of the audience and then to another. Occasionally, 
 but not too frequently, he should step forward or back 
 or to another portion of the platform. These movements 
 seem most natural when they occur at a transition or 
 break in the thought. 
 
 Perhaps the most important members of a speaker's 
 body are his hands. The hands of the accomplished 
 speaker assist his voice in emphasizing and illustrating 
 his thought, while those of the untrained speaker merely 
 serve to betray the nervous tension under which he labors. 
 The inexperienced speaker tries to put his hands every- 
 where but in the right place. He has a strong desire to 
 lock them behind his back, a position which has a tendency 
 to throw the head forward, narrow the chest, and make 
 the shoulders appear less square. If this is forbidden, he 
 will try to put his hands in his pockets. If he has some- 
 thing of the swagger attitude, he puts them in his trousers 
 pockets; otherwise, he prefers his coat pockets. A girl 
 will try to hide her hands in her sweater or coat pockets, 
 or, lacking these, she will play with a button or a chain. 
 
 It may be laid down as a safe rule that a speaker should 
 do nothing with his hands that will serve to call attention 
 to them. While it is not bad form to rest the hand quietly 
 on a desk or table, if one is conveniently near, or to 
 hold a card or paper in the hand, if notes are necessary, 
 many situations will occur in real life when the speaker 
 cannot be sui)j)licd. with these aids to composure, and
 
 48 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 he must, therefore, in his practice work, prepare for such 
 occasions. 
 
 The student will be most successful in attaining an ap- 
 pearance of ease if he will endeavor, while holding the chest 
 firm and high, to relax every other portion of his body. 
 The hands will then hang easily by the sides except when 
 they are being used to emphasize or illustrate the thought. 
 
 Let us remember that stiffness of any kind, whether of 
 the whole body or of the hands, is caused mainly by 
 self-consciousness. The speaker may rid himself of this 
 handicap by adopting the attitude of one who desires 
 to communicate ideas. He should assume earnestness if 
 he does not feel it. In this way, many of the difficulties 
 will disappear. 
 
 At the Close. — The speaker, in closing, should incline 
 his head slightly toward his audience. This is a silent 
 but necessary recognition of the courtesy of his hearers. 
 The words "I thank you" are necessary only when one 
 has asked the privilege of addressing an audience for the 
 purpose of making an announcement, or for other reasons. 
 
 III. Gesture 
 
 Its Larger Meaning. — The term gesture should apply 
 not only to motions of the hand, but also to all those bodily 
 movements which assist in the expression of thought. If 
 one is really in earnest, or if he has caught the spirit of 
 the author, that fact will speak in the eye and cheek and 
 will energize the whole body. It was said of Wendell 
 Phillips, one of the finest of extemporaneous speakers, 
 "His pure and eloquent blood spoke in his cheek, and so 
 distinctly wrought that one might almost say his body 
 thought."
 
 DECLAMATION 49 
 
 The Impulse to Gesture. — All true gesture is the result 
 of impulse. One should never practice gestures for a 
 given declamation, for the results are likely to be stiff 
 and mechanical. It has been well said, "Earnestness is 
 the best schoolmaster of gesture." If one is really in 
 earnest, his gestures will be so inevitable that they will 
 scarcely be noticed by the audience. The speaker should 
 distinguish, however, between the impulse to express 
 thought and the mere excitement of the occasion. For 
 instance, young debaters sometimes argue with their 
 hands and their heads. Some speakers of large experience, 
 even, allow themselves to acquire a characteristic, habit- 
 ual, unmeaning gesture which detracts from rather than 
 adds to the force of the thought which they are presenting. 
 
 Dramatic Gesture. — Gestures in dramatic declama- 
 tions should be suggestive rather than imitative. Most 
 students, when they undertake dramatic representation, 
 overdo it. They try to imitate that which they should 
 leave to the imagination of the audience. As a result, 
 the listeners, instead of entering into the spirit of the scene 
 described, see only a young person wildly gesticulating 
 before them. A. E. Phillips gives the following excellent 
 rule: "Leave to the listener's imagination everything 
 which the speaker's imitation would fail to fully convey, 
 or would misconvey, or overconvey, or which in itself is 
 self-evident, and as a corollary to this — decrease imita- 
 tion and increase suggestion in proportion to the culture 
 of the listener." 
 
 Professor Hiram Corson of Cornell University goes even 
 farther in his condemnation of extravagant gesture. 
 He says: "Reading is not acting. It is the acting which 
 usually accomi)anies the reading or recitation of the pro-
 
 50 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 fessional elocutionist which cultivated people especially 
 dislike. When they wish to see acting, they prefer going 
 to the theater. When they listen to reading, they want 
 serious interpretative vocalization ; only that and nothing 
 more is necessary, unless it be a spontaneous and graceful 
 movement of the hands, occasionally, such as one makes 
 in animated conversation." 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 how to memorize a selection in the best way; (2) how to 
 be well poised before an audience; and (3) how to use 
 our bodies as a means of expression. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Declamation 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Declamation, a step in the direction of public speaking. 
 11. Necessity of learning to read a selection first. 
 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Method of memorizing. 
 
 A. Wrong method. 
 
 I . Three ways in which it is faulty ; not based upon 
 the laws of memory. 
 
 B. Best method described. 
 
 1. Making an outline. 
 
 2. Use of the outhne. 
 
 C. Threefold value of the method. 
 
 1. Stage fright. 
 
 2. Saving of time. 
 
 3. Enables one to retain conversational style of 
 
 delivery. 
 
 II. Poise — its meaning. 
 
 A. At the beginning of a speech. 
 
 1. Combination of dignity and courtesy. 
 
 2. Fault of beginning hastily.
 
 DECLAMATION 
 
 51 
 
 II. B. During the speech. 
 
 1. Change of position. 
 
 2. Importance of the hands. 
 
 (a) Contrast between those of the trained and 
 those of the untrained speaker, 
 (i) Faults of the inexperienced speaker. 
 
 (h) A safe rule. 
 
 (c) The best cure. 
 
 3. Evil and cure of self-consciousness. 
 C. At the close. 
 
 III. Gesture. 
 
 A. Its larger meaning — Wendell Phillips. 
 
 B. The impulse to gesture. 
 
 1. Practice. versus earnestness. 
 
 2. Gestures caused by nervous excitement. 
 
 C. Dramatic gesture — suggestive. 
 
 1. Rule of A. E. Phillips. 
 
 2. Quotation from Professor Hiram Corson. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter as far as the topic "Poise," and 
 be able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Memorize the Gettysburg Address according to 
 the method described in this chapter. Use the following outline, 
 substituting for any word another which may be more suggestive to 
 you: 
 
 Fathers — Now 
 Dedicate 
 Met' 
 
 Fitting 
 / Struggled 
 L^'^^^'^i World 
 
 Advanced 
 
 Be dedicated * 
 
 Take 
 
 Gave 
 Remaining jj^^^^j^.^^ Birfh 
 
 Perish 
 
 I 
 
 Exercise III. — The class should be divided into four sections. 
 One of the following selections in Chapter III may be assigned to each
 
 52 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 section: Ex. Ill, 2; Ex. IV, 2; Ex. V, 2; Ex. VI, i. Make a word 
 outline of the selection assigned to you and memorize it. 
 
 Exercise IV. — The method of memorizing described in this chap- 
 ter may be applied, not only to the memorizing of a speech, but also 
 to stories and poems, or to any choice bit of literature which one may 
 wish to commit. The material in a story may be grouped under such 
 headings as Setting, Incidents, and Conclusion. Compare the fol- 
 lowing outline with the poem, Barbara Frietchie (page 39), which is 
 really a story in rhyme. 
 
 , . r^ • / ^\ 1 Town (1-2) 
 
 Introduction, betting (i-oj < „ i- / ^\ • 
 
 { Surroundings (3-6) 
 
 Initial Incident (7-8) 
 
 ,- T • , f Act (9-11) 
 
 ■n. , / , Leading incident < „ , , 
 
 Body (7-21) <! I Response (12-15) 
 
 . T -J J Act (16-18) 
 Climactic Incident -, „ , . 
 
 \_ Response (19-21) 
 
 ^ , . , .J Result (22-25) ( r-1. f c \ 
 
 Conclusion (22-30) < ,, ^ ,. /, J Change (26-27) 
 \ Reflections (26-30) I p^^^^^^^3_^^^ 
 
 This outline serves to reveal the general plan of the poem; it is 
 necessary, however, in poetry, to suggest the details by a somewhat 
 different method from that used in prose. The rhyme and meter of 
 a poem make it necessary to memorize the exact words. The thought 
 is often so transposed that, if the suggestive words were placed in their 
 logical relation, as in the outline for the Gettysburg speech, they 
 would be of very little assistance in suggesting the exact form of the 
 thought. It has been found helpful, therefore, to choose one word 
 (a verb if possible) from each line and place it on the page so that it 
 represents to the eye its position in the original line of the poem. The 
 method described above, of reciting the thoughts from the suggestive 
 words, may then be used. The following is an example of the way in 
 which the first six couplets of Barbara Frietchie may be outlined.
 
 
 
 DECLAMATION 
 
 
 
 
 meadows 
 
 
 
 
 Town 
 
 
 September 
 
 
 
 (1-2) " 
 
 spires 
 Green-wailed 
 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Setting 
 
 
 
 
 (i-6) 
 
 Surroundings • 
 
 Fair 
 
 sweep 
 fruited 
 
 famished 
 
 
 
 (3-6) 
 
 pleasant 
 
 
 
 
 marched 
 
 
 
 
 winding 
 
 
 
 
 
 Horse 
 
 
 53 
 
 Complete the outline on Barbara Friekhic and begin the work of 
 memorizing the poem. 
 
 Exercise V. — Complete the memorizing of Barbara Frietchie. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Read the remainder of the chapter and be able 
 to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise VII. — Review the story of Barbara Frietchie. Tell it 
 naturally, but let your body as well as your voice have a part in the 
 telling. 
 
 Exercise VIII. — Written Revinv. Be able to write in class on 
 any of the following topics: 
 
 Old Method of Memorizing. 
 
 Laws of Memory. 
 
 Description of the Best Method of Memorizing. 
 
 Threefold \'alue of the Best Method. 
 
 Poise. 
 
 Gesture. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 6.
 
 54 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 READING LESSON III 
 
 Review the instructions for study in Exercise III, Chapter III 
 (page ss). 
 
 The speech which follows was deKvered by Charles Dickens at 
 a dinner given in connection with the Anniversary Festival of the 
 Hospital for Sick Children, Feb. 9, 1858.1 
 
 Ladies and Gentlemen: — It is one of my rules in life not to believe 
 a man who may happen to tell me that he feels no interest in children. 
 I hold myself bound to this principle by all kind consideration, be- 
 cause I know, as we all must, that any heart which could reaUy 
 toughen its affections and sympathies against those dear httle people 
 must be wanting in so many humanizing experiences of innocence 
 and tenderness as to be quite an unsafe monstrosity among men. I 
 suppose it may be taken for granted that we, who come together in 
 the name of children and for the sake of children, acknowledge that 
 we have an interest in them. Nevertheless, it is likely that even we 
 are not without our experience now and then of spoilt children. I do 
 not mean of our own spoilt children, because nobody's own children 
 ever were spoilt, but I mean the disagreeable children of our particu- 
 lar friends. We know what it is when these children won't go to bed; 
 we know how they prop their eyehds open with their forefingers when 
 they will sit up; how, when they become fractious, they say aloud 
 that they don't like us, and our nose is too long, and why don't we 
 go? And we are perfectly acquainted with those kicking bundles 
 which are carried off at last, protesting. 
 
 But, ladies and gentlemen, the spoilt children whom I have to 
 present to you after this dinner of to-day are not of this class. I have 
 glanced at these for the easier and lighter introduction of another, a 
 ver>' different, a far more numerous, and a far more serious class. The 
 spoilt children whom I must show you are the spoilt children of the 
 poor in this great city, the children who are, every year, forever and 
 ever irrevocably spoilt out of this breathing life of ours by tens of 
 thousands, but who may in vast numbers be preserved if you, assisting 
 and not contravening the ways of Providence, will help to save them. 
 1 Adapted from The Speech fur Special Occasions, by Knapp and 
 French, pp. 21-31.
 
 READING LESSON III 55 
 
 Some years ago, being in Scotland, I went wath one of the most 
 humane members of the humane medical profession on a morning 
 tour among some of the worst-lodged inhabitants of the old town of 
 Edinburgh. Our way lay from one to another of the most wretched 
 dwellings reeking with horrible odors, shut from the sky, shut out 
 from the air, mere pits and dens. In a room in one of these places, 
 where there was an empty porridge pot on the cold hearth, with a 
 ragged woman and some ragged children crouching on the bare ground 
 near it, — there lay, in an old egg- box which the mother had begged 
 from a shop, a httle, feeble, wasted, wan, sick child, with his little 
 bright, attentive eyes looking steadily at us. He seldom cried, the 
 mother said; he seldom complained; "he lay there, seemin' .to 
 woonder what it was a' aboot." God knows, I thought, as I stood 
 looking at him, he had his reasons for wondering — reasons for won- 
 dering how it could possibly come to be that he lay there, left alone, 
 feeble and full of pain, when he ought to have been as bright and as 
 brisk as the birds that never got near him — reasons for wondering 
 how he came to be left there, as if there were no crowds of healthy 
 and happy children playing on the grass under the summer's sun 
 within a stone's throw of him; as if there were no bright moving sea 
 on the other side of the great hill overhanging the city. There he 
 lay looking at us, saying, in his silence, more pathetically than I have 
 ever heard anything said by an orator in my life, "Will you please 
 to tell me what this means, strange man?" Many a poor child, 
 sick and neglected, I have seen since that time in this London; but 
 at such times 1 have seen my poor little drooping friend in his egg- 
 box; and he has always addressed his dumb speech to me and I have 
 always founfl him wondering what it meant, and why, in the name of 
 a gracious God, such things should be. 
 
 Now, ladies and gentlemen, such things need not be, and will not 
 be, if this company, which is a drop of the life-blood of the great 
 compassionate public heart, will only accept the means of rescue and 
 prevention which it is mine to offer. Within a quarter of a mile of 
 this pkice where I speak, stands a courtly old house, where once, no 
 doubt, blooming children were born, and grew up to be men and 
 women. In the airy wards into which the old state drawing rooms 
 and the family bedchambers of lh;il house are now converted are 
 such Httle patients that the attendant nurses look like reclaimed
 
 56 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 giantesses, and the kind medical practitioner like an amiable Chris- 
 tian ogre. Grouped about the little low tables in the center of the 
 rooms are such tiny convalescents that they seem to be playing at 
 having been ill. On the dolls' beds are such diminutive creatures 
 that each poor sufferer is supplied with its tray of toys; and, looking 
 round, you may see how the little, tired, flushed cheek has toppled 
 over half the brute creation on its way into the ark, or how one httle 
 dimpled arm mowed down — as I saw myself — the whole tin soldiery 
 of Europe. On the walls of these rooms are graceful, pleasant, bright, 
 childish pictures. At the beds' heads are pictures of the figure of 
 Him who was once a child himself, and a poor one. Besides these 
 little creatures on the beds, you may learn in that place that the 
 number of small out-patients brought to that house for relief is no 
 fewer than ten thousand in the compass of one single year. In the 
 printed papers of this same hospital you may read with what a gener- 
 ous earnestness the highest and wisest members of the medical pro- 
 fession testify to the great need of it; to the immense difficulty of 
 treating children in the same hospital with grown-up people, by 
 reason of their different ailments and requirements; to the vast 
 amount of pain that will be assuaged, and of life that will be saved, 
 through this hospital. Lastly, the visitor to this children's hospital, 
 reckoning up the number of its beds, will find himself perforce obliged 
 to stop at very little over thirty; and will learn with sorrow and sur- 
 prise, that even that small number, so forlornly, so miserably diminu- 
 tive, compared with this vast London, cannot possibly be maintained, 
 unless the hospital be made better known; I limit myself to saying 
 better known, because I will not believe that in a Christian com- 
 munity of fathers and mothers, and brothers and sisters, it can fail, 
 being better known, to be well and richly endowed. 
 
 This is the pathetic case I have put to you, not only on behalf of 
 the thousands of children who annually die in this great city, but 
 also on behalf of the thousands of children who live half developed, 
 racked with preventable pain, shorn of their natural capacity for 
 health and enjoyment. If these innocent creatures cannot move 
 you for themselves, how can I possibly hope to move you in their 
 name? The most delightful paper, the most charming essay, which 
 the tender imagination of Charles Lamb conceived, represents him 
 as sitting by his fireside on a winter night telling stories to his own
 
 READING LESSON III 57 
 
 dear children, and delighting in their society, until he suddenly comes 
 to his old, solitary, bachelor self, and finds that they were but dream- 
 children who might have been, but never were.' The dream-children 
 whom I would now raise, if I could, before every one of you, according 
 to your various circumstances, should be the dear child you love, 
 the dearer child you have lost, the child you might have had, the 
 child you certainly have been. Each of these dream-children should 
 say to you, "Help this httle suppliant in my name! Oh, help it for 
 my sake!" Well! And immediately awaking, you should find your- 
 selves in the Freemasons' Hall, happily arrived at the end of a rather 
 long speech, drinking "Prosperity to the Hospital for Sick Children," 
 and thoroughly resolved that it shall flourish. 
 
 ' The people whom Dickens addressed probably knew that Charles 
 Lamb, although of a cheerful and loving disposition, had never married 
 because he wished to devote himself to the care of a sister who had 
 periodical attacks of insanity.
 
 PART II — COMPOSITION 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 A SPEAKER'S USE OF THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 
 
 Introduction. — Part I of this text has dealt with the 
 subject of dehvery. The student has been given practice 
 in the delivery of the thoughts of others in order that, 
 having partially overcome timidity, awkwardness, and 
 vocal defects, he might be better able to deliver speeches 
 of his own composition. 
 
 Part II deals with the art of composition. It aims to 
 give the student an insight into the purposes of the speaker 
 and into the methods by which these purposes can be 
 attained most effectively. 
 
 In the present chapter we shall learn: (i) that, in the 
 majority of cases, a speaker has persuasion as his object; 
 (2) that, in the accomplishment of his purpose, he is 
 likely to use all of the four forms of discourse; and (3) that 
 he weaves them into a very definite plan. The points 
 discussed are illustrated by reference to the speech of 
 Dickens, the text of which is given in Reading Lesson III. 
 
 I. The Main Object of Speech 
 
 In the majority of cases, a speaker has persuasion as 
 his object; that is, he wishes to lead others to believe, to 
 feel, and to act as he thinks they ought to believe, feel, and 
 act. The Honorable James Bryce, for several years am- 
 bassador from England to the United States, and himself 
 an able speaker, says in his Hints on Public Speaking
 
 THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 59 
 
 that " the two ends (or purposes) of speaking are to 
 persuade and to delight." 
 
 To Delight is Rarely the Sole Purpose. — When we con- 
 sider the different sorts of occasions upon which speeches 
 are delivered, we find that very few are made for the sole 
 purpose of giving pleasure. For instance, a story may be 
 told to a group gathered about a campfire; or one who 
 has traveled may relate his experiences in the form of a 
 lecture, or travel-talk. These are the most important of 
 the longer speeches which aim merely at entertainment. 
 
 There are also certain shorter speeches which are 
 made on social occasions: for example, a speech should 
 accompany the presentation of a gift to a favorite teacher 
 or leader; a distinguished visitor or a convention of dele- 
 gates must be received by a few words of welcome; or 
 toasts are called for at the close of a banquet. 
 
 Persuasiveness in Great Demand. — Although occa- 
 sions such as those mentioned in the preceding paragraph 
 are decidedly important, they are few in the life of the 
 average man. On the other hand, situations which de- 
 mand persuasiveness are almost innumerable. Such occa- 
 sions are constantly arising in the business world. The 
 salesman, from the ordinary peddler up to the manager of 
 a corporation, makes it his daily business to induce some 
 one to transfer money from his pocket to the salesman's. 
 
 One cannot belong to an organization of any kind without 
 realizing the value of persuasive speaking. It may be the 
 merchant in the chamber of commerce, the farmer in his 
 grange, or the citizen in his mass meeting, lodge, or club. 
 Each is trying to arouse others to belief and action. Even 
 the high-school student finds use for his persuasive ability 
 when he rallies his fellow students to the football game,
 
 6o ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 when he solicits their subscriptions to the school paper, or 
 when he urges their support for his favorite candidate. 
 
 The same is true of the man in public life. The lawyer 
 seeks to move a jury; the clergyman tries to convince men 
 of the value of righteousness; the politician talks to gain 
 votes for his policy or party. 
 
 In view of all these facts, it would seem that Plato was 
 right when he defined the art of public speech as "the art 
 of ruling the minds of men." 
 
 Union of Both Aims. — The fact that persuasion is so 
 frequently the chief aim of speech should not, however, 
 lead us to ignore the great value of making our speeches 
 delightful. In fact, we are much more likely to succeed 
 in persuading if we can, at the same time, give pleasure. 
 Doubtless if we had been present at the London dinner 
 and heard Dickens' speech, we should have been very 
 wilHng to contribute to his hospital fund and we should 
 also have been very wiUing to admit that his speech had 
 given us pleasure. 
 
 II. Use of the Four Forms of Discourse 
 
 When we study the method by which Dickens ob- 
 tained his result, we find that he used all of the four 
 forms of discourse. All discourse, or composition, has been 
 separated into four divisions according to the purpose for 
 which each is used. 
 
 Description and Narration. — These two forms of dis- 
 course are used for the purpose of appealing to the feelings. 
 Description arouses feeling because it makes the hearer 
 or reader see a picture. If the picture is beautiful, it 
 awakens admiration; if ugly, it creates repulsion; if 
 pathetic, it causes a feeling of sadness. Narration, or
 
 THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 6i 
 
 story-telling, goes farther than description and paints the 
 picture of a series of events. These events are so arranged 
 as to excite the reader's interest and put him in sympathy 
 with the characters involved in the story. 
 
 Dickens painted vivid pictures of the little children 
 who needed help. In this way, he made his hearers feel 
 like subscribing to his hospital fund. The third para- 
 graph of his speech may be considered either as a descrip- 
 tion or as a story. If we look at it from one point of view, 
 he seems to be describing a poor hovel in Edinburgh, with 
 its cold hearth and hungry, ragged occupants. The 
 central figure in this picture is the httle sick baby in the 
 old egg-box. From another point of view, he is teUing 
 the story of his own visit to this wretched dwelling: how 
 he came to go; how the mother secured the cradle; and 
 what the baby seemed to say. It is of little importance 
 for us to decide whether it is a description or a narration. 
 Viewed in either light, it awakens our sympathy and so 
 helps Dickens to accomplish his purpose. 
 
 Exposition and Argument. — These two forms of dis- 
 course are used to appeal to the understanding. Exposition 
 aims to explain something, or to make it clear to the mind. 
 Argument seeks to convince the hearer or reader that a cer- 
 tain fact is true or that a certain course of action is right. 
 
 Dickens used these two forms of discourse when he 
 tried to show that the best way to help these poor little 
 ones was to assist in maintaining the hospital. In the 
 latter part of paragraph 4, he stated: (i) that there were 
 ten thousand out-patients brought to the hospital every 
 year; (2) that the physicians testified that it was much 
 better for children to be placed in a separate hospital; 
 and (3) that there were but thirty beds in which to accom-
 
 62 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 modate the sick children of the vast city of London. 
 This portion of his speech may be regarded as either an 
 exposition or an argument. To one who was already 
 interested in the Children's Hospital, he would seem to be 
 merely explaining its needs. To those who were indif- 
 ferent or opposed to the project, his facts would have the 
 nature of proof. Whichever view we take of it, we see 
 that this portion of his discourse appeals to the under- 
 standing rather than to the feelings. 
 
 Necessity for All Forms. — Any persuasive speech 
 which is really effective is likely to contain all four of 
 these forms. The explanations and arguments usually 
 form the solid framework upon which the speaker builds, 
 while short descriptions and stories furnish the ornamen- 
 tation. If the two former predominate, the speech is 
 apt to be heavy and lacking in color and interest; if the 
 two latter predominate, the speech may lack form and 
 substance. Dickens seems to have provided a very 
 judicious mixture. If he had given his listeners only the 
 pictures and the stories, they would have been interested 
 in the children, it is true, but they might still have objected 
 to his method of helping them. On the other hand, he 
 never could have won his audience to his cause by appeal- 
 ing to their understanding alone; it was only by the 
 pathetic story of the little Edinburgh boy and by the won- 
 derful picture of the little tots asleep in their hospital 
 beds, too tired and sick to play with their toys, that he 
 extracted from the people their treasured coins. 
 
 III. A Definite Plan 
 
 Although the persuasive speaker uses the four forms 
 of discourse, he does not throw them together without a
 
 THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE 63 
 
 definite plan. A closer examination of the general arrange- 
 ment of ideas in Dickens' speech will prove this to be 
 true. In paragraph i, he sought by pleasantry to put 
 his hearers in a good humor; in paragraph 2, he announced 
 the purpose of his speech; in paragraph 3, he described 
 the sufferings of one poor little child; in paragraph 4, 
 he showed that there were many children in London who 
 suffered in a similar way and who were in need of hospital 
 care; and in paragraph 5, he brought the whole matter 
 home by reminding them, under the name of dream chil- 
 dren, of the children whom they loved most dearly. 
 
 It is quite evident that the pleasantry of paragraph i, 
 if used in any other portion of the speech, would have 
 infused an atmosphere of insincerity and would thus have 
 destroyed the effectiveness of the appeal. By picturing 
 the sufferings of one poor child and then pointing out the 
 numerous children in London who suffered in a similar 
 way, Dickens forced his audience to multiply their 
 sjonpathy by ten thousand. This could not have been 
 accompHshed if paragraph 4 had preceded paragraph 3. 
 It is certain that he could not have referred to the dear 
 children of our own homes in a more acceptable place than 
 in his closing paragraph. It is to such considerations as 
 these, we believe, that the speech of Dickens owes a 
 large measure of its effectiveness. 
 
 Conclusion. In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 that the majority of speeches that we shall make in real 
 life will have persuasion as their object; (2) that, if we are 
 to be persuasive speakers, we must learn to use all of the 
 four forms of discourse; and (3) that we must learn to 
 weave these four forms into a very definite i)!an.
 
 64 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 A Speaker's Use of the Four Forms of Discourse 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. The purpose of Part I. 
 II. The purpose of Part II. 
 III. The subject matter of the present chapter. 
 Body. 
 
 I. The main object of speech. — Hon. James Bryce. 
 
 A. Pleasure as the sole purpose. 
 
 1. Long speeches of this nature. 
 
 2. Short speeches. 
 
 B. Great demand for persuasiveness. 
 
 1. In the business world. 
 
 2. In organizations. 
 
 3. In public Ufe. 
 
 4. Plato's definition. 
 
 C. Union of both aims. 
 
 I. Example of Dickens' speech. 
 II. Use of the four forms of discourse. — Basis of division. 
 
 A. Description and narration. 
 
 1. Purpose. 
 
 2. Definition of each. 
 
 3. Used by Dickens. 
 
 B. Exposition and argument. 
 
 1. Purpose. 
 
 2. Definition of each. 
 
 3. As used by Dickens. 
 
 C. Necessity for all forms. 
 
 1. Value of each. 
 
 2. Judicious mixture. 
 III. A definite plan. 
 
 A . Dickens' plan in detail. 
 
 B. Reasons why it is the best plan. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the entire chapter and be able to recite from 
 the topical outhne.
 
 READING LESSON IV 65 
 
 READING LESSON IV 
 
 1. Extract from the speech, Conciliation with the Colonies, by- 
 Edmund Burke, in which the great Enghsh orator is trying to con- 
 vince his fellow members in Parliament that it would be to England's 
 advantage to yield to the demands of the American colonies (March 
 22, 177s): 
 
 "Look at the manner in which the people of New England have of 
 late carried on the whale fishery. Whilst we follow them among the 
 tumbUng mountains of ice, and behold them penetrating into the 
 deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay and Davis' Straits, whilst 
 we are looking for them beneath the arctic circle, we hear that they 
 have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold, that they are at 
 the antipodes, and engaged under the frozen Serpent of the South. 
 Falkland Islands, which seemed too remote and romantic an object 
 for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and resting-place in 
 the progress of their victorious industry. Nor is the equinoctial heat 
 more discouraging to them than the accumulated winter of both the 
 poles. We know that whilst some of them draw the line and strike 
 the harpoon on the coast of Africa, others run the longitude and pur- 
 sue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what 
 is vexed by their fisheries; no climate that is not witness to their 
 toil. Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France, 
 nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise ever carried 
 this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it 
 has been pushed by this recent people; a people who are still, as it 
 were, but in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone of man- 
 hood." 
 
 2. Extract from a speech by Abraham Lincoln when he was run- 
 ning for the office of Senator from Illinois against Stephen A. Douglas 
 (July 9. 1858): 
 
 " 'A house divided against itself cannot stand.' I believe this 
 government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free. I 
 do not expect the Union to be dissolved, I do not expect the house to 
 fall, but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all 
 one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest
 
 66 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest 
 in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its 
 advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all 
 States, old and new, North as well as South." 
 
 3. Extract from an address, "The Public Duty of Educated Men," 
 delivered by George William Curtis at the commencement exercises 
 of Union College, June 27, 1877. In the part of the address which 
 immediately precedes this extract, he says that the educated man 
 should not only go to the polls and vote, but that he also owes it to 
 his country to take an active part in the nomination of candidates, 
 in order that knaves may not be permitted to get control of the 
 government. He then continues: 
 
 'But, Gentlemen, when you come to address yourselves to these 
 primary public duties, your first surprise and dismay will be the dis- 
 covery that, in a country where education is declared to be the hope 
 of its institutions, the higher education is often practically held to be 
 almost a disadvantage. You will go from these halls to hear a very 
 common sneer at college-bred men; to encounter a jealousy of edu- 
 cation as making men visionary and pedantic and impracticable; to 
 confront a belief that there is something enfeebling in the higher 
 education, and that self-made men, as they are called, are the sure 
 stay of the state. But what is really meant by a self-made man? 
 It is a man of native sagacity and strong character, who was taught, 
 it is proudly said, only at the plow or the anvil or the bench. He is 
 Benjamin Franklin, the printer, or Abraham Lincoln, the rail-splitter. 
 They never went to college but nevertheless, like Agamemnon, they 
 were kings of men, and the world blesses their memory. 
 
 "So it does; but the sophistry here is plain enough although it is 
 not always detected. Great genius and force of character undoubtedly 
 make their own career. But because Walter Scott was dull at school, 
 is a parent to see with joy that his son is a dunce? Because Sir Robert 
 Walpole gambled and swore and boozed at Houghton, are we to 
 suppose that gross sensuality and coarse contempt of human nature 
 are the essential secrets of a power that defended liberty against 
 Tory intrigue and priestly politics? Was it because Abraham Lincoln 
 had little schooling that his great heart beat true to God and man, 
 lifting him to free a race and die for his country?"
 
 READING LESSON IV 67 
 
 4. From the eulog\' of General Grant by Horace Porter: 
 
 "Outside that house the street was filled with marching men and 
 martial music. Inside that house the old chief lay on a bed of anguish, 
 the pallor of death alread)^ beginning to overspread his illustrious 
 features. The hand which had seized the surrendered swords of 
 countless thousands was scarcely able to return the pressure of a 
 friendly grasp; the voice which had cheered on to triumphant \'ictory 
 the legions of American manhood was no longer able to call for the 
 cooling draught which slaked the thirst of a fevered tongue. And 
 prostrate upon that bed of suffering lay the form which in the new 
 world had ridden at the head of conquering columns; in the old world 
 had marched through the palaces of crowned heads with the descend- 
 ants of a line of kings rising and standing uncovered in his presence."
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 
 
 Introduction. — Equipment is a term applied to that 
 which a person carries with him to help him accomplish 
 his work. The woodchopper carries an axe; the artist 
 carries paints, brushes, and canvas; the speaker must 
 equip himself with ideas and with words with which to 
 express those ideas. The equipment of the speaker can- 
 not be purchased at the shop or studio but must be 
 gradually gathered and hoarded, one thing here and 
 another there. It is told of Webster that, after his 
 masterful reply to Hayne, he was asked how much time 
 he had given to preparation and he answered, "All my 
 life." A speaker is rewarded for his effort, however, by 
 the fact that his equipment will never wear out like that 
 of the woodchopper or the artist, but will grow richer 
 and finer with time and use. 
 
 If it took a hfetime for Webster to gather his equip- 
 ment, it is needless to say that the young speaker should 
 waste no time in making a start. The attitude which a 
 speaker should take toward this matter has been well 
 expressed by Nathan Sheppard: "An editor says, 'I 
 never come upon a thought, a fact, or an incident without 
 asking myself how I can get an article out of it.' The 
 speaker says, 'How shall I use it for an audience?' He 
 should be the most alert-minded man in the world. 
 He should get into the habit of picking up something
 
 THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 69 
 
 from everybody and everything and everywhere. A 
 robin should not be more industrious in gathering insects 
 for her young." 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to gather an 
 equipment of ideas; (2) how to gather an equipment of 
 words; and (3) how to preserve our collection. 
 
 I. How TO Gather an Equipment of Ideas 
 
 An equipment of ideas may be gathered from three 
 sources: from our high-school studies, from the world- 
 hfe about us, and from our own minds. 
 
 Studies. — The studies which you are pursuing daily 
 in your high-school course, and which you may have re- 
 garded as tasks especially provided to deprive you of 
 your freedom, are the very sources from which speakers 
 throughout the centuries have gathered material for 
 their speeches. 
 
 Let us consider, first, the so-called culture studies — his- 
 tory, literature, and languages. The speeches of George 
 William Curtis are filled with historical facts. In the 
 brief passage quoted in Reading Lesson IV, he used four 
 historical facts to support his claim that a lack of educa- 
 tion and culture is not a cause of greatness. The pages 
 of history are open to you as they were to him. How 
 delightfully Dickens referred, in the latter part of his 
 speech, to the essays of Charles Lamb! You will have the 
 privilege, during your high-school course, not only of read- 
 ing Lamb's essays, but also of exploring the whole rich field 
 of English literature. Perhaps you arc studying Latin or 
 some other foreign language. Why should not the ideas, 
 customs, and stories of these other peoples, old yet always 
 new, provide your speeches with color and ornament?
 
 70 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Let us consider next the field of science. Notice how 
 much knowledge of geography and astronomy is shown 
 in the passage from Edmund Burke. It would seem that 
 with the wealth of illustration which he had at his com- 
 mand, he could not have failed to convince the members 
 of ParHament that the people of New England were an 
 enterprising people. Learn to levy tribute on your scien- 
 tific studies in the same way. 
 
 The difficulty is that we are apt to look at these lessons 
 as so many facts to be crammed for an examination, 
 whereas we should seek to glean from them material for 
 future use. Washington Irving says of his fat Van Twiller, 
 "His cheeks had taken toll of all that had gone into his 
 mouth." Why should not your mind, in the same way, 
 take toll of these daily assignments? 
 
 World-life. — It is not alone from books, however, 
 that the speakers of the past and of the present have 
 gathered their equipment of facts and ideas. They have 
 come into the closest possible touch with the great world- 
 Hfe about them. Lincoln's biographers say of him, "He 
 would stop in the street and analyze a machine . . . 
 clocks, omnibuses, languages, paddle-wheels, and idioms 
 never escaped his observation and analysis." As a result 
 of this habit of close study of the things which he saw, his 
 speeches are full of quaint, homely comparisons. We 
 have seen that Dickens, also, was very observant. He 
 noticed that the porridge pot was empty and that 
 the baby's cradle was not merely a box, but an egg-box. 
 It is because he saw and recorded these small details 
 that his word-pictures take such hold on the mind and 
 heart. 
 
 The great majority of us have not yet formed this
 
 THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 71 
 
 valuable habit of observation. The best way to cultivate 
 it is to write each day a few sentences descriptive of what- 
 ever has arrested one's attention since the preceding day. 
 Robert Louis Stevenson says of his boyhood, "As I walked, 
 my mind was busy fitting what I saw with appropriate 
 words; when I sat by the roadside, a pencil and a penny 
 version book would be in my hand to note down the fea- 
 tures of the scene ... I had vowed that I would learn 
 to write. That was a proficiency that tempted me; I 
 practiced it as men learn to whittle, in a wager with my- 
 self. Description was the principal field of my exercise; 
 for to anyone with sense, there is always something worth 
 describing, and town and country are but one continuous 
 subject." Those of us who have read Treasure Island, 
 Travels "with a Donkey, or any other of his charming 
 tales, are very glad indeed that Stevenson made this 
 wager with himself. 
 
 Originality. — We have seen that the young speaker 
 has, in his daily lessons, an almost unlimited supply of 
 speech-making material; and that if he will but cultivate 
 the habit of keen observation, he may find all about him 
 that which will give life and interest to his discourse. 
 He may also discover a third source of ideas in his own 
 mind. Perhaps you will say, "I am not original"; but 
 originality does not mean the production of something 
 absolutely new; it means the production of new combina- 
 tions of things. Electricity has always existed, but the 
 phonograph and the electric car did not exist until a cer- 
 tain combination was made in the mind of Edison. If a 
 student will take time to think about that which he reads 
 and observes, his mind, too, will produce original ideas.
 
 72 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 II. How TO Gather an Equipment of Words 
 
 Use of the Dictionary. — One of the best ways to 
 gather an equipment of words is to study the dictionary. 
 It is said that when O. Henry was living among the cow- 
 boys and without access to books in general, he spent two 
 years in studying the dictionary and in forming its words 
 into sentences. Although the student, under ordinary 
 conditions, would not find this an attractive or perhaps a 
 desirable method of enlarging his vocabulary, he can, 
 nevertheless, do much more than he usually does, through 
 its use, to increase his mastery of the English tongue. 
 When he happens upon a new word, he should look up its 
 meaning and pronunciation and try to make it a part of 
 his own equipment. When he is writing a letter or com- 
 posing a speech, he should try to cultivate a feeling for 
 the right word. If the one which occurs to his mind is 
 not satisfactory, he should look it up in the dictionary 
 and decide whether or not any of its synonyms would be 
 better adapted to his purpose. Daniel Webster had 
 cultivated this feeling for the right word, as is shown by 
 the following story: "Once while addressing an audience, 
 he had difficulty in finding just the word he wanted. He 
 discarded one after another until five or six had been 
 disposed of, when suddenly he found the word he had 
 been so earnestly seeking. As he gave expression to it, 
 the audience, who had mentally followed his anxious 
 search, burst out into spontaneous applause." ^ 
 
 Usage of Good Authors. — Although we can get the 
 meaning of words from the dictionary, it is only by read- 
 
 1 Grenville Kleiser, How to Develop Power and Personality in Speak- 
 ing, p. 63.
 
 THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 73 
 
 ing good books and listening to good speakers that we can 
 realize the appropriateness of words. Let us notice a 
 few of the things worth knowing, which the careful study 
 of a good writer or speaker can reveal- to us. 
 
 In the first place, he adapts his words to the nature of 
 the idea that he wishes to express. Commonplace things 
 are described with commonplace words, whereas ideas 
 that are abstract or dignified in their nature are ex- 
 pressed by words of an abstract or dignified character. 
 Dickens, for instance, when he wishes to describe a simple, 
 homely scene, uses short, homely words: "In a room in 
 one of these places, where there was an empty porridge pot 
 on the cold hearth, with a ragged woman and some ragged 
 children crouching on the bare ground near it, . . ." 
 When, however, he wishes to express a thought which is 
 more abstract and dignified, he uses longer words of more 
 stately quality: for example, ''You may read with what 
 a generous earnestness the highest and wisest members 
 of the medical profession testify to the great need of it, 
 to the immense difficulty of treating children in the same 
 hospital with grown-up people, by reason of their different 
 ailments and requirements." Young writers and speakers 
 are often tempted to use elaborate words to express simple 
 ideas. The result is a style which is "high-flown" and 
 ridiculous. 
 
 In the second place, a good writer or speaker uses a 
 variety of words to express the same idea. He does not 
 make the same word "do duty" too frequently. P'or 
 exami)le, Dickens, when he first describes the sick child 
 in Edinburgh, speaks of him ■d'^ feeble and wan, but later 
 he refers to him as drooping;,. 
 
 In the third place, a writer or speaker who succeeds in
 
 74 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 making an impression uses a great many v/ords that create 
 pictures. Such words are sometimes called concrete, or 
 specific, as distinguished from abstract or general words: 
 for example, Mr. Curtis, instead of saying "taught by 
 hard labor," said, ''taught, only at the plow, the anvil, 
 or the bench." Instead of describing Sir Robert Walpole 
 as a profligate, he told us that he "gambled and swore 
 and boozed." Adjectives that describe motions have 
 also this quality of calling up mental pictures. For in- 
 stance, Dickens speaks of "attentive eyes" and "bright 
 moving sea." Burke, instead of referring to icebergs, 
 speaks of "tumbling mountains of ice." 
 
 III. How TO Preserve a Collection 
 
 Although much of what one reads, observes, and thinks 
 becomes a part of himself and cannot be taken away, yet 
 it would be quite impossible for the average person to 
 carry all of this material in his mind and have it ready 
 for immediate use. It is therefore necessary to make a 
 collection of words and ideas as one would collect bird- 
 eggs or postage stamps. Many of the great writers and 
 speakers, as Hawthorne, Lowell, and Phillips Brooks, kept 
 notebooks throughout their lives. In these they recorded 
 such ideas as they had gathered from reading and travel, 
 together with their own meditations. This, every suc- 
 cessful writer and speaker must do. The modern student, 
 however, has evolved a somewhat more useful method of 
 preserving this material than is found in the old notebook 
 system. 
 
 Form of the Collection. — The student should provide 
 himself with loose sheets of paper about 3x5 inches or 
 smaller. One can buy this already cut from a stationer or
 
 THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 75 
 
 job printer, or he can utilize old notebooks for the pur- 
 pose, cutting the paper himself. He should then purchase 
 a package of manila envelopes large enough to hold the 
 paper easily. One should be very careful in this matter, 
 as it will be found very annoying to be obliged to fold the 
 paper or to crowd it into a small envelope. The collection 
 should be kept by itself, where it can be distinguished from 
 algebra papers and unanswered letters. Perhaps very 
 few students are so fortunate as to own a writing desk 
 with pigeon-holes. This is of small importance, however, 
 as a shoe-box or a starch-box will do as well. It is only 
 necessary that the collection be kept in a definite place 
 and that it grow. 
 
 Method of Collecting. — Just as a collector of bugs 
 carries a net and a bottle when he goes for a walk, so 
 the student-speaker should carry an envelope filled with 
 sheets of paper. When he happens upon a good story, a 
 humorous anecdote, an apt quotation, an interesting fact, 
 he should note it down. Each item should be placed on 
 a separate slip of paper. One sheet of paper may be kept 
 for words which impress the student as being particu- 
 larly good words for his own future use. Another sheet 
 may contain new words which are to be looked up at 
 some convenient time. Valuable newspaper clippings 
 also may be kept in this way. When the envelope is 
 filled with notes, the student should transfer the notes to 
 his treasure box, refill his envelope with blank sheets, and 
 begin again. 
 
 Method of Classifying. — A collection is of small value 
 unless the specimens are classified so that the owner can 
 readily find what is wanted. A few envelopes can be 
 labeled at the start, as follows: Stories, Facts, Proverbs,
 
 76 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Quotations, Words, etc. ; another envelope may be labeled 
 with some subject in which one is particularly interested, 
 as machinery, wild flowers, musical history, or art. Some 
 day, when time hangs heavy, it will be a real pleasure to 
 look over the notes and place them in the proper envelopes. 
 As the collection grows, it will sometimes be necessary to 
 re-classify. One envelope will grow more rapidly than 
 another and will become so crowded as to need division. 
 Some notes will be discarded later on as of little value. 
 For these reasons it is best to write the labels in pencil. 
 
 The student who adopts the above-described method 
 of preserving his treasures of thought will find that, while 
 old notebooks gather dust in garret or cellar, the classified 
 collection of notes becomes a constantly increasing source 
 of help and inspiration. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 how a speaker may gather an equipment of ideas; (2) 
 how he may gather an equipment of words; and (3) how 
 he may preserve this equipment in the most useful form. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Speaker's Equipment 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. The equipment of the speaker compared with that of the 
 
 woodchopper or the artist. 
 II. The attitude which a speaker should have. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. How to gather an equipment of ideas. 
 
 A . Studies — used by speakers of the past. 
 
 1. Culture studies. 
 
 2. Scientific studies. 
 
 3. Wrong and right attitude compared.
 
 THE SPEAKER'S EQUIPMENT 77 
 
 I. B. World-life. 
 
 1. Illustrations of the power of observation. 
 
 2. Method of cultivating the habit of observation. 
 C. Originality. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 2. How to be original. 
 
 II. How to gather an equipment of words. 
 
 A . Use of the dictionary. 
 
 1. O. Henry. 
 
 2. New words. 
 
 3. Synonyms. — Daniel Webster. 
 
 B. Usage of good authors. 
 
 1 . x\ppropriateness. 
 
 2. Variety. 
 
 3. Picture-making words. 
 
 III. How to preserve a collection. — Custom of old writers and 
 speakers. 
 
 A. Form of the collection. 
 
 B. Method of collecting. 
 
 C. Method and value of classifying. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the text as far as the topic "How to Preserve 
 a Collection," and be able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — i. Dickens tells us that the little baby should 
 have been "as bright and as brisk as the Httle birds that never got 
 near him." Look up brisk in a large dictionar>^ and copy the syno- 
 nyms. Consider each from the standpoint of meaning, appropriate- 
 ness, and sowid, and show, if you can, that Dickens chose the 
 best word. 
 
 2. Think of and write some more ordinary word which you would 
 probably have used for each of the following, if you had been trying 
 to express Dickens' thoughts: tougltcn its affections, prop their 
 eyelids, contravening the ways of Providence, humane members, 
 recking with horrible odors, crouching on the bare ground, courtly old 
 house, flushed cheek, toppled over, shorn of their natural capacity, 
 that it shall flourish.
 
 78 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 If you do not remember the connection in which these expressions 
 were used, look them up in the speech. If you cannot easily supply 
 a synonym, look up the word in the dictionary. 
 
 Exercise III. — Complete the chapter and be able to recite from 
 the topical outline. Provide yourself with paper and envelopes for 
 your collection, labeling the envelopes as directed. 
 
 Exercise IV. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on any 
 of the following topics: 
 
 1. The Chief Object of Speech-making. 
 
 2. How Dickens Used the Four Forms of Discourse. 
 
 3. How They are Fitted into a Plan. 
 
 4. Our Studies as a Source of Ideas. 
 
 5. The World-life as a Source of Ideas. 
 
 6. Originahty. 
 
 7. Gaining a Vocabulary by a Study of the Dictionary. 
 
 8. Gaining a Vocabulary by a Study of the Best Authors and 
 Speakers. 
 
 9. How to Make a Speaker's Collection.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 
 
 Introduction. — A good speech, whether it is one 
 minute or one hour in length, must have three quahties: 
 (i) unity, which means that the gist or substance of it 
 can be stated in one sentence; (2) coherence, which 
 means that each idea leads naturally to the next, so that 
 it can easily be followed by the audience; and (3) empha- 
 sis, which means that there is a gradually increasing force 
 throughout the speech. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to lay the basis 
 for these qualities when we make a plan; (2) the best 
 way to make a plan; and (3) the difference between the 
 plan for an argument and the plan for an exposition. 
 
 I. How TO Plan for Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis 
 
 Unity through Choice of a Subject. — The speaker can 
 lay the foundation for unity by choosing a subject that 
 deals with only one thing. A speech on the subject 
 "Motion Pictures" might have unity, whereas it would be 
 impossible to present a unified discussion of the subject, 
 "The Method of Taking Motion Pictures and their Influ- 
 ence on the Public." 
 
 At the same time the subject must not cover too large 
 a field to be handled effectively in the time allotted. A 
 speaker could not treat the subject of "Motion Pictures" 
 successfully in two minutes. , He would be obliged to
 
 8o ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 touch on a large number of ideas in such a brief way as to 
 prevent his giving an impression of unity. With such a 
 restricted time Hmit, it would be necessary to narrow 
 the subject, that is, to discuss only one phase of it. One 
 might, for instance, discuss in two minutes any one of 
 the following topics: "Methods of Taking Motion Pic- 
 tures of Wild Animals," "Educational Value of Motion 
 Pictures," and "A Motion Picture I Have Seen." 
 
 Unity of Purpose. — In real life, when a speaker chooses 
 a subject, he has a definite purpose in view: he desires 
 either to instruct, to convince, or to entertain. It is 
 true that he may use instruction and entertainment as 
 an aid to conviction, — such we found to be Dickens' 
 method, — but some one purpose will be predominant. 
 In practice speaking, the student should choose his sub- 
 ject with a definite purpose in mind. He should test the 
 unity of his purpose by writing the gist of what he has 
 to say in a single sentence, called the topic or theme sen- 
 tence. Let us consider a few illustrations. If a student 
 were to discuss "Methods of Taking Motion Pictures of 
 Wild Animals," his purpose would be mainly that of 
 instruction and his theme sentence might be, "It requires 
 great patience and daring to take pictures of wild animals." 
 If a student were to speak on "The Educational Value 
 of Motion Pictures," his purpose might be to convince 
 the members of the Parents' Club that they should allow 
 their children to attend a certain moving picture perform- 
 ance. His theme might be, "Our moving picture show 
 will teach your children in one hour more than they 
 could learn in many days of reading." The theme sen- 
 tence will be determined largely by the nature of the 
 material which the speaker has at his disposal, unless he
 
 HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 81 
 
 should wish to look up material to illustrate and develop 
 his theme. It should be clear, however, from the fore- 
 going discussion, that if the speech is to have unity, the 
 subject, the purpose, the theme sentence, and the speech 
 material should coincide. 
 
 Unity in Development. — The speech is an elaboration 
 or a development of the theme sentence. The introduc- 
 tion furnishes a means of unity in that it either suggests 
 the main thought or is an actual statement of the main 
 thought. Since the introduction to a two-minute speech 
 should not consist of more than one sentence, it is well 
 in practice work to use some version of the theme sentence 
 as the introduction. This may in some cases seem abrupt, 
 but it will help the beginner to secure unity, and a more 
 artistic method may be studied later. 
 
 The body of the speech should be an expansion of the 
 main idea. The theme sentence may be enlarged upon in 
 several ways: (i) it may be repeated several times in 
 different words (See Reading Lesson IV, 2, page 65); 
 (2) it may be illustrated by facts (See Reading Lesson IV, 
 I, page 65); and (3) it may be compared with something 
 else (See Chapter III, Ex. VI, Selection i). 
 
 It is very essential in this expansion that not a single 
 thought be allowed to enter which does not have a close 
 relation to the main thought. James Russell Lowell has 
 said very tersely on this point, "The art of writing consists 
 in knowing what to leave in the ink pot." 
 
 The conclusion, if rightly developed, is a further means 
 of strengthening the unity of the speech. It may be 
 either a re-statement, in varied language, of the topic 
 sentence, or it may simply make reference to the main 
 idea.
 
 82- ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Coherence. — A speech is coherent, as we have already 
 learned, if each idea leads naturally to the next, so that 
 the audience can easily follow the line of thought. If 
 a speaker is to lead his audience, he should first consider 
 the state of mind of his audience. In a practice speech, 
 the student should imagine a particular audience, deter- 
 mine upon an appropriate salutation, and proceed to adapt 
 his speech to his hearers. The character and arrangement 
 of one's material should vary with the nature of the 
 audience. For instance, one would not discuss "Aero- 
 planes" before a board of engineers in the same way 
 that he would before a boys' literary society. 
 
 After the speaker has considered his ideas from the 
 standpoint of the experience and intelligence of his 
 audience, he should arrange them in what seems to be the 
 most natural order. In so doing, he should take note of 
 the following rules: (i) A general statement should be 
 made before the details which illustrate it. (2) The easy 
 should be stated before the difhcult. (3) The earlier in 
 time should be. mentioned before the later. We found 
 that Dickens' speech was so coherent that any change 
 in the order of his ideas would injure it. The student- 
 speaker should test the coherence of his speech by trying 
 various methods of arrangement. 
 
 Emphasis. — Frequently the most coherent order is 
 also the most emphatic order; that is, it results in an 
 impression of gradually increasing force throughout the 
 speech. This can be effected, in some measure, by arrang- 
 ing the ideas in the order of strength, the strongest last. 
 It is also necessary to develop the important ideas at 
 greater length than the unimportant ideas.
 
 HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 83 
 
 II. The Best Method of Making a Plan 
 
 Jottings. — After having chosen his subject, the student 
 should jot down one key word for each idea as it occurs to 
 him. The student who has not tried this method will 
 be tempted to write down quite full notes or at least sev- 
 eral words for each idea. To do this would be a mistake. 
 It is not necessary that the exact wording be determined 
 upon until after the plan has been made. The words 
 are to be jotted down merely as temporary suggestions 
 to the speaker himself, and as there is always one word 
 used in the expression of an idea which is more suggestive 
 than any other word, several words will merely be cum- 
 bersome — a fact which will be seen more clearly later. 
 
 The speaker should not try to arrange his ideas in order 
 before he places the key words on paper, for the purpose 
 of the jottings is merely to reveal to the speaker the nature 
 and amount of his material. The act of putting down 
 the words will also help him to concentrate his mind. 
 The work of arrangement will come later. 
 
 Theme Sentence. — The student should next try to 
 write a theme sentence that includes the ideas suggested 
 by the words. This will help him to determine his pur- 
 pose and to unify his material. If there are any ideas 
 which cannot be included in the theme sentence, the 
 words which suggest them should be crossed out. 
 
 Word-brace Outline, — The remaining words should be 
 arranged in the form of a word-brace outline.' It will 
 be found possible to group the ideas under main divi- 
 sions and subdivisions. In this work, the student should 
 follow as far as possible the suggestions already made 
 
 ^ See .•\i)[)cndix I for an example of such an outline.
 
 84 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 with regard to coherence and emphasis. The following 
 matters of form also should be observed: 
 
 (i) There should not be more than three main divisions 
 nor more than three subdivisions after any brace. A 
 violation of this rule makes the speech difficult for both 
 speaker and audience to remember. Four or five divisions 
 can always be grouped under two larger divisions. 
 
 (2) The ideas suggested by the words which follow a brace 
 should relate to and enlarge upon the idea suggested by the 
 word which precedes the brace. This is a matter of the 
 utmost importance. The brace itself by its very form indi- 
 cates that the words included within its prongs enlarge upon 
 the word to which it points. - To transgress this rule, then, 
 is to indicate an untruth. Where but one idea is used to 
 enlarge upon another, the dash is used instead of the brace. 
 
 (3) As far as possible there should be only one word for 
 each sentence. If a young speaker plans to make several 
 sentences about one word, he is apt to give insufficient care 
 to their arrangement and construction. Again, if he allows 
 himself this freedom, he may fail to keep within his time 
 limit. If, on the other hand, he uses more than one word 
 for each sentence, his outline will be cumbersome. If it 
 were necessary for him to look at it while speaking, the 
 large number of words would be confusing, while if he 
 should decide to be independent of an outline, the added 
 words would make the matter difficult to memorize. 
 
 III. Difference between the Plan for an Argument 
 AND THE Plan for an Exposition 
 
 Argument. — Each of the main divisions of an argu- 
 ment must prove or give reasons for the theme sentence. 
 Let us take as an example the following simple argument:
 
 HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 85 
 
 I. Mary's father should allow her to go to the party, because 
 
 A. She has not attended a party for two months. 
 
 B. It will not interfere wth her lessons, because 
 
 I. It is on Frida)' night. 
 
 C. Only very nice young people mil attend. 
 
 When a student makes a plan for an argument, he should 
 write out in form similar to the example given above not 
 only the theme sentence, but also a complete sentence for 
 each one of the main subdivisions. In so doing, he must be 
 sure that each subordinate sentence can properly be joined 
 to the theme sentence by the word for or because. If they 
 can be so joined, he will know that his main divisions prove 
 his theme and that, therefore, his plan is logical. 
 
 Exposition. — The main divisions of an exposition need 
 merely relate to or explain the theme sentence. Let us 
 consider such a simple announcement as the following, 
 which might be classified as an exposition: 
 
 I. The Girls' Literary Society is going to give a party. 
 
 .1. It will be given in the Social Hall on Friday night. 
 
 B. The hall has been decorated with the society colors. 
 
 C. There will be a literary program followed by dancing. 
 
 It can easily be seen that these subdivisions merely 
 add to and do not prove the theme sentence. Although 
 it is sometimes helpful to write out the subordinate sen- 
 tences when one is planning an exposition, it is not abso- 
 lutely necessary as it is in the planning of an argument. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 how the speaker can lay the foundation for unity, coher- 
 ence, and emphasis when he makes his plan; (2) how to 
 make a plan for a speech in the form of a word-brace 
 outline; and (.V) how the plan for an argument differs 
 from the i>Ian for an exposition.
 
 86 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 How TO Plan a Speech 
 
 Introdudion. 
 
 I. Three qualities of a good speech defined. 
 
 II. Advance summary. 
 
 Body. 
 
 I. How to plan for unity, coherence, and emphasis. 
 
 A. Unity. 
 
 1. Choice of a subject. 
 
 (o) One thing only. 
 {b) Narrow field. 
 
 2. Purpose — Its relation to the subject, theme 
 
 sentence, and speech material. 
 
 3. Development. 
 
 {a) Introduction. 
 {h) Body. 
 
 (i) Methods of expansion. 
 
 (2) Relation of thoughts to main 
 thought. — Lowell. 
 (c) Conclusion. 
 
 B. Coherence. 
 
 1. Nature of audience. 
 
 2. Natural order — rules. 
 
 C. Emphasis. 
 
 II. The best method of making a plan. 
 
 A. Jottings. 
 
 1. One word only. 
 
 2. Purposes of the jottings. 
 
 B. Theme sentence. 
 
 C. Word-brace outline — three rules. 
 
 III. Difference between the plan for an argument and the plan 
 
 for an exposition. 
 
 A. Argument. 
 
 1. Relation of subdivisions to theme sentence. 
 
 2. Necessity of writing subdivisions. 
 
 B. Exposition. 
 
 1. Relation of subdivisions to theme sentence. 
 
 Conclusion.
 
 HOW TO PLAN A SPEECH 87 
 
 Exercise I. — i. Study the text as far as the topic "Coherence," 
 and be able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 2. A short speech written out would make a paragraph. Choose 
 from the selections for reading in Chapter III the three best para- 
 graphs from the standpoint of unity. Choose only those whose topic 
 sentences are placed first and whose closing sentences either refer to 
 the main idea or summarize it in different words. 
 
 3. Consult Appendix II. Choose from Divisions I or II, or any 
 other hst which represents material that you have studied in High 
 School, two topics which you think are too large to be handled in two 
 minutes. Narrow these subjects; that is, write down two or more 
 phases of the subject which might be handled in the time allotted. 
 
 Exercise II. — i . Complete the chapter and be able to recite from 
 the topical outline. 
 
 2. Review the Gettysburg Address (page 38) and Reading 
 Lesson IV, 4 (page 67), and be able to prove the following: 
 
 a. The ideas arc arranged in the most coherent order. 
 
 b. The ideas are arranged in the most emphatic order. 
 
 c. ]\Iore time is given to the important than to the unimportant 
 ideas. 
 
 Exercise III. — Select a subject from Appendix II. It may be 
 one that you narrowed in Exercise I, or any other that you prefer. 
 Decide upon the nature of your audience, whether it is to be an 
 assembly of high-school students, grammar-school students, an 
 organization of adults, etc. Determine upon and write an appro- 
 priate salutation. Write a theme or topic sentence. If your subject 
 is argumentative, write a subordinate sentence for each main division 
 and be sure that each can properly be joined to the topic sentence by 
 because. Prepare a word outline for a two-minute speech on the 
 subject. Write this whole exercise on a separate sheet of your 
 loose-leaf notebook. (See example in Appendix I.)
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 ORAL PREPARATION 
 
 Introduction. — There are two methods of practice 
 which are valuable to one who would learn to speak well. 
 The first is called the impromptu method. This is fre- 
 quently used in Hterary societies. A member is assigned 
 a subject and requested to speak without previous notice. 
 Henry Clay made a very profitable use of this method. It 
 was his custom to read daily one chapter from some his- 
 torical or scientific book and then go out immediately to 
 the cornfield or to the stable, where he would repeat the 
 selection aloud in his own language. 
 
 The merits of the impromptu method are evident. 
 Such practice cannot fail to quicken the mind and in- 
 crease one's command of language. Its defects, however, 
 are quite as obvious. In the first place, it gives little 
 practice in the arrangement of thought and, if used 
 exclusively, is apt to lead to a habit of rambling discourse. 
 Again, there are occasions for which preparation is neces- 
 sary. As Mr. J. Berg Esenwein says, "Don't wait to dive 
 for pearls of thought until you mount the platform — it 
 might be painful to the audience." 
 
 Although the speaker should nerve himself occasion- 
 ally to an impromptu effort, he should rely mainly upon 
 what has been called the extempore method. This 
 kind of preparation will be fully explained in this chap- 
 ter, but it may briefly be described as oral composition
 
 OR.\L PREPARATION 89 
 
 based upon a word-outline. It may be used whenever 
 the speaker is given sufficient time to gather and arrange 
 his ideas. 
 
 The subject of oral preparation will be discussed under 
 the following headings: (i) description of the extempore, 
 or oral method of preparation, (2) value of this method 
 as compared with that of writing and memorizing one's 
 thoughts, and (3) the written speech as a last step. 
 
 I. Description of the Extempore Method 
 
 Mental Preparation. — The speaker should / h i n k 
 through his speech, using an outline prepared as directed 
 in Chapter VII. His purpose in this should be to phrase 
 each idea as perfectly as possible. The student may think 
 that he cannot pohsh his phrases unless he writes them, 
 but he should remember that whether he composes orally 
 or in writing, it is his mind that does the polishing and 
 not his pen. If the student wishes to cultivate a good 
 style, he should persevere during this part of his prepara- 
 tion until he gets a satisfactory expression of his ideas. 
 Not even the greatest among us can without effort 
 produce what is worth while. That master of style, 
 Robert Louis Stevenson, once wrote in a letter, "Yester- 
 day, I was a living half hour upon a single clause and I 
 have a galaxy of variants that would surprise you." All 
 of this painstaking has its reward in the end, for, as 
 Thomas W. Higginson says, "For intellect in the rough, 
 there is no market." 
 
 Oral Practice. — When the student has determined 
 upon the best way to express each idea, he should practice 
 the whole speech aloud several times. The exact number 
 of times will depend upon the experience of the speaker
 
 90 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 and the importance of the occasion. The beginner should 
 repeat his speech not less than five times. This practice 
 will accustom the speaker to the sound of his own voice 
 and give him confidence and fluency. 
 
 There are, however, two dangers in oral composition 
 against which the student must guard himself. He may- 
 have a tendency to repeat aloud crude or ungrammatical 
 expressions. To avoid this, he should think a sentence 
 through before he utters it. The untrained speaker is 
 afraid that a pause will be considered hesitation, and so 
 often rushes headlong into the expression of a thought 
 before it has matured in his own mind. The polished, 
 extemporaneous speaker, on the other hand, pauses long 
 between his sentences, well knowing that the audience will 
 have no quarrel with him for his deliberation. The second 
 danger is quite the opposite of the first. He may hold so 
 critical an attitude toward his own work that he will be 
 led to reconstruct a sentence in the midst of it. To 
 avoid this, he should compel himself to finish a sentence, 
 no matter how poorly it may have been commenced. It 
 will be possible to make mental note of the error and 
 correct it during the next practice. 
 
 The student should not be discouraged if he does not 
 repeat the speech twice in the same words. In fact, this 
 may be an evidence of freedom and growth. The purpose 
 of the repetition is not to memorize a certain phraseology, 
 but to develop the power of expression. If the student's 
 mind is active, the speech will gradually assume a some- 
 what definite shape, which will be the speaker's best 
 form of expression at the given time. 
 
 Outline Memorized. — The last step in preparation is 
 to write the word-outline from memory. This memorized
 
 OR.\L PREPARATION 91 
 
 outline should record any changes which it has been found 
 necessary to make during the oral practice. 
 
 A speaker should be absolutely independent of an 
 outline; for attention to notes takes his eyes from his 
 audience and subtracts just so much from the personal 
 element. In commenting on speeches delivered in the 
 House of Commons, Charles Seymour says, "The speeches 
 that were really listened to, that were enjoyed, that carried 
 the force of conviction, were the speeches that were spoken 
 without reference to notes." Thomas W. Higginson 
 discusses this same matter as follows: "Never carry a 
 scrap of paper before an audience. The late Judge B. R. 
 Curtis once lost a case in court of which he had felt very 
 sure — one in which John P. Hale was his successful 
 antagonist. When asked the reason, he said, 'I had all 
 the law and all the evidence, but that fellow Hale some- 
 how got so intimate with the jury that he won the case.' 
 To be intimate with your audience is half the battle, and 
 nothing so restricts and impedes that intimacy as the 
 presence of a scrap of paper." On very important occa- 
 sions one may have an outline within reach, but he 
 should strive to be independent of it. 
 
 II. Value as Compared with the Memoriter Method 
 
 The extempore method of preparation is better than 
 the method of writing and memorizing a speech in several 
 respects: 
 
 A Saver of Time. - When one writes a speech, he often 
 fmds that it is necessary to rewrite long passages. When 
 the speech is fmishcd, he discovers that it is too long and 
 must be condensed, or that certain portions need elabora- 
 tion. Perhaps whole paragraphs must be copied verbatim
 
 92 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 in order that these changes may be made. When, however, 
 one composes a speech by the oral, or extempore method, 
 the work of correction is a very simple matter. It is nec- 
 essary only to add, or cross out, or change the position of a 
 few words in the outline and the revision is complete. 
 
 A Better Speech. — Furthermore, a speech prepared 
 in this way is likely to produce a better impression 
 upon the audience than one which has been written and 
 memorized. In the first place, the delivery will be better: 
 it will be more conversational in tone, since the mind, 
 during the period of preparation, has been centered upon 
 the thought rather than upon the words. Again, the 
 speaker is not likely to become lost and forget his speech 
 entirely as might be the case with a memorized speech. 
 The extempore practice has served not only to impress 
 the organization of his thought upon his mind, but also 
 to give him confidence in himself so that if he fails on the 
 platform to recall the prepared words he can supply 
 others of equal merit. 
 
 In the second place, the style of a speech which has been 
 composed orally has a tendency to be more direct and 
 forcible and better suited to public utterance. When one 
 writes, he is tempted to construct sentences which are long 
 and involved. These, when delivered, give to the speech 
 an air of bookishness and take from it the appearance of 
 spontaneity which the speaker desires. 
 
 In the third place, the speech is more flexible; that is, 
 it can more readily be adapted to the occasion. The 
 speaker may insert ideas suggested by other numbers on 
 the program, or if the time is short he may omit unneces- 
 sary portions of his subject. Neither of these things could 
 he do if he were in the grip of a memorized speech.
 
 ORAL PREPARATION 93 
 
 Growth of the Speaker. — Above all, the extempore 
 method is the only method which insures the growth of 
 the speaker. A man may spend a lifetime in writing and 
 memorizing speeches and still be without extemporaneous 
 power. This power "to think on one's feet," comes 
 gradually as a result of practice and confidence. As 
 Sir Francis Bacon says, "Reading maketh a full man, 
 writing, an exact man, and speaking, a ready man." 
 This is shown in the lives of great orators. Webster and 
 Lincoln, very early in life, were members of debating 
 clubs. Charles James Fox, the greatest debater of his 
 day, made it a rule to speak once each night in 
 Parliament. 
 
 The ordinary student, however, is not provided with a 
 Parliament ready to hand and so must furnish himself 
 with an imaginary audience. This repeated practice 
 gives the speaker confidence when he appears before a 
 real audience. As Nathan Sheppard says, "To realize 
 their presence in an eft'ort of the imagination is to for- 
 tify against their faces in the flesh." Each time the 
 student rehearses before his imaginary hearers he gains 
 power to master both himself and some future audience. 
 
 in. When a Speech may be Written 
 
 It is safe to say that a speech prepared for the classroom 
 should never be written before it is dehvered, although to 
 write it after it is delivered is a very profitable exercise 
 in written composition. 
 
 For important occasions, however, the speech may be 
 written before delivery, but only as a last step in the 
 preparation, after all has been done that can be done by 
 the method of extemporaneous practice. It may be
 
 94 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 possible by writing out the speech at the last to secure 
 a diction that is more concise and elegant, and at the 
 same time not to lose the value of the extemporaneous 
 practice. The speech will then be in form to preserve or 
 publish. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 how to prepare a speech orally from an outline, (2) why 
 this method is better than that of writing and memoriz- 
 ing, and (3) under what circumstances and at what period 
 of preparation a speech may be written. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Oral Preparation 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. The impromptu method of practice. 
 
 A. Use of. 
 
 B. Merits and demerits. 
 
 II. Extempore method — briefly defined. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Description of the extempore method. 
 
 A. Mental preparation. 
 
 1. Purpose. 
 
 2. Care illustrated. 
 
 3. Polishing without a pen. 
 
 B. Oral practice. 
 
 1. Number of times. 
 
 2. Two dangers. 
 
 3. Discouragement. 
 
 C. Outline memorized. 
 
 1. Changes. 
 
 2. Value of independence of outHne. 
 
 (a) Seymour. 
 Q)) Higginson.
 
 ORAL PREPARATION 95 
 
 II, Value as compared with the memoriter method. 
 
 A. A saver of time. — Difficulty of revising a manuscript. 
 
 B. A better speech. 
 
 1. Delivery. 
 
 (a) Conversational «tyle. 
 
 (b) Greater confidence. 
 
 2. Style — compared with written. 
 
 3. Flexibility. 
 
 C. Growth of the speaker. 
 
 1. Two causes. 
 
 (a) Bacon. 
 
 (b) Experience of orators. 
 
 2. Imaginary and real audiences. 
 III. When a speech may be written. 
 
 A. Classroom work. 
 
 B. Important occasions. 
 
 Conclusion — Summary. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Prepare a. two-minute speech by the extempore 
 method, using the outline which you made in connection with the 
 preceding chapter. Time yourself. Be sure to bring the speech 
 within the recjuired limit. Have your outline ready to hand in at 
 the beginning of the period. 
 
 As the speeches are given in class, each student should make note 
 of criticisms in his loose-leaf notcljook and preserve ihem until after 
 they have been discussed in class. 
 
 Answer the following questions with reference to each speech: 
 
 1. Did it have unity? If so, the critic should be able to state the 
 main idea. 
 
 2. Was it well arranged? If it was, the critic should be able to 
 give one example of coherence or emphasis. 
 
 ,3. Did it contain concrete material? If so, the critic should be 
 able to mention some illustration or some picture-making word. 
 
 In these and future criticisms, do not niilkc loo much use of the 
 words gooil and poor. Say, rather, (hat the speech was eilher
 
 96 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 1. Clear or confused. 
 
 2. Smooth or disjointed. 
 
 3. Concrete or dry. 
 
 4. Direct and conversational, or bookish. 
 
 5. Compact or wordy. 
 
 6. Earnest or tame. 
 
 It is well to give favorable criticisms before adverse criticisms, 
 for the one who is criticized will listen more willingly, if he knows 
 that his good points are appreciated. Again, the critic should be 
 looking for the good in order that he may imitate it.
 
 READING LESSON V 97 
 
 READING LESSON V 
 Narratives 
 
 1. "Conservatism," by George William Curtis: 
 
 "A friend of mine was a student of Couture, the painter, in" Paris. 
 One day the master came and looked over the pupil's drawing and said 
 to him, 'My friend, that line should go so'; and indicated it lightly 
 on the paper with his pencil. To prove the accuracy of the master's 
 eye, the pupil rubbed out the correction and left the hne. The next 
 day Couture came, and looking over the drawing, stopped in surprise. 
 'That's curious,' said he, 'I thought I altered that. This line goes 
 so,' he added, and drew it firmly in black upon the paper. Again the 
 pupil rubbed out the correction. The next day the master came 
 again, stopped short when he saw the drawing, looked at it a moment 
 without speaking; then, with his thumb-nail, he cut quite through 
 the paper. 'That's the way this line ought to go,' he said, and 
 passed on. 
 
 "So the hearts and minds of our fathers marked the line of our 
 true development. Conservatism rubbed it out. The Missouri 
 struggle emphasized the line again. Conservatism rubbed it out. 
 The Kansas struggle drew the line more sternly. Conservatism 
 rubbed it out. Then, at last, the Divine finger drew in fire and blood, 
 sharply, sharply, through our wailing homes, through our torn and 
 bleeding country, through our very quivering hearts, the line of lib- 
 erty, and justice, and equal rights, and conservatism might as well 
 try to rub out the rainbow from the heavens, as to erase this, the 
 decision of the age." 
 
 2. From a eulogy of Daniel O'Connell by Wendell Phillips: 
 
 "Besides his irreproachable character, O'Connell had what is half 
 the power of the popular orator; he had a majestic presence. In 
 his youth he had the brow of a Jupiter or a Jove, and the stature of 
 Apollo. A little O'Connell would have been no O'Connell at all. 
 
 "These physical advantages are half the battle. You remember 
 the story Russell Lowell tells of Webster when, a year or two before 
 his death, the Whig party though) of dissolution. Webster came 
 home from Washington and wcnl down to I'aiu'uil Hall to protest;
 
 98 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 and four thousand of his fellow Whigs went out to meet him. Draw- 
 ing himself up to his loftiest proportions, his brow charged with 
 thunder, before that sea of human faces, he said: ' Gentlemen, I am 
 a Whig, a Massachusetts Whig; a Faneuil Hall Whig; a Revolution- 
 ary Whig; a constitutional Whig; and if you break up the Whig 
 party,, where am I to go?' 'We held our breath,' says Lowell, 
 'thinking where he could go. If he had been five feet three, we 
 should have said, "Who cares where you go?"' 
 
 "Well, O'Connell had all that. There was something majestic 
 in his presence before he spoke, and he added to it what Webster had 
 not, — the magnetism and grace that melts a million souls into his. 
 
 " Then he had a voice that covered the gamut. Speaking in Exeter 
 Hall, London, I once heard him say, 'I send my voice across the At- 
 lantic, careering like the thunderstorm against the breeze, to tell the 
 slaveholder of the Carolinas that God's thunderbolts are hot, and to 
 remind the bondman that the dawn of his redemption is already 
 breaking,' and you seemed to hear his voice reverberating and re- 
 echoing back to London from the Rocky Mountains. Then, with 
 the slightest possible Irish brogue, he would tell a story that would 
 make all Exeter Hall laugh. The next moment, tears in his voice, 
 like an old song, and five thousand men wept. All the while no 
 efi^ort — he seemed only breathing, — 
 
 ' As effortless as woodland nooks 
 Send violets up, and paint them blue.' " 
 
 3. From an Address to the Jury at the White Murder Trial, by 
 Daniel Webster: 
 
 "The circumstances now clearly in evidence spread out the whole 
 scene before us. Deep sleep had fallen on the destined victim and on 
 all beneath his roof. A healthful old man to whom sleep was sweet, 
 the first sound slumbers of the night held him in their soft but strong 
 embrace. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, 
 into an unoccupied apartment. With noiseless foot he paces the 
 lonely hall half lighted by the moon. He winds up the ascent of the 
 stairs and reaches the door of the chamber. He enters and beholds 
 his \actim before him. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned 
 from the murderer, and the beams of the moon, resting on the gray
 
 READING LESSON V 99 
 
 locks of the aged temples, show him where to strike. The fatal blow 
 is given. Without a struggle or a motion the victim passes from the 
 repose of sleep to the repose of death. The murderer retreats, re- 
 traces his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in, 
 and escapes." 
 
 Descriptions 
 
 4. The Home and the Republic, from an address delivered at 
 Elberton, Georgia, in June, 1889, by Henry W. Grady: 
 
 "I went to Washington the other day, and as I stood on Capitol 
 Hill my heart beat quick as I looked at the towering marble of my 
 country's Capitol. The mist gathered in my eyes as I thought of 
 its tremendous significance, — the army, the Treasury', the courts, 
 Congress, the President, and all that was gathered there. I felt 
 that the sun in all its course could not look down upon a better sight 
 than that majestic home of the Republic that had taught the world 
 its best lessons in liberty. 
 
 "Two days afterwards I went to visit a friend in the country, — 
 a modest man, with a quiet country home. It was just a simple, 
 unpretentious house, set about with great big trees, encircled in 
 meadow and field rich with the promise of harvest. The fragrance 
 of pink and hollyhock in the front yard was mingled with the aroma 
 of the orchard and of the garden. The air was resonant with the 
 cluck of poultry and the hum of bees. Inside was quiet, cleanhness, 
 thrift, and comfort. Outside there stood my friend — master of 
 his land and master of himself. There was his old father, an aged, 
 trembling man, happy in the heart and home of his son. I saw the 
 night come down on that home, falling gently as from the wings of an 
 unseen dove. The old man, while a startled bird called from the 
 forest, and the trees shrilled with the cricket's cry, and the stars were 
 swarming in the sky, got the family around him, and taking the old 
 Bible from the table, called them to their knees, while he closed the 
 record of that simple day by calling down God's blessing on that 
 family and that home. 
 
 "While 1 gazed, the vision of the marble Capitol faded. lorgotlcn 
 were its trea.sures and its majesty, and I said, 'O, surely, here in the 
 hearts of the people at last are lodged the strength and responsibili- 
 ties of this government, the hope and promise of this Repubhc. '"
 
 loo ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 5. Description of Robert E. Lee, by John W. Daniel: 
 
 "In personal appearance General Lee was a man whom once to 
 see was ever to remember. His figure was tall, erect, well propor- 
 tioned, lithe, and graceful. A fine head, with broad, uplifted brows, 
 and features boldly yet delicately chiselled, bore the aspect of one 
 born to command. His whole countenance bespoke alike a powerful 
 mind and an indomitable will, yet beamed with charity, benevolence, 
 and gentleness. In his manners, quiet reserve, unaffected courtesy, 
 and native dignity made manifest the character of one who can only 
 be described by the name of gentleman." 
 
 6. Description of Havana, by Senator A. B. Cummins: 
 
 "General Lee, after a cheery conversation, parted the window 
 curtains and invited his visitors to a tiny balcony overhanging the 
 the street. The \aew was enlivening. The Prado was bathed in 
 the effulgence of electric lights, and the statue of Isabella adorning 
 the oblong park fronting the hotel looked like an alabaster figure. 
 All was life and activity. A cool breeze came from the ocean. A 
 stream of well-dressed ladies and gentlemen poured along the Prado — 
 the dark-eyed sefioras and senoritas with coquettish veils, volunteers, 
 regulars, and d\n\ guards, in tasty uniforms, and a cosmopolitan 
 sprinkling of Englishmen, Germans, French, Italians, and other 
 nationalities, Americans being conspicuous. Low-wheeled carriages 
 rattled over the pavements in scores, many filled wath ladies eti masque 
 on their way to the ball. Occasionally the notes of a bugle were 
 heard, and anon the cries of negro newsboys, shouting 'La Lucha!'" 
 
 7. "A Vision of War," by Robert G. Ingersoll: 
 
 "The past rises before me like a dream. Again we are in the 
 great struggle for national life. We hear the sounds of preparation — 
 the music of boisterous drums — the silver voices of heroic bugles. 
 We see thousands of assemblages, and hear the appeals of orators. 
 We see the pale cheeks of women, and the flushed faces of men; in 
 those assemblages we see all the dead whose dust we have covered with 
 flowers. We lose sight of them no more. We are with them when 
 they enlist in the great army of freedom. We see them part with 
 those they love. Some are walking for the last time in quiet woody 
 places, with the maidens they adore. We hear the whisperings and
 
 READING LESSON V loi 
 
 the sweet vows of eternal love as they lingeringly part forever. Others 
 are bending over cradles, kissing babes that are asleep. Some are 
 receiving the blessing of old men. Some are parting with mothers 
 who hold them and press them to their hearts again and again and 
 say nothing. Kisses and tears, divine mingling of agony and love! 
 Some are talking with wives, and endeavoring with brave words, 
 spoken in old tones, to drive from their hearts the awful fear. We 
 see them part. We see the ^\'ife standing in the door \Wth the babe 
 in her arms — standing in the sunlight sobbing. At the turn of the 
 road, a hand waves — she answers by holding high in her loving 
 arms, the child. He is gone, and forever."
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 HOW TO PLAN A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 
 
 Introduction. — A good speaker uses many short 
 stories and descriptions. These two forms of discourse 
 are powerful because they make mental pictures. Dick- 
 ens, as we saw in an earlier chapter, made a deeper 
 impression by his picture of the sufferings of one little 
 child in Edinburgh than he did by the statement that 
 there were thousands of miserable children in London. 
 
 A speaker's purpose in using these forms may be to 
 arouse feeling, as in the case just cited, or it may be merely 
 to make his idea more clear and impressive. Wendell 
 Phillips, for instance, quoted the story of Webster for the 
 purpose of showing that a large man would have more 
 power over his audience than a small one. Grady used 
 a description to make it clear that the strength of the 
 nation is to be found in its homes. 
 
 A good story or description has the same three qualities 
 that are found in a good exposition or argument, namely, 
 unity, coherence, and emphasis. In this chapter we shall 
 learn how to get these three qualities when we make a plan. 
 
 I. Narration 
 
 Unity. — A short story, in order to have unity, must 
 consist of a single incident. This is merely one way of 
 saying that it should occur within a brief space of time, 
 that the action should center about one particular place, 
 and that there should be a central character.
 
 PLAXXING A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 103 
 
 The story should also have a point, or meaning. The 
 speaker should be able to state this point in a theme 
 sentence, although it would not be advisable to do so 
 while telhng the story. This warning is illustrated by 
 the prayer of Henry Van Dyke: "Lord, let me never 
 tag a moral to a story, nor tell a story without a mean- 
 ing." The theme of Curtis's story might be, "The eye 
 of the master artist is correct." The point in Webster's 
 story of the murder was, "The deed was prearranged and 
 committed in a stealthy and cowardly manner." The 
 story of Barbara Frietchie might be condensed into the sen- 
 tence, "The courage and patriotism of Barbara Frietchie 
 compelled even a rebel leader to do her homage." 
 
 Coherence. — The problem of securing a coherent 
 arrangement is not so difficult in a story as it is in the 
 other forms of discourse, since the time order is the natural 
 one to follow. The only danger is that some incident 
 which is not a link in the chain may find a place in the 
 story. In order that the story should move on toward 
 the climax, each happening should be a result of some 
 earlier event and the cause of a later one. Facts which 
 do not help the story along in this way should be omitted, 
 for they interfere with its coherence. 
 
 Emphasis. — The quality of emphasis, as we learned in 
 a previous chapter, means gradually increasing force. It 
 can be gained in a story by reserving the point until the 
 last. The events should be so arranged as to keep the 
 listener in suspense until the climax is reached, at which 
 place the point, or meaning of the story, is revealed. In 
 the story of Couture, the climax is found in the sentence, 
 "Then, with his thumb-nail, he cut quite through the 
 paper." In the story about Webster, "Wc held our
 
 I04 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 breath, thinking where he could go" seems to reveal the 
 point of the story. In Webster's story of the murder, "The 
 fatal blow is given" marks the highest point of interest. 
 
 II. Description 
 
 Unity. — A good description has within it some unifying 
 idea; that is, it leaves with the listener a very definite 
 impression. This result is gained by the fact that the 
 speaker has chosen from among numerous details those 
 which will tend to deepen the impression that he wishes 
 to make. The artist in colors does not paint Nature 
 exactly as it is; he chooses and arranges those features 
 of the landscape which can be fitted into his conception of 
 beauty. So with the descriptive artist: he should not 
 record everything which may be seen, but he should direct 
 attention to those details which tend to make prominent 
 a certain idea. Thus Wendell Phillips, in his description 
 of Webster, might have told us the color of his hair or 
 eyes, but because his purpose was to give an impression 
 of power, he mentioned only the lofty proportions and 
 the brow charged with thunder. In Senator Cummins' 
 description of Havana, the unifying idea is that of life 
 and activity, whereas in Robert Ingersoll's "Vision of 
 War" the central thought is the sadness of farewell. 
 
 Again, a good description, like a good picture, contains 
 a central object of interest. In Dickens' description 
 of the wretched hovel, it is the child in the egg-box; in 
 Grady's picture of the country home, it is the old man 
 with the Bible; in "A Vision of War," it is the wife with 
 the babe in her arms. 
 
 Coherence. — When we studied exposition and argu- 
 ment we learned that one could gain coherence by men-
 
 PLANNING A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 105 
 
 tioning the general before the particular. The same is 
 true of descriptive discourse. The speaker should give 
 a general v^iew before going into details. ]\Ir. Daniel, 
 for example, begins his portraiture of Robert E. Lee with 
 the sentences, "In personal appearance, General Lee was 
 a man whom once to see was ever to remember. His 
 figure, etc." This order is easier to follow and therefore 
 more coherent, because it is the order in which one gains 
 a mental picture of an object which is actually before 
 his eyes. As one approaches a building, for instance, he 
 notices at first glance the general form, size, and color. 
 Later, he observes details. Victor Hugo begins his famous 
 description of the field of Waterloo by stating that it was 
 shaped Hke a capital A. 
 
 In order that the listeners may the more easily follow 
 the description, the speaker should observe the following 
 three rules: (i) he should proceed with the details in 
 some definite order, as, near to far, left to right, etc.; 
 (2) he should not change his own point of view without 
 notifying his audience of the change; and (3) he should 
 not describe details which cannot be seen from the point 
 of view which he has chosen. 
 
 Emphasis. — The quality of emphasis will be present 
 in a description if the most impressive detail is given last 
 and treated at greater length. If the student will again 
 examine Dickens' description of the wretched dwelling 
 in Edinburgh, Grady's sketch of a country home, and 
 Ingersoll's "Vision of War," he will fmd that this i)lan 
 has been followed in each case. The central ligure is 
 mentioned last and more time and greater care is given 
 to its delineation. 
 
 Conclusion. In this chapter we have learned how to
 
 io6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 plan a story or a description in such a way as to secure 
 the three desirable qualities — unity, coherence, and em- 
 phasis. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 How TO Plan a Story or a Description 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Picture-making value. 
 II. Two purposes illustrated. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Narration. 
 
 A. Unity. 
 
 1. Single incident. 
 
 2. Point or meaning. 
 
 B. Coherence. 
 
 1. Time order. 
 
 2. Quality of moving on. 
 
 C. Emphasis. 
 
 1 . Meaning. 
 
 2. Method of gaining. — Illustrations. 
 II. Description. 
 
 A. Unity. 
 
 1. Unifying idea, or impression. 
 
 2. Central object of interest. 
 
 B. Coherence. 
 
 1 . General idea before details. 
 
 2. Three rules for details. 
 
 C. Emphasis. 
 
 I. Necessity of two things. 
 Conchision. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Let the class be divided into three sections. Let 
 each section read one of the following Bible stories: The Sword of 
 the Lord and of Gideon (Judges, vii., 1-22); Absalom, My Son (2 
 Samuel, xviii) ; The Handwriting on the Wall {Daniel, v).
 
 PLANNING A STORY OR A DESCRIPTION 107 
 
 Study the story which has been assigned to you. Be able to tell 
 it in your own words in not more than three minutes. Make a word 
 outline of the stor>' and practice from it as directed in the preceding 
 chapter. The introduction to a story usually includes the time, 
 the place, and the characters. The body may be divided into initial 
 incident, rising action, and falling action. 
 
 Be prepared to answer the following questions about the story 
 which you have studied: 
 
 1. What is the theme of the story? 
 
 2. Is it a single incident, i.e. does it occur within a brief space 
 of time, at a particular place, and does it center about one character? 
 
 3. Is there any event which is not a necessary link in the chain? 
 
 4. What is the climax of the story? Is the point reserved until 
 the last? 
 
 Exercise III. — Reproduce some story or description suggested 
 in the tirst three divisions of Appendix III. Make a word outline 
 as before. If you cannot handle your subject efifectively in two 
 minutes, condense it. Write a theme sentence but, if it is a story, 
 do not use it in the telling. 
 
 Exercise IV. — Imagine that the class is gathered around a camp 
 fire and that each is expected to tell some experience, making it 
 as entertaining as possible. Look for suggestions in divisions four 
 and five of Appendix IIL Prepare by making a word outline and 
 bring the telling within three minutes. 
 
 Exercise V. — Present some idea, using a narrative or description 
 to make the idea more clear and attractive. This was done in Ex- 
 tracts I, 2, and 4 of Reading Lesson V, (pages 97-98).
 
 io8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 READING LESSON VI 
 
 1. From Macaulay: 
 
 "The advocates of Charles the First, Hke the advocates of other 
 malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced, gen- 
 erally decline all controversy about the facts, and content themselves 
 with calling testimony to character. He had so many private virtues! 
 And had James the Second no private virtues? Was Oliver Crom- 
 well, his bitterest enemies themselves being judges, destitute of 
 private virtues? 
 
 "And what are the virtues ascribed to Charles? A religious 
 zeal, not more sincere than that of his son, and fully as weak and 
 narrow-minded, and a few of the ordinary household decencies which 
 half the tombstones in England claim for those who lie beneath them. 
 A good father! A good husband! Ample apologies indeed for fifteen 
 years of persecution, tyranny, and falsehood! 
 
 "We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and we 
 are told that he kept his marriage vow. We accuse him of having 
 given up his people to the merciless inflictions of the most hot-headed 
 and hard-hearted of prelates; and the defense is, that he took his little 
 son on his knee and kissed him. We censure him for having violated 
 the articles of the Petition of Right, after having, for good and valu- 
 able consideration, promised to observe them; and we are informed 
 that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six o'clock in the morning. 
 It is to such considerations as these, together with his Vandyke dress, 
 his handsome face, and his peaked beard, that he owes, we verily 
 believe, most of his popularity with the present generation." 
 
 2. Phillips Brooks, in his address to young men on " The Symmetry 
 of Life," says that the symmetrical life should have three dimensions, 
 length, breadth, and height. By length, he means purpose; by 
 breadth, sympathy for our fellows; by height, love to God. He 
 closes as follows: 
 
 "Do not dare to live without some clear intention toward which 
 your living shall be bent. Mean to do something with all your might. 
 Do not add act to act and day to day in perfect thoughtlessness, never 
 asking yourself whither the growing Hne is leading. But at the same 
 time do not dare to be so absorbed in your own life, so wrapped up
 
 READING LESSON VI 109 
 
 in listening to the sound of your own hurrying heels, that all this 
 vast pathetic music, made up of the mingled joy and sorrow of your 
 fellowmen, shall not find out your heart and claim it and make you 
 rejoice to give yourself for them. And yet, aU the while keep the 
 upward windows open. Do not dare to think that a child of God 
 can worthily work out his own career or worthily serve God's other 
 children unless he does both in the love and fear of God their Father." 
 
 3. W. J. Fox before the first meeting of the Corn Law League, in 
 1843: 
 
 "The supporters of the Corn Laws are very fond of complaining of 
 the long speeches made by the Leaguers against them when they 
 know they have nothing novel to say. Now, I should be very glad 
 to effect a compromise with those objectors. I should be very ready 
 to say to them, 'if you will spare our pockets, we will spare your 
 intellects. If you will allow the people's mouths to be filled, we will 
 abstain from filling your ears with their remonstrances. If you will 
 untax our bread, we will no longer tax your patience.' 
 
 "Even the bread that is given in charity must first pay the tax 
 imposed by these laws; and if, by a royal begging letter, some hun- 
 dreds of thousands of pounds are collected for the poor of Paisley, 
 why, the rapacity of this dominant class must needs step in and take 
 some £30,000 of the money thus bestowed in charity. That Book 
 which we profess to revere tells us to pray for our daily bread; there- 
 fore it cannot possibly teach men to tax our daily bread. There is 
 one precept in that Book with the fulfillment of which these laws 
 directly interfere; there the young man is told to sell all that he has 
 and give to the poor. That precept it is impossible to obey in our 
 day. The Corn Laws have rendered it impossible. It must be altered 
 and in future it will stand: 'Sell all thou hast, and divide the pro- 
 ceeds between the richest and the poorest, between the pauper and 
 the landlord.' "
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE ART OF PHRASING 
 
 Introduction. — What we have already learned about 
 unity, coherence, and emphasis has had to do mainly with 
 the choice and arrangement of ideas. In this chapter we 
 shall learn further how to secure these artistic qualities 
 by the choice and arrangement of words. 
 
 I. Unity 
 
 Meaning of Sentence Unity. — A sentence is said to 
 have unity when it expresses one and only one main idea. 
 It is not hard for the speaker to secure unity when he uses 
 the simple sentence (a sentence with one main clause). 
 Neither is it difficult if he uses the complex sentence (a 
 sentence with one main clause and one or more dependent 
 clauses) ; for the main idea is naturally placed in the main 
 clause. It is when the speaker uses the compound sen- 
 tence (a sentence with two or more independent clauses) 
 that he is likely to violate the principle of unity. 
 
 Correct Use of the Compound Sentence. — There are 
 three sorts of ideas which may be expressed correctly in 
 the form of a compound sentence: (i) A contrast may be 
 so expressed, because the idea of difference furnishes the 
 unifying thought. For example, in the sentence, "You 
 worked, as a statesman, for the enemy, but I worked for 
 my country," the main idea is that the two statesmen 
 worked in different ways. (2) A general idea may be
 
 THE ART OF PHRASING iii 
 
 illustrated by two or more clauses of similar construction. 
 Grady, for instance, said, "Horses that had charged 
 Federal guns marched before the plow; fields that ran 
 red with human blood in April were green with harvest 
 in June." The swift restoration of the South is the 
 one general idea that is illustrated by each of these 
 clauses. (3) Ideas which are equal and very closely re- 
 lated may be united in a compound sentence without mar- 
 ring its unity. Thus, "Webster went down to Faneuil 
 Hall to protest, and four thousand of his fellow W higs 
 went out to meet him." The two acts referred to in this 
 sentence probably occurred at the same time and were 
 equally necessary to the situation that formed the basis 
 of the story. 
 
 Incorrect Use of the Compound Sentence. — There are 
 two ways in which young speakers very commonly form 
 compound sentences that violate the principle of unity. 
 In the first place, in telling a story they are Hable to join 
 that which follows in time to that which precedes by and, 
 and then, or and so. An event which follows, another in 
 time may not be closely enough related to it to be placed 
 in the same sentence with it. 
 
 In the second place, students often form into a com- 
 pound sentence ideas which are related but which are not 
 of equal value: as, "It was a fine day and we went for 
 a walk." Since the fact that "we went for a walk" is 
 the principal information which the speaker desired to 
 give, it should have been placed in the main clause and 
 the idea of the fine day in a dependent clause. The result 
 would have been the comi)lex sentence, "As it was a fine 
 day, we went for a walk."
 
 112 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 IL Coherence 
 
 Connective Words or Phrases. — We have already 
 seen that a speaker may secure coherence by an orderly 
 arrangement of ideas. He may also make his speech hang 
 together by certain tricks of language. Almost every 
 sentence should contain within it some word or phrase 
 which makes reference to a preceding idea. Personal 
 pronouns {them, it, etc.), adjectives {such, these, this, etc.), 
 and conjunctions {while, therefore, and others hsted in 
 Ex. Ill) may be so used as to lead the mind easily from 
 one thought to the next. One may use not only single 
 words but also phrases to indicate the relation between 
 ideas. Lincoln does this in the Gettysburg Address 
 when he says, ^^ But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedi- 
 cate," etc. By this phrase, we are reminded of the nar- 
 rower sense in which he treated the subject of dedication 
 in the preceding sentences. 
 
 Parallel Construction. — By giving to similar ideas a 
 similar or parallel construction, the speaker may help his 
 audience to follow more easily a desired line of thought. 
 Ideas are given a similar construction when the parts of the 
 sentence, such as the subject, predicate complement, and 
 modifiers, are all in the same relative positions. Chapter 
 
 III, Ex. VI, Selection i furnishes an excellent example of 
 the coherent value of this rhetorical method, which was 
 a very prominent feature of Webster's style also. 
 
 Several illustrations may be found in Chapter III, Ex. 
 
 IV, 2, and Ex. V, 2. Let us study one of them. 
 Webster says, "If the prisoner's guilt has been shown 
 and proved beyond all reasonable doubt, you will convict 
 him. If such reasonable doubt of guilt still remains, you
 
 THE ART OF PHRASING 113 
 
 will acquit him." In these two sentences the dependent 
 clause is placed first and the independent clause varies 
 in only one word. Let us change the order of ideas in the 
 second sentence, and note the result. "If the prisoner's 
 guilt has been shown and proved beyond all reasonable 
 doubt, you will convict him. He should, however, be 
 acquitted by you if reasonable doubt of guilt still remains." 
 We see, by this experiment, how much Webster has 
 gained in force, coherence, and rhythmic quality by the 
 use of parallel construction. 
 
 III. Emphasis 
 
 Directness. — Emphasis, or force, may be gained by 
 directness: (i) A direct quotation is more forcible than 
 an indirect quotation: for example, " 'Fire!' commanded 
 Jackson," is more emphatic than, "He commanded them 
 to fire." (2) The active, or direct form of the verb is 
 stronger than the passive form: for example, "He dis- 
 tributed the papers" is more forceful than "The papers 
 were distributed by him." (3) Conciseness gives strength; 
 unnecessary words give weakness. For instance, "He re- 
 turned to the city which he claimed as his birthplace," is 
 weak as compared with, "He returned to his native city." 
 
 Arrangement of Words. — As the important parts of 
 a speech are at the opening and at the close, so it is with 
 a sentence: that which the speaker desires to emphasize 
 should be placed near the beginning or the end of the 
 sentence. Unimportant expressions such as "I think," or 
 "he said," should be placed in the middle of the sentence. 
 
 Emphasis or force can be gained also by the use of 
 climax, that is, by the arrangement of a series of words 
 or phrases in the order of importance, the strongest last.
 
 114 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 This was another favorite device of Webster's. Sev- 
 eral examples are given in Chapter III, Ex. IV, 2, and 
 Ex. V, 2. 
 
 Variety in Sentence Form. — Just as a voice is monoto- 
 nous if it lacks emphasis, or variety in pitch, so one's style 
 is monotonous if the sentences are all built on the same 
 plan. The speaker, then, who would be forceful, or em- 
 phatic, should study the different kinds of sentence forms, 
 together with their adaptability to certain purposes, and 
 should seek to use as great a variety as possible. 
 
 (i) Sentences may be grouped according to grammatical 
 structure. According to this classification they are either 
 declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, or imperative. 
 The declarative form is generally used by young speakers 
 to the exclusion of all the other forms, with a resulting 
 monotony of style. The interrogative form is especially 
 useful to the speaker. He may sometimes use it to intro- 
 duce a thought. Macaulay does this when he asks, "And 
 what are the virtues ascribed to Charles?" He then 
 devotes a paragraph to answering his own question. 
 (Reading Lesson VI, i, H 2, page 108.) Again, a speaker 
 may bring a thought to an appropriate conclusion by 
 the question form. Emerson gains emphasis in this way 
 when, after amphfying the thought that a man should 
 develop his own powers and not try to imitate those of 
 another, he asks, "Is it (the thought) not an iron string 
 to which vibrates every heart? " (Chapter III, Ex. Ill, 2.) 
 When a speaker attempts this latter use of the interroga- 
 tive sentence, however, he must be sure that he has made 
 his point so clear that his hearers can answer the question 
 in only one way — the way in which he wishes them to 
 answer it. The exclamatory sentence finds its proper place
 
 THE ART OF PHRASING 115 
 
 in emotional oratory, but is seldom used in ordinary 
 speechmaking. IMacaulay uses it to express sarcasm. 
 (Reading Lesson VI, i, ^ 2, page 108.) The imperative 
 sentence form increases the emphasis because it enables 
 the speaker to address his hearers directly. It may be 
 used effectively in exhortation at the close of a speech. 
 (Reading Lesson VI, 2, page 108.) 
 
 (2) Sentences may be classified according to length. 
 Short sentences give clearness and simplicity of style. 
 With this purpose in view, they can be used as topic 
 sentences and as definitions. They also give strength, or 
 vigor of style. With this purpose in view, they may be 
 used in the expression of strong feeling or rapid action. 
 A speaker may sometimes gain emphasis by using a short 
 sentence as the last expression in the development of a 
 thought. An excellent illustration of the effectiveness of 
 a short closing sentence is to be found in Reading Lesson 
 V, Selection 7. 
 
 Long sentences are useful as a means of amplifying a 
 thought. By a long sentence, a speaker may give the 
 details which explain a short, general statement. (Read- 
 ing Lesson V, Selection 6.) He may also modify a short, 
 extreme statement. Lincoln, for instance, makes the 
 rather startling claim, "A house divided against itself 
 cannot stand." Then, by the use of severa,! long sen- 
 tences, he proceeds to show exactly what he means by 
 this statement. (Reading Lesson IV, 2.) Again, the 
 exclusive use of short sentences would result in abruptness, 
 whereas an occasional long sentence adds a rhythmic 
 quality which is necessary to a pleasing style. 
 
 (3) Sentences may be classified according to the way 
 in whi( h the ideas are arranged. In a loose sentence, the
 
 ii6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 main idea is stated first, followed by the lesser, or modify- 
 ing ideas. One may say that the weight, in a loose sen- 
 tence, is at the beginning. This kind of sentence is used 
 frequently in the easy, informal style of address. The 
 only danger is that one may continue to add ideas until 
 the sentence becomes rambling. 
 
 In the periodic sentence, the main idea is reserved until 
 the last and is preceded by the lesser, or modifying ideas. 
 In reading a truly periodic sentence, one is unable to grasp 
 the main idea until he has reached the period. One may 
 say that the weight of the sentence is at the end. This 
 kind of sentence is found more frequently in the formal, 
 dignified style of address. Since the tendency to use loose 
 sentences is so strong, it will be well for the student 
 definitely to practice the periodic form. 
 
 In a balanced sentence, there are two ideas of equal 
 importance. One may say that the weight is equal at 
 both ends. A balanced sentence is frequently used to 
 express a contrast. This kind of sentence is pleasing 
 because of its symmetry. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that 
 unity, coherence, and emphasis are gained not only by 
 the choice and arrangement of ideas, but also by the choice 
 and arrangement of words. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Art of Phrasing 
 
 Introduction — Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 1. Unity. 
 
 A. Meaning of sentence unity. 
 
 I. Use of simple, complex, and compound sentences.
 
 THE ART OF PHR.\SIXG 117 
 
 I. .6. Correct use of the compound sentence. 
 
 1. Contrast. 
 
 2. General idea, illustrated. 
 
 3. Ideas which are equal and closely related. 
 C. Incorrect use of the compound sentence. 
 
 1. Events which follow in time. 
 
 2. Ideas which are equal but not closely related. 
 II. Coherence. 
 
 A. Connective words or phrases. 
 
 1 . Words. 
 
 2. Phrases. 
 
 B. Parallel construction. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 2. Example. 
 
 3. Example changed. 
 III. Emphasis. 
 
 A. Directness. 
 
 I The direct quotation. 
 
 2. Active verbs. 
 
 3. Conciseness. 
 
 B. .Arrangement of words. 
 
 1. Important positions in a sentence. 
 
 2. Climax. 
 
 C. \'ariety in sentence form. — Voice. 
 
 1. Grammatical structure. 
 
 2. Length. 
 
 (a) Short. 
 {b) Long. 
 
 3. Arrangement of ideas. 
 
 ((i) Loose. 
 (Z») Periodic, 
 (c) Balanced. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise L — i. Read the text as far as Division II and be able 
 to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 2. Select and check in your book the compound sentences in 
 Reading Lesson \'.
 
 ii8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Exercise II. — Be able in class to repeat one of the narrative 
 speeches which you prepared in connection with Chapter IX. Re- 
 vise the outhne if necessary. Give special attention to sentence 
 unity. Challenge every compound sentence; i.e. watch the ands. 
 As the speeches are given, the class should make note of any com- 
 pound sentences which should not have been so. 
 
 Exercise III. — i. Read Division II and be able to recite from 
 the topical outline. 
 
 2. Review the Gettysburg Address (page 38) and check all 
 ^vords and phrases which refer to a previous idea or which express 
 a relation between ideas. 
 
 3. The following connectives may be classified according to the 
 relation that each expresses between the two ideas which it connects. 
 The relations are: time, result, possibility, comparison, opposition, 
 concession, addition, illustration, reason, summary, etc. Use each 
 correctly in a sentence or sentences, and place in parentheses the 
 name of the relation which is expressed; e.g.: 
 
 He is not able to do it; at any rate he will find it very difficult. 
 (Concession.) 
 
 The class may be divided into three sections, each section pre- 
 paring the sentences for one list. 
 
 I II III 
 
 even if above all in reality 
 
 in conclusion .... also to be sure 
 
 secondly yet as well as 
 
 while accordingly in spite of 
 
 therefore after as a matter of fact 
 
 for instance before meanwhile 
 
 but as a result because 
 
 at least on the contrary of course 
 
 in general besides for that matter 
 
 moreover indeed rather 
 
 nevertheless at the same time still 
 
 for example again furthermore 
 
 hence on the other hand. . . consequently 
 
 when then however 
 
 as soon as somewhat later either. . .or 
 
 thus it follows that neither. . .nor 
 
 although unless for
 
 THE ART OF PHRASING 119 
 
 Exercise IV. — Be able to repeat one of the expository or argu- 
 mentative speeches which you have already prepared. Revise it with 
 special attention to coherence. Seek to gain coherence by the use 
 of parallel constructions and connective words. As the speeches are 
 given, the class should make note of all connective words and ex- 
 pressions. 
 
 Exercise V. — i . Complete the chapter and be able to recite 
 from the topical outhne. 
 
 2. Change to declarative sentences all sentences quoted or referred 
 to under the topic "Variety in Sentence Form (i)." Notice the 
 loss in force. 
 
 3. Find a periodic sentence in Reading Lesson VI, i (page 108), 
 and change it to a loose sentence. 
 
 4. Check all balanced sentences in Reading Lesson VI, i and 3. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Be able to repeat one of the expository or argu- 
 mentative speeches which you have already prepared. Revise it 
 with particular attention to variety of sentence form. Try to have 
 at least one interrogative or imperative sentence. Experiment with 
 balanced and periodic sentences and thus try to increase the effective- 
 ness of your speech. 
 
 Exercise VII. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on 
 any of the following topics: 
 
 1. How to Get Unity in the Choice of a Subject. 
 
 2. How to Get Unity in the Development of a Subject. 
 
 3. How to Plan for Coherence. 
 
 4. How to Plan for Emphasis. 
 
 5. The Best Method of Making a Plan for a Speech. 
 
 6. The DifTcrencc between the Plan for an .'\rgumcnt and the 
 Plan for an Exposition. 
 
 7. Description of the Extempore Method. 
 
 8. Value of the Extempore Method. 
 
 g. The Correct Use of the Compound Sentence. 
 10. \'aricty of Sentence Forms as a Means of Force.
 
 PART III — ARGUMENT AND 
 PERSUASION 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE GAME OF DEBATE 
 
 Introduction. — Now that we have learned how to 
 deliver a speech and have studied the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of composition, we shall be able to apply our knowl- 
 edge and skill to argument and persuasion, two forms of 
 speech which are more difficult in their character. 
 
 These two processes, if we may call them such, are very 
 closely related. Persuasion may be defined as the art of 
 moving men to action. In most instances the persuasive 
 speaker must first convince men that a certain course of 
 action is right and then lead them to feel disposed to act 
 on their convictions. There is occasionally a very success- 
 ful persuasive speech which appeals strongly to the feelings 
 and very little to the reason; that is, it contains little 
 argument. Such might be the speech of a clergyman in 
 urging his congregation to go to the polls and vote for 
 good government; for he would know that his hearers 
 were already convinced as to what was right and needed 
 only to be aroused to action. If, however, a man wishes 
 to secure contributions to a cause, he must first convince 
 his hearers that the cause is a worthy one. If he does not 
 support his appeal to the feelings by sound reasoning, 
 the impulse to act is likely to be of short duration. We 
 see, then, that argument is very frequently the foundation 
 of persuasion.
 
 THE GAME OF DEBATE 121 
 
 In this chapter we shall study (i) the relation of debate 
 to argument, (2) the relation of debate to life, and (3) the 
 value of debate as an exercise in public speaking. 
 
 I. Relation of Debate to Argument • 
 
 Nature of Debate. — Debate may be defined as a game 
 in which two or more people discuss, according to certain 
 rules, some question in real life on which there are differ- 
 ences of opinion. The question may be a simple one, 
 such as, ''Shall our senior class buy a two-dollar or a three- 
 dollar pin?" Or it may be more complex, as, "Should our 
 judges be appointed by the governor or elected by the 
 people?" Honest differences of opinion occur in real 
 life, either because Mr. A. recognizes one series of facts 
 and Mr. B. recognizes another series of facts, or because, 
 while both recognize the same series of facts, each draws 
 a different conclusion therefrom. The winner of the 
 game is the one who is best able to search out the facts 
 supporting the opinion which he has been appointed to 
 uphold and to use those facts in such a way as to convince 
 his audience of their value. 
 
 Argumentative Practice. — The game of debate has 
 been devised to give young people an opportunity to put 
 into practice their knowledge of the rules of argument. 
 It is true that one can learn to argue merely by a study of 
 the rules and by the preparation of individual arguments, 
 but he will develop his powers more rapidly if he will 
 engage in the game of debate. Even though a student 
 does not have the natural al)ility to become a skilled de- 
 bater, he should study and understand the game. One 
 who does not understand the game of football sees only a 
 tumbling mass of boys, while one who does understand it
 
 122 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 watches every move with keen interest. In the same way, 
 one who does not understand the game of debate looks 
 upon it as a bore, while one who does understand it gets 
 from it both pleasure and profit. Because of the fact that 
 the best way to learn to argue is to study the game of 
 debate, all of the instruction in argument given in this text 
 has been addressed to the debater. 
 
 II. Relation of Debate to Life 
 
 Personal Problems. — The study of argumentation 
 and the game of debate have a very close relation to life. 
 We are debating with ourselves every day. We must 
 decide, for instance, whether to go to the party or to stay 
 at home and prepare for an examination. Again, the 
 problem arises, "Shall I take a commercial course and be 
 a business man or shall I study medicine?" In each 
 case, we find that the question has two sides. In the 
 solution of even these practical problems of life, an under- 
 standing of the rules that govern argument will prevent 
 us from being led into error, either by our own false 
 reasoning or by that of others. 
 
 Citizenship. — The practice of debate will tend to make 
 one a valuable citizen in a democratic community. In 
 the first place, it will furnish him with a wide range of 
 information on problems which he will be required to dis- 
 cuss in later life. A student who is interested in debating 
 throughout his high school course may, by means of de- 
 bates prepared by himself or of those presented by his 
 classmates, arrive at a more or less intelligent conclusion 
 upon all the problems that come before the public mind. 
 
 In the second place, debate will assist in the formation 
 of a judicial habit of mind, or the habit of weighing every
 
 THE GAME OF DEBATE 123 
 
 fact before drawing a conclusion. Among those who have 
 debated under efficient guidance, one will seldom find the 
 narrow-minded, prejudiced, or partisan. Neither will 
 he find those who are easily influenced by false political 
 leaders. 
 
 It is sometimes urged against debating that it tends 
 to make a speaker insincere, in that he may be required to 
 speak against his convictions. The fact is that the con- 
 victions which a young person may have on a debatable 
 question are very likely to be mere prejudices which will 
 vanish when the light of knowledge is turned on. We 
 say "on a debatable question" because a question in 
 which all the right is on one side and all the wrong is on 
 the other is not debatable. We could not, for example, 
 debate the proposition, "Resolved, That Mr. A. should 
 throw his garbage into his neighbor's yard." The major- 
 ity of debatable questions deal with reforms or policies. 
 These have their advantages and disadvantages as com- 
 pared with other reforms and policies; so that a thorough 
 and conscientious debater may change his opinion several 
 times before he has exhausted the study of his subject. 
 Sometimes one newly discovered fact will outweigh all 
 the plausible arguments on the opposing side. It is only 
 when we know and have weighed all the facts on both sides 
 that we may be said to have convictions which are worthy 
 of the name. As Mr. G. J. Holyoake says, "Controversy 
 is the pathway to truth and the final test of it." 
 
 The practice of debate will also helj) a student to become 
 a leader among his fellows, because it not only increases 
 his skill as a speaker, but also gives him the necessary 
 foundation for persuasiveness. This claim is supported 
 by the statement <jf the dean of a western law school.
 
 124 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 He says of its graduates, "Those who were athletes en- 
 joyed a brief period of glory while in college, but it is the 
 debaters who are now helping to make the history of 
 the community, state, and nation." 
 
 III. Debate as an Exercise in Public Speaking 
 
 Self-consciousness. — As a valuable exercise in public 
 speaking, debating is unsurpassed. It helps to counteract 
 a tendency to self-consciousness, for the debater's interest 
 in the contest causes him to forget himself. 
 
 Thoroughness. — No other exercise demands so much 
 thoroughness of preparation; this is especially true of 
 the pubHc contest. Prof. W. T. Foster says in his Argu- 
 mentation and Debating, "Often the hard work for a given 
 debate provides the student's first standard for sounding 
 the shallowness of his knowledge on other subjects." 
 Students have sometimes been able to use the thorough 
 work done on a high-school interscholastic debate as the 
 basis for a prize essay or discussion at college. 
 
 Mental Training. — There can be no better training 
 for the mind. The practice of debate, more than any 
 other form of speech-making, compels a wise selection of 
 material. If a speaker has no opponent, he may occupy 
 ten minutes with almost any matter that refers to the sub- 
 ject; but if he debates, he must choose those arguments 
 which will fill his time most profitably. 
 
 Furthermore, it sharpens the wits. The debater must 
 not only think, but he must think quickly. This whole 
 matter is admirably summed up by Edmund Burke, the 
 great parliamentary debater, when he says, "He that 
 wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our 
 skill. Our antagonist is our helper. This amiable con-
 
 THE GAME OF DEBATE 125 
 
 flict with difficulty obliges us to an intimate acquaintance 
 with our subject and compels us to consider it in all its 
 relations. It will not suffer us to be superficial." 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 that the game of debate has been devised to enable stu- 
 dents to apply their knowledge of the rules of argument; 
 (2) that the study of argumentation and debate has a 
 very close relation to life; and (3) that as a valuable exer- 
 cise in public speaking, debating is unsurpassed. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Game of Debate 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Relation between Parts I, II, and III of the text. 
 II. Relation of argument to persuasion. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Relation of debate to argument. 
 
 A. Nature of debate. 
 
 1. Definition illustrated. 
 
 2. Causes of different opinions. 
 
 3. Qualifications of the winner. 
 
 B. Argumentative practice. 
 
 1. Purpose of debate. 
 
 2. Value as compared with the individual speech. 
 
 3. \'alue of understanding the game. 
 II. Relation of debate to life. 
 
 A. Personal problems. 
 
 1. Instances. 
 
 2. Prevention of error. 
 
 B. Citizenship. 
 
 1. Information. 
 
 2. Judicial habit of mind. 
 
 (o) Definition. 
 {b) Insincerity.
 
 126 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 n. B. 2. (b) (i) An undebatable question. 
 
 (2) Character of debatable questions. 
 
 (3) Meaning of "convictions" — Hol- 
 
 yoake. 
 3. Leadership. 
 
 (a) Two reasons. 
 
 (h) Statement by the dean of a law school. 
 III. Debate as an exercise in public speaking. 
 
 A . Self-consciousness. 
 
 B. Thoroughness. 
 
 1. Statement by W. T. Foster. 
 
 2. Use in college. 
 
 C. Mental training. 
 
 1. Selection of material. 
 
 2. Alertness. 
 
 3. Statement of Burke. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE QUESTION 
 
 Introduction. — The subject for discussion is usually 
 called "the question." This is allowable for the reason 
 that there is really a question underlying every debate. 
 For example, we may debate the proposition, "Resolved, 
 
 That High School should adopt a system of student 
 
 government." Involved in this proposition is the ques- 
 tion, "Should High School adopt a system of student 
 
 government?" To this, the affirmative side answers 
 "Yes" and the negative answers "No." 
 
 The subject for discussion is always phrased, however, 
 in the form of a complete statement. In the first place, 
 for the purposes of formal debating, the statement is more 
 convenient than the question form. The first, or affirma- 
 tive speaker, sui)ports or affirms the proposition ; the second, 
 or negative speaker, denies it; and the remaining speakers 
 follow alternately, according as they affirm or deny. 
 In the second place, the statement form can be made 
 more clear and expHcit than a topic. It would be impos- 
 sible to debate successfully the topic, "Student Govern- 
 ment"; for it does not state whether the dispute con- 
 cerns college, high-school, or grammar-school students, 
 or whether it concerns all schools or one particular school. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn: (i) that in phrasing a 
 question for debate, one should seek to throw the burden 
 of proof upon the affirmative, avoiding, if possible, a
 
 128 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 negative statement; and (2) that he should aim to make 
 the question evenly balanced; that is, he should try to 
 give to each side an equal chance. 
 
 I I. Burden of Proof 
 
 Supported by Affirmative. — The question should be 
 so worded as to place the burden of proof upon the affirm- 
 ative. In questions of present-day interest, this can be 
 done by forcing the affirmative to advocate a change or, 
 in general, to uphold what is supposed to be the unpopular 
 side. This arrangement furnishes an incentive to earnest 
 work on the part of the affirmative, since it is assumed that 
 the general public is in favor of things as they exist, else 
 they would already have been changed. The affirmative 
 has the work of attacking the old and of convincing the 
 pubhc of the value of the new. To make a speech in 
 defense of present conditions before they have been 
 attacked would be a very tame affair. The first affirma- 
 tive would find it very difficult, for example, to introduce 
 in an interesting way the proposition, '^Resolved, That we 
 should make no change in our method of school govern- 
 ment." 
 
 Shifting the Burden. — If the first affirmative has done 
 his work well, he is said to have shifted the burden of 
 proof to the negative; that is, he has convinced the public 
 that a change is necessary. The negative then has the 
 exhilarating task of trying to shift the burden back again. 
 He can do this in one of two ways : he may attack the new 
 plan and defend present conditions, or, as is more com- 
 monly the case, he may admit the evil of present conditions 
 and present what he considers a better remedy. If each 
 speaker does his duty, the burden of proof continues to
 
 THE QUESTION 129 
 
 be shifted alternately from one side to the other. The 
 winners of the debate, from the standpoint of argument, 
 are those who, in the minds of the judges, have finally 
 shifted the burden to the other side. Since the burden of 
 proof rests in the beginning upon the affirmative, the main 
 speeches are so arranged as to give the affirmative the 
 first chance to shift the burden to the negative. For 
 the same reason, the affirmative is given an opportunity 
 to close the debate. This is accomplished by reversing 
 the order in which the speakers appear for refutation; 
 that is, the refutation speeches are so arranged that 
 negative speakers lead and affirmative speakers follow. 
 
 Objection to Negative Statement. — In phrasing a 
 question so that the burden of proof will fall upon the 
 affirmative, it is sometimes difficult to avoid a negative 
 statement. Let us consider the question, "Resolved, That 
 the Garrison bill providing for a larger army should not 
 be supported." This statement has its merit and its 
 demerit. It is good in that it places the burden of proof 
 upon the affirmative, for it was phrased at a time when 
 public opinion was strongly in favor of increased prepared- 
 ness. In other words, it forced the affirmative to advocate 
 a peace poHcy when there seemed to be particular need 
 of defense. The negative phrasing of the question, how- 
 ever, is likely to be a source of confusion to both speakers 
 and audience. It is necessary constantly to reverse one's 
 mental machinery; for the affirmative side takes a nega- 
 tive attitude toward the topic of discussion, while the 
 negative side takes a positive attitude. Possibly a better 
 statement of the question would be, "Resolved, That 
 the Oarrison bill providing for a larger army should be 
 condemned." It must be admitted that, ev^n with this
 
 I30 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 statement of the question, the negative idea is present, — 
 this is made necessary by the situation, — but the affirm- 
 ative phrasing does in a measure lessen the difficulty. 
 
 II. Balance 
 
 A good question for debate is evenly balanced; that is, 
 it is so worded that the burden of proof does not rest too 
 heavily upon the affirmative. The change that is advo- 
 cated should not be too extreme or radical. Let us take 
 as an example the question of our jury system. It is 
 freely admitted that there are many evils in our jury 
 system. For this reason the following question has 
 frequently been debated : "Resolved, That the jury system 
 should be abolished." This radical statement of the prob- 
 lem is, however, unfair to the affirmative. The change is 
 too sweeping. It would do violence to our most cherished 
 guarantee of freedom. A better debate would result from 
 the consideration of some reform within the jury system: 
 as, "Resolved, That nine out of twelve men should be 
 able to render a verdict in all criminal cases." This 
 proposition, although it provides for a much less radical 
 change, places a sufficiently heavy burden on the affirma- 
 tive, for we are all inclined to feel that a man should not 
 suffer the extreme, or death, penalty unless all who hear 
 the evidence concur in the verdict. No debatable ques- 
 tion is absolutely balanced. We can only seek to approxi- 
 mate a true balance. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that, in 
 phrasing a question for debate, we should seek (i) to 
 place the burden of proof upon the affirmative and (2) 
 to give to each side, as nearly as possible, an equal oppor- 
 tunity.
 
 THE QUESTION 131 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Question 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Reason for calling the subject a question. 
 II. Why phrased as a statement. 
 
 A. As compared with a question. 
 
 B. As compared \nih a topic. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 
 Body. 
 
 I. Burden of proof. 
 
 A. Supported by affirmative. 
 
 1. How accomplished. 
 
 2. Value. 
 
 B. Shifting the burden. 
 
 1. Two methods of the negative. 
 
 2. Winners. 
 
 3. Order of speeches. 
 
 C. Objection to negative statement. 
 
 1. Example. 
 
 ((7) Its merit and demerit. 
 
 2. Partial remedy. 
 II. Balance. 
 
 A. Example of an extreme statement. 
 
 B. Example of a less extreme statement. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 
 
 Introduction. — If one is asked to make a speech of 
 greater length than three or four minutes, whether it be 
 a debate or some other form of pubhc address, it will 
 probably be necessary for him to search for material out- 
 side of his own mind. It is quite common on such occa- 
 sions for young students to seek help from their older 
 friends. This is profitable and right, provided that the 
 student has first done some extensive reading on the sub- 
 ject. Pubhc spirited men usually count it a pleasure to 
 assist a bright, energetic student if he knows exactly on 
 what phases of the subject the student desires information. 
 The latter should not, however, pester his elders for 
 "points" until after he has made use of the available 
 written material. 
 
 The most successful speakers give much time to re- 
 search work. The following quotation from Alexander 
 Hamilton shows how much drudgery and patient effort 
 lie back of the pubhc utterances of great men: "Men 
 give me credit for some genius. All the genius I have Hes 
 in this: when I have a subject in hand, I study it pro- 
 foundly. Day and night it is before me. I explore it in 
 all its bearings. My mind becomes pervaded with it. 
 Then the effort which I make is what the people are pleased 
 to call the fruit of genius. It is the fruit of labor and 
 thought." The material to be studied is often very
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 133 
 
 extensive, especially upon debatable questions. There 
 are subjects discussed on high-school platforms, the 
 literature of which might well occupy a student for an 
 entire year. Because of this, it is usually best to divide 
 one's time into two parts, giving the first half to research 
 work and the second half to the arrangement and phrasing 
 of one's ideas. 
 
 Since the time is always Hmited and since the material 
 is often, seemingly, without limit, the speaker must learn 
 those methods of research which will secure the best 
 results with the greatest economy of effort. We shall 
 learn, therefore, in this chapter: (i) how to find material 
 in a library, (2) how to select that which is most useful, 
 and (3) how to take notes in the best way. 
 
 I. How TO Find References 
 
 References are those books, magazines, or pamphlets 
 which deal with the subject to be investigated. 
 
 General Idea. — The speaker should try first to get 
 a general idea of his subject. This is quite as necessary 
 as it is for the artist to sketch in the general outline of his 
 picture before he fills in the details. In some instances 
 one may be able to find this general idea in his own mind, 
 Webster, when asked how he prepared himself on a sub- 
 ject, said, "I first examine my own mind searchingly, to 
 find out what I already know about the subject, and then 
 I read to learn what I don't know about it." 
 
 In other cases the speaker may consult general reference 
 works which handle the whole subject in a brief way. If 
 the subject is historical, literary, or scientific, lie may 
 consult the encyclopedia (ir textbooks. If the subject is 
 debatable, he may use, in addition, books of briefs. (See
 
 134 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Appendix XII, No. VII, General References on Debatable 
 Subjects.) 
 
 The debater should be warned against using "brief 
 books" in any other way than to get a general view of 
 the subject. He should not copy and use the arrange- 
 ment of ideas; for, in the first place, the arrangement is 
 seldom ideal and, in the second place, an original plan 
 helps to give individuality and force to a speech. Again, 
 the student should never use a book of briefs as authority 
 for a statement. 
 
 Special References. — There are several kinds of ref- 
 erences which give the detailed facts bearing on a subject 
 and which we may call special references. 
 
 (i) Magazine Articles. — These can be found by con- 
 sulting the Reader's Guide, which is a continuation of 
 Poole's Index from the year 1900. The references for each 
 month are issued in pamphlet form. At the end of the 
 quarter, the references for the year up to that time are 
 issued in pamphlet form. At the end of each year and 
 again at the end of every five years they are issued in 
 bound form. 
 
 The student should look up magazine references in 
 some regular order. He will then know whether or not 
 he has found all of the best articles. It is usually well 
 to begin with the recent ones and work backward, for the 
 latest articles give more up-to-date and therefore more 
 valuable information. The speaker should not be de- 
 terred from this course by the fact that it is often difficult 
 to secure late copies. New magazines are usually sent to 
 the bindery in January and in July, and sometimes are 
 not returned for two or three months. If one is looking 
 for material about the fife and works of a great character,
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 135 
 
 it is well to find the date of his death and to look for 
 magazine references in the Reader'' s Guide for that year. 
 
 The thoroughness with which the student can search 
 for and copy references will, of course, depend upon the 
 amount of time which is allotted to the work. It is 
 always well to look for references under several different 
 topics connected with the subject: for example, material 
 on the "Recall of Judges" may be found under Judiciary, 
 Courts, Laws, Recall of Decisions, etc. If one has but a 
 short time for preparation, he should copy only those refer- 
 ences whose titles indicate that they bear directly on the 
 subject. If, on the other hand, one is gathering material 
 for a pubhc debate and has from four to six weeks to 
 study the subject, he should copy all references. He may 
 sometimes find, in this way, embedded in a seemingly 
 irrelevant article, a fact or idea that will suggest an 
 original line of argument. 
 
 (2) Books. — Most of these can be found by consulting 
 the card catalogue. There will be found, also, on the 
 reference shelves, books which give valuable statistics, 
 such as. Census Reports, Statesman's Year Book, World 
 Almanac, Who's Who, etc. All of the larger libraries 
 keep files of the Congressional Record. It requires sev- 
 eral volumes to record the proceedings of each session of 
 Congress. These are all given the same volume number, 
 but are designated Part I, Part II, etc. If the student 
 wishes to find a Congressional debate on his subject, he 
 should first look in the index, which will be found in the 
 last part of each volume, or of the set for each session. 
 The index will state the numbers of the Senate or House 
 Bills which deal with the subject. He should then turn 
 to the list of House Bills or of Senate Bills, which are
 
 136 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 • 
 
 arranged according to number, to find the pages upon 
 which the debate is recorded. 
 
 (3) Pamphlets. — The United States government issues 
 in pamphlet form a great deal of material upon debatable 
 subjects. This, if it is not already in the library, can be 
 obtained without charge through the Congressman from 
 one's district. Organizations which have been formed for 
 the purpose of urging or opposing some reform usually 
 publish literature which they are glad to distribute. 
 Material of this kind is very abundant on such subjects 
 as prohibition, woman suffrage, initiative and referendum, 
 socialism, ship subsidy, naval increase, labor, etc. The 
 student can usually secure the addresses of the publishing 
 houses of these organizations through some one in his 
 own town who is interested in the subject. 
 
 How to Copy References. — Those who have worked 
 much in libraries have discovered that it saves time to 
 be systematic in the copying of references. It is well to 
 copy each reference on a separate card or slip of paper. 
 These slips will be much more convenient than a note- 
 book list of references if one is working in a large library, 
 for the librarian can place the slip in each volum.e as he 
 secures it. This plan permits the student to proceed with 
 his reading while the librarian is searching for other 
 volumes. The separate slips are especially useful to de- 
 baters. When a student has read a reference, he may 
 label it Affirmative, Negative, or General, star it if it is 
 particularly good, and pass it on to his colleagues. 
 
 One should copy practically all of the items given either 
 in the Reader's Guide or in the card catalogue. These 
 consist of the name of the author, title -of the article, 
 name of the magazine, volume, page numbers, and date.
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 137 
 
 Nearly all of these items are essential for finding purposes. 
 The exact date is necessary in the case of all recent and 
 therefore unbound magazines and of such magazines 
 as begin each issue with page one. In addition, 
 some of them help to guide the student as to the order 
 in which he should read, and are especially necessary if 
 one wishes to send to a state library for material. The 
 name of the author will enable the student to read, early 
 in his study, those authors which he finds to be best 
 informed. The title often indicates whether or not the 
 article bears directly upon the subject, and the date will 
 show whether the material is likely to have become 
 obsolete by the movement of events. 
 
 II. How TO Select Material 
 
 The student must next learn to select from a large 
 mass of material that which will be most»useful to him. 
 It has been suggested in the preceding paragraph that 
 the student read his best material first, using as a guide 
 in this matter the name of the author, the title, and the 
 date. 
 
 Skimming. — Let us now consider the manner of read- 
 ing a given magazine or book. The student should 
 learn to skim thoughtfully and systematically. Sir 
 Francis Bacon says in his quaint way, "Some books are 
 to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be 
 chewed and digested; that is, some books arc to be read 
 only in parts, others to be read but not curiously, and some 
 few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention." 
 What Bacon says of books as a whole is true also of parts 
 of books and of articles. An unpracticed reader will often 
 plod along through an article in painstaking fashion.
 
 138 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 taking copious notes. Several hours may thus be con- 
 sumed on some abstruse, unintelHgible, and perhaps irrel- 
 evant material, while clear, spicy reading matter must be 
 left untouched for lack of time. 
 
 In order to determine whether or not an article is valu- 
 able, the student should read the introduction, the con- 
 clusion, and the first and last sentence of each paragraph. 
 In order to determine whether or not a book is valuable, 
 the student should read the conclusion and consult the 
 table of contents and index. When he has found useful 
 material, he should read it carefully and thoughtfully. 
 "The careful reader is not necessarily the slow reader, but 
 he who knows when to slacken his pace and read slowly." ^ 
 
 III. How TO Take Notes 
 
 A speaker must not only learn how to read, but he must 
 study the art of note-taking. Those who shirk this duty 
 are likely, in their speeches, to deal in generalities because 
 they are at a loss for facts to support their assertions. 
 
 Substance of the Thought. — Good notes record the 
 substance of the thought and not the exact words of the 
 author. To repeat the words of an author without giving 
 him due credit is literary theft, for, while an author cannot 
 copyright an idea, he does copyright the mode of its ex- 
 pression. This does not mean that it is criminal to notice 
 and incorporate in one's own statements some particularly 
 apt phrase, for it is only by thoughtful attention to these 
 matters that the student can improve his own style of 
 expression. One's speech should not, however, be a 
 mosaic made up of sentences and phrases culled from the 
 writings of others. 
 
 1 Laycock and Spofford, Manual of Argumentation, pp. 34-35.
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBR-\RY 139 
 
 Again, if the exact words of others are copied and 
 repeated, the speech will lack the personal stamp which is 
 necessary to a forceful style. Sentences which are read- 
 able and pleasing when seen on the printed page seem 
 stilted and bookish when they fall from the Hps of a high- 
 school boy or girl. If the student wishes to make an 
 effective speech, he should assimilate the ideas — make 
 them a part of himself. Dr. R. M. Alden has said on 
 this point, "The Congressional Record and the North 
 American Review may reappear in debate in a new form, 
 just as last week's meat and vegetables reappear this week 
 in bone and blood and muscle." 
 
 Above all, the habit of repeating the words of others 
 prevents a student from developing originality. As Mr. 
 Esenwein says, "The young speaker who dares to be him- 
 self, casting artificiahty to the winds, will begin by making 
 less brilliant speeches than his companions who copy 
 and crib, but his power and invention will increase and he 
 will end far in advance of his less original rivals." 
 
 Intelligible although Condensed. — Well-taken notes 
 have both of these quahties. The members of a debating 
 team should be able to read and understand each other's 
 notes. If taken in the correct form, they may be filed and 
 will be usable many years after they are written. In 
 order that notes may be valuable in this way, both to 
 oneself and to others, it is necessary (i) that the penman- 
 ship be legible, (2) that only such abbreviations be used 
 as are generally understood, and (3) that each idea be 
 expressed in a brief but complete sentence. 
 
 It is quite possible to write one's notes in complete 
 sentences and yet condense them. The degree of conden- 
 sation depends upon the value of the material. One
 
 I40 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 brief sentence may give the substance of a long sentence, 
 of a paragraph, or of a whole article. Sometimes only 
 the whereabouts of a fact, story, or illustration need be 
 noted. This should be done if the speaker is uncertain 
 as to whether he will be able to use the material. In 
 making note of an exact quotation, it is desirable to omit 
 all unnecessary portions, indicating such omissions by 
 dotted hnes. The student should take care, however, in 
 making such excerpts, not to misrepresent the thought 
 of the author. 
 
 Written Form. — Certain matters of form, if carefully 
 observed, will add greatly to the usefulness of one's notes. 
 The student should take his notes on small slips of paper, 
 one point to the page, with a keyword indicating the main 
 idea of the note in the upper left corner. This system 
 will help him greatly in the arrangement of his speech 
 material. He can easily shift his slips so as to bring to- 
 gether all notes on one phase of the subject. It will also 
 enable him, if a debater, to sort out readily on the platform 
 any notes which are hkely to be useful to him in refutation. 
 
 At the foot of each note should be placed the complete 
 reference consisting of the author, magazine, volume, exact 
 page, and date. This should be done for several reasons. 
 In the first place, the student may wish to re-read the 
 article, if it should prove later to be of greater value than 
 he had at first thought, or if some one else should challenge 
 the accuracy of his statements. In the second place, the 
 name of the author and the date are often important fac- 
 tors in determining the value of one statement as compared 
 with opposing statements. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned (i) how 
 to find material in a Hbrary, (2) how to select the best
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 141 
 
 and read it with the least possible waste of time, and (3) 
 how to take notes so that they will be of the greatest 
 service. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 How TO Use a Libraiiy 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. When to consult one's elders. 
 II. Time necessar>' for research work. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. How to find references — definition. 
 
 A. General idea. 
 
 1. Compared to the artist. 
 
 2. His own mind. 
 
 3. General references. 
 
 ((?) Encyclopedias, etc. 
 {b) Books of briefs. 
 
 (i) Warning against two'uses of. 
 
 B. Special references. 
 
 I. IMagazine articles. 
 
 2. 
 
 («) 
 
 Reader' 
 
 s Guide — how issued 
 
 ib) 
 
 Regular order. 
 
 
 (i) 
 
 Recent first. 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 Bindery. 
 
 
 (3) 
 
 Great character. 
 
 {c) 
 
 Thoroughness. 
 
 
 (i) 
 
 Topics. 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 Short time. 
 
 'U.nrX 
 
 (3) 
 
 Long time. 
 
 XJOO* 
 
 {a) 
 
 is. 
 Catalogue. 
 
 (b) 
 
 Reference works. 
 
 (c) 
 
 Congressional Record. 
 
 Pamphlets. 
 
 
 («) 
 
 Government. 
 
 (b) 
 
 Organizations.
 
 142 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 I. C. How to copy references. 
 
 1. Use of slips in a library. 
 
 2. Use by debaters. 
 
 3. Items and reasons for copying them, 
 II. How to select material. 
 
 A. Skimming. 
 
 1. Bacon. 
 
 2. Fault of unpracticed readers. 
 .3. How to determine the value of 
 
 (a) An article. 
 lb) A book. 
 ni. How to take notes. 
 
 A. Substance of the thought. 
 
 1. Literary theft. 
 
 2. Personal stamp — Alden. 
 
 3. Development — Esenwein. 
 
 B. Intelligible although condensed. 
 
 1. Two reasons. 
 
 2. Three requisites. 
 
 3. Possibility of condensation. 
 
 (a) Degree. 
 
 {b) Whereabouts. 
 
 (c) Exact quotations. 
 
 C. Written form. 
 
 1. Method described. 
 
 2. Usefulness of system. 
 
 (a) In arrangement. 
 {b) In refutation. 
 
 3. Complete reference. 
 
 (o) Reasons. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Study the text as far as Division II, and be able to 
 recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Using the Reader's Guide for suggestion, choose 
 some topic upon which you can find at least three magazine articles. 
 Copy those references which, from their titles and authors, appear 
 to be the best. Assure yourself that they can be found in the Ubrary. 
 Use the Guides of several years if necessary.
 
 HOW TO USE A LIBRARY 143 
 
 Exercise III, — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able 
 to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 Exercise IV. — Begin your reading and note-taking. Let each 
 note resemble the following: 
 
 NAVAL WASTE 
 
 American na\y during 15 years has cost 45% more than 
 Kaiser's. Yet his is more powerful. 
 
 Geo. W L. Meyer, former Sec'y of Navy. 
 N. Am. Rev. 201: 248, F, '15. 
 
 Exercise V. — Using the material which you have gathered in 
 your reading, arrange a word outline for a speech of not less than three 
 and not more than four minutes. Try to follow instructions given in 
 Chapter \'1I with regard to unity, coherence, and emphasis in arrange- 
 ment. Do not fail: (i) to write a salutation; (2) to write a theme 
 sentence; and (3) to write, if your speech is to be an argument, sub- 
 ordinate sentences for each reason or proof. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Be able to deliver the speech arranged in Ex. V. 
 Notes as well as word outline should be ready to hand in. 
 
 Exercise VII. — Written Review. Be able to write in class on 
 any of the following topics: 
 
 1. Relation Between Argument and Persuasion. 
 
 2. The Game of Debate. 
 
 3. Relation of Debate to Life. 
 
 4. Value of Debate as an Exercise in Public Speaking. 
 
 5. The Burden of Proof. 
 
 6. A Balanced Question. 
 
 7. How to Get a General Idea of a Subject. 
 
 8. How to Find Special References, as Magazines, Books, and 
 Pamphlets. 
 
 (). Selection of Material. 
 ID. Characteristics of (iood Notes. 
 1 I Convenience of Form.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 
 
 Introduction. — Analysis, according to the dictionary, 
 is the study of a thing in its separate parts and in their 
 relation to each other. A chemist, for instance, analyzes 
 a drop of water. He finds that it is composed of hydrogen 
 and oxygen in the proportion of two to one. The debater, 
 in like manner, analyzes a question for discussion. In so 
 doing, he finds that certain facts and arguments have a 
 bearing on the question and that others do not. He 
 finds also that some facts and arguments have a more 
 important bearing than others. 
 
 The process of analysis in debate has been divided, for 
 the convenience of discussion, into two steps. The first 
 step is to find out what the question means. The second 
 step is to find the main issue, or main difference of opinion. 
 The two steps are not, however, separate and distinct, 
 the one being completed before the next is begun. A 
 change in the definition may make necessary a change in 
 the main issue and vice versa. As will be seen more 
 clearly later on, the process of analysis must be continuous. 
 The successful debater begins to analyze the question 
 when it is first presented to him and he does not cease 
 the process until the public discussion has been completed. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn (i) how to find the defini- 
 tion of the question, (2) how to find the main issue, and (3) 
 the value of careful analysis.
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 145 
 
 I. The Definition 
 
 Dictionary. — It is sometimes necessary to look up 
 certain words in the dictionary. This is, however, only 
 a beginning. The definition of a debatable question is 
 usually a much larger matter than the definition of the 
 words contained in the statement of the question. 
 
 Circumstances. — The real definition of the question 
 is to be found in the circumstances out of which the ques- 
 tion has arisen. As we learned in a previous chapter, the 
 aftirmative in most debatable questions is required to 
 advocate some change. Let us consider again the propo- 
 sition, "Resolved, That High School should adopt a 
 
 system of student government." Evidently, the term 
 which needs definition in this question is "a. system of 
 student government." Now there have been, perhaps, 
 as many systems of student government as there have 
 been experiments in this line. It is the privilege of the 
 afilrmative to advocate the very best possible plan, while 
 it is the duty of the negative to discover the flaws in this 
 best plan. In order to determine which is the best plan, 
 the debater must study the history of the question; that 
 is, he must compare all the plans which have been tried 
 or suggested and select the best features of each. 
 
 If a debater finds his definition in this way, in the his- 
 tory of the question, it will not be far-fetched, or made 
 to favor his own side unreasonably. This is an important 
 point, since an effort to define a question unreasonably 
 is more likely to injure than to help a debater. (See 
 Appendix V(a) for a brief definition of student govern- 
 ment.) 
 
 An attcmi)t t(^ answer the following questions will help
 
 146 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 a debater to find this best and at the same time reasonable 
 plan: (i) What circumstances seem to make a change 
 necessary? (2) Just what, in detail, is the change which 
 is generally advocated? (3) Just how, in detail, would 
 this change work out in practice? 
 
 Prepared by Both Sides. — The negative as well as 
 the affirmative speakers should prepare a definition, for 
 they cannot attack a plan intelligently until they know 
 what it is. Again, a question is sometimes so worded that 
 its meaning is not clear. In such a case, both sides should 
 come to a previous agreement as to the definition, or 
 should agree to re- word the question; for a quibble on 
 the platform about the meaning of the question is very 
 unpleasant for the audience. 
 
 II. The Main Issue 
 
 Clash of Opinion. — The first step toward finding the 
 main issue, or main difference of opinion, is the preparation 
 of a clash of opinion. This consists of a list of points on 
 both sides of the question and should be in process of 
 construction all the time that the debater is thinking 
 and reading about his question. These points should be 
 arranged on a large sheet of paper in such a way that the 
 affirmative points, very briefly phrased, shall appear in 
 the left-hand column, each with its negative answer op- 
 posite, in the right-hand column. The clash may con- 
 sist of from five to twenty-five differences of opinion, 
 the number depending upon the thoroughness with which 
 the debater has studied his subject. 
 
 The student should be careful to place no point in either 
 the affirmative or negative list which can be admitted by 
 the other side, for such a point will be of slight value.
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 147 
 
 If, for example, the affirmative were advocating a national 
 prohibition law, the negative might admit the evil effects 
 of liquor and yet favor another method of abolition. If 
 the negative should take this position and should advocate 
 gradual abolition by means of state laws, all discussion 
 by the affirmative of the evils of intemperance would be 
 a waste of time. 
 
 Again, it is well for the debater, in preparing a clash, 
 to distinguish between points and proofs, placing them in 
 separate columns, for a point which lacks proof will have 
 very little weight in the final discussion. 
 
 Statement of the Issue. — When the clash of opinion 
 is completed, the student should try to decide which is 
 the strongest point on each side. This will be the one 
 which is most difficult for the other side to answer. He 
 should then write a question in which he asks which has 
 more weight, the strongest point on the affirmative or 
 the strongest point on the negative. This question will 
 be the statement of the main issue. Let us again seek an 
 illustration in the question on student government. The 
 claim on the affirmative which seems most difficult to 
 refute is that, even if the experiment is not altogether 
 a success in itself, it will give to young people a practical 
 training in citizenship. On the other hand, the strongest 
 negative point seems to be that there is a likeHhood of 
 indifference and failure and consequently of the demoraliz- 
 ing influence of bad government. The main issue, there- 
 fore, is, "Will the possible benefit from practical training 
 in citizenship outweigh the danger of the demoralizing 
 influence of bad government?" (See Appendix V. </.) 
 The question, "Do the advantages of student government 
 outweigh its disadvantages?" would not be a good state-
 
 148 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 ment of the main issue, since it does not show that the 
 debater has analyzed his question and found the strongest 
 point on each side. 
 
 A question occasionally arises in which it seems almost 
 impossible to reduce the subject matter of discussion to 
 one main issue. If one can succeed in his attempt, how- 
 ever, he will be well rewarded for the efifort expended, for 
 it will help to give to his work unity and definiteness of 
 aim. If the debater is content to discuss several issues, he 
 may prove his case from one standpoint and fail to prove 
 it from the other standpoints. If, however, he can 
 reduce the matter to one main issue and prove that, he 
 has won his case, for he has practically shown that the 
 strongest point on one side is stronger than the strongest 
 point on the other side. The main issue, then, expresses 
 what the affirmative must prove or what the negative must 
 disprove in order to win his case. 
 
 III. Value of Analysis 
 
 The constant mental sifting and weighing process, called 
 analysis, which goes on while one is defining his question 
 and finding the main issue, is of inestimable value to the 
 debater. 
 
 Saves Time. — In the first place, it is a great "time- 
 saver," for it prevents him from taking elaborate notes on 
 phases of the subject which are relatively unimportant. 
 This is true even though he may be unable to arrive at a 
 satisfactory analysis until near the close of his preparation. 
 
 Makes Him a Stronger Match for Opponent. — The 
 value of studying both sides of the question is not gen- 
 erally appreciated by young debaters. A successful law- 
 yer once said that if he should be granted but two
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 149 
 
 hours to prepare for a case in court, he would begin by 
 studying his opponent's case. This part of the prepara- 
 tion has been compared to the work of a commander before 
 a battle. Prof. G. P. Baker says, ''The skillful forensic 
 worker, like a great general, will wish to know, not only 
 where all the weak places as well as the strong in his own 
 lines are, but, as far as possible, the weak and strong places 
 in the enemy's lines." Another parallel may be found in 
 football. A team must know not only its own plays but 
 also those of its opponents, for plays must be anticipated 
 in order to be blocked. 
 
 The finding and presenting of the main issue may also 
 be compared to the drawing of the lines on a tennis court, 
 beyond which no contestant may play for gain. If he 
 sends a ball outside the court, his play merely adds to the 
 points of his opponent. In like manner a debater may 
 seek to make his case appear strong by appeals to senti- 
 ment or by flights of rhetoric, but if his opponent has 
 clearly and truly outlined the main issue, the false argu- 
 ments will fall on the audience like the tennis ball in the 
 outer court, only to add to the score of his opponent. 
 
 Unifies Aim. — Clear analysis enables a debater to 
 know his own main purpose. As O'Connell says, in his 
 Irish way, "If you aim at nothin', you will be sure to 
 hit it." To use another figure, the debater who analyzes 
 well knows which slant the nail must take and can "hit 
 it on the head" with force. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 that the debater should formulate a reasonable definition 
 by studying the history of the question; (2) that, in order 
 to arrive at the main issue, In- sliould make a clash of 
 opinion, choose the strongest point on each side, and ex-
 
 I50 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 press these two points in the form of a question; (3) that 
 this sifting and weighing process of the mind is of great 
 value to the debater. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Analysis of the Question 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 
 A. Cliemist. 
 
 
 B. Debater. 
 
 II. 
 
 Two steps. 
 
 
 A. Relation to each other. 
 
 
 B. Continuous process. 
 
 III. 
 
 Advance summary. 
 
 Body. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 The definition. 
 
 
 A. Dictionary. 
 
 
 B. Circumstances. 
 
 
 I. The best plan. 
 
 
 2. Reasonable plan. 
 
 
 3. Three questions. 
 
 
 C. Preparation by both sides. 
 
 
 I. Necessity. 
 
 
 2. Previous agreement. 
 
 II. 
 
 The main issue. 
 
 
 A. Clash of opinion. 
 
 
 I. Description of. 
 
 
 2. Admitted points. 
 
 
 3. Proof. 
 
 
 B. Statement of the issue. 
 
 
 I. How framed. 
 
 
 {a) Illustration. 
 
 
 {b) Incorrect example. 
 
 
 2. Value of one issue as compared with several 
 
 III. 
 
 Value of analysis. 
 
 
 .4 . Saving of time — notes.
 
 AN.\LYSIS OF THE QUESTION 151 
 
 III. B. ]\Iakes him strong match for opponent. 
 
 
 I. Lawyer. 
 
 
 2. Parallel case to 
 
 
 (0) Commander, 
 
 
 (b) Football. 
 
 
 3. Tennis court. 
 
 c. 
 
 Unifies aim. 
 
 
 I.- O'Connell. 
 
 
 2. Nail. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter as far as Division III and be able 
 to recite from the topical outline. Read carefully in connection with 
 this chapter the specimen definition and clash of opinion on "Student 
 Government." (Appendix V (a)). 
 
 Exercise II. — A question from Appendix VI may be chosen for 
 class study. Each student should read one or more general references 
 on the class subject and prepare a tentative definition, clash of opin- 
 ion, and main issue. 
 
 Exercise III. — Finish the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. Copy references on the class question.
 
 152 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 READING LESSON VII 
 
 1. From a speech by Macaulay in favor of the Reform Bill of 1832: 
 
 "What facts does my honorable friend produce in support of his 
 opinion? One fact only, and that a fact which has absolutely nothing 
 to do with the question. The effect of this reform, he tells us, would 
 be to make the House of Commons more powerful. It was all-power- 
 ful once before, in the beginning of 1649. Then it cut off the head 
 of the king, and abolished the House of Peers. Therefore, if it again 
 has the supreme power, it will act in the same manner. Now, sir, 
 it was not the House of Commons that cut off the head of Charles 
 the First; nor was the House of Commons then all-powerful. It had 
 been greatly reduced in numbers by successive expulsions. It was 
 under the absolute dominion of the army. A majority of the House 
 w'as willing to take the terms offered by the king. The soldiers turned 
 out the majority; and the minority, not a sixth part of the whole 
 House, passed those votes of which my honorable friend speaks, — 
 votes of which the middle classes disapproved then, and of which they 
 disapprove still." 
 
 2. From Macaulay: 
 
 "Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down 
 as a self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they 
 are fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the 
 old story, who resolved not to go into the water until he had learned 
 to swim. If men are to wait for liberty until they become wise and 
 good in slavery, they may indeed wait forever." 
 
 3. From a discussion of "Property in Slaves," by William Ellery 
 Channing: 
 
 "But this property, we are told, is not to be questioned on account 
 of its long duration. 'Two hundred years of legislation have sanc- 
 tioned and sanctified negro slaves as property.' Nothing but respect 
 for the speaker could repress criticism on this unhappy phraseology. 
 We wiU trust it escaped him without thought. But to confine our- 
 selves to argument from duration; how obvious the reply! Is in- 
 justice changed into justice by the practice of ages? Is my victim 
 made a righteous prey because I have bowed him to the earth till
 
 READING LESSON VII 153 
 
 he cannot rise? For more than two hundred years heretics were 
 burned, and not by mobs, not by lynch law, but by the decrees of 
 councils, at the instigation of theologians, and with the sanction of 
 the laws and religions of nations; and was this a reason for keeping 
 up the fires, that they had burned two hundred years? In the Eastern 
 world, successive despots, not for two hundred years, but for twice 
 two thousand, have claimed the right of life and death over millions, 
 and, with no law but their own will, have beheaded, bowstrung, 
 starved, tortured unhappy men without number who have incurred 
 their wrath; and does the lapse of so many centuries sanctify murder 
 and ferocious power? " 
 
 4. Patrick Henry in the Virginia House of Representatives: 
 
 "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell [cries of 'Treason, 
 Treason '3, and let George III profit by their example." 
 
 5. From Lincoln's Cooper Union Speech: 
 
 "Some of you delight to flaunt in our faces the warning against 
 sectional parties given by Washington in his Farewell Address. Less 
 than eight years before Washington gave that warning he had, as 
 President of the United States, approved and signed an act of Con- 
 gress enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the Northwestern Terri- 
 tory, which act embodied the policy of the government, upon that 
 subject, up to and at the very moment he penned that warning; and 
 about one year after he penned il, he wrote Lafayette that he con- 
 sidered that prohiljition a wise measure, expressing in the same con- 
 nection his hope that we should at some time have a confederacy of 
 free states. 
 
 "Bearing this in mind and seeing that sectionalism has since 
 arisen upon this same subject, is that warning a weapon in your hands 
 against us or in our hands against you? Could Washington himself 
 speak, would he cast the blame of that sectionalism upon us who 
 sustain his policy, or upon you who repudiate it? We respect that 
 warning of Washington and we commend il to you, together wilh his 
 example pointing to the right ;L|)pli( atioii of il." 
 
 6. WcbsUr ill ihc While Murder Trial: 
 
 "The prisoner's counsel catch at supposed flaws of evidence, or 
 bad character (jf witnesses, without meeting the case. If I In- fac I is
 
 154 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 out, why not meet it? Do they mean to deny that Captain White 
 is dead? One would almost have supposed even that, from some 
 remarks that have been made. Do they mean to deny the conspiracy? 
 Or, admitting a conspiracy, do they mean to deny only that Frank 
 Knapp, the prisoner at the bar, was abetting in the murder, being 
 present, and so deny that he was a principal? If the conspiracy is 
 proved, it bears closely upon every subsequent subject of inquiry. 
 Why do they not come to the fact? Here the defense is wholly in- 
 distinct. The counsel neither take the ground nor abandon it. They 
 neither fly nor light. They hover. But they must come to a closer 
 mode of contest. They must meet the facts and either deny or ad- 
 mit them." 
 
 7. Speech in the House of Representatives, February i, 1894, 
 by Thomas B. Reed: 
 
 "Mr. Pinchot compared our present consumption of wood to the 
 case of a man in an open boat at sea, cut adrift from some shipwreck 
 and with but a few days' supply of water on board. He drinks all 
 the water the first day, simply because he is thirsty, though he knows 
 that the water will not last long. The American people know that 
 their wood supply will last but a few decades. Yet they shut their 
 eyes to the facts."
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 PROOF AND ITS TESTS 
 
 Introduction. — Students sometimes have the mis- 
 taken idea that debate consists of affirmations on one side 
 and denials on the other. This attitude was humorously 
 illustrated by a cartoon sketched by a student to adver- 
 tise a pubhc debate. Two disreputable looking charac- 
 ters were depicted, each shaking his fist in the face of the 
 other. One was saying, " 'Tis," and the other, " 'Tain't." 
 When the debaters themselves take this attitude, the 
 contest descends from the level of a debate to that of a 
 dispute. 
 
 We who have studied this text, however, have already 
 learned something of the importance of proof. We have 
 learned that the burden of proof rests at the beginning of 
 the debate upon the affirmative; that he must not only 
 state that his plan is a good one, but must also prove it. 
 We have found that, if the affirmative proves his plan 
 to be a good one, the burden of proof is thereby shifted 
 to the negative, and that he, in turn, must not only deny 
 his opponent's claim but also disprove it. It is quite 
 evident from these facts that the one who finally fails to 
 shift back the burden of proof loses the debate. 
 
 When we look further into the nature of proof, we fmd 
 that it is made up of two elements: (i) facts and (2) rea- 
 soning about facts. In attempting to refute the proof of 
 an opponent, we may either question the facts or admit
 
 156 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the facts and question the reasoning about the facts. 
 The latter method was a favorite with Lincoln. If 
 a student would be a successful debater he must ques- 
 tion, or test, his own facts and reasonings as well as those 
 of his opponent. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn: (i) how to test facts 
 (to find whether or not they are true), (2) how to test 
 reasoning (to find whether or not it is sound), and (3) how 
 to test statements which are unsupported either by fact 
 or by reason. 
 
 I. How TO Test Facts 
 
 Knowledge. — We should first ask, "Is the authority 
 for the fact in a position to have an exact knowledge of the 
 subject?" Let us suppose, for example, that the discus- 
 sion concerns the ability of the Filipinos for self-govern- 
 ment. The testimony of a traveler who had passed but a 
 few days in the Philippine Islands would be less reliable 
 than that of a missionary who had resided there for a 
 dozen years. 
 
 Prejudice. — We should next ask, "Is the authority 
 for the fact unprejudiced?" To illustrate: If Mr. A., a 
 Congressman and the author of a bill providing for 
 Philippine independence, should to go the Islands and 
 return with further evidence of the ability of the Fili- 
 pinos for self-government, it might be suspected that he 
 had found ability because he was looking for it; that his 
 testimony was colored by his preconceived notions. If, 
 on the other hand, he should on his return withdraw his 
 support from the measure, saying that he had found 
 evidence of their inability, his testimony would be partic- 
 ularly valuable, since it would be in direct opposition to
 
 PROOF AND 'ITS TESTS 157 
 
 his former ideas and would indicate absolute independence 
 of judgment. 
 
 Research. — The debater, in order to test authorities 
 in this way, must trace back his facts from the news- 
 paper to the reliable magazine and from the magazine to 
 the still more reliable government report. He must also 
 consult Who's Who for the purpose of determining the 
 standing of his authority. It may be said here that re- 
 searches of this nature are not necessary in the case of 
 statements which would generally be accepted as true, 
 but only for those proofs which are essential to the main 
 issue and which might be disputed by one's opponent. It 
 is better in the final debate to cite a few authorities and 
 establish their trustworthiness than it is to quote many 
 opinions, for an authority is of no value unless the audi- 
 ence recognizes him as such. 
 
 '&^ 
 
 II. How TO Test Arguments 
 
 Method in General. — We may test arguments by try- 
 ing to see whether the proof and the statement proved can 
 be sensibly joined by the word because. When we do 
 this, we fmd that our minds are so constructed that they 
 will tell us whether or not the reasoning is sound. For 
 example, it is sensible to say, "Mary's father should allow 
 her to go to the party, because it will not interfere with 
 her lessons." On the contrary, it is not sensible to say, 
 "Mary's father should allow her to go to the party be- 
 cause they are going to decorate with the society colors." 
 
 General Conclusions. We shall first consider how to 
 test general conclusions, or generalizations, as they are 
 called. Let us suppose that a clubwoman says, "High- 
 school boys do nothing but smoke and play pool out of
 
 158 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 school hours." If her reasoning were stated in full, it 
 would read: "High-school boys do nothing but smoke 
 and play pool out of school hours, because I know two or 
 three high-school boys who do nothing else." When her 
 reasoning is analyzed in this way, it is easily seen that she 
 has based her general conclusion on an insufficient number 
 of special instances. Her generalization can be disproved 
 by the following facts: (i) many boys excel in athletics; 
 (2) others make high scholarship records; and (3) still 
 others earn their own way through school. 
 
 Special Conclusions : Simple Method. — We shall next 
 consider how to test special conclusions. Every special 
 conclusion is based either directly or indirectly upon some 
 general conclusion. Therefore, if we can find the general 
 conclusion and can disprove that, we shall have disproved 
 the special conclusion which is based upon it. There are 
 three forms of reasoning which are simple in their nature 
 and which lead to special conclusions. 
 
 (i) From a Known Fact to an Unknown Effect. — The 
 first form reasons from a known fact forward to an un- 
 known effect. A debater may say, for instance, "Stu- 
 dent government would cause the pupils to feel a sense of 
 responsibility." His reasoning stated in full would read: 
 "Student government would cause the students to feel 
 a sense of responsibility, because all who have responsibility 
 placed upon them rise to meet it.'' This general statement, 
 however, can be disproved, for some students will take 
 advantage of their student officers as they do of their 
 teachers, and some student officers in order to become 
 popular will favor their friends. 
 
 (2) From a Known Fact Back to its Unknown Cause. — 
 The second form reasons from a known fact backward
 
 PROOF AND ITS TESTS 159 
 
 to its unknown cause. A Republican campaign orator, for 
 
 example, may say, "The prosperity of the year- was 
 
 caused by the high tariff." His reasoning stated in full 
 would read, "The prosperity was caused by the high tariff, 
 because what follows is caused by what precedes." This 
 general statement, however, could be disproved by the 
 Democratic orator who might show that high tariff had 
 not always been followed by prosperity, or that the pros- 
 perity of the year had been caused by particularly 
 
 good crops, or that prosperity had existed before the high 
 tariff' law was passed. 
 
 Resemblance. — The third form of reasoning argues 
 from resemblance. There are two ways in which the de- 
 bater may use this form. He may cite a parallel case or 
 he may draw an analogy. Tf a debater should say, 
 "Student government will fail in V High School because 
 it failed in X High School," he would claim to cite a case 
 which is parallel. If stated in full his reasoning would 
 read, "The failure of student government in X High 
 School proves that it will fail in Y High School, because 
 whatever occurs once will occur again under similar circum- 
 stances." Now it may not be possible to disprove this 
 general statement, but it may be possible to prove that 
 the cases are not similar, or parallel. It may be shown, 
 for example, that the system of government in X High 
 School differs in some essential particular from the system 
 proposed for Y High School. 
 
 Let us next study an example of analogy. A high- 
 school debater once said, "To adopt the English cabinet 
 system in America would i)e like trying lo transj^lant a 
 full-grown tree; the result would be disastrous." His 
 reasoning if stated in full would read: "The adoption
 
 i6o ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 of the English cabinet system in America would be dis- 
 astrous, because if two tilings resemble each other in one 
 respect, they are likely to resemble each other in another 
 respect. The cabinet system, like a tree, was planted 
 and developed in one place. It could not, therefore, be 
 made to grow in another place." His opponent answered 
 with another analogy based upon the same generalization. 
 He said, "We do not propose to transplant the English 
 system to America; we propose merely to choose those 
 features of the English system which are most valuable 
 and to engraft them upon the American system. Every- 
 one knows that a graft produces better fruit than the 
 parent tree." This by-play serves to show us that, by 
 analogy, each debater could illustrate his point of view, 
 but that neither of them could prove his contention. In 
 other words, for the purpose of illustration analogy is 
 very valuable; for the purpose of proof it is worthless. 
 
 Special Conclusions : Complicated Methods. — There 
 are three methods of disproving special conclusions which 
 are more complicated than those just considered. 
 
 The first method is called reducing to an absurdity. By 
 this method, the speaker finds the general statement upon 
 which the reasoning is based, assumes it to be true, and 
 applies it to a case that reveals its absurdity. For ex- 
 ample, a legislator once said, "I oppose prohibition because 
 it would deprive saloon men and others of their property." 
 If stated in full, his reasoning would read: "Prohibition 
 is wrong because men should be allowed to own that which 
 injures the public." His opponent in debate applied this 
 general statement to a case that made it seem absurd. He 
 said, "If you are right, then we should not confiscate the 
 property of a man who sells milk from a tubercular cow."
 
 PROOF AND ITS TESTS i6i 
 
 The second method is called turning the tables. By this 
 method, a debater turns an argument of his opponent to 
 his own advantage. Lincoln made use of this kind of 
 logic in his Cooper Union speech. (Reading Lesson VII, 
 5, page 153.) The Southerners had said, in substance, 
 "According to Washington's Farewell Address, the North 
 stands condemned." Stated in full, their reasoning would 
 read: "Washington condemns the North because he 
 condemns all sectionalism." Lincoln turned this general 
 statement with greater force against his opponents, saying, 
 "Then Washington condemns you even more than he con- 
 demns us, for you would bring about sectionalism in the 
 interests of slavery, and he was opposed to slavery." 
 
 The third method is called putting one^s opponent in 
 a dilemma. This can be done when the opposing speaker 
 is inconsistent. Again we find an example in the debates 
 of Abraham Lincoln. His opponent. Judge Stephen A. 
 Douglas, before the election of 1856, reasoned: "The 
 national government should not prohibit slavery in the 
 territories, because the people in the territories have a right 
 to vote slavery up or down.'''' After the election, he reasoned : 
 "A man has a right to hold his slave even in a territory, 
 because slaves are property.'' Lincoln took the two 
 general statements on which Judge Douglas had based 
 his conclusions and showed that they were inconsistent. 
 "Judge Douglas," he said, "is claiming that a thing can 
 be lawfully prohibited where it has a lawful right to stay." 
 This keen analysis of his arguments placed the "Judge" 
 in a dilemma; for, if he abandoned his first argument, he 
 would lose the votes of Northern Democrats; while if 
 he abandoned the second argument, he would lose the 
 votes of Southern Democrats. When, however, a debater
 
 i62 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 places before his opponent two courses of action, either of 
 which would be disastrous, he must be careful that there 
 is no third alternative by which his opponent may escape. 
 
 III. Unsupported Statements 
 
 In our attempt to test statements, we may meet with 
 those which are supported neither by fact nor by reason- 
 ing. Let us consider two such types of statements. 
 
 "Begging" the Question. — A debater is said to beg 
 the question when he assumes as true the very thing which 
 it is his duty to prove. The most common way to "beg" 
 the question is to call the policy of one's opponent by an 
 uncomplimentary name. For example, the opponent of 
 city ownership of street railways may say that it is "social- 
 istic." The debater in favor of city ownership, on the 
 contrary, may show: (i) that everything which people do 
 in common, as street-cleaning, etc., is socialistic in a good 
 sense; (2) that the whole debate is being held to determine 
 whether or not city ownership of street railways goes too 
 far in the direction of pure socialism; (3) that in calHng 
 the policy "socialistic" in a bad sense, the first debater is 
 merely assuming what it is his duty to prove. 
 
 Ignoring the Question. — A debater ignores the question 
 when he fails to meet the issue. His fault may be due to 
 the fact that he has not analyzed the subject and does not 
 understand the issue. Under these circumstances, he is 
 likely to raise objections to a plan of action but will fail to 
 show that these objections outweigh its merits. Again, he 
 may ignore the issue intentionally because he knows that 
 his case is weak. In such a circumstance, he is likely to 
 substitute for proof an appeal to prejudice or sympathy. 
 
 It is only necessary for the opponent to point out this
 
 PROOF AXD ITS TESTS 163 
 
 situation to the audience. Macaulay exposes this fallacy 
 in his attack on the advocates of Charles I, when he says, 
 "We accuse him of having broken his coronation oath 
 and we are told that he kept his marriage vow." 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned (i) that 
 we can test a fact by considering the nature of the author- 
 ity for the fact. We have learned (2) that we can test 
 reasons by trying to see whether the proof and the state- 
 ment proved can sensibly be joined by the word because. 
 We first applied this method to general statements. When 
 we apphed it to special statements, we found that these 
 were always based upon some general statement and that 
 if the general statement could be disproved, the special 
 statement which was based upon it would thereby be 
 disproved. We have learned (3) that we can test un- 
 supported statements by showing that the speaker is 
 either "begging" or ignoring the question. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Proof and Its Tests 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Difference between a dispute and a debate. 
 II. What we have already learned of the importance of proof. 
 III. Two elements in proof. 
 I\'. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. How to lest facts. 
 
 A. Knowledge of authority. — Example. 
 
 B. Prejudice. — Two examples. 
 
 C. Necessity of research. 
 
 I. \'aluc of a few good authorities. 
 II. How to test arguments. 
 A. Melhofl in general. 
 
 I. Natural working of the mind.
 
 1 64 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 II. B. General conclusions. 
 
 1. Conclusion of clubwoman. 
 
 2. Reasoning in full. 
 
 3. Answer. 
 
 C. Special conclusions — based upon general statements. 
 
 1. Simple method. 
 
 {a) Known fact to unknown effect. 
 
 (i) Responsibility. 
 {h) Known fact to unknown cause. 
 
 (i) Prosperity and tarifT. 
 ((■) Resemblance. 
 
 (i) Parallel case. 
 
 a. Student control in X High 
 School. 
 (2) Analogy. 
 
 a. Cabinet system. 
 
 2. Complicated methods. 
 
 (a) Reducing to an absurdity. 
 
 (i) Prohibition. 
 {b) Turning the tables. 
 
 (i) Sectionalism, 
 (c) Dilemma. 
 
 (i) "Squatter sovereignty" and the 
 "Dred Scot" case. 
 
 (2) Third alternative. 
 
 III. Unsupported statements. 
 
 A. "Begging" the question. 
 
 I. Street railways. 
 
 B. Ignoring the question. 
 
 1. Failure to analyze. 
 
 2. Intentional. 
 
 3. Macaulay. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — i. Read the chapter as far as the topic "Special 
 Conclusions — Simple Methods," and be able to recite from the 
 topical outHne. 
 
 2. A mistake in reasoning is called a fallacy. Point out the fallacy 
 in each of the following:
 
 PROOF AND ITS TESTS 165 
 
 a. A small boy said to his uncle, "KeSp away from that 
 
 horse because white horses kick." 
 i. A hundred years ago it was held that women were not 
 
 mentally capable of mastering the higher branches 
 
 taught in the universities. 
 c. Scholarly men do not make good political leaders. 
 
 3. Continue reading on the class subject. 
 
 Exercise II. — i. Continue the reading of the chapter as far as 
 the topic "Special Conclusions — Complicated Methods," and be 
 able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 2. Point out the fallacy in the follo\\-ing special statements. 
 Write out first the general statement upon which each is based and 
 then disprove it. What kind of reasoning is used in each case? 
 
 a. If you get your feet wet, you will "catch a cold." 
 h. Vou have a cold because you did not take your over- 
 coat last night. 
 
 c. A national referendum should be adopted in the United 
 
 States because it has been successful in Switzerland. 
 
 d. A republic cannot rule a colony successfully any more 
 
 than a debating society could bring up a child cor- 
 rectly. 
 
 3. Continue reading on the class subject. 
 
 Exercise III. — i. Complete the reading of the chapter and be 
 able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 2. Classify each of the arguments in Reading Lesson VII (pages 
 152-154); also the following: 
 
 a. A lawyer said, "A corporation cannot make an oral 
 contract because it has no tongue." The judge 
 replied, ".According to your argument, a corporation 
 cannot make a written contract because it has no 
 hand." 
 
 h. The I'.ihie, Mark ii: 27-33. 
 
 c. Jn a debate on the question, "Resolved, Tliat Cleve- 
 
 land's policy with regard to Venezuela should be 
 approved," a debater said, "Cleveland's policy was 
 mere jingoism." 
 
 d. One of the stork arguments against woman suflrage 
 
 is that it will break up the home. 
 
 3. Contiiuie reading 011 liic (lass subjcrl.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE BRIEF 
 
 Introduction. — The debater, after analyzing his ques- 
 tion and testing his proofs, must give to his subject matter 
 the best possible arrangement. The more anxious a 
 speaker is to accompHsh a definite purpose, the more nec- 
 essary it is that he have a good organization. This fact 
 is attested to by many writers and speakers. Austin 
 Phillips says, "A skeleton is not a thing of beauty; but it 
 is a thing which, more than any other, makes the body 
 erect and strong and swift." Again, John Quincy Adams 
 says, "You will find hundreds of persons able to produce 
 a crowd of good ideas upon any subject for one that can 
 marshal them to advantage. Disposition is to the orator 
 what tactics are to the miUtary art." 
 
 We learned in Chapter VII some of the principles which 
 govern the planning of a speech. All of these can and 
 should be applied to the arrangement of a brief, or outline 
 for a debate. 
 
 In this chapter we shall study (i) the general structure 
 of a brief, (2) certain rules for form, and (3) the best 
 method of partitioning the material between or among 
 the speakers. 
 
 1. General Structure of a Brief 
 
 Introduction. — The introduction to a brief should 
 consist of a short statement of the analysis of the question;
 
 THE BRIEF 167 
 
 that is, a statement of the delinition, necessary historical 
 facts, points admitted by both sides, and the main issue. 
 The aim of the introduction is to make the situation clear 
 to the audience. For this reason, the first affirmative 
 speaker is the only one who handles the introduction to 
 the brief in the final debate. It is necessary, however, 
 that the negative speakers prepare an introduction to 
 their brief also, as this will enable them either to agree 
 or disagree intelligently with the analysis given by the 
 first affirmative speaker. 
 
 Body. — The body of the brief, or the argument proper, 
 contains the subject matter used by all of the speakers 
 on one side. The greater part of this chapter will treat of 
 the best method of handling this subject matter from the 
 two standpoints of form and arrangement. 
 
 Conclusion. — Although the conclusion which each 
 speaker prepares for his own speech should be the sub- 
 ject of much thought and care, the conclusion to the brief 
 is a very simple matter. It contains merely a summary 
 of the main divisions. 
 
 II. Rules for Form 
 
 There are certain rules for form in the making of a brief 
 which, if followed, will increase its value not only for the 
 debater himself but also for others. 
 
 Relative Importance. — The first rule is: The relative 
 impor lance of each idea in the brief should be indicated by 
 its position on the page and by the symbol which precedes it. 
 The most important general or inclusive statements are 
 begun at the margin and are preceded by Roman numer- 
 als. The next most imi)ortant are indented about half 
 an inch atid are preceded by cai)ital letters. Further
 
 1 68 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 subordination is indicated by further indention and the 
 use of other symbols. The following series of symbols 
 is in general use: I, A, i, (a), (i), a. 
 
 If the material following any one symbol is more than 
 sufficient to fill one line, care must be taken to begin 
 the remaining words, not at the margin, but immediately 
 below the word following that particular symbol. In 
 this way, the space at the left of the page is kept clear 
 for the larger headings only, and the reader is able to 
 determine, at a glance, the relative importance of the 
 points. For the same reason, all preceding symbols should 
 be repeated at the top of each page. 
 
 Complete Sentences. — The second rule is: Each idea 
 should be expressed in a complete sentence. This rule is 
 necessary for the reason that topics do not clearly indicate 
 the character of the argument. If a debater, for instance, 
 places in a brief on "Student Government" merely the 
 topic "Sense of responsibility," he does not indicate 
 whether he wishes to claim that student government is 
 likely to create a sense of responsibility or whether he 
 wishes to claim that it is not likely to do so. In this way 
 the reader is unprepared for what is to follow. If a brief 
 is correctly phrased it will indicate, although in con- 
 densed form, the exact position of the debater on each 
 point. 
 
 Thought Relation. — The third rule is : The thought 
 relation between any point and its subordinate points must 
 be expressed by for, or because; that is, all subordinate 
 points or facts bear the relation of proof to those state- 
 ments under which they are placed. This, as we learned 
 in Chapter VII, Division III, is the essential difference 
 between the plan for an argument and the plan for an
 
 THE BRIEF 169 
 
 exposition. The rule does not, therefore, apply to the 
 introduction to a brief which is in the nature of an 
 explanation and should contain no argument. 
 
 Refutation, if inserted in the brief, should be governed 
 by the same rule. The argument to be refuted should be 
 clearly stated and then disproved. For example, one 
 might find the following in an affirmative brief on "Woman 
 Suffrage": 
 
 I. The claim that women are not well informed on public ques- 
 tions should have little weight, for 
 
 a. Experience has shown that, as soon as women have 
 been granted the franchise, they proceed, quite as gen- 
 erally as do men, to inform themselves. 
 
 If subordinate statements must prove those under 
 which they fall, it is evident that each statement in a brief 
 must contain not more than one idea; for it would be 
 impossible to arrange subordinate points so that they 
 would prove two propositions at the same time. For 
 instance, it would be incorrect to state in a brief, "The 
 new plan would be safer and cheaper than the old one," 
 for the subordinate facts which would tend to prove the 
 one merit would not tend to prove the other. 
 
 IIL How TO Partition the Material 
 
 Young debaters frequently divide the material so that 
 each speaker is expected to handle three or four points. 
 This is confusing to the audience. The subject matter 
 should be j)artitioned between two speakers or among 
 three speakers in such a way that each speech will have 
 unity, or, in other words, so that each speaker will be 
 required to support only one main proposition. 
 
 Reasonable Practicable Partition. — Dr. Alden in his
 
 lyo ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 text, The Art of Debate, has suggested a partition which 
 works well for three speakers in many questions: 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 1. X is a reasonable plan. 
 
 2. X is a practicable plan. 
 
 3. There is no better plan. 
 
 Negative 
 
 1. X is not a reasonable plan. 
 
 2. X is not a practicable plan. 
 
 3. Y is a better plan. 
 
 This better plan which the negative is permitted to 
 suggest is called its constructive case as distinguished from 
 its destructive attack upon the case of the affirmative. 
 Although the last negative speaker may deal at length 
 with this constructive case, the first negative speaker, 
 when he introduces the argument for his side, should 
 give some idea of its nature, since it would be unfair to 
 give the affirmative no opportunity to consider it until 
 the close of the debate. 
 
 The scheme noted above might be adapted to a two- 
 speaker team as follows: 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 1. There is no more reasonable plan than X. 
 
 2. There is no more practicable plan than X. 
 
 Negative 
 
 1. Y is a more reasonable plan. 
 
 2. Y is a more practicable plan. 
 
 Partition Based upon the Main Issue. — It is frequently 
 possible for a two-speaker team to deal with the main
 
 THE BRIEF 171 
 
 issue from two standpoints. Let us suppose that the 
 question is: ''Resolved, That capital punishment should 
 be abolished." Analysis will show that the main issue 
 in this question is: "Will the benefit to individuals out- 
 weigh the possible injury to society?" The debate then 
 might be partitioned as follows: 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 1. The abolition of capital punishment would be of great value 
 
 to the individual. 
 
 2. The danger to society from the abolition of capital punishment 
 
 would be very slight. 
 
 Negative 
 
 1. Life imprisonment as compared with capital punishment would 
 
 be of slight value to the individual. 
 
 2. The injury to society from the abolition of capital punishment 
 
 would be very great. 
 
 Another example of a partition based upon the main 
 issue will be found in the brief on "Student Government." 
 (Appendix V, b.) 
 
 Time Element. — In making a partition, the debater 
 must also consider the amount of time which is necessary 
 to develop each portion of the material. It must be 
 remembered that the first affirmative will need about 
 one-third of his time to present an analysis of the question. 
 If the negative side is not permitted to have an additional 
 refutation speech, the last negative speaker must plan to 
 use a large portion of his time for this purpose. Under 
 these circumstances, it is necessary that the first affirma- 
 tive and last negative speakers be assigned points that 
 require less extensive handling than other points. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have studied (i) the
 
 172 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 general structure of a brief, (2) three rules for form 
 which it is necessary to follow in order to make the brief 
 readable, and (3) the best methods of partitioning the 
 material. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Brief 
 JiilroJitction. 
 
 I. The value of organization. 
 
 A. Phillips. 
 
 B. Adams. 
 
 II. Review of Chapter VH, Divisions I and III. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. General structure of a brief. 
 
 A. Introduction. 
 
 1. What it consists of. 
 
 2. Its aim. 
 
 3. Why prepared by negative speakers. 
 
 B. Body. 
 
 I. What it contains. 
 
 C. Conclusion. 
 
 I. What it contains. 
 II. Rules for form. 
 
 A. Relative importance. 
 
 1. How indicated. 
 
 2. Where to place the second line of a point and 
 
 why. 
 
 3. Repetition of preceding symbols. 
 
 B. Complete sentences. 
 
 1. Reason for the rule. 
 
 2. Example. 
 
 C. Thought relation — how expressed. 
 
 1. Exception and reason for it. 
 
 2. Refutation. 
 
 3. One idea only in each statement. 
 
 (a) Example.
 
 THE BRIEF 173 
 
 III. How to partition the material. — Unity. 
 
 A. Reasonable-practicable partition. 
 
 1. Arranged for three speakers. 
 
 (a) Constructive case — when introduced. 
 
 2. Arranged for two speakers. 
 
 B. Partition based on the main issue. 
 
 1. Question of capital punishment. 
 
 2. Question of student government. 
 
 C. Time element. 
 
 1. First affirmative. 
 
 2. Last negative. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — i. Read the chapter as far as Division II and be 
 able to recite from the topical outline. Include in your recitation a 
 review of the indicated portions of Chapter VII. 
 
 2. Read the specimen brief on "Student Government" (Appendix 
 V, b). Find in it one example of coherence gained by arrangement 
 and one example of emphasis gained by arrangement. 
 
 Exercise II. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able 
 to recite from the topical outline. Notice that the specimen brief 
 follows the directions given in the text as to form. 
 
 Exercise III. — i. Write a complete introduction to a brief on 
 the class question, revising, if necessar>', the definition and main issue 
 which you framed in connection with Chapter XIV. 
 
 2. Write also a partition for a two-speaker team on both sides of 
 the question. This will consist practically of a theme sentence for 
 each speaker. Study the reasonable-practicable partition and the 
 partition based on the main issue, in order to determine which would 
 be best for this particular question. 
 
 3. Study your clash of opinion to see whether there are any 
 valuable points which, according to your partition, have not been 
 assigned to one or the other of the speakers. 
 
 Exercise IV. — Using the material which you have gathered on 
 the subject, make a brief for the side to which you have been assigned. 
 Arrange it for two speakers. In so doing, lake into consideration all 
 of the suggestions made in this chapter. Place in parentheses after 
 each proof the reference from which you obtained the fact.
 
 174 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Exercise V. — Working with your colleague, prepare a brief which 
 will include the material gathered by each of you, and which will 
 be, as far as possible, satisfactory to both. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Be able to write in class on any of the following 
 topics: 
 
 1. How to Define a Question. 
 
 2. How to Find the Main Issue. 
 
 3. Value of Analysis. 
 
 4. How to Test Facts. 
 
 5. How to Test Arguments. 
 
 6. Cause and Effect. 
 
 7. Argument from Resemblance. 
 
 8. Reducing to an Absurdity. 
 
 9. Turning the Tables. 
 
 10. Dilemma. 
 
 11. Begging the Question. 
 
 12. Ignoring the Question. 
 
 13. The Three Rules for Form in a Brief. 
 
 14. The Partition of Material for a Brief.
 
 READING LESSON VIII 175 
 
 READING LESSON Vm 
 
 The following speech was prepared by Franklin W. Robinson of 
 Long Beach, and formed part of a championship contest which oc- 
 cured between Long Beach High School and Santa Ana High School, 
 California, May 29, 1908. Although defective in some respects, it 
 is an excellent example of the way in which a speaker may develop 
 a speech from a brief so as to secure unity, coherence, and emphasis: 
 
 Resolved, That France should adopt the policy of M. Delcasse in 
 regard to Morocco at the expiration of the Algeciras Convention. 
 
 First Affirmative 
 
 1. Although we have crossed the Atlantic to find a debatable 
 question, we have not chosen one which is of foreign interest alone. 
 In discussing the problems of Morocco, we deal with world problems. 
 They are found wherever civilization comes into contact with bar- 
 barism. They are problems that to-day confront England in Egypt 
 and Germany in West Africa, problems which w'e ourselves must 
 solve in the Philippines. 
 
 2. This uncivilized empire of the Moors, l>dng there in the north- 
 west corner of Africa, but seven miles from Europe, has tried for many 
 years to withstand the strong arm of civilization, but its strategical 
 position, its vast resources and marvelous fertility are too important 
 to remain unutilized. In recent years all the great powers of Europe 
 have taken measures to gain control of this commercial "prize." IVL 
 Delcasse, for seven years the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 came forward in 1904 as the champion of French interests, which he 
 believed to be predominant in this crumbling empire. To gain a 
 free hand in Morocco he first induced England, Spain, and Italy to 
 withdraw their claims in e.xchange for like concessions elsewhere. 
 His plan was then to bolster up the native government of the Moors 
 and gradually to penetrate the country by pacific methods. 
 
 3. But alas for France, such a policy excited the envy of Germany; 
 the "mailed fist " shook aloft the red banner of war. France cowered 
 and Delcasse, the most skillful statesman of the Third Republic, was 
 forced to resign. Germany's interference resulted in a conference of 
 the world powers, which met in 1906 at Algeciras, Spain. Here it
 
 176 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 was decided that this apple of discord should be placed under inter- 
 national control. This agreement, however, was to extend over five 
 years and will expire in igii. At that time it must be determined 
 whether Morocco shall be abandoned to barbarism, whether the 
 present international control shall be continued, or whether the ad- 
 ministration shall be entrusted to a single power. 
 
 4. We of the affirmative are here this evening to endeavor to 
 prove to you that Morocco should be governed by one power and 
 that the logical candidate for this position is the French Republic. 
 
 5. As to the practicability of adopting the first course, namely, 
 the independence of the Moors, there can be no difference of opinion. 
 The country to-day exists in a state of anarchy. We find two pre- 
 tenders disputing with a weak and indolent Sultan for the throne. 
 Industry is paralyzed and the lives and property of 8,000 Europeans 
 are in constant danger. Such conditions in the twentieth century 
 are intolerable. This mediaeval land must submit either to an 
 international force or to the protection of a single power. 
 
 6. Will a continuation of the present international control be 
 advisable? When we study the history of such government in Mace- 
 donia, we can have little confidence in such a policy. This country 
 is to-day in a worse plight than several years ago, simply because what 
 belongs to everyone belongs to no one. Eg>'ptian history is no less 
 a convincing proof of the ineffectiveness of such control. When the 
 continental powers ruled in Egypt, the country was not only a dis- 
 grace to civilization but a menace to the peace of Europe. On this 
 chaos of Eastern barbarism was superimposed a layer of European 
 officials shamelessly scrambling and intriguing for poHtical influence. 
 Not until the administration of this uncivilized country was entrusted 
 to England and England alone, could Lord Cromer bring Egypt to 
 its present state of prosperity. We find, then, that discipline is never 
 effective unless directed by a single hand. European experiments 
 along this fine are already sufficiently conclusive. 
 
 7. But we need not go beyond the hmits of Morocco to gain 
 experience which will warn us against a continuation df the present 
 policy. Her control by a concert of powers has been entirely futile. 
 The deplorable conditions of the country have continued unimproved. 
 France at every step has had to face the jealousy of her German 
 neighbor, who has encouraged the Moors to treat the French with
 
 READING LESSON VIII 177 
 
 contempt. With her influence thus destroyed among the natives, 
 France, the only country which can secure reform, is powerless. The 
 English Earl of Meath declares that as a result of the senseless jeal- 
 ousies of European powers, INIorocco continues to be a country seeth- 
 ing ^^ith anarch)^ and brigandage. The poHcy of the ^Moroccan ports 
 testifies to the inadvisability of dividing responsibility when deeds 
 must be done. Spain, who was assigned a share in this task, has 
 not attempted to fulfill her obligations. During the recent attack 
 of the natives on Casa Blanca, France was obliged to undertake alone 
 the defense of foreign interests in that port. Even later attempts 
 at cooperation with Spanish forces have led to quarrels. Thus we 
 see that the Algeciras Convention is a mere makeshift. The powers 
 realize this, for France has had their support on every occasion that 
 circumstances have forced her to overstep the limits of the present 
 arrangement. No; if reforms are to be accomplished in Morocco, 
 a single power must be given control. Do our opponents question 
 this conclusion? Then they must pr6ve that either self-government 
 by the Moors or international control is practicable. This they will 
 find it difficult to do. 
 
 8. If, therefore, the responsibility for public safety should remain 
 undivided, we must now determine upon what nation this responsi- 
 bihty should be placed. Since England, Spain, and Italy have will- 
 ingly surrendered their claims, France would have but one competitor, 
 Germany. If you had an atlas before you and could see that Morocco 
 is like a wedge driven in between the two solid masses of the French 
 North .\frican Empire, you would then have small doubt as to the 
 rightful claimant. But it is not only the geographical position of 
 this country which gives France a title to its control. When we 
 learn that the commercial interests of France in Morocco are five 
 times as great as those of Germany; when we remember that her 
 loan to this native government is fourteen times as large as that of 
 all other countries combined, it is then that we can realize why the 
 common sense of the world is on the side of France. A\'e ain under- 
 stand why the Algeciras Conference recognized her rights, giving to 
 France the predominant share in policing the ports and three shares 
 in the Moroccan National Bank to one share each for all the other 
 powers. In comparison with such interests as these, the claim of 
 Germany is a mere pretense.
 
 178 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 9. Not only is French control the logical solution of this trouble- 
 some problem, but it is of vital importance to France. Upon the 
 possession of this corner depends the future of the French colonial 
 empire in North Africa. Morocco, the refuge for all the lawless and 
 unruly elements of the desert life, borders Algeria for five hundred 
 miles. This not only enables marauding Moorish bands continually to 
 raid and pillage Algeria at pleasure, but it affords a wide gateway 
 through which a spirit of unrest in Morocco may at any time enter 
 Algeria and from thence spread over her entire empire. When we 
 consider how contagious is the spirit of revolt among a Mohammedan 
 population, we can realize the danger to French interests in North 
 Africa. Alarming as are present conditions, imagine some European 
 rival, such as Germany, permanently encamped in the midst of 
 French colonies, with warlike tribes all around to play with. At any 
 time she could incite this entire Mohammedan Empire to insur- 
 rection. France would be obliged to garrison Algeria with 200,000 
 armed men or leave her colonies defenseless. Such a situation would 
 inevitably lead to a crisis between France and Germany. If, then, 
 France is to avoid complications with her German rival, if she is to 
 maintain her North African Empire, Morocco must be hers. 
 
 10. Our opponents may be forced to admit the value of the French 
 claims in Morocco, but they will plead her inability to accompHsh 
 the task. They will resurrect all the past mistakes of France in an 
 endeavor to prove that she is a poor colonizer. In refutation of this 
 argument, we have merely to point to the results of French influ- 
 ence in North Africa. She has chastized the Algerian pirates. With- 
 in her domains slavery and the slave traffic have been practically 
 aboKshed. With a whole army of artisans, agriculturists, manu- 
 facturers and engineers, she has invaded this dark continent. Bar- 
 barism has been supplanted by law and order. Desert wastes have 
 been converted into extensive and productive plantations; railroads 
 have been pushed out in every direction and commerce wonderfully 
 developed. The whole world recognizes the great transformation 
 brought about in Algeria and Tunis. By the French pohcy in these 
 countries we can forecast the future of the Moorish kingdom. Narrow 
 streets, mud walls, and sun-dried bricks will give way to broad boule- 
 vards and modern houses, the donkey driver will be superseded by the 
 electric train, the hand flail of the Arab farmer by the steam thresher.
 
 READING LESSON VIII 179 
 
 There can be no doubt as to the administrative capacity of the French. 
 They have constituted themselves the civiUzing power of the whole 
 region from Senegal to the Barbar>^ coast, a territory larger than that 
 of the United States east of the Rockies. The best title of France 
 to ^Morocco is the history of her whole career in this vast region. 
 
 11. But perhaps our opponents will tell you that the very vast- 
 ness of the French colonial empire is its weakness. To this we agree 
 in part, but we reply — Let her give up her more remote colonies, if 
 necessary .1 Let her concentrate in North Africa where her posses- 
 sions can be defended without the use of an extensive fleet. New 
 Caledonia and Indo-China are mere baubles in importance, as com- 
 pared with Morocco. This policy is advocated by so eminent a 
 Frenchman as Germain. In fact, it was not absent from the mind 
 of Delcasse when he said in 1904: "It is in her North African Empire 
 that France is assured of remaining a world power. The time may 
 come when the best part of France will be south of the sea." 
 
 12. Let us try to grasp the situation as a whole. The African 
 continent is to be eventually parcelled out among the European 
 powers. In this game of colony grabbing, in this art of rescuing from 
 barbarism, France has by no means acquitted herself badly. Here 
 in the northwest corner of her empire lies a country whose potential 
 commerce is estimated at two hundred million a year; the soil of 
 whose plains, so favored by nature but neglected by man, rivals in 
 fertiHty that of our prairie states; a country, the development of 
 whose resources would be a splendid outlet for French capital. But 
 our opponents will tell you it is not worth the cost. Its Atlas Moun- 
 tains abound in gold, iron, copper, and coal, the very commodities 
 with which France is poorly provided and which would give her 
 manufacturing supremacy. The passes of these same mountains 
 are the keys which open various trade routes to the interior of the 
 Sahara and which are now closed by the natives. But the negative 
 will brush all these facts lightly aside and ull you that Morocco is a 
 hornet's nest. Again we ask, is it any less a hornet's nest under 
 international control? In view of the murder of Dr. Manchamp and 
 
 ' It may be of interest to the reader to know that on Nov. 4, 191 1, 
 Germany gave France a free hand in Morocco in exchange for a portion 
 of the French Congo. {Independent, 71: 1007.)
 
 i8o ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the attack on Casa Blanca, we think not. Our friends on the nega- 
 tive will urge that France lock up the treasures of the Moroccan 
 mountains and the wealth of her arable lands, abandon this North 
 African Empire which has been in the process of formation since the 
 days of the great Napoleon, compromise her great civilizing task of 
 three-fourths of a centur>% and cringe before the German Kaiser's 
 threat of war. But when my colleague has shown you the present 
 inability of Germany to carry out this threat, I believe you will agree 
 with us that France, at the expiration cf this Algeciras Convention 
 in 191 1, should rise to her opportunities, recall Delcasse, whom she 
 so ignobly dismissed at the behest of Germany, and thus regain her 
 position of international dignity.
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF A SPEECH FROM A BRIEF 
 
 Introduction. — Although we have already studied the 
 rules for phrasing (Chapter X), the successful application 
 of these rules to argumentative speeches of greater length 
 seems to call for further instruction and illustration. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn how to develop a speech 
 from a brief so as to increase the impression of unity, 
 coherence, and emphasis which we have already attempted 
 to secure in the brief. 
 
 I. Unity 
 
 Unity of Each Part. — In the first place, the speaker 
 should see to it that each part of the speech is a unit in 
 itself. This can best be done by the frequent use of sum- 
 maries. In our study of the two-minute speech, we found 
 that it is necessary to make some reference to the main 
 thought both at the beginning and at the end of the 
 speech. In a longer speech, we should summarize, not 
 only at the beginning and at the end of the whole speech, 
 but we should summarize each main division and each 
 subdivision as we take it up and as we leave it. 
 
 The question may arise in the" mind of the student: 
 "How many parts shall I have in my speech, or how often 
 shall I summarize?" The number of summaries will 
 depend upon the importance which the speaker attaches 
 to each subhead. It would be safe to say that a summary
 
 I minute 
 
 I 
 
 minute 
 
 2 " 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 2 " 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 2 " 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 182 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 • 
 
 sentence should occur at the beginning and at the end 
 of whatever material would be placed in a paragraph if 
 the speech were written. 
 
 If a speaker were developing an eight-minute speech 
 from a brief, he might divide his time in one of several 
 ways. Let us look at two suggestions for a division of 
 time. 
 
 First Second 
 
 Introduction 
 
 I St Division 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 Conclusion 
 
 In each of these cases the speaker, if he were writing the 
 speech, might form each division into one or more para- 
 graphs according to the nature of the material. 
 
 Each Unit as a Part of the Whole. — In the second place, 
 the speaker should make it evident that each smaller 
 unit is a definite and necessary part of the larger unit. 
 He should occasionally throw glances back over the whole 
 field and in this way reveal the bearing of each part upon 
 his main proposition. A young speaker often neglects to 
 point out that each bit of evidence proves a subordinate 
 argmnent which, in turn, supports the main proposition. 
 By so doing he places upon his auditors the duty of 
 unifying his material. 
 
 Necessity of Repetition. — All experienced speakers 
 and writers have realized the necessity of frequent repe- 
 titions. Even the most intelhgent people are rarely im- 
 pressed by an idea which is stated but once, and this is 
 naturally more true of oral than of written expression. 
 The need of constant reiteration is rather humorously
 
 DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 183 
 
 illustrated by a story which Josiah Royce of Harvard 
 University tells about himself. He had written an exten- 
 sive work on philosophy and had submitted the manuscript 
 to a friend for criticism. After reading it the friend said, 
 "The only fault I find is this: in connection with every 
 step, you tell us that you intend to say a certain thing; 
 then you tell us what it is that you intend to say; then 
 you say it; then you tell us that you have said it; and 
 then you tell us what it is that you have said." "Well," 
 said Professor Royce, good-humoredly, "if, in the end, 
 you know what I did intend to say, I am satisfied," 
 
 II. Coherence 
 
 Transitions. — We have already learned how to make 
 sentences hang together by means of connective words 
 and phrases and by the use of parallel construction. 
 (Chapter X, Division II.) In the longer discourse, the 
 speaker must cause the paragraphs to hang together also. 
 This can be accomplished by the use of the transition 
 sentence, a sentence which occurs at the beginning of a 
 paragraph and which performs a double function. It 
 echoes the thought of the preceding paragraph and in- 
 troduces the central thought of the paragraph to which it 
 belongs. Occasionally a transition which joins paragraphs 
 is composed of more than one sentence. The hanging 
 together of main divisions is accomplished by the use of 
 transition paragraphs. A transition paragraph makes 
 reference to the idea which is most vital in the preceding 
 division and gives one a bird's-eye view of the line of 
 thought which is to be carried 011 1 in the following division. 
 
 Their Value. — The word transition means "a crossing 
 over." If the speaker would have his hearers follow him
 
 1 84 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 without effort, he should, by means of transitions, build 
 bridges, as it were, upon which they may cross easily 
 from one idea to the next. He should be careful, how- 
 ever, to see that the transitions are natural and not 
 forced. This will not be difficult if the ideas are so ar- 
 ranged and phrased that each leads naturally to the next, 
 for as Cicero says, "Stones well hewn unite of themselves 
 and without the aid of cement." 
 
 III. Emphasis 
 
 Proportion. — The emphatic or forceful speaker pays 
 due regard to the question of proportion; that is, he de- 
 votes a larger amount of time and care to those ideas which 
 are difficult to comprehend and touches more lightly those 
 which are easy to grasp. The young speaker, on the other 
 hand, is tempted to elaborate on those phases of his sub- 
 ject which are most familiar to him or which give liim an 
 opportunity for eloquence. 
 
 Variety. — Again, the emphatic or forceful speaker 
 seeks variety. No matter how numerous may be his 
 transitions and his summaries, he does not express the 
 same idea twice in the same words. It is only by the repe- 
 tition of the same idea in varied form that the speaker can 
 drive home his thought with telling effect. Charles 
 James Fox, the great English orator, laid it down as the 
 great principle for one who wished to leave an impression 
 that he turn the same idea around many times and that 
 he hold it up in many different lights. 
 
 The emphatic speaker uses every possible means of 
 securing variety. He employs the various kinds of 
 sentence structure (Chapter X, Division III, Variety in 
 Sentence Form). He studies to use the law of climax in
 
 DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 185 
 
 phrasing his summaries. For example, the last sentence 
 of a paragraph is the strongest in that paragraph; the 
 most impressive statement of the thought of a main 
 division is left until the end of that main division. He 
 opens up his speech in a more or less formal way, develops 
 it with increasing strength, and, by the last expression of 
 his idea in the conclusion, leaves a sense of brightness 
 and color and power. 
 
 Pictures. — The emphatic speaker knows how to 
 create vivid mental pictures. He studies to do this even 
 in the use of statistics. He knows that "round" numbers 
 are more effective than the exact figures; so he says 
 $1,000,000 instead of $1,010,729.17. The first gives a 
 clearer mental picture than the second and is, for all prac- 
 tical purposes, quite as large. If he wishes to compare 
 two amounts, he states the relation between them rather 
 than naming the figures themselves. For instance, in 
 the debate on ^Morocco, Mr. Robinson said, ''The loan of 
 France is fourteen times as large as that of all other 
 countries combined." To have enunlerated the loans 
 of the various governments would not only have wasted 
 time, but would also have made a less vivid impression. 
 
 The emphatic speaker uses as much concrete material 
 as possible; it may be in the form of words, illustra- 
 tions, or stories. He may use purse instead of wealth, 
 gray hair instead of age, etc. (Review Chapter VI, Divi- 
 sion III, last paragraph, for other concrete words.) The 
 forceful speaker illustrates everything. Thomas Went- 
 worth Higginson says, "Plan for one good fact and 
 one good illustration under each head of your subject." 
 James Russell Lowell says, "A metaphor is no argu- 
 ment, though it is sometimes the gunpowder to drive one
 
 1 86 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 home and imbed it in the memory." One secret of the 
 power of Christ's discourses is suggested in the question, 
 "Whereunto shall the kingdom of heaven be likened?" 
 
 In the choice of illustrative material, the emphatic 
 speaker is governed by the principle that what is familiar 
 will be more readily pictured in the mind than that which 
 is unfamiliar. An illustration drawn from life at sea might 
 serve to enforce remarks before a Sailor's Union; it would 
 have much less illustrative value if the speaker were de- 
 livering an address before a company of bankers. Since 
 a speaker is frequently called upon to address a general 
 audience, he will do well to draw his illustrations as far as 
 possible from the common experiences of mankind. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned some of 
 the ways whereby, in the development of a speech, we 
 may increase the unity, coherence, and emphasis for which 
 we provided in the brief. 
 
 The work of composition as described in this chapter 
 may be likened to the formation of a mighty river. As 
 the stream leaves its source it has little power, but, as it 
 proceeds on its way, each canyon and valley contributes 
 its tiny streamlet, until at last, as the main current 
 nears the ocean, it becomes a splendid torrent, cutting 
 deep channels in the soil and furnishing almost unlimited 
 power for the industrial enterprises of man. So, in the 
 ideal speech, the main idea, joined by each contributing 
 idea and guided by a definite purpose, moves forward 
 with ever increasing power to the end.
 
 DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 187 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Development of a Speech from a Brief 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Application of rules. 
 II. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Unity. 
 
 A. Unity of each part. 
 
 1. Frequent summaries. 
 
 2. How to determine the number. 
 
 B. Each unit as a part of the whole. 
 
 1. Method. 
 
 2. Fault of the beginner. 
 
 C. Necessity of repetition. 
 
 1 . Especially in oral expression. 
 
 2. Anecdote of Professor Royce. 
 II. Coherence. 
 
 A. Transitions. 
 
 1. Connective words and parallel construction. 
 
 (Review.) 
 
 2. Transition sentence. 
 
 3. Transition paragraph. 
 
 B. Their value. 
 
 1. Meaning. 
 
 2. Natural. — Cicero. 
 III. Emphasis. 
 
 A. Proportion. 
 
 1. Meaning. 
 
 2. Fault of the beginner. 
 
 B. Variety. 
 
 1. Repetition of the same idea in different words. — ■ 
 
 Fox. 
 
 2. Sentence structure. (Review.) 
 
 3. Climax. 
 
 (a) Paragraph. 
 (Jb) Division, 
 (c) Speech.
 
 i88 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 IIL C. Pictures. 
 
 1. Statistics. 
 
 (a) Round numbers. 
 
 (b) Comparisons. — Loans. 
 
 2. Concrete material. 
 
 (a) Words. (Review.) 
 
 (b) Illustrations. 
 
 (i) Higginson. 
 
 (2) Lowell. 
 
 (3) Christ. 
 
 (c) Choice of material. 
 
 (i) Famiharity. 
 
 a. Life at sea. 
 
 b. Common experiences. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I. Summary. 
 
 II. Formation of a river compared with the composition of a 
 speech. 
 
 Exercise I. — i. Read the chapter as far as Division II and be 
 able to recite from the topical outline. 
 
 2. Compare the speech given in Reading Lesson VIII with the 
 brief which follows. Enclose in a brace those portions of the brief 
 which form the basis of each paragraph and label them with the 
 corresponding paragraph numbers. This exercise will indicate the 
 way in which a speech grows out of a brief. 
 
 3. Be able to answer the following questions with reference to 
 the speech on Morocco: 
 
 a. What is the purpose of the first paragraph? 
 
 b. Does the speaker refer to the main issue? Would you 
 
 prefer to have him do so? 
 
 c. Would he have gained anything by an advance sum- 
 
 mary of that which he and his colleague wished to 
 prove? 
 
 d. In what paragraphs is the central thought expressed 
 
 both at the opening and the close of the paragraph? 
 
 e. What instance is there of a summary of a main division?
 
 develop:mext from a brief 189 
 
 Brief for Speech 
 
 Resolved, That France should adopt the policy of M. Delcasse in 
 regard to Morocco at the expiration of the Algeciras Convention. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. The question is of interest to us as well as to foreigners. 
 II. Definition and history. 
 
 A. IMorocco is a country in North Africa which has been 
 
 claimed by several powers. 
 
 B. M. Delcasse desired to secure Morocco for France. 
 
 I. He persuaded England, Spain, and Italy to with- 
 draw their claims. 
 
 C. The jealousy of Germany brought about a convention 
 
 of all the European powers at Algeciras in iqo6. 
 
 D. The convention decided that Morocco should be placed 
 
 under international control until igii. 
 
 E. When this agreement expires, it must be decided 
 
 whether Morocco shall be given independence, 
 whether international control shall be continued, 
 or whether the control shall be given into the 
 hands of a single power. 
 III. Main issue • — Is the danger of war with Germany sufficient 
 to deter France from pressing her logical claims? (The 
 question of the possibility of a European war was handled 
 by the second affirmative speaker.) 
 Affirmative Argument. 
 
 I. Alorocco should be given to France, for 
 
 .1. Morocco should be governed by a single power, for 
 
 1. It is incapable of self-government. 
 
 2. A continuation of international control is not 
 
 advisable, for 
 
 (a) This is proved by the history of Mace- 
 donia and Egypt . 
 (/;) The policy has failed in Morocco itself. 
 II. That one power should be I'"rance and not Germany, for 
 A . France is the logical candidate for the position, for 
 
 1. It would round out her empire. 
 
 2. Her commercial interests are larger than those 
 
 of any other country.
 
 I90 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 B. French control is of vital importance to her, for 
 
 I. German control of Morocco would endanger the 
 interests of France in her surrounding empire. 
 
 C. The claim that France is unequal to the task is in- 
 
 valid, for 
 
 1. She has proved herself to be a civilizing power in 
 
 Africa. 
 
 2. If necessary, it would be better for her to give up 
 
 her more distant colonies in order to hold 
 Morocco. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I. Morocco should be governed by a single power. 
 II. That power should be France. 
 
 Exercise II. — Complete the reading of the chapter and be able 
 to recite from the topical outhne. Incorporate in your recitation 
 the subject matter of any review which is suggested. 
 
 Exercise III. — i. UnderHne the connective words used in para- 
 graph 6 of Reading Lesson VIII. 
 2. Check the transition sentences. 
 Write the answers to the following questions: 
 
 1. Show that the speaker has gained emphasis through proportion. 
 
 2. Does the wording of each transition sentence vary from other 
 expressions of the same idea? 
 
 3. In what paragraphs is the last sentence a stronger statement 
 of the paragraph-thought than the first sentence? Is there a variety 
 of sentence structure? To prove your answer, select one question 
 and one imperative sentence, one short and one long sentence, one 
 loose and one periodic sentence. 
 
 4. Do you find a balanced sentence? 
 
 5. Make a list of concrete or special terms which have been used. 
 Opposite each write an abstract or general term which might have 
 been used but with less effectiveness. 
 
 6. Find one example of a metaphor or simile. 
 
 7. Show that the conclusion summarizes the points of the speech 
 but deals with them in a more impressive way than in the body of 
 the speech.
 
 DEVELOPMENT FROM A BRIEF 191 
 
 Exercise IV. — Re\dse, if necessarj', the brief which you prepared 
 in connection with Chapter XV'I. Using that portion of it which has 
 been assigned to you as a basis, make a word outline and prepare a 
 six-minute speech. IMake use as far as possible of the suggestions 
 given in this chapter.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE HANDLING OF REFUTATION 
 
 Introduction. — Much has been learned in Chapter XV, 
 entitled "Proof and Its Tests," wliich will enable the 
 debater to be skillful in refutation. He must know, 
 however, not only how to meet the facts and reasoning 
 processes of his opponents, but also how to prepare and 
 handle his refutation to the best advantage. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn (i) how to choose that 
 which should be refuted, (2) how to place refutation both 
 in the principal speech and in the separate refutation 
 speech, and (3) how to phrase it. 
 
 I. How TO Choose Points 
 
 Success in refutation depends largely upon the debater's 
 power to choose wisely that which he wishes to refute. 
 It is a mistake to try to touch upon everything to which 
 it is possible to give the semblance of an answer. An old 
 couplet illustrates this point: 
 
 "When one's proofs are aptly chosen, 
 Four are as vaHd as a dozen." 
 
 A debater who would choose ''aptly" must analyze 
 constantly and attack or offset those arguments which he 
 thinks have made the most favorable impression upon the 
 audience. This plan may be compared to the efforts of 
 a football team to "down" the man with the ball.
 
 THE HANDLING OF REFUTATION 193 
 
 II. How TO Place Refutation 
 
 The effectiveness of refutation depends to a consider- 
 able extent upon the position in which it is placed. 
 
 In the Principal Argument. — We shall first consider 
 that which should occur within the allotted time for the 
 principal argument of each debater. Each speaker should 
 plan to reserve at least one-fourth of his time for emer- 
 gencies. Certain kinds of refutation should be placed at 
 the first of the speech. For example, each speaker, except 
 the first on each side, should summarize the work of his 
 preceding colleague (or colleagues) and, if possible, com- 
 pare it with the work of his opponents; that is, he should 
 state, from his own point of view, the progress which the 
 debate has made on both sides. 
 
 Again, if there is any point which, if not answered, would 
 interfere with the progress of the debate, it should be 
 answered immediately. Should the point be one which a 
 colleague has planned to answer later in connection with 
 his constructive argument, the debater need not refute 
 the argument but should mention this fact, else the 
 audience may think that the team is unable to answer it. 
 
 In the majority of instances, however, the best time 
 to refute an objection is not at the first of the speech but 
 in connection with that phase of the question to which 
 the objection refers. This plan will detract less from the 
 unity of the speech and will ;il the same time add to 
 the force of the refutation. If the debater has prepared 
 his discussion orally with the help of a word outline, it 
 will not be difTicull for him to insert here and there 
 ideas which have been suggested by the arguments of his 
 oi)ponents.
 
 194 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 In the Separate Refutation Speech. — We shall next 
 consider the separate, or closing refutation speech. (The 
 privilege of a second speech is always granted to one 
 affirmative speaker and sometimes to all speakers.) Each 
 speaker should come upon the platform with a list of points 
 which may require refutation but which have not been 
 met either by his own or by his colleague's prepared 
 speeches. As these points appear in the speeches of his 
 opponents, he should check them on his list. 
 
 During the progress of the debate, he should select those 
 which have not been sufficiently answered by his colleagues 
 and arrange them in the form of a word outline. In so 
 doing, he should observe the rules for unity, coherence, 
 and emphasis. Considerations of this kind will not re- 
 quire much time and will prevent the scrappy effect 
 which is usually characteristic of the refutation speech of 
 an immature debater. 
 
 He should reserve at least one minute at the last of his 
 speech to summarize his own and his opponent's argu- 
 ments, and to drive home his own main contention as 
 briefly and pungently as possible. 
 
 III. How TO Phrase Refutation 
 
 The phrasing as well as the choice and placing of refu- 
 tation must be considered. 
 
 Before the Debate. — If a debater has made a clash 
 of opinion, thereby studying his opponent's case as well 
 as his own, he will be able to do much of his phrasing 
 before com.ing to the platform. Although he cannot 
 anticipate the exact wording in which the ideas will be 
 presented, he can know the subject matter and can frame 
 a concise answer for each point.
 
 THE HANDLING OF REFUTATION 195 
 
 During the Debate. — As a debater listens to the argu- 
 ments of his opponents, he should note the language in 
 which they are couched, and should seek, as far as possi- 
 ble, to repeat these words in his refutation. Not only- 
 does the reply gain force by being coupled with the exact 
 statement which it aims to refute, but the whole speech 
 is given an atmosphere of spontaneity. 
 
 Although the debater can do much more in preparation 
 for refutation than is usually supposed, he must not under 
 any circumstances during the debate allow his brain to 
 relax its vigilance, but must constantly be choosing, 
 arranging, and phrasing. 
 
 He should study to vary the phrases with which he 
 opens each point in refutation. An inexperienced debater 
 will repeat many times, ''Our opponents say," whereas 
 there are numerous other suitable phrases, such as, "It 
 has been claimed," "The advocates of this plan con- 
 tend," "Our friends on the affirmative would have you 
 believe." 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that 
 success in refutation depends (i) on a wise choice of points 
 to be refuted, (2) on effective placing, and (3) on careful 
 phrasing. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Handling of Refutation 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Relation to Chapter XV. 
 II. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. How to choose points. 
 
 A. A few points. — Couplet. 
 
 B. Favorable impression. — Football.
 
 196 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 II. How to place refutation. 
 
 A. In the principal speech. 
 
 1. Time. 
 
 2. At the first. 
 
 (a) Comparison. 
 
 (b) Points which interfere. 
 
 3. Best place. 
 
 (a) Reasons. 
 
 (h) Oral preparation. 
 
 B. In the separate refutation speech. — Privilege. 
 
 1. Prepared list. 
 
 2. Arrangement. - — Value. 
 
 3. Summary. 
 III. How to phrase refutation. 
 
 A. Before the debate. 
 
 1. Clash of opinion. 
 
 2. Concise answer. 
 
 B. During the debate. 
 
 1. Repetition of exact words. — Reasons. 
 
 2. Vigilance. 
 
 3. Variety. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline.
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 TEAMWORK 
 
 Introduction. — To a judge, good teamwork means 
 merely that the arguments of all the speakers on one side 
 are welded together; in other words, that one speaker 
 does not encroach upon the territory of the other and 
 that each reinforces the other by pointing out the relation 
 between the part developed by himself and that developed 
 by his colleague. 
 
 To the debater, however, teamwork signifies more than 
 this. It means the cooperative efforts of the team mem- 
 bers during the whole period of preparation. ]\Iuch of 
 the pleasure of debating work is to be found in its social 
 character. Each can help his fellows to success and each 
 is more or less dependent upon his fellows for success. 
 The double team system for interscholastic debates is 
 an ideal arrangement and furnishes many opportunities 
 for teamwork. According to this system, each school is 
 represented by an affirmative team which debates at the 
 home school and a negative team which visits the rival 
 school. 
 
 This chapter will describe the manner in which the 
 affirmative and negative teams of each school may work 
 together and each member contribute to the success of all. 
 Where it is not possible to use the double team system, a 
 team of alternates may be chosen to act as a practice
 
 198 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 team. Many of the suggestions made in this division will 
 be helpful to those who engage only in class or interclass 
 debates, although the teamwork for debates of this kind 
 will of necessity be more limited. 
 
 I. Opportunities for Teamwork 
 
 Opportunities for teamwork occur in every division of 
 the work. 
 
 Gathering of Material. — At a meeting held immedi- 
 ately after the teams are chosen, plans should be made for 
 future meetings. The members should choose a presiding 
 officer from among their number and draw up a schedule 
 which shall be satisfactory to all, stating the time and 
 purpose of future meetings. If the members have some 
 general knowledge of the question, they should agree upon 
 a list of topics under which to classify their notes. Unless 
 they are already provided with an extended list of refer- 
 ences, they should divide up the work of making one. 
 Each should be assigned the task of copying references 
 from certain years of the Reader^s Guide. These refer- 
 ences, when copied, can be so re-distributed that each 
 member will have both recent and earlier references. 
 One member may collect and distribute the books on the 
 subject, while another may write for government or other 
 publications. 
 
 Conferences to discuss notes should be held at intervals 
 of several days throughout the period allotted to reading. 
 At each meeting, the leader should ask for all information 
 which has been gathered on a certain topic. After that 
 has been given and its bearings discussed, he should call 
 for the next topic, and so on. If the proposition is one 
 upon which very little has been written, each member may
 
 TEAMWORK 199 
 
 be able to read everything relating to it, but if the material 
 is extensive, it is better to place some reliance upon the 
 other members and so cover the ground. Each member 
 may star valuable references and pass them on. Whether 
 or not each does all of the reading, an occasional conference 
 to discuss the points gathered will be found extremely help- 
 ful. If the discussions are well managed, the debater will 
 read to much more purpose after a meeting than before, 
 for he will realize more clearly which matters are essential 
 to the issue and which are not. 
 
 The Making of a Brief. — Before commencing the brief, 
 the afhrmative speakers should give to the negative speak- 
 ers any negative material which they may have gathered, 
 and vice versa. The teams should then work separately 
 until the brief is completed. Each member of the team 
 should make a brief for the whole side, seeking to include 
 within it every item of real worth with its accompanying 
 reference. The members of the team may then meet, 
 compare results, and incorporate the best in a brief which 
 will be as nearly as possible satisfactory to all. 
 
 This method brings better results than other methods. 
 If the members of the team try to work together in the 
 arrangement of material before their ideas have been clari- 
 fied, much time is wasted. Nor can the team determine 
 offhand upon a partition so that each can work up a por- 
 tion of the brief, for one cannot be sure that he has 
 made the best choice of main propositions until he has 
 studied and groui)cd his minor i)ropositions, consider- 
 ing carefully their relations to each other. Again, it is 
 only by this method that each speaker can come to 
 know thoroughly the work of his colleague. 
 
 Oral Practice. — When the brief has been completed,
 
 200 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the members of the team should exchange notes, so that 
 each will have those which bear upon his division of the 
 question. Each member should then prepare for a prac- 
 tice debate by making a word outhne based upon his 
 brief and by extemporizing from it several times. 
 
 The practice debates should be conducted, in regard to 
 both time limits and refutation, as nearly as possible in 
 the same way as the final public debate. It is advisable 
 to have one practice debate in which the colleagues shall 
 change places. This scheme has several advantages: 
 it gives an opportunity for each debater to aid his col- 
 league by making suggestions as to the better handling 
 of his material; it affords a chance for valuable practice 
 in extemporizing; and it makes each speaker more thor- 
 oughly familiar with the material handled by his colleague. 
 During the debate, each member should make a note of 
 criticisms on all other speakers and, after the debate is 
 over, the leader should ask for criticisms on each speaker 
 in turn. 
 
 Preparation for Refutation. — At least two days before 
 the public debate the members of each team should meet 
 and make a combined list of points which are hkely to 
 arise for refutation. To these points each member should 
 write concise answers. At a second meeting these answers 
 should be compared and the best chosen and copied. 
 
 II. Importance of Teamwork 
 
 It will be seen from the above that teamwork is one of 
 the fine points of the game and that the success of an 
 interscholastic debate depends very largely upon the 
 spirit of mutual helpfulness. During the period of prep- 
 aration the periods assigned for team-meeting must be
 
 TEAMWORK 201 
 
 considered of first importance by the debaters; other 
 calls upon their time must be temporarily set aside. The 
 best way to secure this cooperation is to draw up at the 
 outset a schedule which shall be satisfactory to all and to 
 which each shall promise his allegiance. The following 
 is an example of a schedule drawn up by a team which 
 had six weeks for preparation: 
 
 Mar. 17, Monday. Team chosen. 
 
 " 18, Tuesday. Topics chosen and references assigned. 
 
 " 25, Tuesday. Reading Conference. 
 
 Apr. I, Tuesday. Reading Conference. 
 
 " 5, Saturday. Visit to University Library. 
 
 " 8, Tuesday. Reading Conference. 
 
 " II, Friday. Brief completed. 
 
 " 15, Tuesday. First Practice Debate. 
 
 " 18, Friday. Second Practice Debate. 
 
 " 21, Monday. Third Practice Debate. 
 
 " 23, Wednesday. Speeches written and read. 
 
 " 24, Thursday. List of points in refutation. 
 
 " 25, Friday. List of answers. 
 
 " 26, Saturday. Final Public Contest. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 that opportunities for cooperation, or teamwork, occur in 
 every part of the work; and (2) that the success of a 
 debate depends very largely upon the spirit of mutual 
 helpfulness. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Teamwork 
 hitrodurtlon. 
 
 \. What teamwork means to a judge. 
 II. What teamwork means to a debater. 
 A. Double-team system.
 
 202 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 III. Purpose of the chapter. 
 
 A . Alternates. 
 
 B. Class and interclass debates. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Opportunities for teamwork. 
 
 A. Gathering of material. 
 
 1. First meeting. 
 
 (o) Presiding officer and schedule. 
 
 (b) List of topics. 
 
 (c) References. 
 
 (i) Readers' Guide. — Re-distributed. 
 
 (2) Books. 
 
 (3) Publications. 
 
 2. Later conferences. 
 
 (a) Discussion by topics. 
 
 (b) How to cover a large field. 
 (c) . Value of the conferences. 
 
 B. The making of a brief. 
 
 1. Exchange of notes. 
 
 2. Separate before combined work. 
 
 (a) Reasons. 
 
 (i) Time. 
 
 (2) Impossibility of offhand partition. 
 
 (3) Work of colleague. 
 
 C. Oral practice. 
 
 1. Exchange of notes. 
 
 2. Preparation for practice debate. 
 
 3. Conduct of debate. 
 
 (a) Time limits and refutation. 
 (6) Exchange of places with colleague, 
 (i) Advantages. 
 
 a. Suggestions. 
 
 b. Practice. 
 
 c. Familiarity. 
 
 (c) Criticisms. 
 
 D. Preparation for refutation. 
 
 1. Combined list of points. 
 
 2. Answers compared.
 
 TEAMWORK 203 
 
 II. Importance of teamwork. 
 
 A. Secret of success. 
 
 B. Necessary sacrifices. 
 
 C. Schedule. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline.
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 ATTITUDE 
 
 Introduction. — Since debating is a game, the debater 
 should maintain throughout an attitude of fair play and 
 good sportsmanship. 
 
 In this chapter we shall consider the debater's attitude 
 (i) toward his subject, (2) toward his opponents, and 
 (3) toward the result. 
 
 I. Attitude Toward the Subject 
 
 Two Sides. — The debater should remember that there 
 are two sides to every debatable question. Because of 
 this, it is unreasonable to try to deny or refute everything; 
 a speaker will be much more persuasive if he will admit 
 that there is truth on the other side; in fact he should go 
 with his opponents as far as possible. This habit is said 
 to have been, in large measure, the cause of Lincoln's 
 persuasiveness. The debater should remember that there 
 are those in the audience, and it may be the Judges, who 
 agree with his opponents. The game does not consist in 
 fighting one's opponents but in convincing one's hearers. 
 It is necessary, therefore, to find some common point of 
 view and to work from that toward conviction. 
 
 Misrepresentation. — A good debater will never mis- 
 represent the facts. If debaters differ on a definition of 
 the question, the judges should and probably will discount 
 the side which attempts to uphold a far-fetched technical
 
 ATTITUDE 205 
 
 meaning. Dr. R. M. Alden says in his Art of Debate, 
 "Those lawyers appear to be most largely successful who 
 are not given to fighting on the technicahties, but who give 
 the impression that the fundamental merits of the case 
 are their chiei concern." 
 
 Wit. — Again, the debater should guard hipiself against 
 flippancy. Witty and smart replies, unless accompanied 
 by sound logic, are very likely to be rated by judges as 
 an attempt to cover superficial thinking. 
 
 II. Attitude Toward Opponents 
 
 A debater should be courteous toward his opponents 
 under all circumstances, not only because courtesy is a 
 virtue but because it is a matter of self-interest. To 
 lower one's opponent does not raise oneself in the estima- 
 tion of the public. Even if the language of one's opponent 
 is offensive, it will not pay to respond to personalities. 
 Dignity and self-control are always winning quaUties. 
 
 III. Attitude Toward the Result 
 
 If He Loses. ^ If a debater loses the decision he should 
 not blame the judges, for they have probably done their 
 best to judge impartially. In the first place, it is not 
 always possible to be wholly uninfluenced by one's own 
 knowledge and convictions on a subject. Again, all 
 human beings are almost unconsciously attracted or re- 
 pelled by certain personalities. These facts have become 
 apparent in the discussions of judges at the close of a 
 "tryout." Teachers with the kindest intentions and with 
 a sincere desire to choose the best team to rc])rcsenl the 
 school have found themselves with widely divergent no- 
 tions as to the merit of the work which has been presented.
 
 2o6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 In addition to this, the presentations are often of such 
 equal merit that it is difficult to decide between them. 
 There are a great many things to be considered in a very 
 short space of time. Delivery and diction must be given 
 due attention, but it is the argument which is most diffi- 
 cult to pass upon with "righteous judgment." The judge 
 must not only decide upon the relative value of the evi- 
 dence and reasoning as it is brought forth, but he must 
 also, if possible, compare what has been brought forward 
 with what might have been brought forward. 
 
 Furthermore, judges frequently serve at great sacrifice 
 of time and convenience, and they should receive the 
 gratitude of losers as well as of winners. 
 
 If He Wins. — If the debater wins the decision, he should 
 not think that he has become a finished speaker, for his 
 next opponent may bring him to defeat. The following 
 extract from a poem entitled " Failure," by Edmund Vance 
 Cooke, is well worth memorizing: 
 
 "If you never have failed, it's an even guess 
 You never have won a high success. 
 If you never have sent your bullet wide, 
 You never have put a mark inside. 
 If you never have more than met your match, 
 I guess you never have toed the scratch." 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned that the 
 debater should be (i) honest toward his subject, (2) cour- 
 teous toward his opponents, and (3) neither discouraged 
 nor too much elated over the result.
 
 ATTITUDE 207 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Attitude 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Sportsmanship. 
 II. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Attitude toward the subject. 
 
 A. Two sides. 
 
 I . Persuasiveness. 
 {a) Lincohi. 
 {b) Judges. 
 
 (c) What the game consists of. — Common 
 point 
 
 B. Misrepresentation. 
 
 I . Technicalities. — Dr. Alden. 
 
 C. Wit. 
 
 II. Attitude toward opponents. 
 
 A. A matter of self-interest. 
 III. Attitude toward the result. 
 
 A. If he loses. 
 
 1. Personal difficulties of judges. 
 
 {a) Their own knowledge. 
 (6) Personalities, 
 (c) "Tryouts." 
 
 2. Many things to be considered. 
 
 3. Sacrifices. 
 
 B. If he wins. — Cooke. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outUne. 
 
 Exercise II. — Revise the six-minute speech which you prepared 
 in connection with Chapter X\ I. WorkiiiK with your colleague, be 
 prepared to debate the same sul)jcct. Use as many as possible of 
 the suggestions made in Chapters X\'III, XIX, and XX. 
 
 As the si)ceches are given the members of the class should act as 
 judges, keeping a tally of the points. In the decision more weight
 
 2o8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 should be given to argument than to diction and delivery. Each 
 speaker should be allowed six minutes for his main speech and two 
 minutes for a separate refutation speech. 
 
 Exercise III. — i. How to Get Unity in an Argument of Length. 
 
 2. How to Get Coherence in an Argument of Length, 
 
 3. How to Get Emphasis in an Argument of Length. 
 
 4. Choice of Refutation. 
 
 5. Placing of Refutation. 
 
 6. Phrasing of Refutation. 
 
 7. Teamwork in Gathering Material. 
 
 8. Teamwork in Making a Brief. 
 
 9. Teamwork in Oral Practice. 
 10. Attitude of a Debater.
 
 READING LESSON IX 209 
 
 READING LESSON IX 
 Introductions and Conclusions 
 
 1 . From a eulogy delivered by John Hay at the official exercises 
 commemorative of President McKinley: 
 
 "For the third time the Congress of the United States are assem- 
 bled to commemorate the life and death of a President slain by the 
 hand of an assassin. The attention of the future historian will be 
 attracted to the features which reappear with startling sameness in 
 all three of these awful crimes: the uselessness, the utter lack of con- 
 sequence of the act; the obscurity, the insignificance of the criminal; 
 the blamelessness — so far as in our sphere of existence the best of 
 men may be held blameless — of the victim. Not one of our mur- 
 dered Presidents had an enemy in the world; they were all men of 
 democratic instincts who could never have offended the most jealous 
 advocates of equality; they were of kindly and generous nature, to 
 whom wrong or injustice was impossible; of moderate fortune, whose 
 slender means nobody could env>'. They were men of austere virtue, 
 of tender heart, of eminent abilities, which they had devoted with 
 single minds to the good of the Republic. If ever men walked before 
 God and men without blame, it was these three rulers of our people." 
 
 2. From The New South by Ilcnry W. Grady: 
 
 There was a South of slavery and secession — that South is dead. 
 There is a South of union and freedom — that South, thank God, is 
 living, breathing, growing every hour.' These words, delivered from 
 the immortal lips of Benjamin 11. J I ill, at Tammany Hall, in 1866, 
 true then, and truer now, I shall make my text to-night." 
 
 3. From The Man with the Muck-rake, by Theodore Roosevelt: 
 
 "In Bunyan's Pilf^rim's Progress you may recall the descriiilion of 
 the Man with the Muck-rake, the man who could look no way but 
 downward, with the muck-rake in his hand; who was offered a celes- 
 tial crown for his muck-rake; but who would neither look up nor 
 regard the crown he was offered, but continued to rake to himself 
 the filth of the floor. 
 
 "In Pilgrim^s Progress the Man with the Muck-rake is set loitli
 
 2IO ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 as the example of him whose vision is fixed on carnal instead of on 
 spiritual things. Yet he also typifies the man who in this life con- 
 sistently refuses to see aught that is lofty, and fixes his eyes with 
 solemn intentness only on that which is vile and debasing. Now it 
 is very necessary that we should not flinch from seeing what is vile 
 and debasing. There is filth on the floor, and it must be scraped up 
 with the muck-rake; and there are times and places where this service 
 is the most needed of all the services that can be performed. But 
 the man who never does anything else, who never thinks or speaks or 
 writes save of his feats with the muck-rake, speedily becomes, not a 
 help to society, not an incitement to good, but one of the most potent 
 forces for evil." 
 
 4. Introduction to an oration on Abraham Lincoln, by Booker T. 
 Washington. 
 
 "You ask that which he found a piece of property and turned into 
 a free American citizen to speak to you to-night on Abraham Lincoln. 
 I am not fitted by ancestry or training to be your teacher to-night, 
 for, as I have stated, I was born a slave. 
 
 "My first knowledge of Abraham Lincoln came in this way. I 
 was awakened early one morning before the dawn of day as I lay 
 wrapt in a bundle of rags on the dirt floor of our slave cabin, by the 
 prayers of my mother, just before leaving for her day's work, as she 
 was kneeling over my body, earnestly praying that Abraham Lincoln 
 might succeed, and that one day she and her boy might be free. You 
 give me the opportunity here this evening to celebrate with you and 
 the nation the answer to that prayer." 
 
 ■5. Introduction to Roosevelt's Address on "The Strenuous Life": 
 
 "In speaking to you, men of the greatest city of the West, men of 
 the State which gave to the country Lincoln and Grant, men who 
 preeminently and distinctly embody all that is most American in the 
 American character, I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble 
 ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life, the life of toil and effort, 
 of labor and strife, to preach that highest form of success which comes, 
 not to the man who desires mere easy peace, but to the man who does 
 not shrink from danger, from hardship, or from bitter toil, and who 
 out of these wins the splendid ultimate triumph."
 
 READING LESSON IX 211 
 
 6. Introduction to an oration on Decoration Day by Chauncey 
 M. Depew: 
 
 "At the Centennial Exhibition was a picture remarkable for its 
 naturalness and the story it portrayed. It was the Battle of Mon- 
 mouth. An aged fifer, his gray locks streaming in the wind, with 
 eager step was leading his company on to the fray. A drummer boy 
 by his side was looking anxiously into the old man's eyes, and catch- 
 ing from him the tune and the step of the music of liberty. So upon 
 this day, from the lives arid the deeds of the men who fought in the 
 great Civil War, from the causes for which they died and the results 
 which they achieved, we take our step and learn our lesson of how to 
 preserve and perpetuate the union of these States." 
 
 7. Webster concludes his speech before the Agricultural Society 
 of England: 
 
 "With respect lo the occasion which has called us together, I beg 
 to repeat the gratification which I have felt in passing a day in such 
 a company, and to conclude with the most fervent expression of my 
 wish for the prosperity and usefulness of the Agricultural Society of 
 England." 
 
 8. Conclusion to an appeal by David Dudley Field in behalf of 
 the Children's Aid Society: 
 
 "This paper has already reached tlic limit intended. It has not 
 gone into particulars; on the contrary, it has been carefully confined 
 to certain general propositions. Their development and execution 
 are matters of detail. The aim of tlie article is attained if it has 
 helped to impress upon the reader this lesson, partly social and partly 
 political: take care of the children, and the men and women will 
 take care of themselves." 
 
 Q. From William Jennings Rryan's reply lo the Notification Com- 
 mittee, Campaign of iqoo: 
 
 "I conceive a national destiny surpassing the glories of the present 
 and the past — a destiny which meets the responsibilities of to-day 
 and measures up to the possibilities of the future. Behold a Republic 
 resting securely upon the foundation stone quarried by revolutionary
 
 212 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 patriots from the mountain of eternal truth. . . . Behold a Repub- 
 lic in which civil and religious liberty stimulates all to earnest en- 
 deavor, and in which the law restrains every hand uplifted for a 
 neighbor's injury — a Republic in which every citizen is a sovereign, 
 but in which no one cares to wear a crown. Behold a Republic stand- 
 ing erect while empires all around are bowed beneath the weight of 
 their own armaments — a Republic whose flag is loved while other 
 flags are only feared. Behold a Republic increasing in population, 
 in wealth, in strength, and in influence, solving the problems of 
 civilization and hastening the coming of a universal brotherhood — a 
 RepubUc which shakes thrones and dissolves aristocracies by its silent 
 example, and gives light and inspiration to those who sit in darkness. 
 Behold a Republic gradually but surely becoming the supreme factor 
 in the world's progress and the accepted arbiter of the world's dis- 
 putes—a Republic whose history, like the path of the just, 'is 
 as the shining light that shineth more and more unto the perfect 
 day.'" 
 
 lo. Conclusion to "Concord Oration" by George William Curtis. 
 In the body of his address, he described the way in which the Minute 
 Men of the Revolution had vanquished their enemies: 
 
 "No royal governor, indeed, sits in yon stately capitol, no hostile 
 fleet for many a year has vexed the w^aters of our coasts, nor is any 
 army but our own ever likely to tread our soil. Not such are our 
 enemies to-day. They do not come, proudly stepping to the drum- 
 beat, with bayonets flashing in the morning sun. But wherever party 
 spirit shall strain the ancient guaranties of freedom; or bigotry and 
 ignorance shall lay their fatal hands on education; or the arrogance 
 of caste shall strike at equal rights; or corruption shall poison the very 
 springs of national life, — there. Minute Men of Liberty, are your 
 Lexington Green and Concord Bridge. And as you love your country 
 and your kind, and would have your children rise up and call you 
 blessed, spare not the enemy. Over the hills, out of the earth, down 
 from the clouds, pour in resistless might. Fire from every rock and 
 tree, from door and window, from hearthstone and chamber. Hang 
 upon his flank from morn till sunset, and so, through a land blazing 
 with indignation, hurl the hordes of ignorance and corruption and 
 injustice back, — back in utter defeat and ruin."
 
 READING LESSON IX 213 
 
 11. Conclusion of an address by George William Curtis at the 
 laying of the corner stone of Washington IMemorial x\rch: 
 
 "What he said to the convention he says to us. It is the voice 
 of the heroic spirit which in council and in the field has made, and 
 alone wiU preserve, our America. It is the voice that will speak from 
 the Memorial Arch to all coming generations of Americans. What- 
 ever may betide; whatever war, foreign or domestic, may threaten; 
 whatever specious sophistry may assail the political conscience of 
 the country, or bribery of place or money corrupt its political action; 
 above the roar of the mob and the insidious clamor of the demagogue, 
 the voice of Washington will still be the voice of American patriotism 
 and of manly honor. — 'Let us raise a standard to which the wise 
 and honest can repair; the event is in the hands of God.'" 
 
 12. Conclusion of a speech by Sargent S. Prentiss, delivered at 
 Jackson, Miss., in August, 1835: 
 
 "Here we cannot but pause to contemplate two wonderful men, 
 belonging to the same age and to the same nation: Napoleon and 
 Lafayette. Their names excite no kindred emotions; their fates no 
 kindred sympathies. Napoleon — the child of Destiny — the thun- 
 derbolt of war — the victor in a hundred battles — the dispenser of 
 thrones and dominions; he who scaled the Alps and reclined beneath 
 the pyramids, whose word was fate and whose wish was law. Lafay- 
 ette — the volunteer of Freedom — the advocate of human rights — 
 the defender of civil liberty — the patriot and the philanthro{)ist — 
 the beloved of the good and the free. Napoleon — the vanquished 
 warrior, ignobly tlying from the field of Waterloo, the wild beast, 
 ravaging all Europe in his wrath, hunted down by the banded nations 
 and caged far away upon an ocean-girded rock. Lafayette — a 
 watchword by which men excite each other to deeds of worth and 
 daring; whose home has become the Mecca of Freedom, toward 
 which the pilgrims of Libiiiy turn their eyes from every quarter of 
 the globe. Napoleon was the red and fiery comet, shooting wildly 
 through the realms of space and scattering pestilence and terror 
 among the nations. Lafayette was the pure and brilliant planet, 
 beneath whose grateful beams the mariner directs his bark and the 
 shepherd tends his flocks. Napoleon died and a few old warriors —
 
 214 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the scattered relics of Marengo and Austerlitz — bewailed their 
 chief. Lafayette is dead and the tears of a civilized world attest how 
 deep is the mourning for his loss. Such is and always will be the 
 difference of feeling toward a benefactor and a conqueror of the 
 human race."
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Introduction. — The introductions and conclusions to 
 the short speeches composed in connection with earlier 
 chapters consisted of single sentences. The theme sen- 
 tence formed the introduction, while a varied statement 
 of the main idea made the conclusion. From this prac- 
 tice we learned that introductions and conclusions should 
 be brief. In longer speeches, they should bear about the 
 same relation to the whole speech that one sentence does 
 to a two-minute speech. An audience does not enjoy a 
 speaker who takes too long to come to the point, or one 
 who starts to end his speech and then does not do so. 
 
 Success in formal debating does not require an extended 
 study of introductions and conclusions. In connection 
 with brief-making we considered the nature of an intro- 
 duction to a debate. We learned that its purpose was 
 primarily to explain the question; that it was given only 
 by the first speaker; and that it should occupy not more 
 than one-third of his time. We saw, also, from a study 
 of Reading Lesson VITI that the conclusion of a speech 
 in a debate is practically a summary of the main argument. 
 
 When, however, we take up the study of various kinds 
 of longer speeches, other than the debate, we find that the 
 speaker may use various means to accomplish his purposes. 
 In this chapter we shall learn that a speaker may wish to 
 accomplish by his introduction and conclusion cither one
 
 2i6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 or both of two objects: he may wish to establish right 
 relations with his audience, or he may wish to give unity 
 to his speech. 
 
 I. Personal Introductions and Conclusions 
 
 If the speaker's main purpose is to establish right re- 
 lations with his audience, he will use an introduction and 
 a conclusion of a personal nature. His introduction may 
 treat of his relation to his subject. The opening paragraph 
 of Booker T. Washington's oration on Abraham Lincoln 
 is a good example. Again, the introduction may treat 
 of the speaker's relation to liis audience, as does that of 
 Lincoln to the citizens of Ohio. (Reading Lesson X, i, 
 page 220.) In his conclusion, the speaker will attempt 
 to take graceful leave of his audience. (See the conclu- 
 sion to Webster's Address before the Agricultural Society 
 of England, Reading Lesson IX, 7.) 
 
 The personal note is usually appropriate in speeches 
 made on social occasions, and is frequently not out of 
 place in persuasive speeches. The speaker must be care- 
 ful, however, that by its use he does not give an impres- 
 sion of egotism. A person of experience and reputation 
 can open and close a speech in a personal way with better 
 grace than can a young speaker. It is, perhaps, needless 
 to say that this form of introduction and conclusion should 
 never be used in a formal debate. 
 
 II. Unity 
 
 If a speaker's main purpose is to increase the unity of 
 his speech through his introduction and conclusion, he 
 has various methods at his disposal. 
 
 Introduction. — In his introduction he should try in
 
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 217 
 
 some way to sound the keynote of his speech. He may 
 state the theme of his speech clearly and fully, as Roosevelt 
 did in his address on " The Strenuous Life." This form 
 is better adapted to argument, however, than to other 
 forms of address. 
 
 Again, the speaker may use what is called a general 
 introduction. In this, he makes reference to the larger 
 subject, one phase of which he expects to discuss more 
 fully. This method was used by John Hay in his eulogy 
 on President AIcKinley. (Reading Lesson IX, i.) 
 
 Perhaps the most artistic method of opening an address 
 is merely to suggest the theme of the discourse. This can 
 be done in several ways: Mr. Depew, in his oration on 
 Decoration Day, introduced his theme by a description of 
 the fifer and the drummer boy. (Reading Lesson IX, 
 6); Mr. Grady, in his oration on "The New South," used 
 an appropriate quotation (Reading Lesson IX, 2); and 
 Mr. Roosevelt, in his speech, "The Man with the Muck- 
 rake," uses a literary allusion. A speaker should be 
 very sure that his story, quotation, or illustration really 
 does sound the keynote of his speech. A story which is 
 "dragged" in in an attempt merely to create a laugh is 
 an unfortunate beginning. 
 
 Conclusion. — In his conclusion, the speaker should 
 try to gain unity by emphasizing the main thought. Such 
 a conclusion may be called an emphatic as distinguished 
 from a personal conclusion. It should be the climax of 
 the whole speech; that is, the speaker should have "saved 
 his best wine until tlic last." 
 
 There are three kinds of emphatic conclusions. The 
 simplest form is the summary. (See Reading Lesson IX, 
 8, for examj)le.) A summary should be more than a mere
 
 2i8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 enumeration of the points that have been made. It should 
 throw some new hght on the central thought and should 
 sound in a most impressive way the keynote of the speech. 
 It may take the form of a contrast, as in the case of Pren- 
 tiss' eulogy of Lafayette. (Reading Lesson IX, 12.) 
 
 An emphatic conclusion may look forward into the 
 future, expressing hope in regard to growth or results. 
 Such is the conclusion of Bryan's reply to the Notification 
 Committee. (Reading Lesson IX, 9.) It may make an 
 application of certain truths to the life of the people, and 
 may urge the listeners to action. The conclusion of the 
 Concord Oration by George William Curtis is an excellent 
 example of this method. 
 
 The third kind of emphatic conclusion gives final ex- 
 pression to the thought in the form of a quotation. (See 
 Reading Lesson IX, 11.) 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned the vari- 
 ous ways in which a speaker may use an introduction 
 and conclusion either to establish right relations with his 
 audience or to increase the unity of his speech. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Introduction and Conclusion 
 Iniroduction. 
 
 I. Brevity necessary. 
 II. Nature of the introduction and conclusion in a debate. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Personal introductions and conclusions. 
 A . Purpose. — How gained. 
 
 1. Relation to subject. 
 
 2. Relation to audience. 
 
 3. Conclusion.
 
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 219 
 
 I. B. When appropriate. 
 C. Danger. 
 II. Unity. 
 
 A. Introduction. 
 
 1. Statement of theme. 
 
 2. General introduction. 
 
 3. Suggestion. 
 
 (a) Description. 
 
 (b) Quotation. 
 
 (c) Literary or historical allusion. 
 
 (i) Not dragged in. 
 
 B. Conclusion. 
 
 1. Emphatic. 
 
 (a) Climax. 
 
 2. Three kinds. 
 
 (a) Summary. 
 
 (i) Not an enumeration. 
 (2) Contrast. 
 
 (b) Looking forward. 
 
 (i) Hope. 
 
 (2) Urging to action. 
 
 (c) Quotation. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise L — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline.
 
 220 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 READING LESSON X 
 
 Examples of Persuasive Speech 
 
 1. Introduction to a speech by Abraham Lincoln: 
 
 "Fellow Citizens of the State of Ohio: I cannot fail to remember 
 that I appear for the first time before an audience in this now great 
 State, — an audience that is accustomed to hear such speakers as 
 Corwin, and Chase, and Wade, and many other renowned men; and 
 remembering this, I feel that it will be well for you, as for me, that 
 you should not raise your expectations to that standard to which you 
 would have been justified in raising them had one of these distin- 
 guished men appeared before you. You would perhaps be only pre- 
 paring disappointment for yourselves, and, as a consequence of your 
 disappointment, mortification for me. I hope, therefore, that you 
 will commence with very moderate expectations; and perhaps if you 
 will give me your attention, I shall be able to interest you in a 
 moderate degree." 
 
 2. Garfield, speaking as a Representative in the House in reference 
 to a certain action, began, "I wish I could be proved a false prophet 
 in reference to the result of this action. I wish that I could be over- 
 whelmed with the proof that I am utterly mistaken in my views." 
 
 3. In a debate on "The Recall of Judges," the first affirmative 
 speaker began as follows: 
 
 "The advocates of recall do not fail to recognize the absolute in- 
 tegrity and high scholarship of many who occupy judicial positions. 
 The movement for popular recall is not an attack upon the bench as 
 a whole; it is merely an attempt to correct certain conditions and to 
 remove such individuals as may, in time, serve to bring the judiciary 
 into disrepute." 
 
 4. From William Jennings Bryan's speech on the Chicago 
 Platform : 
 
 "I would be presumptuous indeed to present myself against the 
 distinguished gentleman to whom you have listened, if this were a 
 mere measuring of abilities; but this is not a contest between persons. 
 The humblest citizen in all the land, when clad in the armor of a
 
 READING LESSON X 221 
 
 righteous cause, is stronger than all the hosts of error. I come to 
 speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of Uberty, the 
 cause of humanity." 
 
 5. This oration was delivered by Napoleon to the Army of Italy 
 on May 15, 1796, six days after the battle of Lodi. In response, the 
 French beat back the Austrians into Austria after nearly one year 
 of fierce fighting: 
 
 "Soldiers! You have precipitated yourselves like a torrent from 
 the Apennines. You have overwhelmed or swept before you all that 
 opposed your march. Piedmont, delivered from Austrian oppression, 
 has returned to her natural sentiments of peace and friendship toward 
 France. Milan is yours; and over all Lombardy floats the flag of 
 the Republic. To your generosity only do the Dukes of Parma and 
 Modena now owe their political existence. The army which proudly 
 threatened you finds no remaining barrier of defense against your 
 courage. The Po, the Ticino, the Adda, could not stop you a single 
 day. Those vaunted ramparts of Italy proved insufficient; you 
 traversed them as rapidly as you did the Apennines. Successes so 
 numerous and brilliant have carried joy to the heart of your country. 
 Your representatives have decreed a festival to be celebrated in all 
 the communes of the Republic, in honor of your victories. There will 
 your fathers, mothers, wives, sisters, all who hold you dear, rejoice 
 over your triumphs, and boast that you belong to them. 
 
 "Yes, soldiers, you have done much; but much still remains for 
 you to do. Shall it be said of us that we knew how to conquer, but 
 not how to profit by victory? Shall posterity reproach us with having 
 found a Capua in Lombardy? Nay, fellow soldiers! I see you 
 already eager to cry 'To arms!' Inaction fatigues you; and days 
 lost to glory arc to you days lost to happiness. Let us, then, begone! 
 V\'e have yet many forced marches to make; enemies to vanquish; 
 laurels to gather; and injuries to avenge! Let those who have sharp- 
 ened the poniards of civil war in I'rance, who have pusillanimously 
 assassinated our Ministers, who have burned our vessels at Toulon, 
 — let them now tremble! Tlie hour of vengeance has knolled! 
 
 " But let not the people be disquieted. VVe are the friends of every 
 people; and more especially of the descendants of the Brutuscs, the 
 Scipios, and other great men to whom we look as bright exemplars.
 
 2 22 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 To reestablish the Capitol; to place there with honor the statues of 
 the heroes who made it memorable; to rouse the Roman people, 
 unnerved by many centuries of oppression, — such will be some of 
 the fruits of our victories. They will constitute an epoch for pos- 
 terity. To you, soldiers, will belong the immortal honor of redeeming 
 the fairest portion of Europe. The French people, free and respected 
 by the whole world, shall give to Europe a glorious peace, which 
 shall indemnify it for all the sacrifices which it has borne the last six 
 years. Then, by your own firesides you shall repose, and your fel- 
 low citizens, when they point out any one of you, shall say, 'He be- 
 longed to the army of Italy!'" 
 
 6. Introduction to an address by Woodrow Wilson, entitled 
 "The Bible and Progress": 
 
 "I come here to-night to speak of the Bible as the book of the 
 people, not the book of the minister of the Gospel, not the special 
 book of the priest from which to set forth some occult, unknown 
 doctrine withheld from the common understanding of men, but a 
 great book of revelation — the people's, book of revelation." 
 
 7. From a speech at Liverpool by Henry Ward Beecher, October 
 16, 1863: 
 
 "It is a matter of very little consequence to me, personally, whether 
 I speak here to-night or not. But one thing is very certain, if you do 
 permit me to speak here to-night, you will hear very plain talking. 
 You will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about Great 
 Britain three thousand miles off and then is afraid to speak to 
 Great Britain when he stands on her shores, and if I do not mistake 
 the tone and temper of English men, they had rather have a man 
 who opposes them in a manly way than a sneak who argues with 
 them in an unmanly way. Now if I can carry you with me by 
 sound conviction, I shall be immensely glad; but if I cannot carry 
 you with me by facts and sound arguments, I do not wish you to 
 go with me at all, and all that I ask is simply fair play." 
 
 8. Rudyard Kipling made the following address in London, Feb- 
 ruary 20, 191 5, before a meeting called for the purpose of raising 
 subscriptions to furnish the armies with music: 
 
 "I am greatly honored by the lord mayor's request to speak be-
 
 READING LESSON X 223 
 
 fore }-ou. The most useful thing that a civilian can do in these busy 
 days is to speak as Httle as possible, and, if he feels moved to write, 
 to confine his efforts to his check-book. But this is an exception to 
 that very good rule. 
 
 "We do not know the present strength of our new armies. Even 
 if we did it would not be necessary to make it public. We may assume 
 there are now several battalions in Great Britain which did not e.xist 
 at the end of last July, and some of these battalions are in London. 
 Nor is it any part of our national scheme of things to explain how far 
 they are prepared for the work ahead of them. They were quite 
 rightly born in silence for the rest of their lives. At present, un- 
 fortunately, most of them are obliged to walk in silence, or to no better 
 accompaniment than whistles, concertinas, and other meritorious but 
 inadequate instruments of music which they provide for themselves. 
 
 "In the beginning this did not matter so much. There were more 
 urgent needs to be met ; but now that the new armies are what they 
 are, we, who cannot assist them by joining their ranks, owe it to them 
 to provide them with more worthy music for their help and comfort 
 and honor. I am not a musician, so if I speak as a barbarian, forgive 
 me. 
 
 "From the lowest point of view, a few drums and fifes in a bat- 
 talion are worth five extra miles on a route march — quite apart from 
 the fact that they swing the battalion back to quarters composed and 
 happy in its mind; where there is no route-marching, the mere 
 come-and-go, the roll and flourish of the drums and fifes round 
 barracks is as warming and cheering as the sight of a fire in a room. 
 
 "A band — not necessarily a full band, but a band of a few brasses 
 and wood winds — is immensely valuable in districts where troops 
 are billeted. It revives memories; it quickens associations; it opens 
 and unites the hearts of men more surely than any other appeal. In 
 that respect it assists recruiting perhaps more than any other agency. 
 The tunes that it employs and the words that go with them may 
 seem very far removed from heroism or devotion; but the magic 
 and the compelling power are there to make men's souls realize 
 certain truths which their minds might doubt. 
 
 "More than that. No one — not even the adjutant — can say 
 for certain where the soul of a battalion lives; but the expression of 
 that soul is most often found in the band. It stands to leason that
 
 224 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 a body of 1200 men whose lives are pledged to each other's keeping 
 must have some common means of expressing their thoughts and 
 moods to themselves and to their world. The band can feel the 
 mood and interpret it to their world. 
 
 "A wise and sympathetic bandmaster — and most that I have 
 known have been that — can lift a battalion out of depression, cheer 
 it in sickness, and steady and recall it to itself in times of almost 
 unendurable strain. You will remember a beautiful poem by Sir 
 Henry Newbolt describing how a squadron of ' weary big dragoons' 
 were led on to renewed effort by the strains of a penny whistle and a 
 child's drum taken from a toyshop in a wrecked French town. 
 
 "And I remember in a cholera camp in India, where the men were 
 suffering very badly, the band of the loth Lincolns started a regi- 
 mental sing-song one night with that queer defiant tune, 'The Lin- 
 colnshire Poacher.' It was merely their regimental march which the 
 men had heard a thousand times. There was nothing in it except — 
 except all England — all the East Coast — all the fun and daring 
 and horseplay of young men bucketing about the big pastures by 
 moonhght. But, as it was given, very softly, at that bad time in 
 that terrible camp of death, it was the one thing in the world which 
 could have restored — as it did — shaken men to pride, honor, and 
 self-control. This is, perhaps, an extreme case, but by no means an 
 exceptional one. A man who has had any experience of the service 
 can testify that a battalion is better for music at every turn — happier, 
 easier to handle, and with greater zest for its daily routine if that 
 routine is sweetened by melody and rhythm — melody for the mind 
 and rhythm for the body. 
 
 "Our new armies have not been well served in this essential. Of 
 all the admirable qualities they have shown, none is more wonderful 
 than the spirit which has carried them through the laborious and dis- 
 tasteful groundwork of their calling without a note of music except 
 what that same indomitable spirit supplied — out of its own head. 
 We have all seen them marching through the country or through 
 London streets in absolute silence, and the crowd through which they 
 pass as silent as themselves for lack of the one medium that could 
 convey and glorify the thoughts which are in all men's minds to-day. 
 
 "We are a tongue-tied breed at the best. The band can declare 
 on our behalf, without shame or shyness, something of what we feel,
 
 READING LESSON X 225 
 
 and so help us to reach a hand towards the men who have risen up 
 to save us. 
 
 "We have had many proofs in the last six months that people 
 only want to be told what the new armies require and it will be freely 
 and gladly given. The army needs music — its own music — for, 
 more than any other calling, soldiers do not live by bread alone. 
 From time immemorial the man who offers his life for his land has 
 been compassed at ever\' turn of his service by elaborate ceremonial 
 and observance of which music is no small part — carefully designed 
 to prepare and uphold him. It is not expedient nor seemly that any 
 portion of that ritual should be slurred or omitted now."
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 
 
 Introduction. — The persuasive speech, as we have 
 learned in an earlier chapter, aims to secure action on 
 the part of the hsteners. It does this by an appeal both 
 to the feelings and to the understanding. We found, 
 however, that if the speaker appeals to the feelings only, 
 and does not support his appeal by sound reasoning, the 
 impulse to act is hkely to be of short duration. We have, 
 therefore, spent much time in studying the process of argu- 
 ment. But again we find that conviction alone, which is 
 the aim of the debater, is not always sufficient to secure 
 action. The reasoning processes of men are apt to be mod- 
 ified by their education and personal interests and, as a 
 result, it becomes necessary for the persuasive speaker 
 to remove old prejudices and arouse new motives. The 
 really effective persuasive speech produces convictions 
 and creates a willingness to act upon those convictions. 
 
 According to Archbishop Magee, there are three kinds 
 of speakers: (i) the kind you can't listen to; (2) the kind 
 you can listen to; and (3) the kind you can't help hsten- 
 ing to. This last class has learned the art of persuasive 
 speech. 
 
 Persuasiveness is much more than the gift of making 
 emotional appeals. In this chapter we shall learn: (i) 
 that it involves the right attitude on the part of the 
 speaker toward himself, his subject, and his audience; 
 (2) that it includes the ability of the speaker to adapt his
 
 THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 227 
 
 message to his audience; (3) that it hes in the power of 
 the speaker to create a sense of unity in his audience. 
 
 I. Right Attitude 
 
 Toward Himself. — The persuasive speaker should be 
 modest and, at the same time, self-respecting and self- 
 reliant. Lincoln's introduction to his speech in Ohio 
 furnishes an excellent example of sincere modesty. It 
 scarcely need be said that affectation of modesty would be 
 repellent. The extract from Beecher's speech at Liver- 
 pool reveals to us the persuasive power of an attitude 
 which is outspoken and self-reliant, yet not discourteous. 
 
 Toward his Subject. — A persuasive speaker must have 
 absolute faith in the dignity and righteousness of the cause 
 for which he stands. ^Ir. Holyoake says, "The true use 
 of the art of pubhc speaking is the protection of the un- 
 friended truth and the vindication of the imperiled right." 
 If, then, we are putting our art to its highest use, we need 
 not lack this one element of persuasiveness — confidence 
 in the worthiness of our cause. This attitude is well illus- 
 trated by Bryan's speech on the Chicago Platform. 
 
 The truly persuasive speaker is in earnest about his 
 subject. He talks, not to display his ability but to accom- 
 plish results. As some one has said, "He does not present 
 a beautiful picture and then stand in front of it." His 
 emotional appeals are successful because he first feels the 
 emotion himself. This absolute sincerity has been a 
 characteristic of all great persuasive speakers. Pericles, 
 the great orator of the Golden Age, who swayed Athens 
 as he would, is said to have always prayed to the gods be- 
 fore speaking that he might utter no words unsuited to 
 his auditcjrs and to the occasion.
 
 2 28 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Toward his Audience. — The speaker who is persuasive 
 is always courteous and even complimentary. Lincoln 
 said, "I always assume that my audiences are in many 
 things wiser than I am, and I say the most sensible thing 
 I can to them. I never found that they did not under- 
 stand me." The persuasive speaker feels and expresses 
 confidence in the ability and willingness of his hearers 
 to do what he urges them to do. Napoleon's address to 
 his soldiers breathes confidence in every line. 
 
 Again, the persuasive speaker expresses his views with 
 moderation in order that he may not arouse unnecessary 
 antagonism on the part of those who differ from him. 
 Coleridge expresses the need of such moderation when he 
 says, "Truth is a good dog, but beware of barking too 
 closely at the heels of error, lest you get your brains kicked 
 out." Reading Lesson X^ 3 furnishes an example of a 
 mild statement of the speaker's position — one which is 
 calculated to allay prejudice. 
 
 II. Adaptation to Audience 
 
 The persuasive speaker seeks to adapt his message to 
 his audience. One who knows his message but not his 
 audience is not likely to reach them with his message. 
 When a speaker is planning for a given occasion, he should 
 ask himself these questions: What does my audience al- 
 ready know about my subject? What do they usually 
 think and talk about? What can I use of their knowledge 
 as an illustration of my own? 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher was a master of persuasive dis- 
 course. When he lectured in the British Isles to gain 
 support for the Northern cause, he showed that he under- 
 stood this principle perfectly. When speaking in Glas-
 
 THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 229 
 
 gow, where laborers were interested in building blockade 
 runners, he pointed out the evil effects of slavery upon 
 labor; but, when speaking to a cultured audience in 
 Edinburgh, he dealt with the philosophy and history of 
 slavery. 
 
 III. Sense of Unity in the Audience 
 
 The persuasive speaker tries to create in his audience 
 a sense of unity. He changes them from persons of vary- 
 ing purposes to a group with a common purpose. He 
 may accompHsh this in various ways.^ A very common 
 method is to tell a story. Edgar R. Jones says in The 
 Art of the Orator, "Once individuals are got to laugh 
 together or cry together, they are in the speaker's hand; 
 he has them bound to him with a cord of sympathy; he 
 can sway them as one mind." 
 
 Again, he may refer to personages who are revered by 
 all or by a large proportion of his audience; such as 
 Washington, Lincoln, or Christ. He may appeal to ideals 
 which all human beings have in common, such as self- 
 interest, freedom, honesty, chivalry, duty, patriotism, 
 love of home and family. It is best to begin with as high 
 motives as possible and lead to higher ones. The average 
 man, although he may at times be secretly governed by 
 sordid motives, yields more readily to the speaker who 
 appeals to motives that are generally commended. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (i) 
 that the persuasive speaker has the right attitude toward 
 himself, his subject, and his audience; (2) that he adapts 
 his message to his audience; and (3) that he creates in 
 his audience a sense of unity.
 
 230 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Persuasive Speech 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Why the effective speech includes both argument and 
 persuasion. 
 
 II. Three kinds of speakers. 
 
 III. Advance summary. 
 
 Body. 
 
 
 I. Right attitude. 
 
 A. 
 
 Toward himself. 
 
 
 I. Modesty. 
 
 
 2. Self-reliance. 
 
 B. 
 
 Toward his subject. 
 
 
 I. Faith — Holyoake. 
 
 
 2. Earnestness. 
 
 
 (o) Picture. 
 
 
 {b) Emotion. 
 
 
 (c) Pericles. 
 
 C. 
 
 Toward his audience. 
 
 
 I. Courteous — Lincoln. 
 
 
 2. Confidence — Napoleon. 
 
 
 3. Moderation. 
 
 
 (c) Coleridge. 
 
 
 {b) Example. 
 
 II. Adaptation to audience. 
 
 A. 
 
 Questions. 
 
 B. 
 
 Beecher. 
 
 III. Sense of unity in the audience. 
 
 A. 
 
 From individuals to group — Jones, 
 
 B. 
 
 Personages. 
 
 C. 
 
 Ideals. 
 
 
 I. High motives — reason. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Re-read Dickens' speech (Reading Lesson III, page
 
 THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 231 
 
 54) and Kipling's speech (Reading Lesson X, page 220) and find as 
 many illustrations as possible of points mentioned in this chapter. 
 
 Exercise III. — Read the following speeches of St. Paul in the 
 New Testament and make a list of their persuasive points. To the 
 Athenians {Acts, xvii: 22-32); before Agrippa {Acts, xxvi). 
 
 Exercise IV. — Prepare a speech (of not more than four minutes) 
 which has a persuasive purpose. Consult the list of subjects for 
 persuasive speeches (Appendix VII) for suggestions as to a topic. 
 Use as many as possible of the suggestions given in this chapter. 
 
 Exercise V. — Repeat the speech prepared in Exercise IV, but 
 adapt it to an altogether different audience. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Written Review. Be able to write in class upon 
 any of the following topics: 
 
 1. Personal Introductions and Conclusions. 
 
 2. The Introduction as a Keynote. 
 
 3. The Emphatic Conclusion. 
 
 4. Attitude of the Persuasive Speaker. 
 
 5. Adaptation to the Audience. 
 
 6. Creation of a Sense of Unity in the Audience.
 
 232 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 READING LESSON XI 
 
 Orations 
 
 I. Speech by William CuUen Bryant as president of the day at a 
 banquet of the Burns Club of New York, in celebration of the cen- 
 tenary of the poet's birth: ^ 
 
 "On rising to begin the announcement of the regular toasts for 
 this evening, my first duty is to thank my excellent friends of the 
 Burns Club, with whom I do not now meet for the first time, and 
 whose annual festivities are among the pleasantest I ever attended, 
 for the honor they have done me in calling me to the chair I occupy — 
 an honor the more to be prized on account of the rare occasion on which 
 it is bestowed. An honor which can be conferred but once in a cen- 
 tury is an honor indeed. This evening the memory of Burns will be 
 celebrated as it never was before. His fame, from the time when he 
 first appeared before the world as a poet, has been growing and bright- 
 ening, as the morning brightens into the perfect day. There never was 
 a time when his merits were so freely acknowledged as now; when 
 the common consent of the literary world placed him so high, or 
 spoke his praises wdth so little intermixture of disparagement; when 
 the anniversary of his birth could have awakened so general and 
 fervent an enthusiasm. If we could imagine a human being endowed 
 with the power of making himself, through the medium of his senses, 
 a witness of whatever is passing on the face of the globe, what a series 
 of festivities, what successive manifestations of the love and admira- 
 tion which all who speak our language bear to the Scottish poet, 
 would present themselves to his observation, accompanying the 
 shadow of this night in its circuit round the earth. . . . Well has 
 our great poet deserved this universal commemoration — for who 
 has written like him? What poem descriptive of rural manners and 
 virtues, rural life in its simplicity and dignity — yet without a single 
 false outline or touch of false coloring — clings to our memories and 
 lives in our bosoms like his 'Cotter's Saturday Night'? What 
 humorous narrative in verse can be compared with his 'Tam o'Shan- 
 
 1 From Chronicle of the Hundredth Birthday of Robert Burns, edited 
 by James Ballantine. Edinburgh and London, 1859.
 
 READING LESSON XI 233 
 
 ter' ? From the fall of Adam to his time, I beHeve, there was nothing 
 written in the vein of his 'Mountain Daisy'; others have caught his 
 spirit from that poem, but who among them all has excelled him? 
 Of all the convivial songs I have ever seen in any language, there is 
 none so overflovnng with the spirit of conviviality, so joyous, so 
 contagious, as his song of 'Willie brewed a peck o' maut.' What 
 love songs are sweeter and tenderer than those of Burns? \\'hat 
 song addresses itself so movingly to our love of old friends and our 
 pleasant recollections of old days as his 'Auld Lang Syne,' or to the 
 domestic affections so powerfully as his 'John Anderson'? 
 
 "You heard yesterda3^ my friends, and you wUl hear againto-day, 
 better things said of the genius of Burns than I can say. That will 
 be your gain and mine. But there is one observation which, if I 
 have not already tried your patience too far, I would ask your leave 
 to make. If Burns was thus great among poets, it was not because 
 he stood higher than they by any preeminence of a creative and fertile 
 imagination. Original, affluent, and active his imagination certainly 
 was, and it was always kept under the guidance of a masculine and 
 vigorous understanding; but it is the feeling which lives in his poems 
 that gives them their supreme mastery over the minds of men. Burns 
 was thus great because God breathed into him, in larger measure 
 than into other men, the spirit of that love which constitutes his own 
 essence, and made him, more than other men, a living soul. Burns 
 was great by the greatness of his sympathies — sympathies acute 
 and delicate, yet large, comprehensive, boundless. They were warm- 
 est and strongest toward those of his own kind, yet they overflowed 
 upon all sentient beings: upon the animal in his stall, upon the 'wee, 
 sleekit, cowcrin', timorous bcastie,' dislodged from her autumnal 
 covert; upon the hare wounded by the sportsman; upon the very 
 field flower, overturned by his share and crushed among the stubble. 
 And in all this we feel that there is nothing strained or exaggerated, 
 nothing affected or put on, nothing childish or silly, but that ail is 
 true, genuine, manly, noble. We honor, we venerate the poet while 
 wc read; we take the expression of these sympathies to our hearts, 
 and fold it in our memory forever. 
 
 "And now, having .said all I purposed to say — to your weariness, 
 I fear — I proceed to give out the first regular toast in which, if you 
 do not heartily join, I shall wonder why you are here. I give you
 
 234 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 'The Day We Celebrate' — a day 'which makes the whole world 
 kin,' uniting by sympathetic emotion men of all degrees, in every 
 land, in honoring the memory and the genius of Robert Burns, one 
 of 'the few, the immortal names that were not born to die.'" 
 
 2. Portion of a eulogy of Lincoln, by John Philip Newman: 
 
 "Human glory is often fickle as the winds, and transient as a 
 summer day; but Abraham Lincoln's place in history is assured. 
 All the symbols of this world's admiration are his. He is embalmed 
 in song, recorded in history, eulogized in panegyric, cast in bronze, 
 sculptured in marble, painted on canvas, enshrined in the hearts of 
 his countrymen, and lives in the memories of mankind. Some men 
 are brilliant in their times, but their words and deeds are of little 
 worth to history; but his mission was as large as his country, vast 
 as humanity, enduring as time. Some men are not honored by their 
 contemporaries, and die neglected. Here is one more honor,ed than 
 any other man while living, more revered when dying, and destined 
 to be loved to the last syllable of recorded time. He has this three- 
 fold greatness — great in Hfe, great in death, great in the history of 
 the world. Lincoln will grow upon the attention and affections of 
 posterity, because he saved the life of the greatest nation, whose ever 
 widening influence is to bless humanity. Measured by this standard, 
 Lincoln shall live in history from age to age. 
 
 " Great men appear in groups, and in groups they disappear from 
 the vision of the world; but we do not love or hate men in groups. 
 We speak of Gutenberg and his coadjutors, of Washington and his 
 generals, of Lincoln and his cabinet ; but when the day of judgment 
 comes, we crown the inventor of printing, we place the laurel on the 
 brow of the father of his country, and the chaplet of renown upon 
 the head of the savior of the republic. 
 
 "Some men are great from the littleness of their surroundings; 
 but he only is great who is great amid greatness. Lincoln had great 
 associates — Seward, the sagacious diplomatist ; Chase, the eminent 
 financier; Stanton, the incomparable Secretary of War, — with 
 illustrious senators and soldiers. None could take his part or fill 
 his position. 
 
 "Lincoln stands forth on the page of history, unique in his char- 
 acter, and magnetic in his individuality. Like Milton's angel, he
 
 READING LESSON XI 235 
 
 was an original conception. He was raised up for his times. He 
 was a leader of leaders. By instinct the common heart trusted him. 
 He was of the people and for the people. He had been poor and 
 laborious; but greatness did not change the tone of his spirit or 
 lessen the sympathies of his nature. His character was strangely 
 sjTnmetrical. He was temperate, without austerity; brave, without 
 rashness; constant, \\-ithout obstinacy. Not excepting Washington, 
 who inherited wealth and high social position, Lincoln is the fullest 
 representative American in our national annals. He had touched 
 every round in the human ladder. He illustrated the possibilities 
 of our citizenship. We are not ashamed of his humble origin. We 
 are proud of his greatness." 
 
 3. From an address by Booker T. Washington at the opening of 
 the Atlanta Exposition: 
 
 Mr. Washington in V p from Slavery describes his own feelings 
 and the circumstances surrounding the delivery of the speech as 
 follows: "I remembered that I had been a slave — it was easily 
 possible that some of my former owners might be present to hear me 
 speak. I knew, too, that this was the first time in the entire history 
 of the negro that a member of my race had been asked to speak from 
 the same platform with while Southern men and women on any 
 important national occasion. When I arose to speak, there was 
 considerable cheering, especially from the colored people. As I 
 remember it now the thing that was uppermost in my mind was the 
 desire to say something that would cement the friendship of the 
 races and bring about hearty cooperation between them. . . . The 
 first thing that I remember, after I finished speaking, was that Gov- 
 ernor Bullock rushed across the platform and took me by the hand, 
 and that others did the same." 
 
 Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Board of Directors and Citizens: 
 
 One-third of the population of the South is of the Negro race. 
 No enterprise seeking the material, civil, or moral welfare of this 
 section can disregard this element of our population and reach the 
 highest success. I but convey to you, Mr. President and Directors, 
 the sentiment of the masses of my race when I say that in no way 
 have the value and manhood of the American Negro been more
 
 236 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 fittingly and generously recognized than by the managers of this 
 magnificent Exposition at every stage of its progress. It is a recog- 
 nition that will do more to cement the friendship of the two races 
 than any occurrence since the dawn of our freedom. 
 
 Not only this, but the opportunity here afforded will awaken 
 among us a new era of industrial progress. Ignorant and inexperi- 
 enced, it is not strange that in the first years of our new life we began 
 at the top instead of at the bottom; that a seat in Congress or the 
 State legislature was more sought than real estate or industrial skill; 
 that the political convention or stump speaking had more attractions 
 than starting a dairy, farm, or truck garden. 
 
 A ship lost at sea for many days suddenly sighted a friendly vessel. 
 From the mast of the unfortunate vessel was seen a signal, "Water, 
 water; we die of thirst!" The answer from the friendly vessel at 
 once came back, " Cast down your bucket where you are." A second 
 time the signal, "Water, water; send us water!" ran up from the 
 distressed vessel, and was answered, "Cast down your bucket where 
 you are." And a third and fourth signal for water was answered, 
 "Cast down your bucket where you are." The captain of the dis- 
 tressed vessel, at last heeding the injunction, cast down his bucket, 
 and it came up full of fresh sparkling water from the mouth of the 
 Amazon River. To those of my race who depend on bettering their 
 condition in a foreign land" or who underestimate the importance of 
 cultivating friendly relations with the Southern white man, who is 
 their next-door neighbor, I would say: "Cast down your bucket 
 where you are" — cast it down in making friends in every manly 
 way of the people of aQ races by whom we are surrounded. 
 
 Cast it down in agriculture, mechanics, in commerce, in domestic 
 service, and in the professions. And in this connection it is well to 
 bear in mind that whatever other sins the South may be called to 
 bear, when it comes to business, pure and simple, it is in the South 
 that the Negro is given a man's chanqe in the commercial world, and 
 in nothing is this Exposition more eloquent than in emphasizing this 
 chance. Our greatest danger is that in the great leap from slavery 
 to freedom we may overlook the fact that the masses of us are to live 
 by the productions of our hands, and fail to keep in mind that we 
 shall prosper in proportion as we learn to dignify and glorify common 
 labor and put brains and skill into the common occupations of life;
 
 READING LESSON XI 237 
 
 shall prosper in proportion as we learn to draw the line between the 
 superficial and the substantial, the ornamental gewgaws of life and 
 the useful. No race can prosper till it learns that there is as much 
 dignity in tilling a field as in writing a poem. It is at the bottom of 
 life we must begin, and not at the top. Nor should we permit our 
 grievances to overshadow our opportunities. 
 
 To those of the white race who look to the incoming of those of 
 foreign birth and strange tongue and habits for the prosperity of the 
 South, were I permitted I would repeat what I say to my own race, 
 "Cast down your bucket where you are." Cast it down among the 
 eight millions of Negroes whose habits you know, whose fidelity and 
 love you have tested in days when to have proved treacherous meant 
 the ruin of your firesides. Cast down your bucket among these 
 people who have, without strikes and labor wars, tilled your fields, 
 cleared your forests, builded your railroads and cities, and brought 
 forth treasures from the bowels of the earth, and helped make possible 
 this magnificent representation of the progress of the South. Casting 
 down your bucket among my people, helping and encouraging them 
 as you are doing on these grounds to education of head, hand, and 
 heart, you will find that they will buy your surplus land, make blossom 
 the waste places in your fields, and run your factories. While doing 
 this, you can be sure in the future, as in the past, that you and your 
 families will be surrounded by the most patient, faithful, law-abiding, 
 and unresentful people that the world has seen. As we have proved 
 our loyalty to you in the past, in nursing your children, watching by 
 the sick-bed of your mothers and fathers, and often following ihcm 
 with tear-dimmed eyes to their graves, so in the future, in our humble 
 way, we shall stand by you with a devotion that no foreigner can 
 approach, ready to lay down our lives, if need be, in defense of yours, 
 interlacing our industrial, commercial, civil, and religious life with 
 yours in a way that shall make the interests of both races one. In 
 all things that are purely social, we can be as separate as the fingers, 
 yet as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress. 
 
 There is no defense or security for any of us except in the highest 
 intelligence and development of all. If anywhere there are efforts 
 tenrling to curtail the fullest growth of the Negro, let these efforts 
 be turned into stimulating, encouraging, and making him the most 
 useful and intelligent citizen. Effort or means so invested will pay
 
 238 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 a thousand per cent interest. These efforts will be twice blessed — 
 "blessing him that gives and him that takes." 
 
 There is no escape through law of man or God from the inevitable: 
 
 The laws of changeless justice bind 
 
 Oppressor with oppressed; 
 And close as sin and suffering joined 
 
 We march to fate abreast. 
 
 Nearly sixteen millions of hands will aid you in puUing the load 
 upward, or they will pull against you the load downward. We shall 
 constitute one-third and more of the ignorance and crime of the 
 South, or one-third its intelligence and progress; we shall contribute 
 one-third to the business and industrial prosperity of the South, or 
 we shall prove a veritable body of death, stagnating, depressing, 
 retarding every effort to advance the body politic. 
 
 Gentlemen of the Exposition, as we present to you our humble 
 effort at an exhibition of our progress, you must not expect over- 
 much. Starting thirty years ago with ownership here and there in a 
 few quilts and pumpkins and chickens (gathered from miscellaneous 
 sources), remember the path that has led from these to the inventions 
 and production of agricultural implements, buggies, steam-engines, 
 newspapers, books, statuary, carving, paintings, the management of 
 drug stores and banks, has not been trodden without contact with 
 thorns and thistles. While we take pride in what we exhibit as a 
 result of our independent efforts, we do not for a moment forget that 
 our part in this exhibition would fall far short of your expectations 
 but for the constant help that has come to our educational life, not 
 only from the Southern States, but especially from Northern philan- 
 thropists, who have made their gifts a constant stream of blessing and 
 encouragement. 
 
 The wisest among my race understand that the agitation of ques- 
 tions of social equality is the extremest folly, and that progress in 
 the enjoyment of all the privileges that will come to us must be the 
 result of severe and constant struggle rather than of artificial forcing. 
 No race that has anything to contribute to the markets of the world 
 is long in any degree ostracized. It is important and right that all 
 privileges of the law be ours, but it is vastly more important that we 
 be prepared for the exercise of these privileges. The opportunity
 
 READING LESSON XI 239 
 
 I0 earn a dollar in a factoty just now is worth infinitely more than 
 the opportunity to spend a dollar in an opera-house. 
 
 In conclusion, may I repeat that nothing in thirty years has given 
 us more hope and encouragement, and drawn us so near to you of the 
 white race, as this opportunity olYered by the Exposition; and here 
 bending, as it were, over the altar that represents the struggles of 
 your race and mine, both starling practically empty-handed three 
 decades ago, I pledge that in your effort to work out the great and 
 intricate problem which God has laid at the doors of the South, you 
 shall have at aU times the patient, sympathetic help of my race; only 
 let this be constantly in mind, that, while from representations in 
 these buildings of the product of field, of forest, of mine, of factor}', 
 letters, and art, much good will come, yet far above and beyond 
 material benefits will be that higher good, that, let us pray God, will 
 come in a blotting out of sectional differences and racial animosities 
 and suspicions, in a determination to administer absolute justice, in 
 a willing obedience among all classes to the mandates of the law. 
 This, this, coupled with our material prosperity, will bring into our 
 beloved South a new heaven and a new earth. 
 
 4. Address of Judge Peter J. Shields at the Dedication of the New 
 College of Agriculture, November 20, 191 2; from the University of 
 California Chronicle, Vol. 15, p. 113: 
 
 It would be impossible, in the few moments which the circum- 
 stances permit, for me to fittingly express the significance of this hour. 
 It is the culmination of long years of waiting, of the slow growth of a 
 Western civilization; the fruit of fine hopes- and patient, unselfish 
 efforts. It is the beginning of a larger effort to teach men the sound 
 principles which have stood the test of experience and which in all 
 ages have given security and happiness to the peoples that have 
 practiced them. ... I should like to speak a few words in praise of 
 those who have helped in this work, but ihcy do not need it. It is 
 enough that their wish has been realized; thai the truth for which 
 they labored, to-day has received this high sanction. I should like to 
 speak of agriculture as one of the noblest of all occupations, hut it 
 is in submis.sion to that truth lh;it we arc here and it docs not need 
 expression. 
 
 We have contended warmly over what was education, as to what
 
 240 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 were its aids and its agencies. Some of us have doubted whether 
 men might be educated through things, through a knowledge of nature 
 and the practice of her laws. It would be interesting to-day to take 
 up that discussion, but it would be fruitless. That cause has been 
 tried, and to-day, in monumental form, we record the verdict. 
 
 It will be enough to point to the most tangible lesson of history 
 that agricultural industry has been the surest foundation of a state 
 and the extent to which it was fostered has been the measure of a 
 people's progress. 
 
 Mysterious Egypt, of which we know only that it was great, at 
 the height of its development made slaves of its farmers. Magnificent 
 India founded its future upon agriculturalists whom she condemned 
 to a degraded caste. Rome plundered and oppressed her farmers to 
 a condition of poverty and discredit. They are all gone, and volumes 
 have been written in an effort to trace the cause. It could be written 
 in a sentence. They built their societies from the top, and devoted 
 their efforts to the worship of false social quantities. That we should 
 honor agriculture is the lesson of their dread experience. But we 
 cannot do this as a duty; it must spring from an honest estimate. 
 This building stands for this appreciation and respect. It will help 
 us to honor agriculture, through making it honorable. It will unfold 
 its mysteries, it will exhibit its beauties, it will develop its strength 
 tiU an admiring and respectful nation will proclaim its primacy. 
 
 This country was founded upon the principle that labor is honor- 
 able, and we made agriculture our chief pursuit. We have grown 
 in devotion to the truth. We have got our vigor from the soil. Most 
 of our ablest men have been countr>'-bred. Our distinctive institu- 
 tions were nourished there. Its ideals have colored and formed our 
 policies. In recent years, this dominance has been threatened and 
 our problems have multiplied. This way lies their correction. 
 
 I will not attempt any elaboration of this structure's significance. 
 It stands as a monument to the new agriculture, the agriculture of 
 thought and knowledge which has come to redeem the industry and 
 to secure for it its proportionate place in our civilization. It means 
 the beauty and the strength of the out-of-doors. It means the peace 
 and solitude where men think profoundly and adhere tenaciously, 
 where strong characters are formed and high purposes are nourished. 
 It means food and raiment and shelter; the primal things that go to
 
 READING LESSON XI 241 
 
 the roots of life, and supply the basis of all our institutions. It 
 stands for toil and proclaims the honest eminence of useful labor. 
 It stands for simphcity as the eternal measure of permanence. It 
 calls men out from the crowded places to where the horizon is wide, 
 where the majesty of nature prompts man to its imitation. 
 
 We are multiphing ver>' rapidly the complications of our civi- 
 lization and we ask ourselves to what limits we may safely go in the 
 direction we call progress. The answer is here, that we cannot get 
 far away from the standards this structure proclaims, from the 
 countr>^-bred man, the man who is constantly measuring his work 
 with the work of nature and thus keeping it true. Life may become 
 very fine and high, but it must remain natural to keep its strength. 
 We should look at this hall as a beacon lighting the way in which we 
 may go in safety. It will stand a perpetual reproach to frivolity, 
 artificiality, and idleness; it will supply an antidote for the depend- 
 ence of the submerged, and for the arrogance of the over-fortunate. 
 It proclaims the farmer the type man of America; it admonishes us 
 to train him — but keep him a farmer. 
 
 Agriculture is not only an industr>% it is a life. This building 
 stands for the preservation of that life, for its elevation and such a 
 distribution of its ideals as \\-ill flavor the whole life of our country. 
 
 This is indeed a great day for California. We are taking stock 
 of our condition. \\'hen we find a people engaged as we are to-day, 
 met in the spirit in which we are met, wc know that they are going 
 forward on the broad highway of life, that their estimate of social 
 values is true, and that they have avoided the temptations to which 
 other nations have succumbed. 
 
 Different states or societies at different times have built monu- 
 ments to the principles they worshipped; to express their faiths or to 
 point their hopes. A mystic race built the Pyramids. To-day these 
 stand, lonesome sentinels in the desert, typifj-ing nothing save that 
 races not soundly founded will perish. Tamerlane built a structure 
 of skulls in testimony of his faith in war and its all-conquering power. 
 It crumbled scarcely as fast as his leadership, his empire, his people, 
 and his race; as the false princii)les u[)on which he had based the 
 success of his efforts. The Pagan races creeled temples to earth-made 
 gods, but these pe()i)le vanished, their gofls are forgotten, their temples 
 have disappeared or their fragments remain in proof that what is
 
 242 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 not true cannot be perpetuated. The triumphal arches of the Romans 
 serve only to remind us that the judgment which called them such was 
 mistaken, and that a race devoted to conquest and oppression will 
 disappear. The monuments upon the torture fields of Smithfield 
 and Salem are the tombstones of dead institutions. 
 
 The monument we have built here was built in another spirit. 
 It was built in submission to an all-prevading law — built in harmony 
 with nature. It was built to serve human need and not the greed or 
 vanity of privilege. It was built in devotion to knowledge and in- 
 dustry, the everlasting things. It will survive, in the things it stands 
 for, while the world lasts. Tens of millions of people will come to 
 this fair land to live here a more involved and elaborated life than the 
 world has elsewhere known. If they keep their eyes upon this temple 
 and walk in its shadow, if they practice the truths for which it stands, 
 their society will live as long. 
 
 To-day we reafiirm that faith. Let us rededicate ourselves to the 
 efforts which have brought about this hour. Let us build this struc- 
 ture higher and broader until its spirit is in every heart and until 
 every hearthstone in our country becomes part of its foundation. 
 
 5. Portion of an address at the Dedication of the Doe Library 
 Building of the University of California, by the Librarian, Joseph C. 
 Rowell. Taken from the University of California Chronicle, Vol. 14, 
 p. 351. Mr. Rowell devoted more than half of his speech to an 
 interesting retrospect of the gradual growth of the library. The 
 following is an extract: 
 
 "The fortunes of the library inseparably followed those of the 
 University. Up under the eaves of Brayton Hall were arranged some 
 few hundreds of books on history, literature, and philosophy, together 
 with well thumbed classics, and dust lay deep on theological and 
 scientific treatises of honorably ancient dates. 
 
 "How the aspect of the place brightened when in 187 1 a large gift 
 of modern books arrived, brilliant in gilded calf, fresh from the pub- 
 lishers! Then students abandoned the chess table and climbed up- 
 ward to consult the eighth edition of Brittanica, to open dainty 
 volumes of poets, to lay the foundation of an essay on Emerson, or 
 to spend an indolent, happy hour over Bulwer or Thackeray."
 
 READING LESSON XI 243 
 
 6. Columbian Oration delivered at Dedicatory Ceremonies of 
 the World's Fair, Chicago, Oct. 21, 1892, by Chauncey M. Depew. 
 
 Introduction: 
 
 "This day belongs not to America alone, but to the world. The 
 results of the event it commemorates are the heritage of the peoples 
 of every race and clime. We celebrate the emancipation of man. 
 The preparation was the work of almost countless centuries; the 
 realization was the revelation of one. The Cross on Calvary was 
 hope; the cross raised on San Salvador was opportunity. But for 
 the first, Columbus would never have sailed; but for the second, 
 there would have been no place for the planting, the nurture, and the 
 expansion of civil and religious liberty. . . . The exhibition of arts 
 and sciences, of industries and inventions, of education and civiliza- 
 tion which the Republic of the United States will here present, and to 
 which, through its Chief Magistrate, it invites all nations, condenses 
 and displays the flower and fruitage of this transcendent miracle." 
 
 The body might be summarized as follows: 
 
 Histor>^: Feudalism, monarchy, new learning all prepared the way, 
 but freedom could develop no farther on the old continent. 
 The event must he. 
 
 The Man: Columbus was especially prepared. Importance of Isa- 
 bella. 
 
 Result: Immigration has resulted in a loyal foreign population. This 
 has become a land of opportunity. 
 
 Conclusion: 
 
 "All hail, Columbus, discoverer, dreamer, hero, apostle! We 
 here, of every race and country, recognize the horizon which bounded 
 his vision and the infinite scope of his genius. The voice of gratitude 
 and prai.sc for all the blessings which have been showered upon man- 
 kind by his adventure is limited to 110 language, but is ultered in every 
 tongue. Neither marble nor brass can filly form his statue. Conti- 
 nents are his monuments, and unnumbered millions, present and to 
 come, who enjoy in their liberty and ha[Ji)iness the fruits of his faith, 
 will reverently guard and preserve, from century to century, his name 
 and fame."
 
 244 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 7. Parts of an address by Chauncey M. Depew in laying the 
 corner stone of the New York Athletic Club: 
 
 Introduction: 
 
 "The laying of the corner stone of what is to be the most complete, 
 commodious and perfect home of athletics in the world is in harmony 
 with the times. It is a significant note of progress and prosperity." 
 
 He then refers to, the large place which athletics held in Greek life 
 and the contempt with which it was regarded in our own country fifty 
 years ago. He commends it as an antidote for the mental and physi- 
 cal disorders which grew out of the strenuous life of the 19th century. 
 
 Conclusion: 
 
 "So the healthful conditions of manly athletics have become the 
 best helpers to the preacher, the best assistants to the doctor, the 
 best workers for the temperance societies, the best correctors of 
 private morals, and the best aids to good citizenship. . . . Upon this 
 corner stone let arise a home for honorable athletics, a home which 
 shall frown on the brutality of some of its forms; a home that shall 
 encourage every kind of healthful sport."
 
 PART IV— SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL 
 
 OCCASIONS 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 THE ORATION 
 
 Introduction. — Oratory is the highest form of public 
 speech. Henry Ward Beecher says that oratory "is the 
 consecration of the whole man to the noblest purpose 
 to which one can address himself — the education and 
 inspiration of his fellowmen." The persuasive speech 
 discussed in the preceding chapter may be called an 
 oration when it has the following characteristics: (i) 
 dignity of theme, (2) elegance of diction, and (3) impres- 
 siveness of delivery. If all of these elements are necessary, 
 it is evident that success in oratory requires previous 
 practice in other forms of public address. R. C. Ring- 
 wait says, "The art of the actor and reader is joined 
 with that of the man of letters, the philosopher, and 
 statesman in producing the great orator." 
 
 The oration differs from the debate in that it deals 
 mainly with ideas and facts which are undisputed. "The 
 audience," says Professor Sears, "expects to have its con- 
 victions strengthened rather than changed." For this 
 reason, argument takes a subordinate place in the oration. 
 Certain kinds of argument can be used effectively: for 
 example, historic parallel, analogy, dilemma, and reduc- 
 tion to absurdity; but the j)red(jminating forms of dis- 
 course are description, narration, and exposition. For
 
 246 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 this reason, the orator can appeal more powerfully to 
 the feelings than can the debater. His ideas are of such 
 a character that they meet with no opposition from the 
 intellects of his hearers and he is therefore free to address 
 himself to their hearts. 
 
 This chapter will deal with such orations as might be 
 delivered (i) in honor of a person, (2) in honor of an event, 
 and (3) at commencement exercises. 
 
 I. Oration in Honor of a Person 
 
 Eulogy or Memorial Tribute. — The oration in honor 
 of a person is called a eulogy when it is delivered at the 
 anniversary of either the birth or death of some great 
 character, or at the dedication of a monument in his honor. 
 If it is delivered immediately after the death of a promi- 
 nent or beloved fellow citizen, it is often called a memorial 
 tribute. 
 
 More than Biographical. — Although a eulogy deals 
 with biographical material, it should be more than a 
 mere biography. The speaker should try to discover the 
 essence of the man's work, what he stood for, and what is 
 likely to be his place in history. He should then use 
 historical facts to show how this work was developed and 
 accomphshed in his life. Let us notice a few examples. 
 Alfred Austin, at the 500th anniversary of the death of 
 Chaucer, treats of the old English poet as the embodiment 
 of English character. Honorable George F. Hoar, in his 
 eulogy on Webster, emphasizes his greatest achievement 
 as that of arousing in the American people a spirit of 
 nationality. Bryant, in his tribute to Burns, shows that 
 the chief source of his power over men was his compre- 
 hensive sympathy. Such treatment of the facts is much
 
 THE ORATION 247 
 
 more interesting and impressive than a simple historical 
 narrative, and it embodies that fundamental principle of 
 unity which is essential to a work of art. 
 
 Should the Whole Truth be Told? — The character 
 portrait should be faithful, but faithful to the best phases 
 of character rather than to the worst. Strong points are 
 brought into relief by their nearness to the weak points, 
 but the right proportion must be maintained. It is the 
 duty of the speaker to lind and present that ruling purpose, 
 ambition, or principle which exists in every great charac- 
 ter; for the purpose of a eulogy is not only to pay tribute 
 to the dead, but also to hold up virtue in such a way as 
 to furnish inspiration to the living. 
 
 II. Oration in Honor of an Event 
 
 Orations delivered in honor of an event may be divided 
 into two classes: (i) those which celebrate past events 
 and (2) those which celebrate events of present or future 
 significance. 
 
 Commemorative Address. — An oration which cele- 
 brates a past event is called a commemorative address. It 
 is usually delivered in connection with an anniversary 
 celebration. It may occur at the opening of a World's 
 Fair. (See Columbian Oration, Reading Lesson XI.) 
 Again, it may accompany the unveiling of a monument or 
 statue. (Webster's Bunker Hill Address.) It is some- 
 times given at a dinner. This is likely to be the case if 
 the foundation of a society or of a newspaper is the object 
 of the celebration. 
 
 The commemorative speech is always historical in its 
 nature. College anniversary speeches, for example, tell 
 of the founder, the famous faculty members and graduates,
 
 248 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 and the services of the institution to the pubhc. Chaun- 
 cey M. Depew, at the celebration of the 50th anniversary 
 of the New York Tribune^ discusses the value of the parti- 
 san newspaper as compared with that of the independent 
 press, and then enters into the history of the Tribune, 
 its great men, its growth, and its accomplishments. 
 
 The highest form of commemorative oration is, how- 
 ever, something more than a narrative. The speaker 
 should dwell upon the significance of the event as well as 
 upon the event itself; that is, he should emphasize the 
 importance and meaning of the event in its effect upon 
 later history. For example, when the Statue of Liberty 
 was presented by the French people to the people of the 
 United States, on the looth anniversary of American 
 independence, Mr. Depew, who delivered the oration 
 at the unveiling of the monument, took as his theme 
 the importance of the French alliance as a factor in the 
 success of the American Revolution. If the event is one 
 of which the people are proud, the speaker should draw 
 from it some lesson. If it has brought pain to indi- 
 viduals but gain to the group or nation, the best treat- 
 ment is that which inspires the listeners to a similar noble 
 sacrifice. 
 
 Dedicatory Address. ^ The oration which celebrates 
 an event of present or future significance usually takes 
 the form of a dedicatory address. It may accompany 
 the laying of the corner stone of a public building, 
 or the opening of a park, of an athletic field, or of an 
 exposition. 
 
 The nature of the material will vary with the subject 
 and the circumstances. It is not inappropriate to speak 
 of the advantage or beauty of whatever is dedicated; the
 
 THE ORATION 249 
 
 devotion of those who have been leaders in the enter- 
 prise; or the history of the dithculties that have been 
 overcome. The main theme of the address, however, 
 should direct the minds of the audience to some noble 
 ideal or purpose connected with the object dedicated. 
 To dedicate means to set apart, or consecrate to some good 
 purpose. In every great dedicatory address, therefore, 
 the speaker has made use of his opportunity to point out 
 the significance of the occasion and to express hope and 
 obligation. A few illustrations will perhaps make this 
 point more clear. Judge Shields dwells on the relation 
 between the study of scientific agriculture and the welfare 
 of a nation. Booker T. Washington takes the oppor- 
 tunity to point out to each race in the South its need of 
 the other race. Lincoln, in the greatest of dedicatory 
 addresses, emphasizes the obligation of the living to 
 carry on the work of those who fought and died on the 
 field of Gettysburg. 
 
 III. Commencement Oration 
 
 Nature. — The oration delivered at commencement ex- 
 ercises may be called a platform oration. It differs from 
 the eulogy and the dedicatory address in that the subject 
 matter does not grow out of the occasion. The orator, 
 chosen for high standing in his class, merely represents 
 his school and shows the best of what its methods arc 
 producing in the way of liberal culture. 
 
 Choice of a Subject. — The choice of a subject is of 
 consixierablc importance. The topic should be a live one. 
 It should be either one which is occupying the j)ubHc 
 mind or one upon which the speaker feels that something 
 needs to be said. At the same time it should not be a
 
 2 50 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 theme that is Hkely to arouse violent antagonism. Such 
 a theme would be out of harmony with the spirit of the 
 occasion, which is one of rejoicing and congratulation. 
 Furthermore, the subject should be suited to the speaker; 
 that is, it should arouse his interest and grip his feelings, 
 and, if possible, it should be about something with which 
 he has come in contact in real life as well as in books. 
 
 Treatment. — Very few suggestions can be made as 
 to treatment, since each subject furnishes its own difh- 
 culties and opportunities. A speaker may link an instruc- 
 tive theme to the life of a man who is not too generally 
 known. A theme of this character should be handled 
 in much the same way as a eulogy. Professor Pelsma 
 suggests a plan whereby the speaker presents a problem 
 and offers a solution. As he says, "It is a poor physician 
 who diagnoses a disease without prescribing the remedy." 
 It is certainly true that, if unfortunate conditions are 
 pictured, their presentation should be accompanied by 
 a suggestion of the remedy, else the depressing effect of 
 the speech will mar the joy of the occasion. Again, the 
 treatment should not be too general. There should be 
 an abundance of concrete material. As one authority has 
 expressed it, "Be full of your subject; then force it into a 
 narrow groove." 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have studied the 
 nature and best method of treatment of (i) an oration in 
 honor of a person, (2) an oration in honor of an event, and 
 (3) a commencement oration.
 
 THE ORATION 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 The Oration 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Nature of oratory in general. 
 
 A. Beecher's definition. 
 
 B. Characteristics. 
 
 C. Previous training — Ringwalt. 
 
 II. Difference between the oration and the debate. 
 
 A. Sears. 
 
 B. Kinds of argument which may be used. 
 
 C. Appeal to feelings. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 
 Body. 
 
 I. Oration in honor of a person. 
 
 A . Eulogy or memorial tribute. 
 
 I. When so-called. 
 
 B. More than biographical. 
 
 1. Central thought. 
 
 2. E.xamples. 
 
 (a) Chaucer. 
 ib) Webster, 
 (c) Burns. 
 
 3. Merits. 
 
 C. Should the whole truth be told? 
 
 1. Faithful to the best. 
 
 2. Purpose of a eulogy. 
 II. Oration in honor of an event. 
 
 A. Commemorative address. 
 
 1. Occasions for. 
 
 2. Historical. 
 
 {a) College anniversaries. 
 {b) New York Tribune. 
 
 3. More than a narrative. 
 
 {a) Significance — Statue of Liberty. 
 (6) Lesson. 
 
 251
 
 252 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 II. B. Dedicatory address. 
 
 1. Occasions for. 
 
 2. Nature of material. 
 
 {a) Thoughts which may be appropriate. 
 (6) Character of the main them^. 
 (i) Judge Shields. 
 
 (2) Booker Washington. 
 
 (3) Lincohi. 
 III. Commencement oration. 
 
 A. Nature. 
 
 1. How it differs from the eulogy and dedicatory 
 
 address. 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 B. Choice of a subject. 
 
 1. AHve. 
 
 2. In harmony with the occasion. 
 
 3. Suited to the speaker. 
 
 C. Treatment. 
 
 1. Biographical. 
 
 2. A problem and its solution. 
 
 3. Narrow. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Choose any eulogy which is accessible from the 
 list given in Appendix VIII. Read it and be able to give to the class 
 a summary of its contents. 
 
 Exercise III. — Imagine that your student body, your literary 
 society, or some other organization has planned to devote one meeting 
 to the recognition of some great character and that you have been 
 asked to deliver the oration. Look up material in the Encyclopedia, 
 Who's Who, Readers Guide, and the card catalogue. For sug- 
 gestions as to subjects consult the "List of Days for Anniversary 
 Celebrations" (Appendix IX). The student will often make a more 
 interesting speech if he chooses a character who is little known and 
 seeks to make him live before his hearers.
 
 THE ORATION 253 
 
 Exercise IV. — Bring to class for discussion the theme sentence 
 and word outline from which the oration is to be developed. 
 
 Exercise V. — Prepare the oration so that it will occupy not less 
 than four and not more than six minutes. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Choose any commemorative address which is 
 accessible from the list given in Appendix X and be able to give to 
 the class a summary of its contents. 
 
 Exercise VII. — Review the Gettysburg Address and the dedi- 
 catory addresses given in Reading Lesson XI and mark in the margin, 
 with the corresponding figures, at least one illustration of each of the 
 following ideas: 
 
 1. Reference to the material beauty or value of that which is 
 dedicated. 
 
 2. Appreciation of those who have made the dedication possible. 
 
 3. Historical reference to difficulties encountered. 
 Write in one sentence the main theme of each address. 
 
 Which one is at the same time a eulogy, a commemorative oration, 
 and a dedicatory address? 
 
 Exercise VIII. — Bring to class for discussion a theme sentence 
 and an outline either for a commemorative oration or for a dedi- 
 catory address. Select a subject in which you are interested. Choose 
 a situation from the following list or any other which you may prefer. 
 Commemorative Oration: 
 
 1. On the anniversary of the foundation of a society, church, 
 college, or newspaper. 
 
 2. Memorial Day. 
 
 3. Admission Day. 
 
 4. Fourth of July. 
 
 5. Columbus Day. 
 Dedicatory Address: 
 
 1. Laying of the corner stone of a high school, g>'mnasium, Y. 
 M. C. A., \'. W. C. A., librar}', college buikling devolcd to science, 
 engineering, art, or music. 
 
 2. The opening of an exposition or of some state or national build- 
 ing therein. 
 
 ,3. The opening of a [dildic bath, park, or athletic field.
 
 2 54 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Exercise IX, — Prepare the speech planned in Ex. VIII so that it 
 will occupy not less than four and not more than six minutes. 
 
 Exercise X. — Select a subject from the list of "Oration Subjects" 
 (Appendix XI). Bring to class for discussion a theme sentence and 
 a word outline for a commencement oration. 
 
 Exercise XI. — Prepare the oration planned in Ex. X, so that it 
 will occupy not less than six minutes and not more than eight minutes.
 
 READING LESSON XII 255 
 
 READING LESSON XH 
 Speeches of a Presiding Officer 
 
 I. Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln: 
 
 Fellow Countrymen: At this second appearing to take the oath 
 of the Presidential office there is less occasion for an extended address 
 than there was at the first. Then a statement somewhat in detail 
 of a course to be pursued seemed fitting and proper. Now, at the 
 expiration of four years, during which public declarations have been 
 constantly called forth on every point and phase of the great contest 
 which still absorbs the attention and engrosses the energies of the 
 nation, little that is new could be presented. The progress of our 
 arms, upon which all else chiefly depends, is as well known to the 
 public as to myself, and it is, I trust, reasonabl}^ satisfactory and 
 encouraging to all. With high hope for the future, no prediction in 
 regard to it is ventured. 
 
 On the occasion corresponding to this four years ago all thoughts 
 were anxiously directed to an impending civil war. All dreaded it, 
 all sought to avert it. While the inaugural address was being delivered 
 from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, 
 insurgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without war — 
 seeking to dissolve the Union and divide eflfects by negotiation. Both 
 parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than 
 let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let 
 it perish, and the war came. 
 
 One-eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not dis- 
 tributed generally over the Union, but locaUzed in the southern part 
 of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. 
 All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To 
 strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for 
 which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the 
 Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the terri- 
 torial enlargement of it. Neither party expected for the war the 
 magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. Neither 
 anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease with or even 
 before the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier 
 triumj)!), and a result less fundanuiital and astounding. Both read
 
 256 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid 
 against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to 
 ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of 
 other men's faces, but let us judge not, that we be not judged. The 
 prayers of both could not be answered. That of neither has been 
 answered fully. The Almighty has His own purposes. " Woe unto 
 the world because of offenses; for it must needs be that offenses come, 
 but woe to that man by whom the offense cometh." If we shall 
 suppose that American slavery is one of those offenses which, in the 
 providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued 
 through His appointed time. He now wills to remove, and that He 
 gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to 
 those by whom the offense came, shall we discern therein any depart- 
 ure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living God 
 always ascribe to Him? Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, 
 that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if 
 God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman's 
 two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until 
 every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another 
 drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still 
 it must be said " the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous 
 altogether. " 
 
 With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in 
 the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the 
 work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who 
 shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do 
 all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among 
 ourselves and with all nations. [March 4, 1865.] 
 
 2. Woodrow Wilson's Inaugural Address: 
 
 There has been a change of government. It began two years 
 ago, when the House of Representatives became Democratic by a de- 
 cisive majority. It has now been completed. The Senate about to 
 assemble will also be Democratic. The offices of President and Vice- 
 President have been put into the hands of Democrats. What does 
 the change mean? That is the question that is uppermost in our 
 minds to-day. That is the question I am going to try to answer in 
 order, if I may, to interpret the occasion.
 
 READING LESSON XII 257 
 
 It means much more than the mere success of a party. The 
 success of a party means little except when the nation is using that 
 party for a large and definite purpose. No one can mistake the 
 purpose for which the nation now seeks to use the Democratic party. 
 It seeks to use it to interpret a change in its own plans and point of 
 view. Some old things \\-ith which we had grown familiar, and which 
 had begun to creep into the very habit of our thought and of our 
 lives, have altered their aspect as we have latterly looked critically 
 upon them, with fresh, awakened eyes; have dropped their disguises 
 and shown themselves alien and sinister. Some new things, as we 
 look frankly upon them, willing to comprehend their real character, 
 have come to assume the aspect of things long beUeved in and familiar, 
 stuff of our own convictions. We have been refreshed by a new in- 
 sight into our own life. 
 
 We see that in many things life is very great. It is incom- 
 parably great in its material aspects, in its body of wealth, in the diver- 
 sity and sweep of its energy, in the industries which have been 
 conceived and built up by the genius of individual men and the limit- 
 less enterprise of groups of men. It is great, also, ver>^ great, in its 
 moral force. Nowhere else in the world have noble men and women 
 exhibited in more striking forms the beauty and the energy of sym- 
 pathy and helpfulness and counsel in their efforts to rectify wrong, 
 alleviate suffering, and set the weak in the way of strength and hope. 
 We have built up, moreover, a great system of government, which 
 has stood through a long age in many respects a model for those who 
 seek to set liberty upon foundations that will endure against fortuitous 
 change, against storm and accident. Our life contains every great 
 thing and contains it in rich abundance. 
 
 But the evil has come with the good, and much fine gold has 
 been corroded. With riches has come inexcusable waste. We have 
 squandered a great part of what we might have used, and have not 
 slopped to conserve the exceeding bounty of- nature, without which 
 our genius for enterprise would have been worthless and impotent, 
 scorning to be careful, shamefully prodigal as well as admirably effi- 
 cient. We have been proud of our industrial achievements, but we 
 have not hitherto stopped thoughtfully enough to count the human 
 cost, the cost of lives snuffed out, of energies overtaxed and broken, 
 the fearful physical and spiritual cost to the men and women and
 
 258 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 children upon whom the dead weight and burden of it all has fallen 
 pitilessly the years through. The groans and agony of it all had not 
 yet reached our ears, the solemn, moving undertone of our Ufe, com- 
 ing up out of the mines and factories and out of every home where 
 the struggle had its intimate and familiar seat. With the great 
 government went many deep secret things which we too long delayed 
 to look into and scrutinize with candid, fearless eyes. The great 
 government we loved has too often been made use of for private and 
 selfish purposes, and those who used it had forgotten the people. 
 
 At last a vision has been vouchsafed us of our life as a whole. 
 We see the bad with the good, the debased and decadent with the 
 sound and vital. With this vision we approach new affairs. Our 
 duty is to cleanse, to reconsider, to restore, to correct the evil with- 
 out impairing the good, to purify and harmonize every process of our 
 common Hfe without weakening or sentimentalizing it. There has 
 been something crude and heartless and unfeeHng in our haste to 
 succeed and be great. Our thought has been "Let every man look 
 out for himself, let every generation look out for itself," while we 
 reared giant machinery which made it impossible that any but those 
 who stood at the levers of control should have a chance to look out for 
 themselves. We had not forgotten our morals. We remembered 
 well enough that we had set up a policy which was meant to serve 
 the humblest as well as the most powerful, with an eye single to the 
 standards of justice and fair play, and remembered it with pride. 
 But we were very heedless and in a hurry to be great. 
 
 We have come now to the sober second thought. The scales 
 of heedlessness have fallen from our eyes. We have made up our 
 minds to square every process of our national life again with the 
 standards we so proudly set up at the beginning and have always 
 carried at our hearts. Our work is a work of restoration. 
 
 We have itemized with some degree of particularity the things 
 that ought to be altered, and here are some of the chief items: A 
 tariff which cuts us off from our proper part in the commerce of the 
 world violates the just principles of taxation and makes the govern- 
 ment a facile instrument in the hands of private interests; a banking 
 and currency system based upon the necessity of the government 
 to sell its bonds 50 years ago and perfectly adapted to concentrat- 
 ing cash and restricting credits; an industrial system which, take
 
 READING LESSON XII 259 
 
 it on all sides, financial as well as administrative, holds capital in 
 leading strings, restricts the liberties and limits the opportunities of 
 labor, and exploits without renewing or conserving the natural re- 
 sources of the country; a bod}^ of agricultural activities never yet 
 given the efficiency of great business undertakings or served as it 
 should be through the instrumentality of science taken directly to 
 the farm, or afforded the facilities of credit best suited to its practical 
 needs; watercourses undeveloped, waste places unreclaimed, forests 
 untended, fast disappearing, without plan or prospect of renewal, 
 unregarded waste heaps at every mine. We have studied as per- 
 haps no other nation has the most effective means of production, but 
 we have not studied cost or economy as we should, either as organizers 
 of industry, as statesmen, or as individuals. 
 
 Nor have we studied and perfected the means by which govern- 
 ment may be put at the service of humanity in safeguarding the 
 health of the nation, the health of its men and its women and its 
 children, as well as their rights in the struggle for existence. This is 
 no sentimental duty. The firm basis of government is justice, not 
 pity. These are matters of justice. There can be no equality of 
 opportunity, the first essential of justice in the body politic, if men 
 and women and children be not shielded in their lives, their very 
 vitality, from the consequences of great industrial and social processes 
 which they cannot alter, control, or singly cope with. Society must 
 see to it that it does not itself crush or weaken its own constituent 
 parts. The first duty of law is to keep sound the society it serves. 
 Sanitary laws, pure-food laws, and laws determining conditions 
 of labor which individuals are powerless to determine for them- 
 selves arc intimate parts of the very business of justice and legal 
 efTiciency. 
 
 These arc some of the things we ought to do, and not leave the 
 others undone, the old-fashioned, never-lo-be-neglectcd, fundamental 
 safeguarding of property and of in(li\i(lual right. This is the high 
 enterprise of the new day: to lift everything that concerns our life 
 as a nation to the light that shines from the hearthfire of every man's 
 conscience anrl vision of the right. It is inconceivable that we should 
 do it in ignorance of the facts as they are or in blintl haste. \Vc 
 shall restore, not destroy. We shall deal willi <nir economic system 
 as it is and as it may be modified, not as it might be if we had a clean
 
 26o ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 sheet of paper to write upon; and step by step we shall make it what 
 it should be, in the spirit of those who question their own wisdom 
 and seek counsel and knowledge, not shallow self-satisfaction or the 
 excitement of excursions whither they cannot tell. Justice, and only 
 justice, shall be our motto. 
 
 And yet it will be no cool process of mere science. The nation 
 has been deeply stirred, stirred by a solemn passion, stirred by the 
 knowledge of wrong, of ideals lost, of government too often debauched 
 and made an instrument of evil. The feelings with which we face 
 this new age of right and opportunity sweep across our heart-strings 
 like some air out of God's own presence, where justice and mercy are 
 reconciled and the judge and the brother are one. We know our 
 task to be no mere task of politics, but a task which shall search us 
 through and through, whether we be able to understand our time and 
 the need of our people, whether we be indeed their spokesmen and 
 interpreters, whether we have the pure heart to comprehend and the 
 rectified will to choose our high course of action. 
 
 This is not a day of triumph; it is a day of dedication. Here 
 muster, not the forces of party, but the forces of humanity. Men's 
 hearts wait upon us; men's Hves hang in the balance; men's hopes 
 call upon us to say what we will do. Who shall live up to the great 
 trust? Who dares fail to try? I summon all honest men, all patriotic, 
 all forward-looking men, to my side. God helping me, I will not fail 
 them, if they will but counsel and sustain me. 
 
 3. Response of Thomas Forsyth Hunt, Dean of the College of 
 Agriculture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station of 
 the University of California, upon formal induction into office. Taken 
 from the University Chronicle, Vol. 15, p. 125: 
 
 In accepting the responsibility of Dean of the College of Agri- 
 culture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, it must 
 be recognized that I represent only one of the agencies by which the 
 University of Cahfornia seeks to develop the commonwealth. The 
 office into which I have just been formally inducted typifies the 
 University's relation to the public welfare. The organization thus 
 represented looks back over a generation of steady and successful 
 development under the guidance of but two directors, both of whom 
 have the unique distinction of remaining as honored members of the
 
 READING LESSON XII 261 
 
 faculty. The institulion will honor itself during this day's exercises 
 by remembering them with loving kindness. 
 
 With ever>' generation of men, new problems arise. Through 
 the operation of this law, the College of Agriculture finds itself in 
 just that attitude. Some of these problems are the most important as 
 well as the most fundamental with which the Anglo-Sa.xon race has 
 grappled during the past forty centuries. The faculty of the College 
 of Agriculture suffers no illusions concerning its own limitations and 
 makes no promises beyond pledging its best endeavors. 
 
 Upon behalf of himself and his associates the Dean and Director 
 appeals to all agencies, public and private, for assistance and guidance. 
 He asks the sympathy and patience of the Governor of the State, and 
 the President of the University, the Board of Regents, faculty, and 
 the citizens of California, while, following the sane, safe, and sensible 
 policies of his predecessors, he unobtrusively and without undue 
 publicity endeavors to organize the best and most efficient faculty of 
 agriculture that has ever been known. 
 
 4. Portion of an address of w-elcome, by Arthur Twining Hadley, 
 on the occasion of the Bicentennial Celebration of Yale University, 
 igoi: 
 
 "Of all the pleasures and the duties which a birthday brings with 
 it, the most welcome duty and the most exalted pleasure is found in 
 the opportunity which it affords for seeing, united under one roof, 
 the fellow members of a family who are often far separated. On this 
 two-hundredth birthday of Yale University, it is our chief pride to 
 have with us the representatives of that brotherhood of learning 
 which knows no bounds of time or place, of profession or creed." 
 
 His elaboration of his theme may be summarized as follows: 
 
 a. This brotherhood of learning knows no bounds of age, for we 
 have with us the youngest student and the oldest alumnus — even the 
 dead are with us in spirit. 
 
 b. It knows no bounds of place, for we have visitors from St. 
 Petersburg, Japan, and Australasia. 
 
 c. It knows no bounds of profession, for universities n(j longer 
 confine themselves to an interest in theology, law, and science, but 
 bring all callings witiiin the scope- of iiiiiv(.rsily life.
 
 262 OR.\L ENGLISH 
 
 d. It knows no bounds of creed, for we have a common religion 
 which teaches us broad lessons of reverence, tolerance, and earnest- 
 ness, and unites us in a common purpose. 
 
 5. Address of Welcome to the National Education Association, 
 delivered by John L. Bates, Governor of the Commonwealth of 
 Massachusetts, in Boston, 1903: 
 
 Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: If I had the voice of 
 Niagara, and of all its waters, I could not in the three minutes 
 assigned to me express the welcome of Massachusetts. 
 
 We are glad to see )'ou within our borders. We hope you will 
 receive pleasure from this coming together, and we hope as the 
 result of your deliberations there will be profit for all mankind. 
 
 I welcome you as a phalanx that carries lanterns to bring light 
 into dark places, as an army that carries swords to cut down super- 
 stition, and spears to defeat the enemies of the American repubhc. 
 
 I welcome you as men and women engaged in one great organiza- 
 tion for the uplifting of humanity. I welcome you as men and women 
 engaged in a calling that takes hold of the future, and thereby makes 
 for immortality. I welcome you to the commonwealth of Massa- 
 chusetts — to the land of the Pilgrims, who, forgetful of their poverty, 
 built colleges for the expansion of the mind. I welcome you to the 
 shores of the Puritans, who, forgetful of the palaces of earth, built 
 more stately mansions for the soul. 
 
 I welcome you to the state that has set in the place of honor at the 
 right of the entrance of its capitol the bronze statue of Horace Mann, 
 the educator. 
 
 Thrice welcome to the old Bay State.^ 
 
 6. Portion of an Address of Welcome by Inspector James L. Hughes 
 before the National Education Association at Toronto, Canada, 1891: 
 
 "Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Members of the National 
 Education Association of the United Slates: On behalf of the 
 Local Executive Committee of Toronto, I have the honor to bid you 
 welcome to-day to our city. It gives us a great deal of pleasure to 
 welcome you here. We receive you as strangers, but we hope to make 
 
 ^Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the 42d Annual Meeting, 
 1903, p. 41.
 
 READING LESSON XII 263 
 
 you friends before you leave us. We welcome you to-day as citizens 
 of a great and friendly nation with which we always hope to live at 
 peace. We believe that ^-our coming here and our going to your land 
 as teachers, fellow workers in the same great cause, will tend to per- 
 petuate all that which is for the best interests of the two countries, 
 and to establish common education, on a broad, sound, and solid 
 basis which can never be disturbed. We welcome you as teachers 
 and fellow workers, coming here to take part in the discussion of some 
 of the most important questions relating to your work and ours, 
 and we trust that your coming and that your discussion of matters 
 which we may listen to may do much to give us a better, grander, 
 truer idea of our work and of yours." 
 
 7. Portion of the response to Addresses of Welcome by Josiah H. 
 Shinn, President of the Southern Education Association: 
 
 "Mr. President, Ladies and GentUmen, Members of the Welcoming 
 Committee of Canada: It was not my proud pleasure to listen to the 
 splendid addresses made by your representatives, but I need no 
 such addresses to know the spirit of welcome that lies in your heart. 
 One hundred and ninety teachers over here at this little port of yours 
 were stopped by customs officers, and three hundred and eighty grip- 
 sacks violently laid hold of, in the name of the law, and not even a 
 single one was opened. The majesty of the British law failed before 
 the matchless power of the school-teachers of the South when an 
 English customs man opened his heart, cast aside the mandate of 
 the laws, and led us to your doors. I know from all this that we are 
 welcome. I knew when we reached your lillle station called Strat- 
 ford, where we found about four hundred baskets, and a lot of bread 
 and butler and no waiters to hand out that which is pleasant and nice 
 to two hundred teachers and we were given the liberty of walking up 
 to the counter and helping ourselves, I knew we were welcome. When 
 we were away back in our beloved "Southland" we knew that Cana- 
 dians had taken the word of welcome, and had written it high above 
 all others, except virtue, love, and Iruth. We knew that you, in com- 
 mon with us, had inherited a hospitality from the mother country. 
 We thank you most heartily for this royal reception." ' 
 
 ' National Kducalion Association. Journal of Proceedings and 
 Addresses, 1891, pp. 57 and 79.
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 
 
 Introduction. — In this day of numerous organizations, 
 almost anyone may be asked to serve as presiding officer. 
 A high-school student may be chosen to preside over his 
 student body or his alumni association, a literary, social, 
 or dramatic club, or a religious organization such as a 
 Y. M. C. A. or a Christian Endeavor society. An adult 
 may be elected to preside over a political club, a lodge, or 
 a woman's club. 
 
 The speeches which a president should make need not 
 be long, but they should be felicitous, that is, tactful, 
 happy, and appropriate. If the presiding officer knows 
 what to say upon every occasion, he is like the accom- 
 plished hostess who puts her guests at ease under all 
 circumstances. 
 
 In this chapter we shall discuss the subject matter which 
 would be appropriate (i) for speeches delivered upon taking 
 and leaving office, (2) for a speech introducing a speaker, 
 and (3) for an address of welcome to a convention. 
 
 I. Entering upon and Taking Leave of Office 
 
 Inaugural Address. — If the office to be filled is of 
 considerable importance, the opening address is called 
 an inaugural. Whether the position be prominent or 
 insignificant, however, the same principles apply to the 
 choice of suitable material for the opening address.
 
 SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 265 
 
 The introduction may contain an expression of grati- 
 tude for the honor which has been conferred upon the 
 speaker, a modest estimate of his own ability, and a com- 
 plimentary reference to the work of previous officers or 
 to the greatness of the organization. Let us see how 
 this may be done. Gladstone, after having been chosen 
 Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow, or presiding 
 member of its court, made an address before an audience 
 more than half of whom were students. He first spoke 
 of the high estimate which he placed upon the office and 
 expressed his sense of inability to fill it acceptably, due 
 to the fact of his advancing years. He then spoke in 
 complimentary terms of the diligence and ability of the 
 faculty and the earnestness of the students, congratu- 
 lating Scotland as a nation upon the rapid growth of her 
 universities. 
 
 Chauncey M. Depew was for seven years presi- 
 dent of the Union League Club of New York. In his 
 first inaugural address, in addition to thanks, compliments, 
 and pleasantries, he spoke of the brilliant past of the 
 League. He referred to its foundation as an organization 
 to succor the wounded in the Civil War; he told how it 
 had equipped the first negro regiment; and finally, he 
 spoke of its later work in overcoming political rings and 
 combinations. 
 
 The body of the inaugural address will vary with the 
 nature of the organization. If the organization has 
 been formed mainly for self-improvement, the body of 
 the speech may deal with some topic of interest to the 
 members. T'or example, (jladstone's address before the 
 students of Glasgow was entitled, "Modern Training for 
 Life." He gave statistics which showed the purposes of
 
 266 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the students as evidenced by the professions which they 
 expected to follow, and discussed the importance of each 
 occupation in the work of the world. In this way he 
 pointed out the service and influence of the university. 
 If the organization has been formed to carry out some 
 definite work, it is the privilege of the incoming president 
 to suggest the policy to be pursued during his term of 
 office. Mr. Depew, for instance, in his first inaugural, 
 urged that the club be made less a political and more 
 of a social organization. In his second inaugural, he 
 advocated the encouragement of an American school of 
 art and the purchase by the Club of a certain number 
 of American pictures each year. 
 
 The conclusion of an opening address may express con- 
 fidence in the support and cooperation of the members. 
 
 FarewelL — Under ordinary circumstances, a farewell 
 speech at the close of one's term of office is unnecessary. 
 It may be, however, that the officer is to leave the locality 
 or that he has seen long service. In either of these 
 cases his associates may wish to express their appreciation 
 in the form of a dinner or a gift. Such an occasion would 
 call for appropriate remarks by the outgoing officer. He 
 cannot go far astray if he expresses modesty in regard to 
 his own accomplishments, gratitude for the support and 
 appreciatio-n of his friends, and a deep interest in the future 
 welfare of the organization and its members. 
 
 II. Introducing a Speaker 
 
 An introductory speech has two purposes: (i) It should 
 aim to inspire the audience with confidence in the speaker. 
 The presiding officer is always well known to the audience, 
 while frequently the speaker is not. Reference to the
 
 SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 267 
 
 speaker's past achievements or his particular qualifications 
 for discussing the subject chosen is therefore always in 
 place. (2) The introductory speech should seek to arouse 
 the interest of the audience in the subject of the discourse. 
 This should be its aim if the subject is an unpopular one. 
 The presiding officer should lend his influence to the 
 speaker in order to win for him at the start a serious 
 and respectful consideration. This purpose need not be 
 present if the speaker to be introduced is famous and can 
 carry his audience with him, whatever may be his subject. 
 More, than all, an introductory speech must be brief, 
 for the audience has come to hear the speaker and not 
 the presiding officer. 
 
 III. Address of Welcome to a Convention 
 
 When a convention meets in a city, the address of wel- 
 come may be made by the mayor of the city, the president 
 of the local organization, the president of the chamber of 
 commerce, or any other prominent citizen. 
 
 The address of welcome has two chief purposes: (i) It 
 aims to express the pleasure which the citizens feel because 
 of the presence of their visitors. While it is correct form 
 to i)lace the resources of the city at the disposal of the 
 guests, it is necessary to avoid any appearance of boast- 
 fulness. (2) The address of welcome should seek to create 
 a sense of unity and good-fellowship In' {)resenting the 
 common j)urposes and interests which have drawn the 
 members of the audience together. If the address is 
 mafic by one who is not a meml)er, this may ])v done by 
 complimentary reference to the importance and value of 
 the work which is being accomplished by the organization. 
 If the address is made by a member, it may be done by
 
 268 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 reference to the growth of the organization, some of the 
 important problems which are to engage the attention of 
 the delegates, and the mutual benefit which will be derived 
 from an exchange of ideas. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have received some 
 suggestions as to what it is appropriate to say (i) in an in- 
 augural and in a farewell speech, (2) in a speech of intro- 
 duction, and (3) in an address of welcome to a convention. 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Speeches of a Presiding Officer 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Result of numerous organizations. 
 II. Value of knowing what to say. 
 III. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. Entering upon and taking leave of ofifice. 
 
 A . Inaugural address. — Principles. 
 
 1. Content of the introduction. 
 
 {a) Items. 
 {b) Examples. 
 
 (i) Gladstone. 
 
 (2) Depew. 
 
 2. Content of the body. 
 
 {a) Varies with purpose. 
 ib) Topic of interest. 
 
 (i) Gladstone, 
 (f) Suggestion as to poHcy. 
 
 (i) Depew. 
 
 3. Content of conclusion. 
 
 B. Farewell. 
 
 1 . Circumstances. 
 
 2. Content. 
 II. Introducing a speaker.
 
 SPEECHES OF A PRESIDING OFFICER 269 
 
 II. A. Purposes. 
 
 1 . Speaker. 
 
 2. Subject. 
 B. Brief. 
 
 III. Address of welcome to a convention. 
 
 A. By whom made. 
 
 B. Purposes. 
 
 1. Pleasure. 
 
 (<;) Boastfulness. 
 
 2. Create unity. 
 
 (a) If made by a non-member. 
 (6) If made by a member. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Review the three inaugural addresses in Reading 
 Lesson XII and answer the following questions: 
 
 1. Why does Mr. Lincoln not go into detail as to the course of 
 action to be pursued during the next four years? 
 
 2. In what sentence docs he place the blame for the war on both 
 North and South? 
 
 3. It is said that Lincoln's simple yet dignified and even elegant 
 style of expression may be attributed partly to the fact that his early 
 reading was confined to Shakespeare and the Bible. What in this 
 address shows his knowledge of the latter? 
 
 4. What seems to be the main purpose of his historical review of 
 the situation? 
 
 5. Select the sentences from each address in which the speaker 
 asks for the cooperation of his fellows. 
 
 6. Docs President Wilson compliment or condemn his predeces- 
 sors? 
 
 7. How does he seek to excuse the mistakes of the past? 
 
 8. Make a list of the things which he thinks need to be done. 
 
 9. lie suggests thai they Ije done in what sjMril? 
 
 10. Find in each address expressions which indicate that the 
 speaker places a modest estimate upon his own abilities. 
 
 1 1. I'liid in ihc third an ai)prcciative reference to his predecessors.
 
 270 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Exercise III. — Assume that you have been elected to the presi- 
 dency of your student body, alumni association, religious organization, 
 language, literary, scientific, dramatic, political, or woman's club. 
 Prepare a three-minute speech which would be appropriate for the 
 first meeting after your election. At the conclusion of your own 
 inaugural, make a one-minute speech introducing a speaker to the 
 members of your society. Do not use a fictitious name. Your 
 speech will be much more interesting if you choose a real person. 
 
 Exercise IV. — Review Nos. 4 to 7 of Reading Lesson XII and 
 answer the following questions: 
 
 1. In what way is President Hadley's address particularly appro- 
 priate to the occasion? 
 
 2. In what ways does Governor Bates compliment his guests? 
 
 3. In what ways does he show pride in his state? 
 
 4. How does his reference to the history of Massachusetts help to 
 create a sense of unity? 
 
 5. Mr. Hughes of Toronto was speaking to members of his own 
 profession. What ideas did he express which would tend to promote 
 good-fellowship and cause those present to realize the dignity and 
 value of the convention? 
 
 Exercise V. — Choose one from among the following situations 
 and prepare an appropriate address of welcome. Let it occupy from 
 three to four minutes. Select an organization about whose history 
 and purposes you either have or can get information: 
 
 1. As president of a high school or normal school student body, 
 give an address of welcome before the alumni association, which is to 
 hold its meetings in your building. 
 
 2. As president of a local organization (lodge, woman's club, 
 fraternity, chamber of commerce, labor union, etc.) welcome a con- 
 vention of delegates of that organization from other cities. 
 
 3. Welcome one of the above-mentioned organizations, not as a 
 member, but as the mayor or some other prominent citizen of the 
 city.
 
 READING LESSON XIII 271 
 
 READING LESSON XIU 
 Speeches for Social Occasions 
 
 I. From a speech by Chauncey M. Depew at a dinner given to 
 fifty vagrants on Christmas eve, i8g6: 
 
 My Friends: It is Christmas eve, and I hope we have all begun 
 the hours that lead to Christmas in the proper way — that is, by filling 
 ourselves as full as we can of the good things of this world. 
 
 I have presided at many dinners and attended many more — 
 perhaps more than any other man in New York — but certainly never 
 did I preside over or attend a dinner from which I have derived more 
 real pleasure than from this dinner here to-night. . . . 
 
 I have read of the great dinners they had in Rome, when a man 
 would expend his entire fortune, great as those fortunes were, to 
 entertain an emperor. Only one of the great historical dinners ever 
 interested me — the one told of in the New Testament, where the 
 host, his guests having failed to answer or to send excuses, found his 
 tables unoccupied. Then it was that he told the people of his house- 
 hold to go out into the highways and byways and gather in all they 
 might find. I would like to have been at that dinner. I have pictured 
 it often in my mind. Had the guests who had been invited attended, 
 some of them would have criticized the wines of the host, saying they 
 had better in their own cellars; others would have criticized the 
 food and declared that their own cooks could have prepared better 
 dishes. Then, as he departed, each would shake the hand of the host 
 hypocritically and bid him good-night with the false statement that 
 he had never had a better time or a belter dinner in his life. In my 
 mind's eye. I can see some of the guests who attended the feast. One 
 was, perhaps, the student who, in striving after distinction in a pro- 
 fession, had neglected to provide for his material wants and was in 
 distress. Another was, perhaps, the skilled mechanic out of a job, 
 wanting only the o[)f)()rluiiity to work hut failing to find it. I can 
 picture the lawyer without clients and the playwright discouraged 
 because he could not sell his play. I can see there, too, the poet or 
 the author whom [)ublishers had iiol recognized, but who was destined 
 to become a great man in the literature of the future. I can see there,
 
 272 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 too, the professional tramp who would do everything but work, 
 absolutely refusing to do that. The professional tramp, more com- 
 pletely than any other type of man on earth, meets the biblical de- 
 scription of the lily in the field. He toils not, neither does he spin, 
 yet Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. 
 
 We meet here this Christmas eve and the occasion is one that 
 suggests a few things to me — to all of us. No matter how fortunate 
 or unfortunate we may be, Christmas eve should be an hour of re- 
 joicing. Whether we are in luck or whether we are not in luck, we 
 cannot forget that this hour is the one that led to the coming of Christ 
 to this earth. He came as the great leveler. It was his mission to 
 inculcate doctrines that would wipe out despotism and injustice. . . . 
 If a man has the element of hope in his heart he can and will find a 
 place from which he can start afresh in the journey of his life, no 
 matter how dark his past has been. You may say that it is easy for 
 a man like me to make such a statement; but, my friends, it has 
 been my privilege during the last thirty years to come into contact 
 with men who have encountered the most discouraging conditions of 
 life. I have seen men who were in magnificent circumstances go to 
 the gutter through rum. I have seen them conquer the appetite, 
 and, having conquered it, gain new courage. I have seen them, start- 
 ing from that new landing place, work up and up again until they 
 reached their proper sphere. 
 
 I know what it is to be in hard luck myself. I belong to a family 
 that has the trait of always worrying about things that don't happen. 
 My father died of worrying and my grandfather died of worrying, and 
 I almost made up my mind that I would die of worry. For the first 
 thirty years of my life I worried enough to have shuffled off this 
 mortal coil and climbed the Golden Stairs. But I had good lungs, 
 good heart, good stomach, and good muscles, and somehow I couldn't 
 die. Then I had a hard blow. I lost every dollar I had in the world. 
 My father was one of those men who believed that a boy should be 
 thrown out into the world and made to hustle for himself if he was 
 ever going to amount to anything. I went to him with my troubles. 
 All he did was to cry. I did not want tears. I wanted greenbacks. 
 I wanted help, not syrhpathy. I thought that my jig was up for sure 
 and for a time was very much down in the heart, but one day, thank 
 God, I came to realize that this was a bright and beautiful world. . . .
 
 READING LESSON XIII 273 
 
 I declared that I should go to work, stop worrying, cultivate cheer- 
 fulness and tr>' to be merry. The result of that philosophy is that 
 for twenty years I have been trying to get fun out of everything. If 
 it is work, I get fun out of that. If I am at sea during a hard blow 
 and all the other passengers are so sick that they wish they were dead, 
 I try to get fun out of that too. I am always trying to get a chance 
 to laugh. The result is that I have reversed the hereditary conditions 
 that nature put in me, but \dth which God never intended that a 
 man should be afflicted. I cultivated hope until I became an opti- 
 mist. . . . 
 
 I believe the trouble \nth most of us is that we get in a rut. We 
 get in the procession and we cannot get out of it. We want something 
 a little better than the chance that is given to us at the time. We 
 are not willing enough to take the chance presented to us. Up in 
 Peekskill, a town that originates pretty nearly all the things that are 
 worth thinking about in this world and in which I had my origin, 
 they had a habit of always following a hearse at a funeral. A Peek- 
 skiller who had come down to New York and died was to be " planted," 
 as Peekskillers say. Some of his New York friends went up to the 
 funeral. They took carriages and got into the procession to follow 
 the hearse. After a while they noticed that they were riding over 
 very rough ground and that the carriage was swajdng from side to 
 side in such a manner as to threaten to spill them out. One of the 
 New York dudes stuck his head out of the carriage window and 
 shouted to the driver, "Hi, there! What the deuce arc you trying 
 to do? Do you want to break our necks? Where are you taking us 
 to, anyway?" The old Peekskill driver leaned over and answered 
 "Well, I'll tell you, gents, the horses with the hearse started to run 
 away ten minutes ago and they're running yet, and you know, up 
 here in Peekskill, it's the rule for the mourners to follow the hearse, 
 and I ain't going to break it." Now, it's not a good rule to follow the 
 hearse. If you've been doing it, stop. When a man finds himself 
 in the wrong procession, the best thing for him to do is to get out. 
 When the chance comes, it may not be in a very inviting landing 
 place, but if it gives him an opportunity and if he has the courage and 
 pluck and sobriety to take advantage of it and does so, he is on the 
 way to make all his Christmases merry Christmases. . . . 
 
 I wish you all a Merry Christmas tomorrow, and an opportunity
 
 2 74 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 to work and to prosper during the coming year. I hope from the 
 bottom of my heart that you will all start out to-night with new hope. 
 ... I trust that a year from to-night you will all be able to say that 
 1897 was a year of success for you and that you will be sitting as hosts 
 at Christmas tables where you can give words of comfort and en- 
 couragement to those whom the vicissitudes of life may place in the 
 same positions in which you are now.^ 
 
 2. Extract from a speech given by Mr. James Bryce, Ambassador 
 from England to the United States, at a dinner of the Harvard Alumni. 
 After thanking the presiding officer and the University for the cordial 
 reception which has been tendered to him, he continues: 
 
 I take it as an expression of your warm feeling towards that 
 country from which so many of the ancestors of men of Massachusetts 
 came, and which always is and always will be proud of having laid 
 the foundations of the two famous commonwealths of Massachusetts 
 and Virginia. I noted an interesting trace of the way in which the 
 Old World lives in the New in the fact that the air to which you have 
 just sung the song of "Fair Harvard" was an air composed by some 
 unknown Celtic minstrel centuries ago in Ireland, and in the fact 
 that the song with which you are going to close our gathering to-day 
 is the song which all over the English-speaking world is used at mo- 
 ments of parting, and which comes from the pen of my countryman, 
 Robert Burns. It is not only in great things but also in little things 
 like these that we see how deep the unity of our feelings goes. 
 
 You asked me just now, Mr. President, to say what those who 
 are going across to The Hague wdll find in England. I can tell you 
 very easily. It was brought to my mind by some words which fell 
 from the lips of the president of this University. You will find there 
 ancient universities weltering in an abyss of poverty. Think of my 
 feehngs, gentlemen, when the president of Harvard University said 
 that within the last six years Harvard University had received gifts 
 from private benefactors to the amount of eight millions. Think of 
 the fact that the class of 1882 is giving and other classes hereafter 
 are expected, with what I have no doubt is a prescience born of long 
 observation, to give one hundred thousand dollars, or as much more 
 
 1 Chauncey M. Depew. Orations, Addresses, and Speeches, II, p. 319.
 
 READING LESSON XIII 275 
 
 as may befit the growing wealth of the country. Add these endow- 
 ments together, and then think of how much richer Harvard becomes 
 every year; and think of the fact that in England we can hardly 
 scrape together even the money that is necessary to enable us to set 
 up proper scientific apparatus for university teaching and research 
 and adequately support our world-famous libraries. The old moral- 
 ists and preachers — indeed, many of the poets also were fond of 
 dilating upon the blessings of poverty and the dangers of wealth. 
 The only fear I can have for the future of Harvard arises from the 
 refie.x action of those millions. How will you ever spend the wealth 
 that is descending in a golden torrent upon you? We, I suppose, 
 ought to have the virtues which poverty is supposed to foster. There 
 is an anecdote of a Scotch lady who was dragged in a carriage by run- 
 away horses; the bottom fell out of the carriage, and she suffered 
 severely for two miles before the horses could be pulled up; but one 
 of her friends who came to condole with her, being of a very pious 
 spirit, said, " After all, my dear, it must have been a blessed experience." 
 And we, I suppose, when we think of the blessings which moralists 
 sec in the hardship of the poor, and of the many temptations incident 
 to wealth, ought to feel glad that those temptations arc not thrown in 
 our way. You probably remember the anecdote of the man who was 
 seen lying on the pavement of a street in London by commiserating 
 spectators, one of whom, trying to raise his head, observed, "Poor 
 fellow, he must be very ill," upon which a cabman standing by said, 
 " I only wish, sir, I had half his complaint." We would be wiUing, 
 gentlemen, to have half the complaint with which Harvard is threat- 
 ened by its increasing opulence. 
 
 Since, however, poverty is our lot, we try to live upon our tra- 
 ditions. They are a tonic sort of food, but they are not nutritious. 
 However, they are all we have. They arc ancient and glorious 
 traditions; yet perhaps they arc not relatively more ancient than 
 yours, because your traditions began within a very few years of the 
 settlement of this continent, when a man of whom little is known 
 except that he was a man of university training and high ideals gave 
 a small fund for the foundation of a college here which has t)ecomc 
 the cradle of the whole university system of Ainerica. And you have 
 built u]> long and glorious traditions. When I look around at the 
 walls of this room ; when I think of the famous men who have adorned
 
 2 76 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Harvard; when I think not only of those famous men, but of the 
 thousands of noble lives, of those who died in the Civil War, and of 
 those who have lived lives devoted to their country before and since 
 the war, men who were inspired by the traditions of Harvard, I think 
 how great a power a university has of forming the spirit of a people. 
 Both you and we have our traditions, and we prize them. You need 
 your traditions to save you from your wealth; we need our traditions 
 to support us in our poverty. 
 
 3. Speech of Chauncey M. Depew, introducing Sir Edwin Arnold, 
 New York, October 8, 1891: 
 
 Ladies and Gentlemen: It is a great pleasure for many of us to 
 embrace this opportunity to enter the peaceful domain of poetry and 
 philosophy so soon after yesterday's election. The event which calls 
 us together, so unique and of such international significance, could 
 happen between the people of no other nations than those of the 
 United States and Great Britain. With all others is the barrier of 
 race and the insuperable obstacle of language. We are happy to 
 greet so distinguished a representative of our kin across the sea and 
 so eminent a master of our common mother tongue. An English audi- 
 ence applauding James Russell Lowell and those in America cheer- 
 ing Sir Edwin Arnold present the unity in essentials of these great 
 empires and the possibilities before EngUsh-speaking peoples. Our 
 language is conquering the earth. It is destined to be for the East 
 more than Buddha the "Light of Asia" and to diffuse around the 
 globe the "Light of the World." 
 
 Commercial rivalries and diplomatic frictions promote the 
 health of nations. Contending for markets stirs the energies and 
 inspires the inventive genius of both America and England. Pohti- 
 cal necessities, or the bumptiousness of the hour on one side or the 
 other will always provide a Bering Sea, or a Fisheries, or a Canadian 
 problem for a tournament of the pen between Washington and West- 
 minster, but the brotherhood of letters will prevent these disputes 
 ever ending in the bloody arbitrament of arms. 
 
 When Lowell died this summer, the tributes of the English press 
 were so generous and discriminating, they paid such glowing eulogy 
 to his genius, and gave such full and graceful recognition to the merit 
 and originahty of American Hterature, that they strengthened the
 
 READING LESSON XIII 277 
 
 ties between the Old country and the New, and emphasized the uni- 
 versal amity of the guild of letters. 
 
 The authors have at last succeeded in conv-incing the poUticians 
 that they know better than Congressmen their own mission and 
 interests, and a year unusually rich in conspicuous legislation will 
 count as one of its most beneficent measures, again enforcing the 
 maxim that peace has her victories as well as war, the International 
 Copyright Law. 
 
 We have hospitably received all the lecturers from the other side 
 who had or thought they had ideas to plant in our virgin soil, but our 
 welcome has been given to few. We have hailed always with delight 
 the advent of the glorious thinkers whose works are the features and 
 the factors of the literature of our time. Herbert Spencer and Canon 
 Kingsley and Archdeacon Farrar spoke to loyal subjects and enthu- 
 siastic admirers who knew intimately the letter and spirit of their 
 teachings and rejoiced to meet the teacher. But we have loved more 
 to greet the creative minds who came to interpret books which were 
 the favorites of our libraries, and to illustrate characters which had 
 been adopted as members of our families. To hear Thackeray dis- 
 sect the Georges, and to have Dickens personally introduce us to 
 the dear old friends Captain Cuttle, ]Micawber, the Marchioness, and 
 others whom we had idealized and loved, formed eras in our lives. 
 Only those who hstened to the blind bard as he sang his immortal 
 epic ever fully understood the Iliad. I heard the presiding ofiicer 
 introduce Matthew Arnold, when he was here, as the author of the 
 Light of Asia. The busy man of affairs who had not differentiated 
 the Arnolds, never knew why his compliment was not appreciated, 
 but he well understood that there was one priceless contribution to 
 the thought of the age which had made immortal the name of Arnold. 
 We welcome Sir Edwin because he is an American by birth on his 
 wife's side. His career is peculiariy Western. Most of our famous 
 men have won their way through college and into the professions by 
 teaching the district school or rural academy and our guest began as 
 a teacher. He brings a lesson we cannot learn too soon, the division 
 of labor. While editor-in-chief of the journal enjoying the largest 
 circulation in (ireat Britain, he found time for the composition of 
 those exquisite and profound works which are his fame and part of 
 the glory of our period. Sir Edwin Arnold comes to us as Laboulayc
 
 278 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 might have come, as John Bright might have come, to receive the 
 expressions of our gratitude for writing daily to his great constitu- 
 ency, on the side of our national life and unity when both were in 
 peril. We had then in England few friends in power or in the press, 
 but he was one of the truest and most useful. This journalist, poet, 
 philosopher, and friend is with us tonight, and I have the pleasure of 
 introducing to you Sir Edwin Arnold.^ 
 
 4. Address by Chauncey M. Depew on presenting the loving cup 
 to Admiral Dewey, January g, 1900: 
 
 Admiral Dewey: Your countrymen are ever emulating each 
 other in the conception and execution of something which will show 
 their afifection for and their gratitude to you. You were presented 
 with a sword by an admiring and grateful country, with loving cups 
 by municipalities and with medals by states; but all of these acts 
 were essentially ceremonial in form. 
 
 What we do to-day is without ceremony or official character. 
 It is simply the expression of seventy thousands of men, women, and 
 children of our country in a simple way of their affection, respect for, 
 and their pride in Admiral Dewey. 
 
 One of the significant things of our time is the influence of the 
 newspaper, the power of the journal. The triumphs of Arctic ex- 
 ploration, scientific advancement, and beneficent reforms originate 
 very often in the brains of the people who conduct these great powers 
 of modern thought and who give expression to the general idea. It 
 seems as if the myriad fingers by which the press reaches out and 
 touches every form of opinion and feeling enables it also to concen- 
 trate in a happy way what all desire and give to it definite and ma- 
 terial form. This had been done by the New York Journal, which 
 suggested this cup for you. Admiral. 
 
 The artist who designed it has put in permanent and beautiful 
 form the love of seventy thousands who contributed their ten cent 
 pieces for the purpose of making this exquisite memorial. 
 
 If you were a politician, sir, and had aspiration for the Presi- 
 dency, I fear this cup would be a serious bar to your advancement, 
 because one of the critical, crucial dangers of the time, if we are to 
 believe many newspapers and orators, is the contraction of the cur- 
 
 ^ Chauncey M. Depew. Orations, Addresses, and Speeches, III, p. 200.
 
 READING LESSON XIII 279 
 
 rency, and here are, sir, actually seventy thousand dimes taken out 
 of the circulating medium of the countr>^ 
 
 But there is another significance in this gift. . . . Ever since the 
 pocket came into use and fashion there has always been a pocket 
 piece. This is a charm, carried for the purpose of warding off rheu- 
 matism and the devil, . . . and of promoting good fortune. 
 
 In this cup are melted up the dimes of a great many elderly 
 people who had rounded out their successful lives and who thought 
 that they would give to you their pocket pieces in the hope that 
 they would do for you what they had done for themselves, that you 
 would be free from what they had escaped, and that, besides, they 
 would transfer to you good luck for the rest of your life. . . . 
 
 As you look at this cup during the years to come, you will know 
 that the donors from every state, city, town, and hamlet of your 
 country will have an interest in your home. From thousands of 
 homes, in everj^ prayer, morning and evening, there will be an aspira- 
 tion for long life, health, and happiness for Admiral Dewey. 
 
 5. Portion of a response by William Ewart Gladstone, accepting 
 a chair from the Liberals of the Borough of Greenwich: 
 
 Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen: I am sure you will think I shall 
 best discharge my duty if upon this occasion I confine myself to the 
 briefest expression of thanks for this last and newest favor which 
 the constituency of Greenwich has conferred upon me. The former 
 favors have not been, and cannot be, forgotten; and, although our 
 political connection as constituency and representative has been 
 dissolved, yet you may rely upon it that my interest in your wel- 
 fare, which was enhanced by that connection, can never disappear. 
 I thank you greatly for this new mark of your enduring kindness. I 
 accept it with jK-culiar joy and jjleasure on this auspicious day, in the 
 presence of Lord Granville, Lord Harlington, and all those colleagues 
 to whose powerful cooperation it is that I owe my being able to appear 
 before you with the conviction that I have not disgraced the functions 
 with whi(h, in common with them, I am charged. 
 
 6. Speech of Ihirry Johnson I'islier, i)resenting the Cheney-Ives 
 Gateway to Yale University on behalf of the Class of 1896: 
 
 President Hadley and Yale Men: I am here as a representative
 
 28o ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 of the class of ninety-six, to present to you this gate. In its stone 
 and iron it typifies the rugged manliness of those to whose lasting 
 memory it has been erected. That is our wish. To you who are now 
 gathered beneath these elms, and to those Yale men who shall follow 
 after us, we wish this memorial to stand first of all for the manhood 
 and courage of Yale. In the evening shadows the softer lights may 
 steal forth and infold it, but through the daylight hours of toil and 
 accomplishment let the sun shine down upon it, and bring out each 
 line of strength, that every Yale man may be imbued with that daunt- 
 less spirit which inspired these two sons of Yale in their lives and in 
 their deaths. 
 
 We do not wish you merely to stand before this memorial and 
 gaze upon it as a monument. We want every one of you, whether 
 graduate at commencement time or undergraduate in term time, to 
 come to it and to sit upon its benches, just as we of ninety-six shall 
 come to sit during the advancing years, and, in the coming, keep 
 always alive in our hearts the spirit of these two who did their work 
 and held their peace, and had no fear to die. That is the lesson 
 these two careers are singularly fitted to teach us. To the one came 
 the keenest disappointment of staying behind, and after that the 
 toil, the drudgery, and the sickness, — all bravely borne. To the 
 other it was given to meet death with that steadfast courage which 
 alone avails to men who die in the long quiet after the battle. It 
 is no new service these two have given to Yale. Looking back to-day 
 through the heritage of two centuries, these names are but added to 
 the roll of those who have served Yale because they have served their 
 country. 
 
 The stone and iron of this gate will keep alive the names of these 
 two men. It is our hope that the men of Yale will, in their own lives, 
 perpetuate their manhood and courage. 
 
 7. Speech of acceptance of the Cheney-Ives Gateway, by Arthur 
 Twining Hadley: 
 
 Of all the memorials which are offered to a university by the 
 gratitude of her sons, there are none which serve so closely and fully 
 the purposes of her life as those monuments which commemorate her 
 dead heroes. The most important part of the teaching of a place like 
 Yale is found in the lessons of public spirit and devotion to high ideals
 
 READING LESSON XIII 281 
 
 which it gives. These things can in some measure be learned in 
 books of poetry and of history. They can in some measure be learned 
 from the daily life of the college and the sentiments which it incul- 
 cates. But they are most solemnly and vividly brought home by 
 visible signs, such as this gateway furnishes, that the spirit of ancient 
 heroism is not dead, and its highest lessons are not lost. 
 
 It seems as if the bravest and best in your class, as well as in 
 others, had been sacrificed to the cruel exigencies of war. But they 
 are not sacrificed. It is through men like those whom we have loved, 
 and whom we here commemorate, that the life of the republic is kept 
 alive. As we have learned lessons of heroism from the men who went 
 forth to die in the Civil War, so will our children and our children's 
 children learn the same lesson from the heroes who have a little while 
 lived with us and then entered into an immortality of glory.
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 Introduction. — Business men and others sometimes 
 meet around a banquet table to discuss problems of a very- 
 serious nature. This is done for convenience and the dis- 
 cussion is of an informal and sometimes of an unsocial 
 character. Speeches which might be delivered on such 
 an occasion follow a law of their own and will not now be 
 considered. The after-dinner speeches that we shall 
 study are such as would be appropriate for a purely social 
 occasion, one in which good-fellowship takes the place 
 of antagonism, and appreciation of others is substituted 
 for egotism. 
 
 In this chapter we shall learn: (i) the general charac- 
 teristics of the after-dinner speech and (2) the special 
 characteristics of three different sorts of speeches which 
 might be given at a dinner. 
 
 I. General Characteristics of the After-Dinner 
 
 Speech 
 
 Unity. — In the first place, the after-dinner speech 
 should have a point or purpose, and should not consist 
 merely of a string of stories. The speaker should confine 
 himself to one idea well illustrated. It is said that the 
 secret of Senator Hoar's popularity at the Harvard Phi 
 Beta Kappa dinners was that his speeches contained one 
 original idea, clearly stated, and one fresh story, well told. 
 A story should be used merely to enforce a point which
 
 SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 283 
 
 has been made and not as an end in itself. "The comic 
 story is a good servant but a bad master." 
 
 The habit of threading a series of jokes on a very slen- 
 der strand of thought has grown out of the notion that 
 an after-dinner speaker must play the role of humorist. 
 This idea is a mistake; it is only necessary to say the 
 fitting, agreeable thing. Brander Matthews says, "Use- 
 ful as humor may be, good humor is even more useful." 
 Weighty subjects, even, may be handled in an after-dinner 
 speech, if treated in a lighter vein. The speaker must be 
 careful, however, to distinguish between lightness and 
 levity. Lightness is an agreeable playfulness which is not 
 flippancy. 
 
 Brevity. — In the second place, the after-dinner speech 
 should be brief. Considerable responsibility rests with 
 the toastmaster in this matter. He should be brief and 
 lively himself and remind others to be so. In general, 
 the program should not last longer than an hour and a 
 half. If speeches are long and rambling, we are inclined 
 to agree with James Russell Lowell in his addition to the 
 beatitudes, "Blessed is he who has nothing to say — and 
 cannot be persuaded to say it." 
 
 Spontaneity. — In the third place, the after-dinner 
 speech should give the impression of not having been pre- 
 pared. There is no variety of speech in which the word- 
 outline method of preparation will be of greater service. 
 This method will enable the speaker to make reference to 
 what has been previously mentioned and, in this way, 
 greatly increase the semblance of spontaneity. The style 
 of address, also, should be conversational rather than 
 oratorical; that is, the majority of the sentences should 
 be loose rather than periodic.
 
 284 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 II. Three Sorts of After-Dinner Speeches 
 
 Speech of a Representative. — Let us first consider 
 such a speech as might be delivered by the representative 
 of one group of people before another group of people. 
 Since the speaker is a guest, his discourse should be cour- 
 teous and even complimentary to the society, institution, 
 or group of people which is acting as his host. He should 
 thank the presiding officer for any words of welcome which 
 may have been spoken, and express, in response, the cordial 
 greetings of his own society. I;i so doing, it is well to 
 share the honor which he has received with those whom he 
 represents. Mr. Bryce says, for instance, that he regards 
 the honor of speaking before the Harvard Alumni as an 
 expression of warm feeling toward his own country. If 
 the speaker makes any comparisons, it should be to the 
 detriment of his own organization. Notice the comparison 
 which Mr. Bryce makes between the wealth of British 
 and American universities. Notice also that he is very 
 careful not to imply that English traditions are finer than 
 ours, since we might be sensitive on that point. 
 
 The speaker should not only be courteous but he should 
 embrace every opportunity to create a feeling of mutual 
 understanding and sympathy. The unifying thought 
 may be merely a trivial matter, as was Mr. Bryce's refer- 
 ence to the origin of the songs which were sung at the meet- 
 ing. The speaker may discuss the progress or success 
 of the two organizations. He may allude to their common 
 ideals and purposes. This was done by Ehhu Root, as 
 Representative of the United States at the Third Confer- 
 ence of American Republics, when he said, "Unlike as 
 we are in many respects, we are alike in this, that we are
 
 SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 285 
 
 all engaged under new conditions and free from the tra- 
 ditional forms and limitations of the Old World, in working 
 out the same problem of popular self-government." 
 
 Welcome Tribute. — Let us next consider a speech of 
 welcome, paying tribute to an honored guest. The guest 
 may be a distinguished foreigner or an eminent citizen 
 who is traveling through his own country. Such a speech 
 may also be given on the occasion of a man's return to his 
 home city. 
 
 The principal object of the speech is to express apprecia- 
 tion of the services which the noted guest has rendered 
 to society. The speaker should be careful, however, not 
 to exaggerate this feature of the address, since it might 
 cause embarrassment to the subject of his remarks. 
 
 Again, historical material having some connection with 
 the life interest of the visitor is always appropriate. A 
 few examples will help to make this point clear. Mr. 
 Depew, when he welcomed Lieutenant Shackleton to our 
 country, gave a brief historical review of arctic and ant- 
 arctic exploration. Lord Coleridge, in a tribute to Henry 
 Irving, told what actors in general had done for literature 
 and then what Irving in particular had done for Shake- 
 speare. Mr. Depew, in his welcome tribute to Sir Edwin 
 Arnold, dwelt upon current events that illustrated the 
 power of literary men to maintain amity between the 
 nations. 
 
 Presentation and Acceptance of a Gift. — A gift is 
 sometimes presented at a dinner and sometimes upon a 
 more formal occasion, such as graduation exercises. The 
 principles governing the selection of material are, however, 
 the same in both cases. 
 
 The speaker who presents the gift should magnify the
 
 286 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 services or worth of the recipient and minimize the value 
 of the gift. In response, the recipient of the gift should 
 express his appreciation of the kindness of his friends, 
 minimize the value of his own services, and, if possible, 
 share the honor with the others. Gladstone did this 
 in his response to the Liberals of Greenwich. These 
 principles apply equally to the presentation of a class 
 gift at graduation. The speaker should not say that the 
 gift is presented in order to perpetuate the memory of 
 his class; on the contrary, he should present it as an ex- 
 pression of appreciation for value received. The rule 
 holds good even when the gift takes the form of a monu- 
 ment to individual members of the class. This was the 
 situation in the case of the Cheney-Ives Gateway, but it 
 will be noticed that Mr. Fisher makes it clear that these 
 were but two among many who had followed the glorious 
 traditions of Yale. 
 
 Something may be said, also, about the considerations 
 which governed the choice of the gift, provided they are 
 complimentary to the recipient. The speaker will also 
 greatly enhance the beauty and dignity of his speech, if 
 he will go beyond the material qualities of the gift and 
 discover in it a significance, or deeper meaning. An illus- 
 tration may be found in Mr. Depew's reference to the 
 "pocket-piece." Again, this idea of symbolism is the 
 dominant note in both the presentation and acceptance of 
 the Cheney-Ives Gateway. 
 
 Conclusion. — In this chapter we have studied (i) the 
 general characteristics of an after-dinner speech and (2) 
 the special characteristics of three different kinds of after- 
 dinner speeches.
 
 SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 287 
 
 TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 Speeches for Social Occasions 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. What is meant by a social occasion. 
 II. Advance summary. 
 Body. 
 
 I. General characteristics of the after-dinner speech. 
 
 A. Unity. 
 
 1. One idea. 
 
 (a) Senator Hoar. 
 
 {b) Right and wrong use of the story. 
 
 2. Origin of the story habit. 
 
 (a) Humor and good humor. 
 (h) Weighty subjects. 
 
 B. Brevity. 
 
 1. Toastmaster. 
 
 2. Length of program. 
 
 3. Lowell. 
 
 C. Spontaneity. 
 
 1. Method of preparation. 
 
 2. Style of address. 
 
 II. Three sorts of after-dinner speeches. 
 
 A. Speeches of a representative. 
 
 1. Courtesy to hosts. 
 
 ((/) Thanks and greetings. 
 
 (b) Honor shared with others. — Br>xe. 
 
 (c) Comparisons. 
 
 (i) Universities. 
 (2) Traditions. 
 
 2. Mutual understanding. 
 
 ((/) Trivial thought. — Songs. 
 
 (b) Progress. 
 
 (( ) Common purposes. — Root. 
 
 B. Welcome tribute. 
 
 1. Occasions. 
 
 2. Object. — Warning. 
 
 3. Historical material. — Examples.
 
 288 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 II. ' B. 3. {a) Lieutenant Shackleton. 
 {b) Henry Irving. 
 (c) Sir Edwin Arnold. 
 C. Presentation and acceptance of a gift. 
 
 1. Occasions. 
 
 2. Attitude of presenter and recipient. 
 
 {a) Honors shared. — Gladstone. 
 {b) Mistake in presentation of class gift, 
 (i) A. monument not an exception. 
 
 3. Nature of the gift. 
 
 (a) Motives of choice. 
 {b) Significance. 
 
 1. "Pocket piece." 
 
 2. Cheney-Ives Gateway. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able to recite from the 
 topical outline. 
 
 Exercise II. — Review the speech of Chauncey M. Depew to the 
 vagrants, and answer the questions which follow. This speech was 
 chosen for study because of its unique character. An after-dinner 
 speaker usually addresses people of his own class in society. 
 
 1. What is the chief difficulty which would confront a man of 
 wealth in his endeavor to speak in an agreeable way on a social occasion 
 to fifty men who are "down and out " ? 
 
 2. Make a list of all the ideas or phrases which would tend to 
 place the speaker and the listeners on a common level. 
 
 3. Write in one sentence what seems to be the point or purpose of 
 his speech. 
 
 4. How many "jokes" did he tell? 
 
 5. Make a list of the humorous or playful references. 
 
 6. Compare the style of language with that used by the same 
 speaker in the welcome tribute to Sir Edwin Arnold. 
 
 Exercise III. — Imagine that, as a member of some organization, 
 you are the guest at a dinner given by a similar organization in some 
 other city. It may be a high-school literary society, dramatic, music, 
 language, art, or agricultural club, a Christian Endeavor, Y. M. C. A.,
 
 SPEECHES FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS 289 
 
 Y. W. C. A., Chamber of Commerce, or lodge. Prepare a three- 
 minute speech which would be suitable for such an occasion. 
 
 Exercise IV. — Select some great character of the present day. 
 Find out all you can about his life and work by consulting the 
 Reader's Guide, Wlio's Who, and the card catalogue. Imagine that 
 some organization has planned a dinner in his honor and that you 
 have been asked to pay tribute to him in an address of welcome. 
 Let it occupy from three to four minutes. 
 
 Exercise V. — It is evident that some gifts are presented on social 
 occasions and others upon more formal occasions. Select a situation 
 from the following list and prepare a presentation speech of about 
 three minutes. Then imagine that you are the recipient of the gift 
 and prepare a one-minute response: 
 
 A. Social Occasions. 
 
 1. (a) As president of the student body, present a gift from 
 
 that organization to an athletic coach in recognition 
 of his former services. He is obliged to give up the 
 work. 
 (b) 'Make the response of a coach under such circumstances. 
 
 2. (a) In behalf of a Bible Study Class, present a gift to your 
 
 teacher. 
 (b) Accept the gift. 
 
 3. (a) As one of the directors of a company, present a gift 
 
 to a successful manager who is about to leave. 
 (b) Accept the gift. 
 
 B. Formal Occasions. 
 
 1. (a) Present to your school a gift from your graduating class. 
 (b) .^s president of the student body, accept a gift. 
 
 2. (c) As president of a Woman's Patriotic Society, present a 
 
 flag u> I he student body of a high school. 
 (b) As president of the student body, accept the flag. 
 
 3. (a) As representative of a society which has donated the 
 
 trophy, present a cup to the school which has won a 
 series of debates. 
 (b) As president of the student body of ihe winning school, 
 accept the cup.
 
 290 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 4. (a) As leader, manager, or captain of an athletic team, 
 
 present to the student body a trophy which your 
 team has won. 
 (b) As president of the student body or as trophy keeper, 
 accept the trophy in behalf of the school. 
 
 5. (c) As president of a student body, present to individual 
 
 athletes or debaters medals or other emblems of 
 merit. 
 (b) It is not customary to make a response on such an 
 occasion. 
 
 Exercise VI. — Let the class be divided into sections of six or 
 seven members each. One student in each section shall be chosen 
 to act as toastmaster. It shall be the duty of the toastmaster to select 
 subjects, assign them to the members in his section, and to preside at 
 the meeting of his section. He may imagine that the occasion is a 
 class reunion, or any other social function.
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 Specimen Outline for a Student's two-minute Speech 
 
 Salutation: ISIembcrs of the East Side Women's Club. 
 Theme Sentence: I have come to urge you to join with us in a move- 
 ment for early Christmas shopping. 
 
 Word Outline 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Body 
 
 Thank 
 Combining 
 
 Shopgirls 
 
 Conditions 
 
 Urge 
 
 
 Windows 
 
 
 — Mean 
 
 Stories 
 . Wait 
 
 
 
 Twelve 
 
 
 5 — one 
 
 Crowded 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 Measuring 
 
 
 
 Shifting 
 
 
 
 Home / 
 
 Make 
 
 \ 
 
 Buy 
 
 Machines — human 
 
 
 Power — 
 
 duty 
 
 
 
 Right 
 Conclusion: Show — Sign. 
 
 Written Speech 
 
 Early Cliristmus Shopping 
 
 Members of the East Side Women's Club: I I hank you and your 
 worthy President for the opportunity you have given me to speak to 
 you this afternoon. The Women's Clubs of the West Side are com- 
 bining in a movement for early Christmas shopping and, as their 
 representative, I have come to urge you to join with us.
 
 292 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 By so doing you can express the true Christmas spirit toward the 
 shopgirls of this city. What do we mean by the true Christmas 
 spirit? Shop windows, magazine covers, and postcards all express 
 good will toward men; stories told to sleepy children on Christmas 
 eve are filled with thoughts of peace and love. Are we expressing 
 this spirit when we wait until the last week to do our shopping for 
 Christmas? 
 
 There are many pitiable conditions in our large department stores. 
 Let me tell you of one instance which came under my observation. It 
 was a quarter before twelve on Christmas eve. The large store was 
 crowded to its capacity with people who screamed at the shopgirls 
 .and commanded them to wait upon them. Behind the ribbon coun- 
 ter was a young woman, scarcely more than a girl, measuring yards 
 and yards of ribbon and shifting from one swollen foot to the other 
 as she endeavored to wait on a dozen customers at once. In this 
 woman's home was a sick husband and a little child who prayed to 
 Santa Claus every night to bring her a doll that would open and close 
 its eyes; but the poor little mother was too tired when she reached 
 home after her work to make anything for the child. She could 
 not buy anything, for every cent must be saved for necessities. 
 
 These shopgirls have a right to their holidays. They are not 
 machines, wound up and guaranteed not to stop, but are human 
 beings like ourselves, capable of getting worn out and capable of 
 enjoying their pleasures. It is within our power as members of the 
 Women's Clubs to force the proprietors of these stores to close their 
 doors at six o'clock. It is not a question of charity but of duty. 
 
 Women of the East Side, I appeal to you to show in this way your 
 true Christmas spirit. If you will join with us, sign your name to 
 this resolution which I shall leave with your President, and which 
 will be sent to the Club Headquarters.
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Subjects for two-minute Argumentative or Expository Speeches ' 
 
 I. School Life 
 
 The Advantages of going to High School. 
 
 The Course I intend to take in High School. 
 
 Should One Student Report Another for Cheating? 
 
 Should One Student Report Another for Stealing from the Coat 
 
 Room? 
 What One should Think about in Choosing a Vocation. 
 Should the School Paper Follow or Form Public Opinion? 
 One Session per Day is Better than Two in a High School. 
 Advantages of a School Cafeteria. 
 WTiat Reform is Most Needed in our Student Body? 
 Value of a School Bank. 
 Value of a School Weekly. 
 
 The Country Boy has Advantages Superior to the City Boy. 
 The School Initial should be Granted for Success in Oratory and 
 
 Debate. 
 Value of School (jardcns. 
 
 One Reason Why High-school Boys should not Visit Poolrooms. 
 Teachers should not Assign any Work for Vacation. 
 The School Furnishes a Training for Citizenship. 
 Should two Pupils ever Study Together? 
 The Study of Algebra should not I)e made Compulsory in High 
 
 School. 
 High-school Students should Read the Newspapers. 
 Letting the Other Fellow Lead. 
 
 Differences between High School and (Iramniar School. 
 Our Debating Society. 
 
 ' These subjects as well as tho.sc in .\[)i)cndix IH have been con- 
 tributed mainly by leathers in the dilJerenl departments represented.
 
 294 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Why I have selected University. 
 
 The Dangers of High-school Fraternities. 
 
 Place of Social Life in High School. 
 
 High-school Girls should Wear a Uniform Dress. 
 
 Should we hold Rallies before or after the Games? 
 
 Should a Student Work for Four Years in one Activity? 
 
 Rugby versus American Football. 
 
 Compulsory Physical Education in the High School. 
 
 Should Credit toward Graduation be Given for Athletic Activities? 
 
 Should the High School Limit the Number of Sports in which a 
 
 Student may Participate? 
 Should Athletic Competitions be Intra-school or Inter-school? 
 Is Gymnasium Work or Organized Athletics better for the Average 
 
 Individual? 
 Are we Making the Winning of High-school Monograms too Easy? 
 Does Participation in Athletics Increase or Diminish the Scholastic 
 
 Standing of High-school Students? 
 Are High Schools Copying too Closely the Universities in their 
 
 Management and Ideas of Athletics? 
 Value of Gymnasium Work for Girls. 
 Value of Cadet Drill. 
 The Benefits of Systematic Exercise. 
 The Advisability of Faculty Supervision in Athletics. 
 The Ideals of the new California Interscholastic Federation. 
 The Effect of Athletic Sports on Morals. 
 The Educational Value of Athletics. 
 The School's Need of a Modernly Equipped Gymnasium. 
 The Relative Value of our Various Sports. 
 The Value of Freshman Teams in High School. 
 Can our Alumni Help our Teams and the General Tone of Ath- 
 letics? 
 The Students who Work in the Background (Custodian Committee, 
 
 Student Body President, and Business Manager of Paper). 
 What should be the Work of an Honor Society? 
 What should be the Purpose of a Literary Society? 
 Possibilities of the Junior Chamber of Commerce. 
 Credits (not more than lo) should be Deducted from a History 
 
 (or other) Paper for Faulty Composition.
 
 APPENDIX II 295 
 
 Examinations are Not a Fair Test of Ability. 
 
 Frequent Written Tests should be Given in all Subjects. 
 
 One should Never use Slang. 
 
 Slang is Sometimes Justifiable. 
 
 Basket-ball is an Excellent Exercise for Girls. 
 
 Literar>' Societies are a Benefit to High-school Pupils. 
 
 Our School should have a Larger Faculty. 
 
 An "Honor Society" should Require a Scholarship Standard as 
 well as a Record of Activity in Student Affairs. 
 
 Girls Give ]\Iore to the Student Body Fund than Boys and Receive 
 Less from it. 
 
 Students should be Allowed School Credit for Editing the School 
 Paper (or for Work on the Debating Team, or for Participa- 
 tion in Dramatic Performances). 
 
 Reasons Why it is Difficult to Prepare Monday's Lessons. 
 
 II. Life Outside of School 
 
 The is the Best Newspaper in the City. 
 
 Public Libraries should be Open on Sunday Afternoon. 
 Women should be Appointed as Members of the School Board. 
 Wild Game should (or should not) be Protected. 
 Why Forests should be Preserved. 
 Motion Pictures. 
 
 Advantages to a City of an Exposition. 
 Disadvantages to a City of an Exposition. 
 Machincr>' Used in the Construction of the Panama Canal. 
 Blasting Rock. 
 
 My Objections to Card Playing. 
 How Coal is Mined. 
 A Modern Kitchen Convenience. 
 Loss of Sight Makes other Senses more Acute. 
 The Rural Delivery of Mail is a Great Boon to Farmers. 
 Every Boy should have a Workshop. 
 Trolley Roads are a Great Benefit to the Country. 
 Presence of Mind often Averts Danger. 
 
 Qualities Necessary to Make a Gcxjd Dressmaker. (May substi- 
 tute any other vocation.)
 
 296 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Opportunities for Stenographers. (May substitute any other 
 vocation.) 
 
 Advantages of being an Engineer. (May substitute any other 
 vocation.) 
 
 Why Girls should take Music Lessons. 
 
 How to Care for Flowers. 
 
 How to Make a Popgun. 
 
 How Ice Cream is Made. 
 
 Trout-fishing is an Art. 
 
 Labor-saving Machinery is of Permanent Advantage to Man- 
 kind, although Temporarily Detrimental to Laborers. 
 
 How to Develop a Film. (May substitute Print.) 
 
 Why I Like to Hike. (May substitute Fish, Swim, Hunt, or any 
 other favorite sport.) 
 
 A Man (or Woman) may Reveal his Character on a Street Car. 
 
 Appearance and Habits of the English Sparrow. (May substitute 
 any other well-known bird.) 
 
 How Golf is Played. (May substitute any other game.) 
 
 How to Prepare a Bed in the Woods. 
 
 How to Learn to Swim. 
 
 There is a Wrong and a Right Kind of Class Spirit. 
 
 How to Raise Chrysanthemums. 
 
 Something which Boy Scouts Learn. 
 
 Manufacture of Glass (Steel-rails, Pencils, or other object). 
 
 What to Wear for a Day's Hike. 
 
 What to Carry on a Day's Hike. 
 
 The Qualities of a Good Speaker. 
 
 How to Make a Garden. 
 
 How to Dry Prunes. 
 
 Benefit of Sleeping Out of Doors. 
 
 Use of the Aeroplane in the European War. 
 
 Society for the Sale of Red Cross Stamps. 
 
 Have the Modern Dances a Value? 
 
 How to Care for a Horse. (May substitute Incubator, Goldfish, 
 Poultry, etc.) 
 
 What is expected of a Minister's Daughter? 
 
 What is expected of a Minister's Son? 
 
 How to Set Up a Tent.
 
 APPENDIX II 297 
 
 How to Build a Fire in the Woods. 
 
 How to Sail a Boat. 
 
 How to Plant a Tree. 
 
 How to Build and Launch a Raft. 
 
 How to Hive Bees. 
 
 How to Break a Colt. 
 
 How Butter is Made (Explain to City Girls). 
 
 The Cost and Style of Commencement Dresses should be Regu- 
 lated by School Authorities. 
 
 How to Make Beads. 
 
 Erection of an Amateur Wireless ^last. 
 
 The Average Young ]Man of To-day has Greater Opportunities 
 to make his Life a Success than had his Forefathers. 
 
 It is Better to Attend a Small College than a Large One. 
 
 It is Better to Work One's Way through College than to Borrow 
 the Money and Pay it Back after Graduation. 
 
 Schools should Observe Peace Day. 
 
 Frequent Tests should be Substituted for Term Examinations. 
 
 Habits of the Alligator. (May substitute some other animal.) 
 
 III. English 
 Ninth Year 
 
 How the Disinherited " Knight Secured his Horse and Armor for 
 
 the lourney." 
 The Treatment of Jews in King Richard's Time. 
 Scottish Life is Interesting. 
 Reasons Why I should Study Literature. 
 Reasons Why I should Study Written Composition. 
 Reasons Why I should Study Oral Composition. 
 The Study of Myths is Worth While. 
 Reasons Why Memory Work should be Required. 
 The Main Features of a Short Story. 
 How to Increase one's Vocabulary. 
 The Tournament. 
 Organization of Locksley's Men. 
 Feeling between the Saxons and the Normans. 
 The Archery Contest. 
 Customs of Homer's Time.
 
 298 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Tenth Year 
 
 Manners in Shakespeare's Time. 
 
 Classes of People in Shakespeare's Time. 
 
 Means of Travel and Communication in Shakespeare's Time. 
 
 Dress of Men and Women in Shakespeare's Time. 
 
 Condition of the Theater in Shakespeare's Time. 
 
 Origin of the Drama. 
 
 The' Duty of an Educated Man according to George William Curtis. 
 
 The Desires of King Arthur. 
 
 Lincoln's Training in Oratory. 
 
 The Morality Play. 
 
 Special Fitness of Lincoln as a Leader of the Nation in 1861. 
 
 Shakespeare's Caesar compared with the Historical Caesar. 
 
 Was King Arthur's Life a Failure? 
 
 Why did Brutus rather than Cassius see the Ghost? 
 
 Lincoln's Attitude toward Slavery. 
 
 Brutus was (or was not) Sincere in the Reasons he Gave for Join- 
 ing the Conspiracy. 
 
 Which would have been the Better Leader of the Conspiracy, 
 Brutus or Cassius? 
 
 Was Gradual Emancipation of the Slaves a Good Solution of the 
 Slavery Problem? 
 
 Lincoln's Views on Woman Suffrage. 
 
 Eleventh Year 
 
 Absurdities of the Plot of The Vicar of Wakefield. 
 
 The Magazine in American Literature. 
 
 Humor in American Literature. 
 
 Influence of the Puritan Conscience on American Literature. 
 
 Historical Tendency in American Literature. 
 
 Early American Histories. 
 
 Cotton Mather's Work. 
 
 The Literary Aims of Benjamin Franklin. 
 
 PoHtical Writings during the Revolutionary Period. 
 
 Difference between the Transcendentalist Ideas and Anti-slavery 
 
 Ideas. 
 Orators among Anti-slavery Writers. 
 Why there was Little Writing in the South.
 
 APPENDIX II 299 
 
 The Early Masque. 
 
 London Coffee-houses of the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 La Marseillaise. 
 
 Elegiac Poetry. 
 
 Characteristics of the Early Novel. 
 
 Human Life is the Subject Matter of Literature. 
 
 Effect of Eppie on Silas Marner. 
 
 Art of George Eliot in Portraying Personalities. 
 
 Art of George Eliot in Portraying Rustic Life. 
 
 Reality of the Characters in Silas Marner. 
 
 How Lycidas Came to be Written. 
 
 Value of a Course in Grammar. 
 
 Twelfth Year 
 
 Carlyle's Style in His Essay on Burns. 
 
 Burke's Objections to the Use of Force. 
 
 Burke's Discussion of the Importance of the Colonies. 
 
 Burke's Discussion of the Spirit of Liberty in the Colonies, 
 
 Development of the Masque. 
 
 Forms of Poetry — Epic, Lyric, and Dramatic. 
 
 Burke's Policy in Regard to Treatment of Colonies has been Justi- 
 fied by Subsequent E.xperience in America, Canada, and South 
 Africa. 
 
 I\'. History 
 Ancient History 
 
 Ancient Ways of Preserving the Dead. 
 
 Religion of the Babylonians. 
 
 Religion of the Egyptians. 
 
 Phctnician Trades. 
 
 Great National Games of the Greeks. 
 
 Greek Festivals. 
 
 Training of Spartan Boys. 
 
 Laws of Draco. 
 
 One of Solon's Reforms. 
 
 Greek Education. 
 
 Marriage among the Greeks. 
 
 How I Prepare my History Lesson. 
 
 Social Classes in Rome.
 
 300 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Licinian Laws. 
 
 Education of Early Romans. 
 
 Medieval and Modern History 
 
 The Feudal System. 
 
 Rise of Towns. 
 
 Schools of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Efifects of the Crusades. 
 
 Medieval Commerce (Guilds). 
 
 The Siberian Exile System. 
 
 Peter's Reforms. 
 
 Rise of the Nations against Napoleon. 
 
 European Struggle for Constitutional Government. 
 
 Causes of the French Revolution. 
 
 Markets and Fairs. 
 
 How a Medieval Town Looked. 
 
 Chivalry. 
 
 Medieval Warfare. 
 
 The Cathedral Movement. 
 
 Character and Career of Saladin. 
 
 Dress, Arms, and Habits of the Crusader. 
 
 The Religious-Military Orders. 
 
 English History 
 
 Navigation Acts of 1651. 
 
 Importance of Anglo-Saxon Conquest. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth as a Patron of Art and Literature. 
 
 Methods by which William the Conqueror Established his Rule. 
 
 Importance of the Magna Carta. 
 
 Causes and Results of the Peasants' Revolt. 
 
 Means used by Henry VII to Establish a Centralized Government. 
 
 Effect of the Hundred Years' War upon English Commerce and 
 
 Trade. 
 Importance of the Bill of Rights. 
 Importance of the Reform Bill of 1832. 
 Work of the Wesleys in the Eighteenth Century. 
 The Stuart Kings were Arbitrary Rulers.
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 301 
 
 United States History 
 
 Why did the English Surpass in Colonization? 
 
 The American Indian has been Unjustly Treated. 
 
 The Justification of the American Revolution. 
 
 Our Debt to Foreigners in the Revolution. 
 
 The Development of the Union before 1789. 
 
 The Defective Government under the Articles of Confederation. 
 
 The Compromises of the Constitution, why Necessary? 
 
 States Rights versus National Sovereignty. 
 
 The Westward Movement — Its Effect on American Civilization. 
 
 V. Latin 
 
 The Study of Latin Helps us Better to Understand our own Lan- 
 guage and Other Languages. 
 
 A Knowledge of Latin is of Practical \'alue. 
 
 Cicero's Action in Putting to Death the Conspirators was Illegal. 
 
 Catiline was not a Traitor and Cicero's Arraignment of Him was 
 for Political Effect and not a Patriotic Action. 
 
 Roman Miiitar^^ Tactics. 
 
 Roman Provinces and Their Covcrnmcnt. 
 
 The Lack of Interest in the Classics is to be Deplored. 
 
 Chemistry 
 Acids 
 
 Bases: 
 Salts 
 
 \T. Science 
 
 What are they? 
 How detected? 
 Properties. 
 
 Relation to acids. 
 
 How found? 
 
 Relation to bases and acids. 
 
 Sub-topics 
 suggestive — 
 not limiting. 
 
 Flame tests. 
 
 Composition by volume. 
 Water Composition by weight. 
 
 Solution properties. 
 Discovery of the rare gases in the air.
 
 302 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Physical Geography 
 
 Construction, Operation, and Use of a Barometer. 
 
 Forecasting of Weather. 
 
 Study of a Piece of Coal. 
 
 Soil Requirements — Tests. 
 
 Importance of the Ocean. 
 
 The Making of a Cave. 
 
 The Work of Carbon-dioxide Gas. 
 
 The Importance that Floodplains have Played in the World's 
 
 History. 
 Effect of Mountains on Races. 
 Growth of a Continent. 
 Highways of Commerce. 
 The Ocean's Depth and Temperature. 
 Causes of Tides. 
 A Tornado. 
 
 Biology 
 
 Value of Physiology as a Study. 
 
 Effect of Alcohol on the Human Body. 
 
 How a Habit is formed. 
 
 Why One Should Eat Slowly. 
 
 Natural Defense of the Human Body against Harmful Bacteria. 
 
 Bota7iy 
 
 Bacteria. 
 
 Evolution of Plant Life. 
 
 Economic Plants. 
 
 How New Species of Plants are Developed. 
 
 IMushrooms. 
 
 Our Wild Flowers. 
 
 How Plants Protect Themselves from Enemies. 
 
 An Experiment in Botany. 
 
 Grafting. 
 
 Buds on Stems. 
 
 \^eining of Leaves. 
 
 Leaf Arrangement. 
 
 Movements of Leaves. 
 
 Structure of Leaves.
 
 APPENDIX II 303 
 
 How Plants Receive Air. 
 
 How Plant Seeds are Scattered. 
 
 Successions of Plants. 
 
 Autumn Coloration. 
 
 Branching of Stems. 
 
 Structure of Stems. 
 
 Distribution of Plants. 
 
 Uses of Plants to People. 
 
 The Fall of the Leaf. 
 
 How Plants Manufacture Their Food. 
 
 Drought-tolerating Plants. 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 Vegetation of Newly Made Land. 
 
 How Overcrowding Kills Plants. 
 
 The Grouping of Plants around a Pond. 
 
 Water Plants. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Stored Food in the Seed. 
 
 How Seeds Grow. 
 
 Hairs on Leaves. 
 
 Plant Roots. 
 
 Value of Cells. 
 
 Physics 
 
 Physics has a Practical Value for Boys. 
 
 Physics has a Practical Value for Girls. 
 
 Explain a Simple Machine. 
 
 Heat Expansion and Transmission. 
 
 Heat Engines. 
 
 Law of Conservation of Energy. 
 
 Magnetism. 
 
 An Application of Electricity. 
 
 Some Physical Laws of Sound. 
 
 Electric Waves. 
 
 \11. Commercial 
 Typing and Business 
 
 What is a Bank Check? 
 
 How a Saleslady Can Show Good Taste and Good Manners.
 
 304 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 What a Saleslady Should Know about her Stock. 
 
 Typewriting as an Asset in the Business World. 
 
 Coordination of Typewriting, English, SpeUing, and all Technical 
 
 and Scientific Studies. 
 The "Touch" Typist versus the "Sight" Operator. 
 Value of a Commercial Education. 
 Advantages of Actual Practice in Bookkeeping. 
 Attitude in Business. 
 Principles of Double Entry Bookkeeping. 
 Qualifications of the Business IVIan (or Woman) of To-day. 
 Relation of Penmanship to Business. 
 Value of Commerical Arithmetic in Business. 
 Value of Rapid Calculation in Business. 
 Graduation, from a High School is of Value to the Boy or Girl who 
 
 Goes into Business. 
 A Student should Learn Tj'pewriting before Going to College. 
 
 Commercial Geography, History, and Law 
 
 America will Always be Supreme as a Manufacturing Nation. 
 
 Origin of our Commercial Laws. 
 
 Influence of Fishing Industr>'' in the Upbuilding of the Nation. 
 
 Influence of the Fur Industry in the Upbuilding of the Nation. 
 
 Influence of Lumber Industry in the Upbuilding of the Nation. 
 
 Economic Basis of the Civil War. 
 
 Commerce and IVIoney in Colonial Days. 
 
 Character of Immigration. 
 
 The Industrial Revolution. 
 
 The Human Element in Commerce. 
 
 Law of Decreasing Returns as AppHed to Nations. 
 
 How Commerce Depends upon Economic Forces. 
 
 Explain any Industry. 
 
 Growing Commercial Opportunities in Latin-America. 
 
 VIII. Manual Arts 
 Ari Crafts 
 
 How to Make a Simple Basket. 
 The Origin of Basketry.
 
 APPENDIX II 305 
 
 Reed — Where Found, Preparations for IMarket, and Use in 
 
 Basketr>\ 
 Raffia — Where Found, Preparations for IMarket, and Use in 
 
 Basketry. 
 The Economic \'alue of Copper. 
 The Use of IMetal in Early Ages. 
 The Value of the Study of Design. 
 How to Color a Piece of Copper. 
 Decoration should be Subordinate to Utility. 
 Enameling. 
 The Use of the Fetch Pan. 
 
 Wood Work 
 
 Lumbering in the North. 
 
 The Art of Pattern-making. 
 
 The Manufacture of Glue or Sandpaper. 
 
 The Art of Molding. 
 
 The Advantages of Machinery in the Wood Shop. 
 
 Wood-finishing as an Art. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 
 
 Drawing Instruments and Their Uses. 
 
 Why Free-hand Drawing should Precede Mechanical Drawing. 
 The Correct Method for the Making of a Working Drawing of a 
 Chair. 
 
 Wood-turning 
 
 The Designing and Turning up of a Pair of Indian Clubs. 
 The Designing and Turning up of a Picture Frame. 
 Wood-turning Tools and Their Uses. 
 
 IX, HoAfE Economics 
 Cooking 
 
 Bread Making. 
 
 Pastry. 
 
 Cake. 
 
 Candy — Cream Candies. 
 
 Fruit Canning. 
 
 Jelly Making.
 
 3o6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Macaroni Manufacture. 
 
 Girls should Study Domestic Science. 
 
 Table Service 
 
 Digestible Menus. 
 
 Eating Habits worth Cultivating and Preserving. 
 
 Three Styles of Serving Meals. 
 
 Setting the Table. 
 
 Points to be Remembered in Serving all Meals. 
 
 General Rules for Waiting on a Table. 
 
 Housing 
 
 Advantages of Owning a Home. 
 Disadvantages of Owning a Home. 
 Cost of Rental and its Variations. 
 Things to Consider in Building in a City. 
 Functions of Rooms. 
 Kitchen Furnishings. 
 Labor-saving Devices. 
 Value of a Family Budget. 
 
 X. Fine Arts 
 
 History's Debt to Art. 
 
 How Environment Influences Art. 
 
 Value of a Course in Drawing. 
 
 Nature's Suggestions for Design Material. 
 
 Art Study as a Training for Appreciation. 
 
 Art Study as a Training for Observation. 
 
 Art History — Comparison (Egyptian, Turkish, and Roman Art) 
 
 and Difference. 
 Our Heritage from the Greek. 
 Our Heritage from the Roman. 
 Our Heritage from the Gothic. 
 The Gothic Period — Why Distinctive, etc. 
 Color Harmonies — How Obtained, Nature, Use, etc. 
 Italian Painting.
 
 APPENDIX II 307 
 
 Dutch Painting. 
 
 Some Historic Decorative Motifs — Their Evolution. 
 
 Public Taste — How and WTiy it should be Educated. 
 
 XI. Music 
 
 Value of Studying Music and Pubhc Speaking Together. 
 
 IMusical Histor>' Helps us to Appreciate Music. 
 
 Should ISIusic in some Form be Required in High School? 
 
 Mexican Music. 
 
 Meaning of Classical Music. 
 
 Music as a Moral and Religious Force. 
 
 Place and Scope of so-called Popular Music. 
 
 Music of the Ancients. 
 
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Music. 
 
 Oratorio compared \\'ith the Opera. 
 
 Folk Songs. 
 
 The Influence of Ancient Greek Music on the Music of To-day. 
 
 Primitive Music. 
 
 The Origin and Development of the Opera. 
 
 Why Roman Music Died Out. 
 
 How Grecian Music was kept Alive. 
 
 How we Know Anything of the JNIusical History of Eg>'pt. 
 
 Greek Instruments. 
 
 Richard Wagner's Operas. 
 
 Opera at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 The Chant. 
 
 The Pianoforte. 
 
 Growth of the Orchestra. 
 
 Music in Scandinavia and Russia. 
 
 The Violin. 
 
 Recent Composers. 
 
 Italian Music. 
 
 American Music. 
 
 The EfTect of Christianity on Music. 
 
 Chinese Music. 
 
 Church Music. 
 
 Music of the Future.
 
 3o8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Handel's Orchestra. 
 Growth of Symphony. 
 
 XII. Agriculture 
 
 The Work of the Leaves. 
 
 The Work of the Roots. 
 
 Insect Enemies of the Farmer. 
 
 Propagation. 
 
 Different Methods of Irrigation. 
 
 Benefits of Clover Crops. 
 
 Birds are (or are not) Beneficial to the Farmer. 
 
 Uses of Lime in Correcting Poor Soils. 
 
 The Soil: 
 
 1 . How Formed. 
 
 2. Mineral Content. 
 
 3. Animal Content. 
 
 4. FertiHty. 
 
 Farmers should Study Scientific Agriculture.
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 Subjects for two-minute Narrative and Descriptive Speeches 
 
 I. English 
 Ninth Year 
 
 The Duel between Roderick Dhu and Allan Graeme. 
 
 The Black Knight's Journey to the Tourney. 
 
 The "Death" of Athelstane. 
 
 The Story of Mad Blanche. 
 
 Some Interesting Scotch Manners and Customs. 
 
 Description of Brian, the Hermit, Roderick Dhu, James Fitz 
 
 James, Ellen, the Loch Katrine Country. 
 The Myth I Like Best. 
 Description of Ellen's Isle. 
 Attack on the Castle of Front de Boeuf. 
 The Trial by Combat. 
 Cedric's House. 
 An Old English Castle. 
 The Tournament. 
 
 Locksley's Shooting before Prince John. 
 The Knight and the Friar. 
 Cedric and Athelstane. 
 At John's Banquet. 
 Trial of Rebecca at Templestowe. 
 Characters of Rebecca and Rowena Compared. 
 The Templar (or other character). 
 Rebecca's Trial. 
 
 Tenth Year 
 
 One of the Pictures in Goldsmith's Deserted Village. 
 Comparison of Shakespeare's Heroines (Rosalind and X'iola).
 
 3IO 
 
 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Stratford (Shakespeare's Town and Times): 
 
 1. Trinity Church. 
 
 2. Shakespeare's House. 
 
 3. The Grammar School. 
 Character of Coleridge. 
 Goldsmith's Early Life. 
 
 Some Good Points in the Character of Cassius. 
 The Ancient Mariner's Story. 
 Story of Elaine. 
 
 The Casting Away of Excalibur. 
 Gareth's First Quest. 
 Life of Some Successful Man or Woman. 
 Adventure of Launcelot. 
 
 Eleventh Year 
 
 From The House of the Seven Gables : 
 
 The Old Pyncheon Family. 
 
 Description of Hepzibah's Shop. 
 
 The Daguerreo typist. 
 
 Description of Jaffrey Pyncheon. 
 
 Description of Phoebe Pyncheon. 
 
 Description of ClifTord Pyncheon. 
 
 The Pyncheon Garden. 
 
 The Death of Jaffrey Pyncheon. 
 Moses at the Fair. {Vicar of Wakefield.) 
 Character of the Vicar of Wakefield. 
 The Story of Orpheus. 
 The First English Novel. 
 Anecdotes of Goldsmith's Eccentricities. 
 Any one of Dickens' Sketches by Boz. 
 My Favorite Hero in Fiction. 
 
 Twelfth Year 
 
 Character Sketches of Burns, Thomas Carlyle, Edmund Burke, 
 
 Lord North, or George IH. 
 Dr. Johnson's Literary Club. 
 Wordsworth as a Nature Poet. 
 
 Irving's Life of 
 
 Goldsmith. 
 BosweU's Life of 
 
 Johnson.
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 311 
 
 II. History 
 
 The student may describe the personal appearance or traits of 
 character of some great historical personage, or he may relate the 
 story of some great event. The following are merely suggestive. 
 The student may choose any other which he can handle in a more 
 picturesque or dramatic way. 
 
 Ancient History 
 
 Characters 
 Pericles. 
 Socrates. 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 Medieval and Modern History 
 Characters 
 Charlemagne. 
 Peter the Great. 
 Frederick the Great. 
 
 English History 
 
 Characters 
 Henry II. 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 William Gladstone. 
 
 United States History 
 Characters 
 Benjamin Franklin, the Diplo- 
 mat. 
 Andrew Jackson, the Popular 
 
 Idol. 
 Horace Greeley, Prince of Ameri- 
 can Journalism. 
 
 Events 
 Battle of Thermopylae. 
 March of the Ten Thousand. 
 Hamiibal's March into Italy, 
 
 Events 
 The Children's Crusade. 
 An Event of the French Revo- 
 lution. 
 The Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 Events 
 The Killing of Becket. 
 Battle of Trafalgar. 
 A Crisis in Parliament. 
 Scott's Dash to the Pole. 
 
 Events 
 The Sinking of the Mcrrimac. 
 Assassination of Lincoln. 
 Reconstruction Days. 
 A Story of Guerilla Warfare in 
 the Phiiijjpines.
 
 312 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 III. Ancient or Modern Languages 
 
 1. Description of a character or a scene studied in a foreign 
 
 tongue. 
 
 2. Narration of a simple story translated from some other 
 
 language. (Use imagination to embellish and make more 
 elaborate.) 
 
 IV. School Life 
 
 A Teacher Whom I Shall Remember. 
 
 The School Cafeteria on a Rainy Day. 
 
 Description of the School Farm. 
 
 Getting Ready for the Party. 
 
 Cleaning up After the Party. 
 
 How the Faculty played Baseball. ' 
 
 My First Punishment in School. 
 
 What Happened on the School Picnic. 
 
 Bonfire before the Big Game. 
 
 The Last Inning. 
 
 An Hour in the Study Hall. 
 
 School Building during Vacation (comparison). 
 
 The Assembly Hall at Lunch Time. 
 
 V. Outside of School 
 
 Missing the Train. 
 
 A Joke on Myself. 
 
 Teaching a Calf to Drink. 
 
 Our Embroidery Club. 
 
 A Trip to the City. 
 
 An Experience with a Tramp. 
 
 A Building (lighthouse, fort, or an old landmark). 
 
 A Spelling Match. 
 
 A Clam Bake. 
 
 A View from the Summit. 
 
 The Deacon. 
 
 In the Woods at Night. 
 
 Disturbing a Hornet's Nest.
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 3^3 
 
 An Intelligent Dog. 
 
 The Irate Conductor. 
 
 Lost in the Woods. 
 
 An Amusing Adventure. 
 
 A Glimpse of the President. 
 
 A LandsHde. 
 
 Yesterday's Walk. 
 
 A Lonesome Spot. 
 
 What "Central" sees of the World. 
 
 A Great Waterfall. 
 
 Tell to a child : Jack the Giant Killer, Puss in Boots, or any other 
 
 story. 
 A Lost Child. 
 
 With a Veteran of the Civil War. 
 Arrival of the Stagecoach. 
 
 My first Donkey Ride (horseback, bicycle, auto, stagecoach, etc.). 
 An Accident. 
 Making a Boat. 
 
 My First Experiment in the Kitchen. 
 April Fool. 
 My Play House. 
 
 How I Got the Worst of the Trade. 
 All Alone in the House. 
 Hiving the Bees. 
 A Hallowe'en Prank. 
 A Harvest Scene. 
 A Country Church. 
 Decorating for Easter. 
 A Mountaineer. 
 A Hermit. 
 Our Washerwoman. 
 A Morning in the Country. 
 When Brother Forgot his Speech. 
 How my Bravery was Tested. 
 Breaking a Colt. 
 Sleighing. 
 
 My Favorite Hero in Fiction. 
 Choir Practice Last Saturday.
 
 314 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 A Newsboy. 
 
 A True Ghost Story. 
 
 An Attempt to See the Sunrise. 
 
 My First Fight. 
 
 How I Study. 
 
 A Duck Hunt. (Substitute a Fishing Trip or other Hunt.) 
 
 Buying a Hat. 
 
 A Visit to Grandmother's. 
 
 How I Spent a Rainy Day. 
 
 An Interesting Conversation (Two Women in a Street Car, 
 
 Buying a Ticket, Meeting an Old Acquaintance). 
 How I Earned a Dollar. 
 The Facts About a Certain Strike. 
 
 A Visit to a Sugar Camp (Packing-house, or Factory of any kind). 
 An Act of Courtesy. 
 Speaking My First Piece. 
 My First Business Experience. 
 The Marshmallow Roast. 
 A Cruise in a Canoe. 
 Animals I Have Known. 
 The Japanese Store. 
 An Old Mission. 
 
 A Mountain Valley in the Sierras (or other mountains). 
 The Swimming Pool. 
 Our Attic. 
 
 The Letter that Upset Our Plans. 
 The Policeman. 
 The Circus Crowd. 
 Our Garden. 
 The Skating Rink. 
 A Second-hand Store. 
 A Kindergarten Room. 
 My Sunday-school Class. 
 The Village Grocery on a Winter Evening. 
 A Newspaper Cartoon. 
 My Friend. 
 
 A Deserted Farmhouse. 
 The Crowd on Election Night.
 
 APPENDIX III 315 
 
 My Favorite Picture. 
 
 A Dandelion (or some other flower). 
 
 A Street IMusician I Have Seen. 
 
 An Interesting Advertisement. 
 
 When School is Over. 
 
 The Morning After the Storm. 
 
 My New Dress. 
 
 A Shop Window. 
 
 The \'iew from my Window, 
 
 Our Back Yard. 
 
 The Circus Parade. 
 
 The Park on a Holiday. 
 
 The City from a Height. 
 
 Up-town the Night After Christmas. 
 
 An Attractive Magazine Cover. 
 
 The Crowd on New Year's Eve. 
 
 In a Railway Station. 
 
 Field Day (Boat Race or other Contest). 
 
 The Bathing Beach, or A Trip to the Seashore. 
 
 When my Pet Died (dog, rabbit, lamb, etc.). 
 
 A Forest Fire. 
 
 The First Snowfall. 
 
 An Act of Kindness. 
 
 A Heroic Deed. 
 
 A Street Car Incident. 
 
 Among the Fakirs. 
 
 A Local Politician. 
 
 An Old Bookstore. 
 
 Wailing at the Ferryboat. 
 
 A Peculiar Sect. 
 
 Noon Hour on the Farm. 
 
 The Engine Room of an Ocean Steamship. 
 
 The Football Player Before and After the Game. 
 
 The Forest Before and After the Fire. 
 
 The Feelings of the Victors and the Vanquished. 
 
 June and November. 
 
 City Street at 6 a.m. and at 6 p.m. 
 
 A Legend of Our Neighljorhood. 
 
 Contrasts.
 
 31 6 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 The Abandoned Mill. 
 
 My Experience in Canvassing. 
 
 Why I Didn't Play Football. 
 
 A Visit to "The Zone" in 1915. 
 
 A Historic Spot. 
 
 An Auto Accident. 
 
 My First Chemical Experiment. 
 
 A Balky Horse. 
 
 A Notable Mansion. 
 
 A Strange Animal of the Past. 
 
 A Fellow Commuter. 
 
 On the Mountain Top. 
 
 The Organ Grinder. 
 
 A Parisian Gown. 
 
 A Suit of Armor in a Museum. 
 
 The Village Post Office at Mail Time. 
 
 After Church Service. 
 
 Ballroom during the Dance. 
 
 After the Fire. 
 
 Launching the Ship. 
 
 As the Ship Left Port. 
 
 A Bargain Sale. 
 
 The Play is Over. 
 
 The Assembly Hall at Lunch Time. 
 
 A Mountain Climb. 
 
 A Journey in the Air. 
 
 A Race against Time. 
 
 In the Path of the Flood. 
 
 The Contest for the Medal. 
 
 Adrift on the Bay.
 
 APPENDIX IV 
 
 Specimen Introduction to a Debate 
 
 Introduction to Lincoln's Address at Cooper Institute, New York, 
 February 27, i860. F. B. Robinson refers to this address as one of 
 the most perfectly constructed arguments on record. It is an ex- 
 cellent example of an introduction to a debate. The student should 
 notice the following features: 
 I. It is mild in spirit. 
 
 It states that upon which both sides are agreed. 
 
 It gives a clear definition of all terms. 
 
 It asks questions and answers them, thus securing force. 
 
 It states the issue. 
 
 Mr. President and Fellow Citizens of New York : The facts with 
 which I shall deal this evening are mainly old and familiar; nor is 
 there anything new in the general use I shall make of them. If 
 there shall be any novelty, it will be in the mode of presenting the 
 facts,and the inferences and observations following that presentation. 
 In his speech last autumn at Columbus, Ohio, as reported in the New 
 York Times, Senator Douglas said: 
 
 "Our fathers, when they framed the government under which we 
 live, understood this question just as well, and even better, than wc 
 do now." 
 
 I fully indorse this, and I adopt it as a text for this discourse. I 
 so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting point 
 for a discussion between Republicans and that wing of the Democ- 
 racy headed by Senator Douglas. It simply leaves the inquiry: 
 What was the understanding those fathers had of the question men- 
 tioned? 
 
 What is the frame of government under which we live? The 
 answer mu.st be, "The Conslilulion of the United Stales." That 
 Constitution consists of the original, framed in 1787, and under wliii h
 
 o 
 
 1 8 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 the present government first went into operation, and twelve subse- 
 quent framed amendments, the first ten of which were framed in 
 1789. 
 
 Who were our fathers that framed the Constitution? I suppose 
 the "thirty-nine" who signed the original instrument may be fairly 
 called our fathers who framed that part of the present government. 
 It is almost exactly true to say they framed it, and it is altogether 
 true to say they fairly represented the opinion and sentiment of the 
 whole nation at that time. Their names, being familiar to nearly 
 all, and accessible to quite all, need not now be repeated. 
 
 I take these thirty-nine," for the present, as being ' our fathers 
 who framed the government under which we hve." What is the 
 question which, according to the text, those fathers understood "just 
 as well, and even better, than we do now" ? 
 
 It is this: Does the proper division of the local from Federal 
 authority, or anything in the Constitution, forbid our Federal Govern- 
 ment to control as to slavery in our Federal Territories? 
 
 Upon this. Senator Douglas holds the affirmative, and RepubHcans 
 the negative. This affirmation and denial form an issue; and this 
 issue — this question — is precisely what the text declares our fathers 
 understood ' better than we." Let us now inquire whether the 
 ' thirty-nine," or any of them ever acted upon this question; and if 
 they did, how they acted upon it — how they expressed that better 
 understanding.
 
 APPENDIX V (a) 
 
 Specimen Clash and Brief on " Student Government " 
 
 Resolved, That a system of student government should be established 
 in High School. 
 
 Dejinilioii: 
 
 I. The affirmative stands for a system of student government which 
 involves the following principles: 
 
 1. Student officers shall be elected either directly or indirectly 
 
 by the student body. 
 
 2. All action shall be subject to the approval of the principal. 
 
 (As the state holds cities responsible for certain duties, so 
 the principal may hold the students responsible for the 
 conduct of the school. Outlook So: 947; Elementary School 
 Teacher, 8: 452.) 
 
 3. It is advisable to introduce student government gradually. 
 
 {Education 25: 86.) 
 
 Clash of Opinion 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 Negative 
 
 Points 
 
 Proofs 
 
 Points 
 
 Proofs 
 
 I. Students arc- 
 
 I. .Shown in 
 
 I. Students 
 
 I. Did not no- 
 
 Ilk cly to feci u 
 
 Uvfic Park High 
 
 may not fake 
 
 tice when elec- 
 
 sense of respon- 
 
 School, Chicago. 
 
 an interest. 
 
 tion was omitted. 
 
 sibility for the 
 
 (School Review, 
 
 
 (Nat. EJii.Ass'n. 
 
 pood name of 
 
 6:37.) 
 
 
 1908: 291.) 
 
 the school. 
 
 
 
 
 2. Wonderful 
 
 2. Night School 
 
 2. Many fail- 
 
 2. Schools in 
 
 change for the 
 
 in Philadelphia. 
 
 ures arc report- 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 better has oc- 
 
 (El. Sch. T. 8: 
 
 ed. 
 
 and Indiana. 
 
 curred in schools 
 
 4S3-) 
 
 
 (Education, 22: 
 
 difiHuil to man- 
 
 
 
 .S4I-) 
 
 age. 
 
 

 
 320 
 
 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Clash of Opinion {continued) 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 Negative 
 
 Points 
 
 Proofs 
 
 Points 
 
 Proofs 
 
 3. The attitude 
 
 3. He is regard- 
 
 3. (a) Bad gov- 
 
 
 toward the teach- 
 
 ed as an in- 
 
 ernment will re- 
 
 
 er is changed. 
 
 structor rather 
 
 sult in disrespect 
 
 
 
 than as a police- 
 
 to teachers. 
 
 
 
 man. 
 
 {b) A good 
 teacher may 
 arouse respect 
 under the old 
 system. 
 
 
 4. Officers take 
 
 4. Girl's com- 
 
 4. Pupils some- 
 
 4. (a) Experience 
 
 duties seriously. 
 
 mittee in Los 
 
 times use their 
 
 in- Illinois Univ. 
 
 
 Angeles High 
 
 offices for favor- 
 
 {Nat. Edu. Ass'n. 
 
 
 School. {Atlantic 
 
 itism. 
 
 1899: 542.) 
 
 
 Monthly, 102: 
 
 
 {b) Teachers say 
 
 
 678.) 
 
 
 only 68 % are 
 good officers. 
 {Nat. Edu. Ass'n. 
 1908: 292.) 
 
 5. (a) Instruc- 
 
 5. ((7)We should 
 
 5. Students are 
 
 5. Quotation 
 
 tion in citizen- 
 
 " learn to do by 
 
 too immature to 
 
 from Earl Barnes. 
 
 ship should be 
 
 doing." 
 
 solve the prob- 
 
 {Nat. Edu. Ass'n. 
 
 practical as well 
 
 
 lems of govern- 
 
 1908: 293.) 
 
 as theoretical. 
 
 
 ment success- 
 fully. 
 
 
 {b) Pupils learn 
 
 {b) Student gov- 
 
 
 
 under guidance 
 
 ernment may be 
 
 
 
 of teachers what 
 
 regarded as a 
 
 
 
 they would be 
 
 laboratory. 
 
 
 
 obliged to learn 
 
 
 
 
 later at greater 
 
 
 
 
 cost. 
 
 

 
 APPENDIX V 321 
 
 No. 5 seems to be the strongest on the affirmative and Nos. 2, 3, 
 and 5 on the negative. The main issue is, therefore, " Will the benefit 
 of practical training in citizenship outweigh the danger of failure and 
 resultant poor government? " 
 
 Specimen Brief 
 
 The following brief was prepared by students in connection with a 
 classroom debate. A much more extensive brief would be advisable 
 if the debaters were preparing for an interscholastic contest. 
 
 Resolved, That a system of student government should be estab- 
 lished in our high school. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Definition. 
 
 A. A good system of student government should be based upon 
 
 the following principles: 
 
 1. Student officers shall be elected either directly or in- 
 
 directly by the students. 
 
 2. -Ml action shall be subject to approval by the principal. 
 
 (a) As the state holds the cities responsible for 
 certain duties, so the principal may hold the 
 students responsible for the conduct of the 
 school. 
 
 3. Student government should be introduced and estab- 
 
 Ushed gradually. 
 II. History. 
 
 .1. The system has been tried in many places, as Los Angeles, 
 Philadelphia, St. Louis. 
 111. Clash of Oi)ini()n. 
 
 .1. The affirmative claims that sluflcnt government gives to 
 pupils a practical training in citizenship. 
 
 B. The negative holds that since students of high-school age are 
 
 too immature to make a success of it, bad government and 
 
 con.sequenl disrespect for law will follow. 
 T\'. Main Issue: Will I he benefit derived from actual practice in 
 the duties of citizenship outweigh the danger of failure and 
 consequent disrespect for law?
 
 322 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Argument (Affirmative). 
 
 I. There is slight danger of failure, for 
 
 A. The attitude of the students would be better, for 
 
 1. Each would feel that he was responsible for the good 
 
 name of the school, for 
 
 (o) The claim that students will decline to inform 
 
 on their fellows is not always true. {School 
 
 Review, 6: 39.) 
 
 2. Observance of rules would be a result of reasoning 
 
 rather than of fear and submission. {Elementary 
 School Teacher, 7: 452.) 
 
 3. The teacher would be regarded as an instructor rather 
 
 than as a policeman. 
 
 B. Punishment is more effective when administered by one's 
 
 equals. 
 
 C. In schools which have been difficult to govern, a wonderful 
 
 change for the better has taken place. 
 
 1. Gill's School. {Outlook, 80: 947.) 
 
 2. Night School in Philadelphia {Elementary School 
 
 Teacher, 7:453-) 
 II. Student Government makes the school of greater benefit to the 
 community, for 
 
 A . Our instruction in citizenship at present is merely theoretical. 
 
 B. We should " learn to do by doing," for 
 
 I. The rule of a monarchy will not prepare students for 
 a democracy. {Education, 25: 87.) 
 
 C. Student government may be regarded as laboratory practice, 
 
 for 
 
 1. Pupils would learn by experience under the guidance 
 
 of teachers what they would be obhged to learn later 
 at greater cost, for 
 
 (a) They might learn that civic apathy results in 
 bad government. {Elementary School Teacher, 
 
 7: 552-) 
 
 2. Officers would gain a knowledge of human nature and 
 
 an experience in leadership which would prove to 
 be very valuable. {Atlantic Monthly, io5: 678.)
 
 APPENDIX V 323 
 
 Argument (Negative). 
 I. There is great danger of failure, for 
 
 A. The students may not feel a sense of responsibility for the 
 
 government. 
 
 1. In one case they failed to notice that an election had 
 
 been omitted. (Nat. Ediica. Ass'n. 1908: 291.) 
 
 2. They may hold it dishonorable to report a fellow student. 
 
 (a) This was true at Williams College {Education, 
 22: 542.) 
 
 3. They may elect mischievous students in the hope of 
 
 lax disciphne. {Atlantic Monthly, 102:676.) 
 
 B. Officers may fail to take the right attitude, for 
 
 1. They may consider it too much trouble to hold office. 
 
 {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 292.) 
 
 2. They may use their offices 
 
 (a) For the benefit of their friends. {Nat. Educa. 
 
 Ass'n. 1889: 542.) 
 {b) To take revenge on their enemies. (Cronson's 
 
 Pupil Sclj -Government, p. 66.) 
 (c) As a cloak for their own misbehavior. 
 
 (i) Instance of hazing. {Education, 2g: ^;^6.) 
 
 C. Many failures have been reported. 
 
 1. Illinois University {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1S89: 542). 
 
 2. Philadelphia {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 291). 
 
 3. In .South Carolina and Indiana. {Education, 22: 541.) 
 II. There is a better way to prepare students for citizenship, for 
 
 A. High-school students are not old enough to solve the problem 
 of governing others, for 
 
 1. Many situations are too difficult even for teachers to 
 
 handle wisely. 
 
 2. Teachers report that only 68% of officers can be called 
 
 "good officers." {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 292.) 
 
 3. Quotation from Karl Barnes {Nat. Educa. Ass'n. 1908: 
 
 293-) 
 /'. Had government will cause disrespect for law and so produce 
 
 bad citizens. 
 C. A goofl teacher can usually secure ihc right alliludc on the 
 part of students under the [irescnt system.
 
 APPENDIX V (b) 
 
 Brief Arranged for Two or Three Speakers 
 
 The following brief shows how material may be partitioned for 
 either two or three speakers. 
 
 Resolved, That three-fourths of a jury should be competent to 
 render a verdict in all criminal cases. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. Definition. 
 
 A. "Three-fourths of a jury" means nine of the twelve men 
 
 constituting a full panel of jurors. 
 
 B. "All criminal cases" includes those in which death is the 
 
 penalty. 
 
 II. History. 
 
 A. The "three-fourths jury" has been used successfully in civil 
 cases, and in some states for minor criminal offenses. 
 
 III. Main Issue: Does the danger to society through bribery, dis- 
 
 agreements, and disrespect for the law outweigh the danger 
 of a mistaken three-fourths decision in the case of an 
 innocent accused person? 
 
 (Arranged for two speakers.) 
 
 I. The unit rule causes disre- 
 spect for the law, for 
 
 A. It leads to disagreements. 
 
 B. It causes delay in impanel- 
 
 ing jurors. 
 II. The three-fourths verdict is 
 a reasonable safeguard. 
 A. It is unreasonable to ex- 
 pect 1 2 men to agree any 
 more than 72 men. 
 
 (Arranged for three speakers.) 
 
 I. The unit rule is unreasonable. 
 
 A. When there is conflicting 
 
 evidence it is unreason- 
 able to expect 1 2 men to 
 agree any more than 72 
 men. 
 
 B. It gives to an obstinate, 
 
 bribed, or prejudiced 
 juror the power to de- 
 feat justice. •
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
 325 
 
 B. Numerous other safe- 
 
 guards have been es- 
 tablished since the unit 
 rule originated, such as 
 habeas corpus, appeal, 
 etc. 
 
 C. We should think of the in- 
 
 nocent victims of the 
 criminal as weU as the 
 innocent accused. 
 
 C. The verdict of 9 out of 12 
 is a reasonable protec- 
 tion to both. 
 II. The unit rule, through delay 
 and defeat of justice, 
 causes disrespect for the 
 law. 
 
 A. Disagreements are fre- 
 
 quent. 
 
 B. It causes delay in impanel- 
 
 ing jurors. 
 
 C. It leads to compromises. 
 III. The unit rule is unnecessary, 
 
 for 
 
 A. Numerous other safe- 
 
 guards have been es- 
 tablished since the unit 
 rule was originated. 
 
 B. Under the present social 
 
 conditions, there is more 
 danger of injustice to the 
 innocent victims than to 
 the innocent accused. 
 
 C. We should think of the in- 
 
 nocent victims of the 
 criminal as well as of the 
 innocent accused.
 
 APPENDIX VI 
 
 List of Debatable Questions with General References ^ 
 
 I. Government Activity versus Private Enterprise. 
 
 1. Cities should own and operate their street railways. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Ringwalt, 184. 
 
 Carpenter, 8. Shurter and Taylor, 106, 67. 
 
 Robbins, 134. Brookings, 132. 
 
 Craig, 337. 
 
 2. The public telephone and telegraph lines should be acquired 
 
 by the Federal Government. 
 
 Brookings, 126 Shurter, 76 and 79. 
 
 Craig, 185. Debater's Handbook. 
 
 Ringwalt, 174. 
 
 3. The United States should own and operate the railroads. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, IV, 
 
 Brookings, 123. 255. 
 
 Shurter, 73. Robbins, 88. 
 
 Craig, 106. Ringwalt, 163. 
 
 4. The United States should establish a system of compulsory 
 
 insurance. (This question may be narrowed so as to apply 
 to accident, unemployment, or old age.) 
 Intercollegiate Debates, IV, 303 (Accident); 377 (Old Age). 
 Debater's Handbook (Deals with all forms). 
 Shurter, 173 (Accident); 102 (Municipal Aid to Unemployed); 
 
 200 (Old Age Pensions); 88 (Housing of Poor); 203 (Old 
 
 Age Insurance); 28 (Employment System of General 
 
 Booth,. 
 Brookings, 160 (Employment System of General Booth); 168 
 
 (Municipal Aid for Unemployed). 
 
 1 See Bibliography for complete titles of books. Each general 
 reference contains special references on the subject. Almost all of these 
 questions are treated also in Bliss's Encyclopedia of Social Reform.
 
 APPENDIX VI 327 
 
 5. Socialism is the best solution of our labor problems. 
 
 Shurter, 170 and 176. Brookinj^s, 129. 
 
 6. The United States ought to own and control the coal mines 
 
 of the country. 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 435. 
 
 7. The Federal Government should construct all irrigation works. 
 
 Shurter, 69. Brookings, 144. 
 
 8. In American municipalities of 25,000 or over, a tax on the 
 
 rental value of land exclusive of improvements should be 
 substituted for the general property tax. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, II, 127. Debater's Handbook (Single Tax). 
 Shurter, 117. Craig, 250. 
 
 Ringwalt, 202. Brookings, 120. 
 
 n. Democratic versus Representative Government. 
 
 1. The initiative and referendum should be adopted in aU states. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, II, 283. 
 
 Thomas, 166. Carpenter, 91. 
 
 Robbins, 121. Ringwalt, 50. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 67. Shurter, 242. 
 
 2. The direct primary' should be used in nominating all candi- 
 
 dates for elective offices in the state. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, III, 43. Carpenter, 87. 
 Shurter, 158 and 161. Robbins, 158. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. 
 
 3. Judges should be subject to recall. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Shurter, 246. 
 
 Carpenter, 143. 
 
 4. Judicial decisions should be subject to recall by the people. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, IV, 61. 
 
 III. Labor versus Capital. 
 
 I. The movement of organized labor for llu- closed shop should 
 receive the support of |)ublic ojjinion. 
 Debater's Handbook. I nlrrcollrgiatr Drbatrs. I, 2^11. 
 
 Thomas, 194. Intircollrgiatr Debates, III, 
 
 Shurter, 211. 185.
 
 328 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 2. Trade Unions, as they now exist, are, on the whole, beneficial 
 
 to society in the United States. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Carpenter, ii8. 
 
 Shurter, i. Brookings, 151. 
 
 Inlcrcollegiate Debates, I, 201. 
 
 3. Capital and Labor should be compelled to settle their disputes 
 
 in legally established courts of arbitration. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Carpenter, 131 and 139. 
 
 Ringwalt, 210. Shurter, 142. 
 
 Brookings, 162 and 197. 
 
 4. The issuing of injunctions by federal courts in labor dis- 
 
 putes should be forbidden by Congress. 
 
 Ringwalt, 219. Intercollegiate Debates, I, 129. 
 
 Shurter, 85. Thomas, 188. 
 
 5. It would be advisable to apply minimum wage legislation 
 
 in the field of the sweated industries of the United States, 
 constitutionality waived. 
 Intercollegiate Debates, III, 83. Shurter, 182. 
 
 6. The State of X has a better child labor law than the State of Y. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Shurter, 150. 
 
 7. Foreign immigration to the United States should be restricted 
 
 by the imposition of an educational test. 
 Thomas, 196 and 198. Craig, 206. 
 
 Ringwalt, 31. Robbins, 100. 
 
 Brookings, 68. Shurter, 16, 90, 220. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 165. 
 
 8. Our present policy of excluding the Chinese from this country 
 
 is unjustifiable. 
 
 Shurter, 9. Thomas, 176. 
 
 Ringwalt, 42. Brookings, 73. 
 
 Robbins, 204. 
 
 IV. Centralization versus the Division of Power. 
 
 I. The parliamentary form of government is better adapted to 
 the needs of a progressive and democratic nation than the 
 presidential form.
 
 APPENDIX VI 329 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 367. Brookings, 37 and 40. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, III, Thomas, 164. 
 
 241. Shurler, 144. 
 Intercollegiate Debates, IV, i. 
 
 2. Judges of superior courts and judges of the courts of appellate 
 
 jurisdiction of the states should gain office by appointment 
 of the state executive. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 345. 
 
 3. The short ballot should be adopted in state, county, and mu- 
 
 nicipal elections. 
 Intercollegiate Debates, II, ^iq. Shurtcr, 132. 
 
 4. A commission form of government should be adopted by our 
 
 states. 
 
 The Unicameral Legislature. University of Oklahoma and 
 
 the University of Kansas. 
 
 5. Our cities should adopt the commission plan of municipal 
 
 government. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Shurtcr, 58 and 258. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 461. Robbins, 57. 
 Intercollegiate Debates, II, 363. 
 
 6. The executive appointments of a city mayor should be in- 
 
 dependent of council confirmation. 
 S'lurter, 104. Brookings, 49 
 
 V. Federal versus State Authority. 
 
 1. The power of the Federal Government should be paramount 
 
 to that of the states in the conservation of natural resources, 
 limited to forests, water-power, and minerals. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Shurtcr, 83. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, II, 235. Rol)bins, 65. 
 
 2. A national prohibition law should be enacted — constitu- 
 
 tionality granted. 
 
 Thomas, 184. Brookings, 172 and 176. 
 
 Robbins, 177. Shurtcr, 24 and 2O. 
 
 Craig, 94. 
 
 Note. — The state issue is proliijjition versus regulation.
 
 330 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 3. The Constitution of the United States should be amended to 
 
 provide for woman suffrage. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Robbins, 196. 
 
 Shurter, 38. Craig, 127. 
 
 Ringwalt, 8. Brookings, 8. 
 
 Note. — Woman suffrage as a national versus a state issue is 
 new and therefore is not treated in the general references. 
 
 4. A progressive inheritance ta.x should be levied by the Federal 
 
 Government. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 141. Bliss, 621. 
 Shurter, 227. 
 
 5. The Fifteenth Amendment should be repealed. 
 
 Thomas, 168. Ringwalt, 17. 
 
 Robbins, 168. Shurter, 109. 
 
 Carpenter, 65. Brookings, 3 and 6. 
 
 6. The Federal Government should have control over national 
 
 elections. 
 
 Shurter, 81. Brookings, i. 
 
 7. There should be Federal control of quarantine. 
 
 Shurter, 71. Brookings, 146. 
 
 VI. Protection -versus Free Trade. 
 
 1. Our policy should be shaped toward a gradual abandonment 
 
 of the protective tariff. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Ringwalt, 95. 
 
 Thomas, 172. Brookings, 96, 99, no, 115. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, in. Craig, 160. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, II, Carpenter, 23, 28, 2>2>y i7- 
 
 149, 185. Shurter, 124, 127, 129, 185. 
 
 2. The United States should adopt the policy of entering into 
 
 reciprocal trade treaties with foreign nations. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Thomas, 178. 
 
 Shurter, 164 and 214. Brookings, 102. 
 
 Ringwalt, 105 and 113. 
 
 3. -The Federal Government should grant financial aid to ships
 
 APPENDIX VI 331 
 
 engaged in our foreign trade and owned by citizens of the 
 United States. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 405. Carpenter, 14. 
 
 Shurter, 194. Thomas, 178. 
 
 Ringwalt, 121. Brookings, 107. 
 Robbins, 189. 
 
 4. Foreign built ships should be admitted to American registry, 
 
 free of duty. 
 
 Shurter, 191. Brookings, 104. 
 
 5. Corporations engaging in interstate commerce should be 
 
 required to take out a Federal charter. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 39. Shurter, 92, 140, 239. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 147. Ringwalt, 131. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, IV, Carpenter, i. 
 
 149 and 189. Craig, 327. 
 
 Brookings, 134. Thomas, 182. 
 
 \'II. The United States as a World Power. 
 
 1. The Monroe Doctrine should be abandoned by the United 
 
 States. 
 
 Shurter, 55. Thomas, 192 and 198. 
 
 Ringwalt, 84. Debater's Handbook. 
 
 Carpenter, 59. Intercollegiate Debates I, 223. 
 
 2. The United States should increase its navj'. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Intercollegiate Debates, I, 293. 
 
 Thomas, 176. Shurter, 18. 
 
 Brookings, 78. 
 
 3. The United States should grant the- I'liilippinc islands inde- 
 
 pendence jjefore the passing of another generation. 
 
 Robbins, 146. Shurter, 52. 
 
 Carpenter, 42 and 55. Ringwalt, 75. 
 
 VTII. Community versus Individual Welfare. 
 I. ('ai)ital punishment should be abolished. 
 
 Debater's Handbook. Shurter, 32. 
 
 Thomas, 184. Brookings, 57. 
 
 Robbins, 44.
 
 332 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 2. In all jury trials, the concurrence of nine, or three-fourths 
 of the total number of jurors, should be suiificient for the 
 rendering of a decision. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, III, 313. Brookings, 55. 
 Shurter, 30. 
 
 # 
 IX. Miscellaneous Issues. 
 
 1. The pension policy of the United States should be condemned. 
 
 Shurter, 100. Brookings, 75. 
 
 2. All states should require an educational qualification for 
 
 suffrage. 
 
 Intercollegiate Debates, I, 243. Ringwalt, 25. 
 Shurter, 114. 
 
 3. A reasonable property qualification should be made the basis 
 
 of municipal suffrage. 
 
 Shurter, 112. Brookings, 11. 
 
 Thomas, 204. 
 
 4. The naturalization laws of the United States should be made 
 
 more stringent. 
 
 Shurter, 14. Thomas, 188. 
 
 Ringwalt, i.
 
 APPENDIX VII 
 
 List of Subjects for Persuasive Speeches 
 School Life 
 
 1. Discuss "Our Eleven" (or "Our Nine," "Our Basket-ball Team," 
 
 "Our Tennis Champions," "Our Debaters," "Our Track 
 Men") in such a way as to secure a large attendance at the 
 next meet. 
 
 2. Seek the support of the students for your school paper. 
 
 3. Urge the students to try out for some school activity, such as 
 
 an athletic team, debate squad, or musical organization. 
 
 4. Present to the Board of Education your school's need for a better 
 
 athletic field (or gymnasium). 
 
 5. Present to the voters of your district or city the need of a bond 
 
 issue for a new school building. 
 
 6. Ask the members of the stu<lenl body to buy Red Cross stamps. 
 
 7. Make a nominating speech in which you try to persuade the 
 
 students to vote for your candidate for student body presi- 
 dent (or other ofiicer). 
 
 8. Urge your fellow students to write schcKjl songs and yells. 
 g. Advertise the Senior play. 
 
 10. Persuade your fellow students to contribute articles to a fair to 
 
 raise money for a scholarship fund. 
 
 11. Try to induce the student body of some neighboring high school 
 
 to join your <lebating league (or athletic association). 
 
 12. As an alumnus, ajjpeal to the alumni association lo place in the 
 
 school some memorial of a favorite instructor who has died. 
 
 13. Urge the members of some adult organization to atiiinl ;i |)iil)lic 
 
 speaking contest in your school. 
 
 14. Present before the student body the advantages lo be derived 
 
 from the study of sonir high-school subject.
 
 334 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Outside of School 
 
 1. Solicit from a lady a subscription to a magazine. 
 
 2. Persuade a lady traveler that your town or vicinity is a good place 
 
 in which to build a home. 
 
 3. Persuade a stranger that your home town is a good place in 
 
 which to establish a business. 
 
 4. Talk to the Young People's Society of your church on "Our 
 
 Duty in Regard to the Building Fund." 
 
 5. SoKcit funds for sufferers in flood, fire, or war. 
 
 6. Solicit subscriptions before a merchants' organization for some 
 
 city improvement (park, lake, etc.). 
 
 7. Present to a teacher or a school board the merits of some text- 
 
 book. 
 
 8. Present before a woman's club the merits of some article of 
 
 domestic use. 
 
 9. Try to sell a lot to a Y. M. C. A. building committee. 
 
 10. Present before a grange the merits of an improved farming imple- 
 
 ment. 
 
 11. Try to secure an endowment for a small college. 
 
 12. As a member of a woman's club, urge the society to work for 
 
 the more careful supervision of moving picture performances. 
 
 13. As a member of a woman's club, urge early Christmas shop- 
 
 ping. 
 
 14. As a citizen, make an appeal for the preservation of a historic 
 
 landmark. 
 
 15. As the chairman of the committee on foreign missions, appeal to 
 
 the members of your church to increase their subscriptions. 
 
 16. Try to persuade a group of people to form an organization 
 
 (farmers' union, labor union. Mothers' Club, Boy Scouts, 
 Girls' ]\Iissionary Society, Merchants' Association). 
 
 17. Try to persuade women teachers to combine to secure salaries 
 
 equal to those of men. 
 
 18. Urge a body of citizens to vote for (or against) some measure 
 
 which is before the public (prohibition, abolition of capital 
 punishment, etc.). 
 
 19. Try to persuade an audience of workingmen that a strike is 
 
 unprofitable.
 
 APPENDIX VIII 
 
 List of Eulogies for Study 
 
 Reed's Modern Eloquence. 
 
 Anoerson, M. B., Genius and Achievement of Morse, 7: 40. 
 
 Austin, Alfred, Chaucer, 7: 45. 
 
 Birrell, A., Dr. Johnson's Personality, 7: 87. 
 
 Blackburn, Joseph C. S., John C. Breckenridge, 7: 113. 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, Character of Abraham Lincoln, 7: 137. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullcn, Sir Walter Scott, 7: 155. 
 
 Choate, Rufus, On the Death of Webster, 7: 216. 
 
 Clark, Champ, Aaron Burr, 7: 230. 
 
 Curtis, George William, James Russell Lowell, 7: 255. 
 
 Dolliver, J. P., Robert Emmet, 7: 363. 
 
 Everett, Edward, Adams and Jefferson, 8: 439. 
 
 Farrar, F. W., General Grant, 8: 464. 
 
 Fiske, John, Columbus, the Navigator, 8: 490. 
 
 Graves, J. T., Henry W. Grady, 8: 590. 
 
 Hugo, Victor, Voltaire, 8: 710. 
 
 Ingalls, J. J., Eulogy on Benjamin Hill, 8: 721. 
 
 Lamar. L. Q. C, Charles Sumner, 8: 767. 
 
 Longfellow, H. W., Washington Irving, 8: 786. 
 
 McKinley, William, Characteristics of Washington, 9: 845. 
 
 McKinlcy, William, American Patriotism, 9; 847. 
 
 Morris, Gouvcrneur, Alexander Hamilton, 9: 887. 
 
 OIncy, Richard, John Marshall, 9: 932. 
 
 Prentiss, Sargent, Lafayette, 9: 97i- 
 
 Roscbery, Lord, Robert Burns, 9: 1007. 
 
 Stedman, E. C, Work of Robert Louis Stevenson, 9: 1098. 
 
 Stubbs, Charles William, Shakespeare as a Prophet, 9: 1 104. 
 
 Warner, C. D., George William Curtis, Litterateur, 9: 11 30. 
 
 Watterson, Henry, Francis Scott Key, 9: 1143.
 
 336 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Depew's Library of Oratory. 
 
 Bellows, H. W., At the Funeral of William Cullen Bryant, 8: 454. 
 
 Blaine, James G., Oration on Garfield, 11: 282. 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, Abraham Lincoln, 13: 38. 
 
 Chapin, Edwin Hubbell, Eulogy on Horace Greeley, 8: 475. 
 
 Choate, Joseph Hodges, Ritfus Choatc, 12: 56. 
 
 Choate, Rufus, Eulogy on Daniel Webster, 6: 294. 
 
 Cleveland, Grover, Eulogy on William McKinley, 13: 155. 
 
 Curtis, George William, Eulogy on Wendell Phillips, 10: 346. 
 
 Dallas, George Mifflin, Eulogy on Andrew Jackson, 6: 25. 
 
 Depew, Chauncey Mitchell, Celebration of General Grant's Birth- 
 day, 12: 324. 
 
 Farrar, Frederick William, Eulogy on General Grant, 12: 12. 
 
 Gorgias, The Encomium on Helen, i: 12. 
 
 Guizot, Frangois Pierre Guillaume, At the Unveiling of the Statue 
 of William the Conqueror, 5 : 404. 
 
 Hay, John, Tribute to the late William McKinley, 13: 223. 
 
 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, Oration upon Grant, 10: 302. 
 
 Hoar, George Frisbie, Eulogy on William McKifiley, 1 1 : 49. 
 
 Holland, Josiah Gilbert, Eulogy on Lincoln, 9:439. 
 
 Hugo, Victor, On the Centennial of Voltaire's Death, 7:1. 
 
 Hugo, Victor, On Honore de Balzac, 7: 5. 
 
 Ingersoll, Robert Green, Oration at his Brother's Grave, 12: 188. 
 
 Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, Panegyric on Daniel O'Connell, 
 6:478. 
 
 Lamar, Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, Eulogy on Charles Sumner, 
 10: 441. 
 
 Lee, Henry, Eulogy on Washington, 3: 474. 
 
 Lodge, Henry Cabot, On Daniel Webster, 14: 179. 
 
 Long, John Davis, Eulogy on Wendell Phillips, 13: 247. 
 
 Otis, Harrison Gray, Eulogy on Alexander Hamilton, 4: 189. 
 
 Phillips, Wendell, Eulogy on William Lloyd Garrison, 8: 228. 
 
 Potter, Henry Codman, Eulogy on Phillips Brooks, 13: i. 
 
 Winthrop, Robert Charles, Eulogy on Edward Everett, 8:41. 
 
 Brewer's The World's Best Orations. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, Lafayette, i : 79. 
 Blaine, James G., Oration on Garfield, 2: 481.
 
 APPENDIX VIII 337 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, Lincoln as a Typical American, 2: 644. 
 Bryant, William Cullen, The Greatness of Burns, 2: 702. 
 Choate, Joseph Hodges, Farragut, 3: 1109. 
 Crittenden, John Jordan, Henry Clay and the Niiuleenth Century 
 
 Spirit, 4: 1472. 
 Curtis, George ^^'illiam, Wendell Phillips as a History-maker, 
 
 4: 1571- 
 Daniel, John W., Dedication of Washington Monument, 4: 1608. 
 Farrar, Frederick William, On General Grant, 6: 2128. 
 Hugo, \'ictor, Oration on Honore de Balzac, 7: 2545. 
 Hugo, Victor, On the Centennial of Voltaire's Death, 7: 2550. 
 Ingalls, John T., The Undiscovered Country, 7: 2574. 
 Ingersoll, Robert Green, Oration at His Brother's Grave, 7: 2580. 
 Laurier, Sir Wilfred, The Character and Work of Gladstone, 7: 2732. 
 Lee, Henrj% Funeral Oration for Washington, 7: 2744. 
 McKinlcy, William, Dedication of Grant Monument, 8: 2905. 
 Morris, Gouverneur, Oration at the Funeral of Alexander Hamilton, 
 
 8:3075- 
 Otis, Harrison Gray, Hamilton's Influence on American Lnstitu- 
 
 tions, 8:3111. 
 Palmerston, Henry, On the Death of Cobden, 8: 3131. 
 Potter, Henry Codman, Washington and American Aristocracy, 
 
 8:3225. 
 Webster, Daniel, Adams and Jejferson, 10: 3848. 
 Wirt, William, Death of Jeferson and Adams, 10: 3905.
 
 APPENDIX IX 
 
 List of Birthdays 
 
 January 
 
 Edmund Burke 12 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 17 
 
 Daniel Webster 18 
 
 Lord Byron 22 
 
 Robert Burns 25 
 
 James G. Blaine 31 
 
 February 
 
 Horace Greeley 3 
 
 Charles Dickens 7 
 
 John Ruskin 8 
 
 Thomas Edison 11 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 12 
 
 George Washington 22 
 
 James RusseU Lowell 22 
 
 George W. Curtis 24 
 
 Henry W. Longfellow 26 
 
 Victor Hugo 26 
 
 March 
 
 William Dean Howells i 
 
 David Livingstone 19 
 
 April 
 
 Washington Irvang 3 
 
 John Burroughs 3 
 
 William Wordsworth 7 
 
 Henry Clay 12 
 
 Charles H. Parkhurst 17 
 
 John Muir 21 
 
 Friedrich Frobel 21 
 
 William Shakespeare 23 
 
 Edwin Markham 23 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 27 
 
 May 
 
 John James Audubon 4 
 
 Robert Browning 7 
 
 William H. Seward 16 
 
 Henry Grady 17 
 
 William Lloyd Garrison 24 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson 25 
 
 Louis Agassiz 28 
 
 Patrick Henry 29 
 
 Jimc 
 
 Harriet Beecher Stowe 14 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher 24 
 
 July 
 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne 5 
 
 Henry D. Thoreau 12 
 
 William M. Thackeray 19 
 
 A ugust 
 
 Percy Bysshe Shelley 4 
 
 Alfred Tennyson 5 
 
 Sir Walter Scott 15 
 
 Bret Harte 25 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes 29
 
 APPENDIX IX 
 
 339 
 
 September 
 
 Eugene Field 2 
 
 John iMarshall 24 
 
 Irving Bacheller 26 
 
 October 
 
 Thomas B. jMacaulay 25 
 
 John Keats 29 
 
 November 
 
 Andrew D. White 2 
 
 WilHam Cullcn Br>'ant 3 
 
 Thomas Bailey Aldrich 11 
 
 Robert Louis Stevenson 13 
 
 \\'endell Phillips 29 
 
 Mark Twain 30 
 
 December 
 
 Thomas Carlyle 4 
 
 John Greenlcaf Whittier 7 
 
 John Millon 9 
 
 Phillips Brooks 13 
 
 Matthew Arnold 24 
 
 William E. Gladstone 29 
 
 Rudyard Kipling 30
 
 APPENDIX X 
 
 List of Addresses Commemorative of Historical Events 
 
 Reed's Modern Eloquence. 
 
 Field, C. W., Story of the Atlantic Cable, 8: 473. 
 Higginson, T. W., Battle of the Cowpens, 8: 618. 
 Higginson, T. W., Decoration Day, 8: 621. 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Memorial Day, 8: 691. 
 
 Depew's Library of Oratory. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, Oration at Plymouth, 4: 273. 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, At the Raising of the Old Flag at Fort Sumter, 
 
 8:395- 
 Curtis, George William, Oratio)i at Concord, 10: 2,2>2>- 
 Depew, Chauncey M., At the Columbian E.xposition, 12: 332. 
 Depew, Chauncey M., Oration at the Unveiling of the Bartholdi 
 
 Statue, 12: 307. 
 Ewarts, William I\I., What the Age Owes to America, 9: 238. 
 Everett, Edward, Patriotic Oration, 6: 92. 
 Fenelon, Archbishop, Festival of the Epiphany, 2: 113. 
 Fiske, John, Oration on Columbus, 13: 441. 
 Higginson, T. W., Decoration Day Address, 10: 298. 
 Lowell, James Russell, Oration at the 2joth Anniversary of the 
 
 Founding of Harvard College, 9: 354. 
 Prentiss, Sargent, The New England Address, 7:349. 
 Webster, Daniel, Bunker Hill Monument Oration, 5: 268. 
 Webster, Daniel, At Plymouth in 1820, 5: 293. 
 
 Brewer's The World's Best Orations. 
 
 Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., Battle of Gettysburg, i: 31. 
 Adams, John Quincj^ Oration at Plymouth, i: 64. 
 Adams, John Quincy, The Jubilee of the Constitution, i : 85. 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, Raising the Flag over Fort Sumter, i : 346. 
 Boudinot, Elias, The Mission of America, 2: 580.
 
 APPENDIX X 341 
 
 BrowTi, Henry Armitt, One Century's Achievement, 2: 683. 
 Brown, Henr>- Armitt, Dangers of the Present, 2: 685. 
 Carson, Hampton L., American Liberty, 2: 985. 
 Depew, Chauncey M., Columbian Oration, 5: 1769. 
 Hale, Edward Everett, Boston's Place in History, 6: 2355. 
 Hecker, F. K. F., Liberty in the New Atlantis, 7: 2457. 
 IMcKinley, William, American Patriotism, 8: 2899. 
 Prentiss, Sargent, On New England Day, 8: 3233. 
 Quincy, Josiah, Junior, .1/ the Second Centennial of Boston, 9: 3272. 
 Webster, Daniel, Laying the Cornerstone of Bunker Hill Monu- 
 ment, 10: 3828. 
 Webster, Daniel, At Plymouth in 1820, 10: 3846.
 
 APPENDIX XI 
 
 Oration Subjects ^ 
 
 1 . Educational Waste. — The student should be led early in life 
 
 to discover that for which he is fitted. 
 
 2. Shackles of the Dead. — We are retarded by certain traditions. 
 
 3. Our Debt to Agitators. — We owe progress in civilization to the 
 
 courage of the few. 
 
 4. Immigration and Democracy. — American ideals are endangered; 
 
 or America is the land of opportunity. 
 
 5. Invisible Government. — The boss, as an outgrowth of our 
 
 check and balance system, can be dethroned only by the 
 centralization of power. 
 
 6. The Waste of War. — Whom the gods wish to destroy, they 
 
 first make mad. 
 
 7. Education, the Foundation of Democracy. — The greater the 
 
 power in the hands of the people the more necessary be- 
 comes the discussion of pubHc questions. 
 
 8. Marshall and the Federal Constitution. — ■ His great service was 
 
 to adjust the delicate balance between national and state 
 rights. 
 
 9. Another "Irrepressible Conflict": Labor and Capital. — So long 
 
 as there is a privileged class, the question will not be settled. 
 
 10. Christian Unity. — The principle of modern business coopera- 
 
 tion should be applied in the field of religion. 
 
 11. The Civic Service of Great Poets. — By expressing the best 
 
 sentiments of the people, they have strengthened and 
 moved them to action. 
 
 12. The New Penology. — The aim is to reform the criminal while 
 
 protecting society. 
 
 ^ Other subjects will be found in J. Berg Esenwein's How to Attract 
 and Hold an Audience and in Shurter's The Rhetoric oj Oratory.
 
 APPENDIX XI 343 
 
 13. The Spoken Word. — The pen is not mightier than the tongue. 
 
 14. The ]\Ian of the Hour. — The man who is fitted to lead at a time 
 
 of crisis is the one who has the spirit of service. 
 
 15. The Conqueror. — The hero of to-day is he who conquers igno- 
 
 rance. 
 
 16. The Quest for the Unknown. — It has inspired explorers, scien- 
 
 tists, and inventors. 
 
 17. A Conspiracy against the People. — The liquor interests and 
 
 other privileged classes combine to rob the people. 
 
 18. "Fear Ye Not." — Fear, which has limited man throughout 
 
 the ages, can be overcome by the consciousness that we do 
 God's will. 
 
 19. Booker Washington, the Father of His People. — He solved the 
 
 race problem by teaching his people the dignity of service. 
 
 20. Sell All that Thou Hast. — Every great gain demands a loss.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 
 
 I. General References 
 
 Bautain, M., The Art of Extempore Speaking. Charles Scribners' 
 Sons, New York, 18^7. 
 
 One of the earUest books to lay stress upon the value of an out- 
 line and freedom from manuscript. 
 
 Bolenius, Emma Miller, The Teaching of Oral English. Lippincott, 
 
 Philadelphia, 19 14. 
 Buckley, James M., Extemporaneous Oratory. Eaton & Mains, New 
 
 York, 1898. 
 
 Covers the whole field in an interesting way. 
 
 Esenwein, J. Berg, How to Attract and Hold an Audience. Hinds, 
 Noble & Eldredge, New York, 1902. 
 
 Contains list of oration subjects with suggestions for treatment. 
 
 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, Hints on Writing and Speech-making. 
 Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, Boston, 1887. 
 
 An extremely bright and entertaining little book. 
 
 Holyoake, Geo. J., Public Speaking and Debate. T. Fisher Unwin, 
 London. 
 
 Suggestive and inspiring; full of anecdote. 
 
 Kleiser, Grenville, How to Speak in Public. Funk & Wagnalls Co., 
 New York, 191 2. 
 
 About 200 pages of instruction with 300 pages of selections for 
 practice. 
 
 Lawrence, Edwin Gordon, How to Master the Spoken Word. A. C. 
 
 McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1913. 
 Lawrence, Edwin Gordon, Speech-making. A. S. Barnes Co., New 
 York, 1912. 
 
 About 50 pages of instruction, followed by selected speeches. 
 ' Text books on Rhetoric have been purposely omitted.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 345 
 
 Lee, Guy Carleton, Principles of Public Speaking. G. P. Putnam's 
 
 Sons, New York, 1905. 
 Pearson, P. ^l., and Hicks, P. ^I., Extemporaneous Speaking. Hinds, 
 
 Noble & Eidredge, New York, 191 2. 
 Phillips, A. E., Effective Speaking. The Newton Co., Chicago, 1913. 
 Scott, Walter Dill, Psychology of Public Speaking. Pearson Bros., 
 
 Philadelphia, 1907. 
 Seymour, Charles, Speaking in Public. E. P. Button & Co., New 
 
 York, 1909. 
 
 A book of English authorship, but containing valuable hints to 
 speakers in any land. Suggests exercises for self-development. 
 
 Sheppard, Nathan, Before an .\udicncc. Funk & Wagnalls Co., New 
 York, 1886. 
 
 Inspiring. Written in a racy stjle. 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Extempore Speaking. Ginn & Co., New 
 York, 1908. 
 
 IL Tone Production 
 
 Aiken, W. .\., The Voice — an Introduction to Practical Phonology. 
 
 Longmans, Green & Co., New York. 
 Appelt, Alfred, Real Cause of Stammering. Methuen & Co., London. 
 Advocates psycho-analysis as a cure. 
 
 Hatfield, M. L., Ilffw to Stop Stammering. Fox Press, 1910. 
 
 Written by one who was himself a stammerer. Gives good 
 suggestions and exercises. 
 
 Jones, Dora Duty, The Technique of Speech. Harper & Bros., 
 
 New York, 1909. 
 Mills, Wesley, Voice Production in Singing and Speaking. J. B. 
 
 Lippincolt Co., 1913. 
 
 Extended and scientific discussion. 
 
 Scripture, E. W., Stuttering and Lisping. The Macmillan Co., New 
 
 York, 1912. 
 Thori)e, E. T. Ellery, Speech Hesitation. E. S. WcriKr & Co., New 
 
 V'ork, i()Oo. 
 
 Contains endorsement by O. .Stanley Ilall. Advucati-s (Ircp 
 
 breathing as a remedy.
 
 346 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 III. Interpretative Reading 
 
 Ayers, Alfred, The Essentials of Elocution. Funk & Wagnalls Co., 
 New York, 1897. 
 
 Simple; right viewpoint. 
 
 Clark, S. H., Hoiv to Teach Reading in the Public Schools. Scott, 
 
 Foresman & Co., Chicago, 1903. 
 Corson, Hiram, The Voice and Spiritual Education. The MacmiUan 
 
 Co., New York, 1897. 
 
 A sane and helpful treatise on the use of the voice in the study 
 of literature. 
 
 Curry, S. S., Province of Expression (1861), Mind and Voice (1910), 
 Lessons in Vocal E.vpression (1895), Imagination and Dramatic 
 Instinct, Vocal and Literary Interpretation of the Bible, Browning 
 and the Dramatic Monologue, Foundations of Expression, Little 
 Classics for Oral English (191 2), Spoken English (19 13). Ex- 
 pression Co., Boston. 
 
 The foundation principle of all Dr. Curry's books is that vocal 
 expression should be studied " as a manifestation of the processes 
 of thinking," and not as a set of rules. 
 
 Everts, Katherine Jewell, The Speaking Voice. Harper & Bros., 
 New York, 1908. 
 
 A successful attempt to simplify the principles which govern the 
 use of the speaking voice in the interpretation of literature. 
 
 Everts, Katherine Jewell, Vocal Expression. Harper & Bros., 
 
 New York. 
 McMurry, Charles, Special Method in the Reading of the Complete 
 
 English Classics. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1905. 
 Phillips, Arthur Edward, Natural Drills in Expression. Newton Co., 
 
 Chicago, 1913. 
 
 Very suggestive and helpful, with illustrative extracts. 
 
 Staley, Delbert Moyer, Psychology of the Spoken Word. Richard G. 
 Badger, Boston, 1914. 
 
 Contains many poetical selections for practice, with brief but 
 helpful suggestions for interpretation.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 347 
 
 T.al, Rev. Thomas, Iloii' to Train the Speaking Voice. Hodder & 
 Stoughton, London; George H. Doran Co., New York. 
 
 A very simple, sensible presentation of the whole subject of the 
 use of the voice in reading. 
 
 Winter, Irving L., Public Speaking — Principles and Practice. The 
 Macmillan Co., New York. 
 
 Fifty-six pages given to a discussion of principles; 334 pages to 
 selections for practice. 
 
 IX. Pronunciation 
 
 Payne, Gertrude, Everyday Errors in Pronunciation, Spelling, and 
 Spoken English. Orozco, San Francisco, 191 1. 
 
 Phyfe, William Henr>'^ P., Eighteen Thousand Words Often Mispro- 
 nounced. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1914. 
 
 \'. Selections for Reading and Declaaiation 
 
 Blackstone, Harriet (Compiled by). The Best American Orations of 
 To-day. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, New York, 1903. 
 
 Selections chosen for purposes of declamation on anniversary 
 or other occasions. 
 
 Clark, S. H., Handbook of Best Readings. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
 
 New York, 1902. 
 Cumnock, Robt. McLean, Choice Readings. A. C. McClurg & Co., 
 
 Chicago, 1 914. 
 Frink, Henry Allyn, The New Century Speaker. Ginn & Co., New 
 
 York, 1898. 
 Fulton and Trueblood, Choice Readings, Ginn & Co., New York, 1SS4. 
 Fulton and Trueblood, Standard Selections, Ginn & Co., New York, 
 
 1907. 
 Pearson, Paul M., The Humorous Speaker. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, 
 
 New York, 1909. 
 Pcarsfjn, Paul AL, The Speaker. 8 Vols, and IikKx. Hinds, Noble 
 
 & Eldrcflge, New York. 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, The Modern American Speaker. Gammel 
 Book Co., Austin, Texas, 1901. 
 
 Selections suitaljlc for declamation.
 
 348 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Public Speaking, AUyn & Bacon, Boston, 
 1903- 
 A high-school text with well-chosen selections for practice. 
 
 VI. Argument and Persuasion 
 
 Alden, R. M., The A rt of Debate. Henry Holt & Co. , New York, 1 906. 
 
 Baker, G. P., and Huntington, H. B., Principles of Argumentation. 
 Ginn & Co., New York, 1905. 
 
 Bulletin of University of Wisconsin, How to Judge a Debate. H. W. 
 Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y. 
 
 Denny, Duncan and McKinney, Argumentation and Debate. Ameri- 
 can Book Co., New York, 1910. 
 
 Foster, Wm. Trufant, Argumentation and Debating. Houghton 
 Mifflin Co., Boston, 1908. 
 A college textbook. 
 
 Foster, Wm. Trufant, Essentials of Exposition and Argument. Hough- 
 ton Mifflin Co., 191 1. 
 
 A text intended for use in upper years of high school and in 
 college. 
 
 Ketchum, Victor A., Theory and Practice of Argumentation and 
 
 Debate. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. 
 Laycock, C, and Scales, R. L., Argumentation and Debate. The 
 
 Macmillan Co., New York, 1910. 
 Laycock, C. and Scales, R. L., Manual of Argumentation. The 
 
 Macmillan Co., New York, 1909. 
 A high-school text. 
 Lyman, RoUo L., Bulletin of University of Wisconsin. Principles, of 
 
 Efective Debating. H. W. Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y. 
 Lyon, Everett S., Elements of Debating. The University of Chicago 
 
 Press, 1913. 
 MacEwan, Elias T., Essentials of Argumentation. D. C. Heath & Co., 
 
 New York, 1898. 
 Pattee, Geo. K., Practical Argumentation. The Century Co., New 
 
 York, 1913. 
 Perry, F. M., An Introductory Course in Argumentation. American 
 
 Book Co., New York, 1906.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 349 
 
 Robinson, A. T., The Applications of Logic. Longmans, Green & 
 Co., New York, 1912. 
 
 A textbook for college students which contains helpful sug- 
 gestions for the teacher of argument. 
 
 Seward, Samuel Swayzc, Jr., Note-taking. AUyn & Bacon, Boston, 
 1910. 
 
 Suggestions to teachers and students as to the best methods of 
 taking notes, both from lectures and from printed material. 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Science and Art of Debate. Neale Publishing 
 
 Co., New York, 1908. 
 Sidgvvick, Alfred, The Process of Argument. Adam and Charles 
 
 Black, London, 1893. 
 
 A good book for the teacher's desk. Contains many examples. 
 
 MI. General References on Debatable Subjects 
 
 Askew, John Bertram, Pros and Cons. 5th ed. E. P. Button & 
 Co., New York, 1911. 
 
 Although prepared by an English author, it contains many 
 questions which are discussed in all countries. Arranged in diction- 
 ary form. 
 
 Bliss, William D. P., Encyclopedia of Social Reform. Funk & W'ag- 
 
 nalls Co., New York, 1908. 
 Brooking, W. DuBois and Ringwalt, Ralph Curtis, Briefs for Debate. 
 
 Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1909. 
 Carpenter, Oliver Clinton, Debate Outlines on Public Questions. 
 
 Broadway Publishing Co., New York, 191 2. 
 Craig, A. H., Pros and Cons. Hinds, Noble & Eldrcdgc, New York, 
 
 1897. 
 Debater's Handbook Scries. 11. \\ . Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y. 
 
 There are about 25 small volumes already [jublished in this 
 series and more arc in preparation. Each volume gives a list of 
 references, a i)ricf outline, and selections from the best articles on 
 both the afiirmalive and negative of some one debatable subject. 
 
 Matson, Henry, References for Literary Workers. A. C. McClurg 
 
 & Co., Chicago, 1897. 
 Nichols, Egbert Ray, Intercollegiate Debates, \<il. II. Hinds, Noble 
 
 & Eldredge, New York, 1914.
 
 350 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Pearson, Paul M. Intercollegiate Debates, Vol. I. Hinds, Noble & 
 Eldredge, New York, 1909. 
 
 See also index to The Speaker for briefs. 
 
 Ringwalt, Ralph Curtis, Briefs on Public Questions. Longmans, 
 
 Green & Co., New York, 1908. 
 Robbins, E. C, The High School Debate Book. A. C. McClurg & 
 
 Co., Chicago, igii. 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, and Taylor, Carl Cleveland, Both Sides of 
 
 100 Public Questions. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, New York, 
 
 1913- 
 Thomas, Ralph W., A Manual of Debate. American Book Co., New 
 York, 1910. 
 
 VHI. Oratory or Occasional Speeches 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, Oratory. The Penn Publishing Co., Philadel- 
 phia, 1 90 1. 
 
 An eloquent plea for training in the art of speaking. 
 
 Brink, Clark Mills, The Making of an Oration. A. C. McClurg & 
 Co., Chicago, 1913. 
 
 Two hundred pages given to a discussion of method and about 
 the same amount to specimen orations. Contains a list of oration 
 subjects. 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, Lectures on Preaching. E. P. Button & Co., New 
 
 York, 1877. 
 Goss, John, Forensic Eloquence. S. Carson Co., San Francisco, i8gi. 
 
 Gives general instruction in the rhetoric of oratory, with illus- 
 trations of each point, taken from English and American authors. 
 
 Matthews, Brander, Notes on Speech-making. Longmans, Green 
 & Co., New York, 1901. 
 
 Two essays, the first of which gives advice of a general nature 
 and the second suggestions on the after-dinner speech. A tiny 
 book, delightfully written and inspiring. 
 
 Maury, The Abbe, The Principles of Eloquence. Harper & Bros., 
 New York, 1842. 
 
 A quaint and interesting treatise which gives numerous short 
 examples.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 351 
 
 Pittenger, William, Toasls. The Pcnn Publishing Co., Philadelphia, 
 1914. 
 
 Gives suggestions as to the preparation of after-dinner speeches 
 and contains a collection of anecdotes. 
 
 Power, John O'Connor, Tlic Making of an Orator. G. P. Putnam's 
 Sons, New York, 1906. 
 
 Scars, Lorenzo, The Occasional Address, lis Composition and Litera- 
 ture. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1897. 
 
 .\ very readable discussion of the structure and quaUties of the 
 different forms of demonstrative oratory, such as eulogy, com- 
 memorative speech, commencement address, and after-dinner 
 speech. Gives history of development and lists of examples. 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, The Rhetoric of Oratory. The Macmillan 
 Co., New York, 1909. 
 
 IX. Speech Collections 
 
 Adams, Charles Kendall, Representative British Orations. 3 \'ols. 
 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1884. 
 
 Selected for their literary as well as theii" historic value. 
 Baker, George P. (Edited by), The Forms of Public Address. Henry 
 
 Holt & Co., New York. 
 
 Contains an excellent introduction to teachers; also valuable 
 examples of letters, editorials, and speeches on various occasions. 
 
 Baker, George P., Specimens of Argumentation. Henrj^ Holt & Co., 
 
 New York, 1897. 
 Boardman, Lester W., Modern American Speeches. Longmans, 
 
 Green & Co., New York. 
 
 Contains speeches of Schurz, Grady, Hay, and Root. 
 Brewer, David T., World's Best Orations. 10 \'o!s. and sui)i)lement. 
 
 I'" red r. Kaiser, St. Louis, 1809. 
 Bryan, William Jennings, World's Famous Orations. 10 \'uls. Funk 
 
 & Wagnalis Co., New York. 
 Depcw, C'hauncey .M.. Orations, .Addresses, and Speeches. 8 Vols. 
 
 Privately j)rintcd. New ^'o^k, 1910. 
 Depew, Chauncey M. (Edited by). The Lihrary of Oratory. 15 \'ols. 
 
 E. K. Du Mont, New York, 1902.
 
 352 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 Fulton, Robert Irving, and Trueblooci, Thomas Clarkson, British 
 and American Eloquence. Ginn & Co., New York, 1912. 
 
 Fulton, Robert Irving, and Trueblood, Thomas Clarkson, Patriotic 
 Eloquence. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1903. 
 
 Selections from, speeches which deal with the Spanish-American 
 War and its issues. 
 
 Knapp, Ella A., and French, John C, The Speech for Special Occa- 
 sions. The Macmillan Co., New York, 191 1. 
 
 Excellent collection with helpful introduction and appendix. 
 
 Lee, Guy Carleton, The World's Orators. 10 \'ols. G. P. Putnam's 
 
 Sons, New York, 1901. 
 Morris, Charles, The World's Great Orators and Their Best Orations. 
 
 John C. Winston Co., Philadelphia, 1902. 
 
 Contains a biography of the orator and a description of the cir- 
 cumstances under which each oration was delivered. 
 
 Prather, Charles Edgar (Edited by), Winning Orations of the Interstate 
 Oratorical League. 2 Vols. Crane & Co., Topeka, Kan., 1908. 
 Representative Phi Beta Kappa Orations. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 Boston, 1915. 
 
 Contains twenty-six of the best orations selected by a committee 
 appointed by the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa. 
 
 Ringwalt, Ralph Curtis, Modern American Oratory. Henry Holt 
 & Co., New York, 1898. 
 
 Contains 90 pages of theory and about 220 pages of examples. 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Masterpieces of Modern Oratory, Ginn & 
 Co., New York, 1906. 
 
 Shurter, Edwin DuBois, Representative College Orations. The Mac- 
 millan Co., New York, 1909. 
 
 Trueblood, Thomas C, Caskey, William G., and Gordon, Henry E. 
 (Edited by), Winning Speeches in the Contests of the Northern 
 Oratorical League. American Book Co., New York, 1909. 
 College orations which have won first and second prizes. 
 
 Wagner, Leopold, Modern Political Orations. Henry Holt & Co., 
 New York, 1896. 
 
 A collection of some of the best speeches of English orators of 
 the nineteenth century.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 353 
 
 Woodburn, James Albert (Edited by), American Eloquence. 4 \'oIs. 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1S96. 
 
 X. History of Oratory 
 
 Curzon, Earl of Kedleston, Modern Parliamentary Oratory. The 
 Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. 
 
 Contains interesting descriptions and anecdotes of famous 
 English orators. 
 
 Hardwick, Henry, History of Oratory and Orators. G. P. Putnam's 
 Sons, New York, iSg6. 
 
 Contains biographies, descriptions of the oratory, and anecdotes 
 of the great orators of Greece and Rome, England, France, and 
 America; also e.xtracts illustrative of style. Very helpful in the 
 preparation of programs. 
 
 Mathews, William, Oratory and Orators. S. C. Griggs & Co., 
 Chicago, 1879. 
 
 Written in an entertaining style. Contains delightful biographi- 
 cal sketches of English and American orators, together with some 
 discussion of the st>le of each. 
 
 Sears, Lorenzo, The History of Oratory. Scott, Foresman & Co., 
 Chicago, 1897. 
 
 Furnishes excellent material for speeches on the lives and charac- 
 teristics of orators. 
 
 XI. Programs for Anniversaries 
 
 Olcott, Frances Jenkins, Good Stories for Great Holidays. Houghton 
 Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1914. 
 
 Stevenson, Burton E. and Elizabeth B., Days and Deeds. Double- 
 day, Page & Co., New York, 1906. 
 
 Contains poetical selections suitable for recitation on holidays 
 and the anniversaries of great Americans. 
 
 XH. Debating SoaETiES and Parliamentary Law 
 Lyman, Kollo L., Debating Societies, Organization and Procedure. 
 Bulletin of University of Wisconsin. 
 
 Civcs morlcl constitution and synopsis of parliamentary law. 
 Gregg, F. M., Handbook of Parliamentary Law. Ginn & Co., New 
 York, 1 910.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abstract terms, 73 
 
 Absurdity, reducing to an, 160 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, quotation from, 
 166 
 
 Adjectives that describe motions, 74 
 
 Affirmative, relation to question, 127; 
 relation to burden of proof, 128; 
 usually advocates a change, 128; 
 privilege of, 1 29 
 
 After-dinner speech, characteristics of, 
 282; three kinds of, 284 
 
 Agriculture, address at dedication of 
 College of, 239 
 
 Alden, R. M., quotation from, 139, 170, 
 205 
 
 Alternates, choice of, 197 
 
 Alternative, 162 
 
 Analogy, how to refute, 160 
 
 Analysis of a question for debate, 
 144-150; definition of, 144; divided 
 into two steps, 144; value of, 148 
 
 Argument, purpose and definition, 61; 
 distinctive feature of plan for, 84; 
 discussion of, 120; relation to per- 
 suasion, 120; how to test, 157; 
 nature of introduction to, 182; 
 kinds which may be used in an ora- 
 tion, 24s 
 
 Arnold, Sir Edwin, speech introducing, 
 276 
 
 Articulation, 12 
 
 Ass<jciation, law of, 43 
 
 Athletic Club, address at laying the 
 corner stone of, 244 
 
 Atlanta Exfxjsition, address at the 
 opening of, 235 
 
 Attitude of a debater, 204-206; toward 
 his subject, 204; toward his opp(<- 
 nents, 205; as a loser, 205; as a 
 winner, 206 
 
 Audience, consirleration of when plan- 
 ning speech, 68; 228 
 
 Authority, nature of, 156-157; citation 
 of, 157 
 
 Bacon, Sir Francis, quotation from, 93, 
 
 137 
 Baker, G. P., quotation from, 149 
 Balanced question for debate, 130 
 Balanced sentence, 116 
 Bates, John L., extract from, 262 
 Because, importance of in argument, 
 
 85, 157 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, methods of, 15; 
 extract from, 222; .adaptation of 
 message, 228; cjuotation from, 232 
 
 "Begging" the question, 162 
 
 Body of a speech, plan for unity in, 
 81 
 
 Book, position of, 10 
 
 Books, how to find references to, 135 
 
 Breath, control of, 10 
 
 Brief, a, the making of, 166-172; in- 
 dention of, 167; symbols in, 168; 
 complete sentence in, 168; relation 
 of subordinate points to main points, 
 168; partition in, lOy; coherence 
 in, 183; emphasis in, 184; of speech 
 on Morocco, 189; specimen. Ap- 
 pendix V, 521-523, arranged for 
 two or three speakers, Apj)endix V, 
 
 324-325 
 Briefs, right and wrong use of, 166; 
 
 list of, Appendix VI, 326-332 
 Brooks, Phillips, extract from, 108 
 Browning, Robert, extract from, 36 
 Bryan, \V. J., extract from, 211, 220 
 Bryant, William ("ulten, si)eech by, 232 
 Bryic, James, (juotalion from, 58; ex- 
 tract from, 274 
 Burke, Edmund, extract from, 05; 
 use scientific facts, 70; quotation 
 from, 124 
 Burns, Robert, eulogy on, 232
 
 3S6' 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Card catalogue, use of, 1,55 
 
 Cards, use of in copying references, 136 
 
 Cause to effect, reasoning from, 157; 
 how to refute, 159 
 
 Channing, VV. E., extract from, 152 
 
 Charles I, extract on, from Macaulay, 
 108 
 
 Chest, position of, 10 
 
 Chin, position of, 10 
 
 Choate, Rufus, habit of reading aloud, 
 22 
 
 Cicero, quotation from, 1S4 
 
 Citizenship, influenced by studying the 
 art of speaking, 4, 122 
 
 Clark, S. H., rule of, 23 
 
 Clash of opinion, how to make, 146; 
 specimen, Appendix V, 319-320 
 
 Clay, Henry, use of impromptu method, 
 88 
 
 Climax, how expressed in reading. 28; 
 in a sentence, no; means of em- 
 phasis, 113 
 
 Close of a speech, what to do at the, 48 
 
 Coherence, meaning of in a speech, 82; 
 how to secure — by a plan, 82; in a 
 narration, 103; in a description, 
 104; gained by use of connective 
 words, 112; gained by similar con- 
 struction, 112; in a brief, 168; in 
 the development of a speech, 183; 
 in a closing refutation speech, 218 
 
 Coleridge, S. T., quotation from, 228 
 
 Collection, necessity of, 74; form of, 
 74; how to enlarge, 75; how to 
 classify specimens in, 75 
 
 Columbian Oration, extract from, 243 
 
 Commemorative address, occasions for, 
 247; historical nature of, 247; 
 more than a narrative, 248; list of, 
 Appendix X, 340-341 
 
 Commencement oration, choice of sub- 
 ject for, 249; suggestions for treat- 
 ment of, 250 
 
 Comparison as a method of developing 
 ideas, 70 
 
 Composition, discussion of, Part II, 
 58-119; compared to a stream, 186 
 
 Compound sentence, correct formation 
 of, no; incorrect, in 
 
 Conciliation with the Colonies, extract 
 from, 6s 
 
 Conciseness, 113 
 
 Conclusion, how to develop for unity, 
 81; how to test, 157-159; examples 
 of, 2og; brevity of, 215; purposes 
 of, 216; personal, 216; three kinds 
 of emphatic, 217 
 Concord Oration, extract from, 212 
 Concrete terms, 74; material, 185 
 Conferences, method of conducting, 198; 
 
 value of, ioo 
 Congressional Record, use of, 135 
 Connectives, means of coherence, 112; 
 
 list of, 118 
 Conservatism, extract from, 97 
 Constructive case of negative, 129 
 Contrast, expression of, in reading, 23; 
 
 in a compound sentence, no 
 Conversation, basis of reading, 23 
 Cooper Union Speech, extract from, 
 
 I S3 
 Corn Law League, address before, 109 
 Corson, Hiram, quotation from, 49 
 Criticism, suggestions in regard to, 14; 
 
 in practice debates, 200 
 Cummins, Senator Albert Baird, extract 
 
 from, 100 
 Curry, S. S., quotations from, 23, 28 
 Curtis, George William, extracts from, 
 66, 97, 212, 213; use of historical 
 facts, 69; use of concrete terms, 74 
 
 Daniel, John W., extract from, 100 
 
 Debate, game of, 120-125; purpose of, 
 120; defined, 121; winner of, 121; 
 value of understanding, 122; rela- 
 tion to life, 122; effect on citizen- 
 ship, 122; on sincerity, 123; as an 
 exercise, 124; practice, how con- 
 ducted, 127 
 
 Declamation, resemblance to public 
 speaking, 42; memorized reading, 
 42; poise, 46; gesture, 48 
 
 Declarative sentence, 114 
 
 Decoration Day, Oration on, extract 
 from, 211 
 
 Dedicatory address, discussion of, 248; 
 examples of, 229-243 
 
 Defects of voice, possibility of over- 
 coming, 14 
 
 Definition of a question for debate, 14s; 
 how to find, 14s; prepared by both 
 aflTirmative and negative, 146; quib- 
 bling to be avoided, 146
 
 INDEX 
 
 357 
 
 DeUver>-, meaning of, 8; conversational, 
 
 46 
 Demosthenes, methods of, 15 
 Depew, Chauncey M., extract from, 
 
 211, 243, 244; speech-of, 271, 276, 
 
 278 
 Description, definition and purpose, 60; 
 
 how used by speakers, 61; unity in, 
 
 104; coherence in, 104; emphasis 
 
 in, 105; examples of, gg-ioi 
 Development of a speech from a brief, 
 
 181-186 
 Dewey, Admiral, presentation of cup 
 
 to, 278 
 Dickens, Charles, speech of, 54; refer- 
 ence to Charles Lamb, 69; habit of 
 
 observation, 70 
 Dictionary', use of when studying a 
 
 reading lesson, 25; in writing, 72; 
 
 in defining a question for debate, 145 
 Dilemma, 161 
 
 Directness, means of emphasis, 113 
 Discourse, the speaker's use of the four 
 
 forms of, 62 
 Doul>le-team system, value of, iq7 
 Dramatic representation, faults in, 49 
 
 Ear, the, how to train, 14 
 
 Earnestness, quality of the persuasive 
 speaker, 226 
 
 Effect to cause, reasoning from, 158; 
 how to refute, 159 
 
 Emerson, R. W., extract from, 34 
 
 Emphasis, definition of, in reading, 20; 
 distribution of, 27; meaning of, in 
 composition, 82; how to secure 
 through a plan, 82; in narration, 
 103; in description, 105; in a sen- 
 tence, 113; in a brief, 167; in the 
 flevelor)ment of a speech, 184; in a 
 closing refutation speech, 194 
 
 Equipment, the speaker's, meaning of, 
 68 
 
 Escnwein, J. Berg, quotation from, 88, 
 139 
 
 P^ulogy, the, occasions for, 24O; mure 
 than a biography, 246; handling of, 
 
 247 
 Example, argument from, how to refute, 
 
 105 
 Exclamatory sentence, use in oratory, 
 114 
 
 Exposition, purpose and definition, 61; 
 
 plan for, 85 
 Extempore method, description of, 
 
 89-93; how to avoid dangers of, 
 
 90; three merits of, 92 
 
 Fact, known, to unknown effect, 158; 
 
 to unknown cause, 158 
 Facts, an element of proof, 155; how 
 
 to test, 156 
 Fallacy, definition of, 164; examples 
 
 of, 165 
 Farewell address, 266 
 Feeling, necessity of, in reading, 28 
 Feet, position of, 10 
 Field, David Dudley, extract from, 211 
 Fisher, Harry Johnson, speech of, 279 
 Foster, W. T., quotation from, 124 
 Fox, Charles James, frequent practice 
 
 in Parliament, 93; quotation from, 
 
 184 
 Fox, W. F., extract from, 109 
 Frickhic, Barbara, 39 
 
 Garfield, James A., extract from, 220 
 Generalizations, how to test, 157 
 General terms, 127 
 Gesture, defined, 48; two classes of, 49; 
 
 result of impulse, 49; faults in, 49; 
 
 quotations from Phillips and Corson, 
 
 49 
 Gettysburg Address, The, 38 
 Gift, presentation of, example of, 278, 
 
 279; acceptance of, examples of, 
 
 279, 281; discussion of, 285 
 Gladstone, William Ewart, acceptance 
 
 of a gift by, 279 
 Grady, Henry W., extracts from, 34, 
 
 35. QQ. 209 
 Grant, L'lysses S., extract from eulogy 
 
 on, 67 
 Graves, J. T., extract from, 36 
 
 Iludley, Arthur Twining, extract from, 
 261 ; si)ecch of, 281 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, quotation from, 
 132 
 
 Hands, problem of, 47 
 
 Haste, fault of, in beginning a decla- 
 mation, 46 
 
 Hav.-ina, description of, 100 
 
 Hay, John, extract from, 209
 
 358 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Henry, O., his study of the dictionary, 
 72 
 
 Henry, Patrick, extract from, 153 
 
 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, quota- 
 tion from, 89, 185 
 
 History, value of study of, for a speaker, 
 69 
 
 Hoarseness, not a preventive of prac- 
 tice, 21 
 
 Holyoake, Geo. J., quotation from, 123, 
 227 
 
 Home and the RepubHc, The, extract 
 from, 99 
 
 Hughes, James L., extract from, 262 
 
 Hunt, Thomas Forsyth, inaugural 
 address of, 260 
 
 Ideals, appealed to by persuasive 
 
 speaker, 229 
 Ignoring the question, 162 
 Illustrations to develop an idea, 185; 
 
 from common experience, 186 
 Imperative sentence, use in exhortation, 
 
 IIS 
 
 Impromptu method, use in literary 
 societies, 88; value of, 91; defects 
 of, 93 
 
 Inaugural address, examples of, 255; 
 contents of, 265 
 
 Inconsistency, 161 
 
 Indention in a brief, 167 
 
 IngersoU, Robert G., extract from, 100 
 
 Intensity, law of, 43; use of, in memo- 
 rizing, 45 
 
 Interrogative sentence, used to intro- 
 duce a thought, 114; to conclude a 
 thought, 114 
 
 Introducing a speaker, 266 
 
 Introduction, to a short speech, 59; to 
 a brief, 166; examples of, 209; brev- 
 ity of, 215; purposes of, 216; per- 
 sonal, 216; for the purpose of unity, 
 216; general, 217; suggestive, 217; 
 to Lincoln's address at Cooper 
 Institute, Appendix IV, 317-318 
 
 Irving, Washington, quotation from, 
 70 
 
 Issue, the main, how to find, 147; 
 illustration of. Appendix V, 320 
 
 Jones, Edgar R., quotation from, 229 
 Judges of a debate, attitude toward, 205 
 
 Jury Address, Webster's, extracts from, 
 34. 35- 98, 153 
 
 KipHng, Rudyard, address by, 222 
 
 Lafayette, extract from eulogy on, 213 
 
 Languages, value of study of, for a 
 speaker, 69 
 
 Lee, Robert E., description of, 100 
 
 Library, how to use, 132; portion of an 
 address at dedication of Doe, 242 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, The Gettysburg 
 Address, 38; extracts from, 65, 153, 
 220; his power of observation, 70; 
 early practice in debate, 120; ex- 
 tract from oration on, 210, 234; 
 Second Inaugural of, 255 
 
 Lips, inactivity of, 1 2 
 
 Literature, value of study of, for a 
 speaker, 69 
 
 Long sentence, effect of, 115 
 
 Loose sentence, 115 
 
 Lowell, James Russell, quotation from, 
 81, 18s, 283 
 
 Macaulay, T. B., extract from, 108, 152 
 Magazine articles, how to find, 134 
 Material, how to find, 133-138 
 Matthews, Brander, quotation from, 
 
 283 
 McKinley, President William, extract 
 
 from eulogy on, 209 
 Memorizing, faulty method of, 42; best 
 method of, 43; its value, 45; group- 
 ing material for, in a story, 52; best 
 method of, for poetry, 52 
 Memory, laws of, 43 
 Mental pictures, aid to emphasis, 29, 
 
 i8s 
 Minister's throat, 12 
 Misrepresentation condemned, 204 
 Morocco, policy of M. Delcasse in, 175 
 Mouth, openness of, 11 
 Muck-Rake, The Man with the, extract 
 
 from, 209 
 Mumbling, 12 
 
 Napoleon, Address to Army of Italy, 221 
 Narration, definition, 60; purpose of, 
 
 61; unity in, 102; coherence in, 103; 
 
 emphasis in, 104 
 Narratives, examples of, 97-99
 
 INDEX 
 
 359 
 
 Nasal resonance, how to secure, 12 
 Nasal "twang," how to avoid, iS 
 Natural order of ideas, 103 
 Negative, relation to question, 127; 
 
 relation to burden of proof, 128; 
 
 statement of question, i2g 
 Newman, John Philip, extract from, 2,54 
 New South, The, extract from, 34, 35, 
 
 209 
 Note-taking, 13S-140; net in exact 
 
 words, 138; condensed, 130; an 
 
 exact quotation, 13Q; intelligible, 
 
 140; on slips or cards, 140; example 
 
 of, 143 
 
 Observation, value of, 70; how to cul- 
 tivate the habit of, 71 
 Occasions, speeches for special, 245-200 
 O'Connell, Daniel, extract from eulogy 
 
 on, 97; quotation from, 149 
 Open air, use of voice in, 13, 15 
 Oration, the, examples of, 232-244; 
 discussion of, 245-250; how it dif- 
 fers from debate, 245; kinds of 
 arguments which may be used in, 
 24s, in honor of a person, 245; in 
 honor of an event, 24O; commence- 
 ment, 247 
 Oratory, definition of, 245; character- 
 istics of, 245; requisites for success 
 
 in, 24s 
 
 Originality, meaning of, 71; how to 
 develop, 71 
 
 Outline, word-brace, the preparation of, 
 for memorizing, 43; use of, for mem- 
 orizing, 44; the preparation of, in 
 composition, 83; the memorizing of, 
 00; specimen, for student's two- 
 minute speech, Appendix 1, 291 
 
 Pamphlets, issued by government, 136; 
 
 by organizations, 136 
 Paragraph, transition, 183 
 Parallel case, how to refute, 159 
 I'arallel construction, 112 
 Partition, methods of, in a debate, 127, 
 
 169 
 Pauses, relation of, to thought-groups, 
 
 25; varied length of, 26; relation of, 
 
 to punctuation, 2O 
 Pericles, earnestness of, 221 
 Periodic sentence, 116 
 
 Persuasion, meaning of, 58, 120; many 
 speeches in which it is the object, 
 120; relation to argument, 120; 
 examples of, 220 
 
 Persuasive speaker, the, attitude of, 
 toward himself, 227; toward his 
 subject, 227; toward his audience, 
 228; adaptation of message, 228; 
 creation of a sense of unity by, 229 
 
 Persuasive speech, the, 226-229; ref- 
 erence to St. Paul's, 231 
 
 Phillips, A. E., rule in regard to imita- 
 tion, 49 
 
 Phillips, Austin, quotation from, 166 
 
 Phillips, Wendell, extract from, 97 
 
 Phrasing, in music and in reading, 25; 
 art of, in composition, 110-116 
 
 Pilch, exercise for, 19; relation to em- 
 phasis, 27 
 
 Plan, used by Dickens, 63; for a speech, 
 
 79-85 
 
 Plato, quotation from, 60 
 
 Poetry, reading of, 39; outline for 
 memorizing, 52 
 
 Poise, 46 
 
 Poole's Index, 134 
 
 Porter, Horace, extract from, 67 
 
 Practice, necessity of, in curing voice 
 defects, 14; in reading, 23; best 
 method of, in reading, 24 
 
 Prejudice, relation to testimony, 156 
 
 Prentiss, Sargent S., extract from, 213 
 
 Presiding officer, of a team, 198; exam- 
 ples of speeches of, 255; discussion 
 of speeches of, 264; general nature 
 of, 2O4; inaugural of, 2O4; farewell 
 si)eech of, 26O; introductory speech 
 of, 266 
 
 Proof, burden of, 128; shifting of 
 burden, 128; in clash of opinion, 146; 
 tests of, 155-163; elements of, 155 
 
 Property in Slaves, extract from William 
 lillery t'hanning, 152 
 
 I'roiHirtion, rclatiiin to emphasis, 184 
 
 "Public Duly of Kducatitl Men," ex- 
 tract from, 00 
 
 Question for debate, 127-130; avoid- 
 ance of negative statement, 129; 
 balanced, 130 
 
 Questions, list of debatable, Ap|K-ndix 
 VI. ^26^^32
 
 360 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Quotation, direct, 113; how to make 
 note of an exact, 140; as the intro- 
 duction to a speech, 217 
 
 Reader's Guide, how to use, 134 
 Reading, 22-31; as a method of voice 
 training, 22; value of, 22; conver- 
 sational, 23; rule of Professor S. H. 
 Clark, 23; necessity of study to get 
 the thought, 24; phrasing, 25; em- 
 phasize, 26; holding the thought, 29; 
 rapid, evil of, 29; giving the thought, 
 30; directions for the study of, 30; 
 relation to literature, 31; exercises 
 in, ss; Lesson I, 38; of poetry, 
 39; Lesson IL 3Q; HI, 54; IV, 65; 
 
 V, 97; VI, 108; vn, 152; vin, 
 
 17s; IX, 209; X, 226; XI, 242 
 Reasoning, an element of proof, 155; 
 
 how to test, 158-160 
 Reed, Thomas B., extract from, 154 
 References, how to copy, 136; at the 
 foot of notes, 140; division of, 
 among team members, 198 
 Refutation, order of speeches in, 129; 
 how expressed in a brief, 169; han- 
 dling of, 192; choice of, 192; placing 
 of, 193; closing speech in, 194; 
 phrasing of , 194; teamwork in, 194 
 Repetition, law of, 43; of ideas in varied 
 
 language, 182 
 Representative, speech of a, 284 
 Research, time given to, 132; necessity 
 
 of, in debate, 157 
 Resemblance, argument from, 159; 
 
 how to refute, 159 
 Resonance, nasal, 12 
 Rhythm, relation of, to thought in 
 
 poetry, 52 
 Ringwalt, R. C, quotation from, 245 
 Robinson, Franklin W., speech of, 175 
 Roosevelt, Theodore, extract from, 209, 
 
 210 
 Rowell, Joseph C, portion of an address 
 
 by, 242 
 Royce, Josiah, quotation from, 183 
 Rules of form in brief-making, 167 
 
 Salutation, value of choosing early, 217 
 Schedule for a debating team, 201; 
 
 example of, 324 
 Science, value of study for a speaker, 70 
 
 Selection of material, 137-138 
 
 Self-consciousness, the cause of stiff- 
 ness, 48; 124 
 
 Self-control, value of in debate, 124 
 
 Self-mastery; the result of practice, 3 
 
 Sentence, expressing paragraph in, 25; 
 simple, no; complex, no; com- 
 pound, no; unity in, no; coher- 
 ence in, 113; emphasis in, 113; 
 variety in structure, 114-116; use 
 of, in a brief, 168; transition, 183 
 
 Seymour, Charles, quotation from, 91 
 
 Sheppard, Nathan, quotation from, 68, 
 93 
 
 Shields, Judge Peter J., address by, 
 239 
 
 Shinn, Josiah H., extract from, 263 
 
 Short sentence, effect of, 115 
 
 Skim, how to, 137 
 
 Social occasions, speeches for, examples 
 of, 271-281; discussion of, 281 
 
 Special statements, 157; relation to 
 general statements, 158 
 
 Speech, written, disadvantages of, 91; 
 when advantageous, 93 
 
 Stage fright, cause of, 45; how pre- 
 vented, 45 
 
 Statistics, how to find, 135; use of, 157 
 
 Stevenson, Robert Louis, quotation 
 from, 71, 89 
 
 Story, how used by speakers, 103; how 
 to plan, 103-105; use of and in, in; 
 as the introduction to a speech, 217; 
 means of unifying audience, 229; 
 use of, in an after-dinner speech, 284 
 
 Strenuous Life, The, extract from, 210 
 
 Studies, daily, as a source of equip- 
 ment, 69 
 
 Study, necessity of, for reading, 24 
 
 Subject, choice of, for a speech, 79; 
 necessity of narrowing, 80; relation 
 to purpose, 81; statement of, for 
 debate, 127-130 
 
 Subordinate points in a brief, 168; 
 must contain but one idea, 169 
 
 Subordinate thought-groups, how ex- 
 pressed in reading, 28 
 
 Summaries, necessity for frequent, 182 
 
 Symbols, used in a brief, 169; repeti- 
 tion of, 170 
 
 Symmetry of Life, extract from, 108 
 
 Synonyms, exercise on, 77
 
 INDEX 
 
 361 
 
 Teamwork, 197-201; meaning of to a 
 judge, 197; to a debater, 197; in 
 gathering material, 198; in making 
 a brief, 199; in oral practice, 199; 
 in preparation for refutation, 200; 
 impwrtance of, 200 
 
 Technical terms, need of explaining, 
 184 
 
 Teeth, separation of, 11 
 
 Theft, literary, defined, 138 
 
 Theme sentence as a test for unity, 83 
 
 Thought-groups, 28 
 
 Throat, closed, 12; how to correct, 17 
 
 Toast, purpose of the, 2S3 
 
 Tone passage, relaxation of, 12 
 
 Tone, support of, 11; volume, 1 2 ; rich- 
 ness, 13; singing, 13 
 
 Topics, not suitable for debate, 127; 
 use of in Reader's Guide, 134; not 
 usable in a brief, 167; list of, for use 
 of team, 198 
 
 Transition paragraph, 183 
 
 Transition sentence, 183 
 
 Tribute, welcome, 285 
 
 Turning the tables, i6r 
 
 Twang, nasal, 12 
 
 Two-mmute speech, specimen of. Ap- 
 pendix I, 291-292 
 
 Unity, meaning of in a speech, 79; how 
 to lay the basis for, in a plan, 80-81 ; 
 how to secure, in a narration, 102; 
 how to secure, in a description, 104; 
 in a sentence, 110; secured by par- 
 tition of a iirief, 169; how secured in 
 development of a brief, 181; in a 
 closing refutation speech, 194; by 
 means of the introduction and con- 
 clusion, 194 
 
 Value of studying the art of speaking, 
 
 1-6; to the engineer, 2 ; the business 
 man, 2; the worker, i 
 Van Dyke, Henry, quotation from, 103 
 Variety, in sentence form, 114; in ex- 
 pressions of the same idea, 184; in 
 opening a point in refutation, 195 
 \'erb, suggestiveness of, in an outline, 
 
 44; value of active, 113 
 Vigilance, nccessarj' in a debate, 195 
 Vision of War, A, extract from, 100 
 Voice, training of, 9-20; index to char- 
 acter, 8; cause of breathy, 1 1 ; cause 
 of throaty, 12; carrying power, 13; 
 necessity of practice, 14; possibility 
 of overcoming defects in, 14; exer- 
 cises for, 17-20 
 Vowels, necessity of prolonging, 12 
 
 Washington, Booker T., extract from, 
 210; address by, 235 
 
 Webster, habit of reading aloud, 22; ex- 
 tracts from, 34, 35, 98, 153, 211; 
 preparation of, 68; feeling for 
 words, 72; quotation from, 133 
 
 Welcome, address of, object to delight, 
 267; examples of, 262; to a con- 
 vention, 267; to an honored guest, 285 
 
 Whittier, John Greenleaf, Barbara 
 Friehhie, 39 
 
 Wilson, Woodrow, extract from 222; 
 inaugural address of, 256 
 
 Wit, 20s 
 
 Word-outline, the, preparation of, for 
 memorizing, 43; use of, for memoriz- 
 ing, 44 
 
 Wonls, how to gather an equipment of, 
 72; Webster's feeling for, 72; ap- 
 propriateness of, 73; variety in, 
 73; picture-making, 74 
 
 Worlil life, the source of a speaker's 
 equipment, 70
 
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